STUDENT INDUSTRIAL PROJECT REPORT

JANUARY 2014 APRIL 2014

The Analysis of Welding Procedure and Welding Procedure

Qualification Test

Name: Khairil Anwar B. Muhajir

SID: 14799
Course: Chemical Engineering
Host Company: True Feature Corporation Sdn. Bhd.
Host Company Supervisor: Mr. Nazri B. Nawi
UTP Supervisor: Dr Nurlidia Bt Mansor

HOST COMPANY VERIFICATION STATEMENT

I hereby verify that this report was written by:

Name: Khairil Anwar B. Muhajir

IC Number : 921203-10-5061

and all information regarding this company and the project involved are NOT
confidential.

Host Company Supervisors stamp

and signature
Name:

Nazri Bin Nawi

Designation:

Quality Assurance Quality Control

Host Company:

True Features Corporation Sdn.

Bhd.

Date:

6/8/2014

HOST COMPANYS VERIFICATION

STATEMENT
I hereby verify that this report was written by
NAME
: KHAIRIL ANWAR B. MUHAJIR
IC NUMBER : 921203-10-5061
and all information regarding this company and the projects involved are NOT
confidential.
However, this document is subject to the Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS and True
Features Corporation Sdn. Bhd. policy and shall be treat as educational reference
only.
HOST COMPANY
SUPERVISORS SIGNATURE
& STAMP

NAME

Nazri Bin Nawi

DESIGNATION

Quality Assurance & Quality Control

HOST COMPANY

True Features Corporation Sdn. Bhd.

DATE

6/8/2014

II

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My deepest gratitude to Allah The Most Gracious and Merciful, for the
guidance and blessings, for providing me strength whenever the hopes seem
vanished. The author would like to thanks to En. Nasrul Adli (Engineering Manager)
for being proactive in helping and providing support throughout the 14 weeks of
internship training period. It has been a remarkable experience to work under his
supervision because the best opportunity granted upon the author regarding the
experience real life problems and work technical knowledge.
High sincere appreciation is dedicated to En. Hafizul Mohamad (QA & QC),
En. Shariff Yusoff (QA & QC), En. Nazri Nawi (QA & QC), En. Hafiz Daud (QA &
QC), En. Hossein Onn (Senior Welder), as well to all staff of True Features
Corporation Sdn. Bhd, Star Kris Services Sdn. Bhd. and CETCO Oilfield Sdn. Bhd
for their continuous support, guidance and contribution toward the successfulness of
the training program. Without the contribution from the various people mention,
author would doubt to success in achieving the objective of the industrial internship
program.
Deepest thanks to the workforce of TFCSB staffs for be openly embrace my
existence as part of their colleague and their readiness in giving guidelines and
knowledge as well sharing their working experience which really an giving deepest
insight upon my future employment and making my internship period as priceless
experience. Although, the course taken by the author in the university is not really
compatible with the fabrication piping and skid field work, however, with the
enthusiasm in helping by the staffs, the author manage to adapt and learn the new
knowledge which not related with the course taken in the university.
Last but not least, author would like to give a special credit to Dr Nurlidia
who has been appointed as the author UTPs supervisor for allocating her time from
her hectic schedule to evaluate author performance and sharing information on
internship matters in ensuring my 14 weeks training period going on smoothly. With
her supervision, the author would doubt to achieve the goal setting by Universiti
Teknologi PETRONAS for this industrial training internship. With countless helps
and supports from them, thus completing the industrial internship program.
III

LIST OF CONTENT

List of Figures
List of Tables
List of Abbreviations
CHAPTER 1 Abstract & Introduction
1.1 Introduction of Internship Training Project
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Scope of Study
1.4 Problem Statements
1.5 Relevancy of the Project
CHAPTER 2 Background & Literature Review
2.1 Feasibility of the Project within the Scope and Time Frame
2.2 Critical Analysis Literature
2.2.1 Theory of Welding
2.2.1.1 Type of Joint
2.2.1.2 Category of Welding
2.2.1.3 Factor of Weld Joint Strength
2.2.1.4 Weld Accessibility
2.2.1.5 Type of Welding Process
2.2.1.6 Section of A Weld
2.2.1.7 Types of Weld
2.2.2 Theory of Electrode
2.2.2.1 Type of Electrode
2.2.3 Metal Classification
2.2.4 Welding Testing
CHAPTER 3 Methodology
3.1 Research Methodology
3.1.1 Data collection
3.1.2 Conducting WPQT and Mechanical Testing
3.1.3 Results from Testing
3.1.4 Recommendations and Conclusion
3.2 Key Milestone
3.3 Gantt Chart
CHAPTER 4 Results & Discussion
4.1 Data Gathering on the Analysis of Welding Procedure
with Heat Effect from Welding
4.2 WPQT and Mechanical Testing Result Analysis
4.2.1 WPQT Brief Review
4.2.2 Mechanical Testing Result
CHAPTER 5 Conclusion & Recommendations
5.1 Impact
5.2 Relevancy to the Objectives
5.3 Suggested Future Work for Expansion and Continuation
CHAPTER 6 Safety Training & Value Of The Practical Experience
6.1 Lesson Learned and Experience Gained
6.2 Leadership, Teamwork and Individual Activities
6.3 Business Values, Ethics and Management Skills
6.4 Problems or Challenges Faced and Solutions to Overcome
REFERENCES
APPENDICES

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Picture of skid with its piping.
Figure 1.2 Picture of metal i-beam.
Figure 1.3 Picture of large piping diameter welding.
Figure 1.4 Picture shows sample of RT image with its defect explanation.
Figure 2.1 Picture shows the type of welding joints.
Figure 2.2 Example of welding inaccessibility
Figure 2.3 Diagrams show the section of weld.
Figure 2.4 Picture shows the application of fillet weld in single and double.
Figure 2.5 Picture shows the basic groove weld.
Figure 2.6 Picture shows an example of surfacing weld.
Figure 2.7 Picture shows the guided bend test jig.
Figure 2.8 Picture shows the specimen of guided bend test.
Figure 2.9 Picture shows the guided bend and tensile specimen.
Figure 2.10 Picture shows the tensile specimen and tensile test method.
Figure 3.1 The flow chart show the summary of research methodology
Figure 3.2 The diagram shows the Key milestone for the project.
Figure 4.1 The pictures show process of welding.
Figure 4.2 The picture shows the Weld region.
Figure 4.3 The picture shows the detail of weld region.
Figure 4.4 The picture shows the phase transformation diagram of C-Fe.
Figure 4.6 The figure shows the position of 3G welding.
Figure 4.7 The figure shows the dimension of the groove weld for this WPQT.
Figure 4.8 The figure shows the weld beads done by the welder.
Figure 4.9 The figure shows the specimens for the tensile testing.
Figure 4.10 The figure shows the specimens fractured.
Figure 4.11 The figure shows the machine for the tensile test.
Figure 4.12 The figure shows the specimen for the bending test.
Figure 4.13 The figure shows the machine used for the bend test.
Figure 4.14 The figure shows the specimen after the bending test.
Figure 4.15 The figure shows the cross sectional of weld part.
Figure 4.16 The position of the location of the pressed needle on the metal.

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 The table shows the Gant Chart for this project.
Table 4.1 The table shows the welding defects, causes and their remedies.
Table 4.2 The table shows the result of the tensile testing.
Table 4.3 The table shows the result of the bend testing.
Table 4.4 The table shows the result of the Charphy Test.
Table 4.5 The table show the result of Vicker's Hardness Test.

LIST OF GRAPH
Graph 4.1 The graph shows the result of the tensile testing of the metals.

LIST OF ABBREVIATION

UTP

Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS

SIP

Student Industrial Project

SIT

Student Industrial Training

TFCSB

True Features Corporation Sdn. Bhd

QAQC

Quality Assurance Quality Control

AFC

Approved for Construction

NDT

Non-destructive Test

RT

Radiographic Test

UT

Ultrasonic Test

DPI

Dye Penetration Inspection

MPI

Magnetic Particles Inspection

WPS

Welding Procedure Specification

WPQT

Welding Procedure Qualification Test

WQR

Welding Qualification Record

IMS

Introduction to Material Science

CSIMAL

Centre for Student Internship, Mobility And Adjunct Lectureship

Nusatek

Nusantara Technologies Sdn. Bhd

GTAW

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

GMAW

Gas Metal Arc Welding

HAZ

Heat Affected Zone

VI

CHAPTER 1
ABSTRACT AND INTRODUCTION

1.1 Industrial Internship Training Program

In order to achieve the Universiti Teknologi Petronas (UTP) which is to

produce well rounded graduates defined as those who possesses lifetime learning
capacity, critical thinking, technical competence, practical aptitude and solution
synthesis ability, an industrial training period is introduce and a compulsion for
student in completing studies in UTP. In order to achieve its objectives,
undergraduate students must experience the practical work as to implement their
theoretical technical knowledge gather from the class through the industrial
internship program.
In cooperation with the industry and government sectors, UTP managed to
supply their interns to pursue their experience which compatible with their course
program in UTP. This cooperation is essential in order to produce the fresh graduated
which comply with the university standards as well as the market jobs requirements.
The purpose of the Student Industrial Project (SIP) is to provide exposure to
students of Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS (UTP) on reality of working
environment so can apply the theoretical knowledge in the industry. Another purpose
from the SIP, the student will acquire the skills in safety practices, work ethics,
communication, management, etc. Apart from that, SIP will strengthen the
relationship between the industry and UTP. SIP also will help students to have a
solid understanding of business fundamental and organization performance such as
business economic model, competitive positioning and strategic implementation.
Their ability to assess performance, synthesis best decision, explore the consequence
of change and interpret trends will be developing with the exposure of the real life
working environment. As an equivalent benefits from this cooperation, the company
will have opportunity to survey the future potential employees boosting the
productivity of the company. SIP also allows the industry in contributing toward
education sector which build up the companys reputation among graduates for its
deeds in developing human capital for nation.
1

In this report will encloses all the related activities done by the author in
completing authors project throughout the industrial project at True Features
Corporation Sdn. Bhd (TFCSB). This chapter begins with a brief description upon
the industrial project and its purposes. After that, it will expend clarifying the
projects objectives followed by stating the problem statements and defining the
scope of study. It will end by discussing the relevancy of this chapter.
After the first half of internship period, the author has been transferred to the
Quality Control and Quality Assurance (QAQC) team who particularly deal with the
procedure and specification of the projects. Apart from that, QAQC is responsible in
monitoring the welding process quality and eliminate any defects of the welding thus
ensuring the equipment welding structure is strong enough according to the project
specification requested by the client. The author has received useful lessons from
involving the inspection conducted by the Quality Control Engineer, tasks, as well as
receiving intensive explanations from the supervisor himself.

After consultation with supervisors from TFCSB and UTP, the author
decided to carry out his SIP with the title Analysis of Welding Process and Welding
Procedure Qualification Test. The project comprises of technical understanding of
the Welding Procedure Specification itself; requirement of the process according to
the project specification, analysis of the material state due to heating application.

1.2 Objectives

The objectives of this project are:

To analyse the welding process in term of heating effect on the strength of the
material.
To understand the importance of the Welding Procedure Specification in
fabrication process of the projects.

1.3 Scope of Work, Tasks or Project Undertaken

True Features Corporation Sdn. Bhd. (TFCSB) is a local based company

which produces equipment for the clients in the oil and gas industry. TFCSB is metal
fabrication company which specialise in oil and gas equipment. The core business of
the TFCSB is the fabrication of metal piping and skid which include the purchasing
materials used for piping and skid, assembling the components, installation of
pressured and non-pressured vessel and internal and external quality check for the
piping and skid in order to ensure the piping and skid follow with the international
standard of oil and gas sector.

TFCSB produces skid and pipeline for various function of oil and gas sector.
Skid is a type of pallet, a metal, wood or plastic platform for holding machinery or
equipment while pipeline is refer to the piping system that applied to the equipment.
TFCSB will produce the skid and pipeline with provided the equipment by the
customers according to the international standard requirement decided by the
customers. It can be design according the demand of the customers.

Figure 1.1 Picture of skid with its piping.

In fabrication, it consists of process of cutting, assembling and welding of the

materials. Cutting is a process of preparation of materials before it is rearrange
according to the drawing and being welded. In this process, the materials are cut into
designated pieces according to the Approved for Construction (AFC) drawing by the
clients. The materials usually used in the fabrication for TFCSB is i-beam, square
hollow, angle bar, c-channel and metal plate. Each of materials has different
characteristics which have distinctive function.

Figure 1.2 Picture of metal i-beam.

Welding process is a process where the materials are fused together following
the approved drawing. In this process, it has two phases which are fit up phase and
full welding phase. Fit up phase is a temporary welding before the joint are approved
following the AFC drawing of the equipment. Sometimes in this process, the
equipment which has been done fit up need to be witnessed and examined the third
party company representative. This happened when the clients requested for third
party to check the accuracy of the dimension of the fit up material at critical part
such as lifting parts.

Figure 1.3 Picture of large piping diameter welding.

After the third party satisfied with the dimension of the fit up, the material
can be fully welded. The complete welded materials are then being examined using
Non-Destructive Test (NDT) which are Magnetic Particles Inspection (MPI),
Radiagraphic Testing (RT), Ultrasonic Testing (UT) and Dye Penetration Inspection
(DPI). These testing is a mechanism to check whether the welding joint are truly
strong enough without any defects which later on will be discuss in critical literature
part. If the NDT inspector confirm there is no defect spotted, the assembling process
will then followed by. In the assembling process, the complete welded parts are
assembled together according to the AFC drawing.

Figure 1.4 Picture shows sample of RT image with its defect explanation.

However, the scope of study for this project will only cover the welding part only. It
covers the following:

1) Understanding the concept of welding

2) Understanding types and methods of welding
3) Understanding the defects of welding and major catastrophe disaster due to
those defects.
4) Describing the significance of Welding Procedure Specification (WPS),
Welding Procedure Qualification Test (WPQT) and Welder Qualification
Record (WQR).
5) Obtaining the data from the WPS and the mechanical testing by the welding
inspection company upon the welded metals.
6) Analyse the effects of heat from the welding procedure on the strength of
combination different metals.
7) Obtaining the data from the WPS and the mechanical testing by the welding
inspection company upon the welded metals.

1.4 Problem Statement

Many processes of engineering like welding, fabrication which involves

cutting, bending, and assembling of metals require high attention and expertise to
carry out the processes without causing any harm. Welding is the process of
fabrication that joins materials by causing coalescence which can be produced by
melting the work pieces or different metal parts and adding a filler material between
them which then forming a pool of molten materials that cool down becoming a
strong joint. In the early year of welding, it was carried out by blacksmiths to make
ornaments by doing such melting and joining processes. It is believed that welding
has been discovering which date back to thousands of years ago.

During that time, the welding method was known as forge welding which
simply involved the heating of two metal surfaces and hammering them together.
Only 19th Century, the welding that we know as today is discovered. It then advanced
quickly during the early 20th Century as World War I and World War II erupted and
drove the demand for reliable and cheap joining methods. We should realise that
many structures would not existed without this form of metal work. In most industry
such as the automotive industry, the construction industry and even the aviation
industry, welding is an absolutely essential component. Imagine, even the oil rigs is
build up by various forms of welding in order to withstand the harsh oceanic weather
conditions.

Poor welding will lead to the destruction of the equipment which also will
harm the user. Lets take example on study case of breakdown in lower gate of
Danube lock chamber and UMM Said NGL Plant Qatar 3rd.
Umm Said NGL Plant, Qatar 3rd
In April 1977, a tank of 260,000 barrels containing about 236,000 barrels of
refrigerated propane at -44oC failed. The wave of liquid propane swept over the dikes
and inundated the 51,000-barrel-per-dayprocess area before igniting. The other tank
containing 125,000 barrels of refrigerated butane also destroyed. The fire burned out
of control for two days and can be extinguished after eight days later. It was reported
that the fail tank had been repaired due to welding failure a year earlier causing
7

14,000 barrels of propane released to the atmosphere. Another factor of contribution

to this 3rd April 1977 was micro-biological sulphate reducing bacteria from
hydrotesting the tank with sea water. A massive vapour cloud travelled 500 feet in
the first incident. Only six people were killed in the accident and damage inflicted to
the property was estimated at $76 million in 1977 which is equal to $179 million
nowadays.
Breakdown in lower gate of Danube lock chamber
A serious breakdown occurred in the left gate lock of Gabkovo dam lock
chamber resulted in shut down of ship transport through the lower section of Danube
river for more than five weeks. The steel structure gate was made up of welded box
design of considerable size (18.5 m width, 95m height and 2 mm minimal thickness).
After the analysis, the gate breakdown took place in brittle mode. The steel used was
a high strength (S530Q) low-alloy Cr-Mo-B type with unfavourable high carbon
equivalent of Ce = 0.79 to 0.82. It was believed that the breakdown fractures started
from the cracks in welded joint end up causing the cold, hydrogen induced cracks
are cornered which were formed due to insufficient preheat temperature applied in
welding. This is proved also by the presence of martensitic structure in the HAZ.
These cold cracks with inter-crystalline surface appearance at repeating cyclic
loading of the gate propagated by the mechanism of low-cycle (high-strain) fatigue
with typical striations and openings of the elongated inclusions till they attained the
critical size, when they followed in a sudden brittle fracture of a limited length with
the characteristic river morphology.

1.5 Relevancy of the project

Welding process is important to the fabrication field as it comprises most of

the jobs of the fabrication production line. Without welding process, the material
cannot be fused together to form all the skid and even joining the piping. Thus, the
welding process will determine the strength and the longevity of the equipment.
Many researches are done in order to increase the strength of the welding.

Since the welding is important in our life, the welding quality is very crucial
to ensure the equipment or products strong enough to use and avoid any accident and
injury on the users. Thus, the welder need to be examined before allowed to the
welding process for the assigned project. The welder is being tested in Welding
Procedure Qualification Test (WPQT). WPQT is a test for welder to be qualified for the
welding job of the project. In order to pass the test, the welder needs to follow Welding
Procedure Specification (WPS).

WPS is a formal written document which describing the welding procedure

providing direction to the welder or welding operators in order to produce good
quality welds as per the code requirements. The document works as guidance for the
welders to be accepted with the procedure so that repeatable and trusted welding
techniques are used. This welding test is then record into Welding Procedure
Qualification Record (WPQR).

WPQR is a record of a test weld performed and tested in order to produce a

definite good weld. The certified welder will then will be recorded into Welder
Qualification Test Record (WQTR). This document will show that the welder has the
understanding and possess the ability to work within the specified WPS. The analysis
from this project will be used to give the idea and suggestion for improvement for
upcoming WPQT which conducted by the Quality Control Engineer (QC).

In terms of the Chemical Engineering course, this project will be considered

as a relevant to the course since the analysis will be involve with characteristic of the
metals, heat effects and the strength of the metal joint which mainly touch in the
subject of Introduction to Material Science (IMS)
9

CHAPTER 2
BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Feasibility of the project within the scope and time frame
Within the 28 weeks duration of the internship period starting from 20th
January 2014 to 22nd August 2014, the author is actively involved in many projects
since being assigned as Project Engineer and later being transferred into Quality
Control Quality Assurance (QAQC) department. This opportunity gives the author to
access some documents of projects which giving the idea for this project. The
proposed project title was submitted to CSIMAL between week 2 and 3 during SIT.
Internship coordinator from Chemical Engineering department reviewed and
approved the proposed project title before SIP begins. The idea of this project is
proposed by Mr. Hafizul during the casual discussion with him. Welding is main part
of the production line of the fabrication company which make the project is highly
related with the core business of the company.

The project will require the author to involve in the WPQT which can be
done by a day. The author needs to gather all the data for WPS and WPQR. This data
later will be used in the further analysis. Next, the metal joint needs to be examined
and tested in order to check whether the welded metal passed the requirement of the
code. This testing was conducted in Nusantara Technologies Sdn. Bhd (Nusatek).
This company are specialised in doing the mechanical testing and non-destructive
test. In order to increase the understanding on the mechanical testing which will be
required in this project, the author witnessed the mechanical testing conducted. Later
after few days, Nusatek produced the reports and documented in the project file. The
analysis took place after all the reports already done. Since the duration of SIP is 14
weeks and the report shall be submitted to CSIMAL in week 13, the author only has
less than 13 weeks to comprehend the analysis of the welding procedure.

10

2.2 Critical Analysis Literature

2.2.1 Theory of Welding

Welding is any metal joining process wherein coalescence is produced by
heating the metal to suitable temperatures, with or without the application of pressure
and with or without the use of filler metals.
2.2.1.1 Type of Joint
Welds are made at the junction of the various pieces that make up the
weldment. The junctions of parts, or joints, are defined as the location where two or
more numbers are to be joined. Parts being joined to produce the weldment may be
in the form of rolled plate, sheet, shapes, pipes, castings, forgings, or billets. The five
basic types of welding joints are listed below.

Figure 2.1 Picture shows the type of welding joints.

11

B, Butt Joint. A joint between two members lying approximately in the same
plane.

C, Corner Joint. A joint between two members located approximately at right

angles to each other in the form of an angle.

E, Edge Joint. A joint between the edges of two or more parallel or mainly
parallel members.

L, Lap Joint. A joint between two overlapping members.

T, Tee Joint. A joint between two members located approximately at right

angles to each other in the form of a T.

2.2.1.2 Category of Welding Joint

All weld joints can be classified into two basic categories: full penetration
joints and partial penetration joints.
(1) A full penetration joint has weld metal throughout the entire cross section of the
weld joint.
(2) A partial penetration joint has an unfused area and the weld does not completely
penetrate the joint. The rating of the joint is based on the percentage of weld metal
depth to the total joint; i. e., a 50 percent partial penetration joint would have weld
metal halfway through the joint.
2.2.1.3 Factors of Weld Joint Strength
The strength of weld joints depends not only on the size of the weld, but also
on the strength of the weld metal.
(1) Mild and low alloy steels are generally stronger than the materials being joined.
(2) When welding high-alloy or heat-treated materials, special precautions must be
taken to ensure the welding heat does not cancel the heat treatment of the base metal,
causing it to revert to its lower strength adjacent to the weld.

12

2.2.1.4 Weld Accessibility

The weld joint must be accessible to the welder using the process that is
employed.

Figure 2.2 The example of the welding inaccessibility.

2.2.1.5 Type of Welding Process

There are two types of welding process which are Arc Welding and Gas Welding.
Arc Welding
The term arc welding applies to a large and varied group of processes that use
an electric arc as the source of heat to melt and join metals. In arc welding processes,
the joining of metals, or weld, is produced by the extreme heat of an electric arc
drawn between an electrode and the work piece, or between two electrodes. The
formation of a joint between metals being arc welded may or may not require the use
of pressure or filler metal.

13

The arc is struck between the work piece and an electrode that is
mechanically or manually moved along the joint, or that remains stationary while the
work piece is roved underneath it. The electrode will be either a consumable wire rod
or a non-consumable carbon or tungsten rod which carries the current and sustains
the electric arc between its tip and the work piece. When a non-consumable electrode
is used, a separate rod or wire can supply filler material, if needed. A consumable
electrode is specially prepared so that it not only conducts the current and sustains
the arc, but also melts and supplies filler metal to the joint, and may produce a slag
covering as well.
a. Metal Electrodes. In bare metal-arc welding, the arc is drawn between a bare or
lightly coated consumable electrode and the work piece. Filler metal is not obtained
from the electrode, and neither shielding nor pressure is used. This type of welding
electrode is rarely used, however, because of its low strength, brittleness, and
difficulty in controlling the arc.
(1) Stud welding. The stud welding process produces a joining of metals by heating
them with an arc drawn between a metal stud, or similar part, and the work piece.
The molten surfaces to be joined, when properly heated, are forced together under
pressure. No shielding gas is used. The most common materials welded with the arc
stud weld process are low carbon steel, stainless steel, and aluminium.
(2) Gas shielded stud welding. This process, a variation of stud welding, is basically
the same as that used for stud welding, except that an inert gas or flux, such as argon
or helium, is used for shielding. Shielding gases and fluxes are used when welding
nonferrous metals such as aluminium and magnesium.
(3) Submerged arc welding. This process joins metals by heating them with an arc
maintained between a bare metal electrode and the work piece. The arc is shielded by
a blanket of granular fusible material and the work piece. Pressure is not used and
filler metal is obtained from the electrode or from a supplementary welding rod.
Submerged arc welding is distinguished from other arc welding processes by the
granular material that covers the welding area. This granular material is called a flux,
although it performs several other important functions.

14

It is responsible for the high deposition rates and weld quality that
characterize the submerged arc welding process in joining and surfacing applications.
Basically, in submerged arc welding, the end of a continuous bare wire electrode is
inserted into a mound of flux that covers the area or joint to be welded. An arc is
initiated, causing the base metal, electrode, and flux in the immediate vicinity to
melt. The electrode is advanced in the direction of welding and mechanically fed into
the arc, while flux is steadily added. The melted base metal and filler metal flow
together to form a molten pool in the joint. At the same time, the melted flux floats to
the surface to form a protective slag cover.
(4) Gas tungsten-arc welding (TIG welding or GTAW). The arc is drawn between a
non-consumable tungsten electrode and the work piece. Shielding is obtained from
an inert gas or gas mixture. Pressure and/or filler metal may or may not be used. The
arc fuses the metal being welded as well as filler metal, if used. The shield gas
protects the electrode and welds pool and provides the required arc characteristics. A
variety of tungsten electrodes are used with the process. The electrode is normally
ground to a point or truncated cone configuration to minimize arc wandering.
(5) Gas metal-arc Welding (MIG welding or GMAW). In this process, coalescence is
produced by heating metals with an arc between a continuous filler metal
(consumable) electrode and the work piece. The arc, electrode tip and molten weld
metal are shielded from the atmosphere by a gas. Shielding is obtained entirely from
an externally supplied inert gas, gas mixture, or a mixture o f a gas and a flux. The
electrode wire for MIG welding is continuously fed into the arc and deposited as
weld metal. Electrodes used for MIG welding are quite small in diameter compared
to those used in other types of welding. Wire diameters 0.05 to 0.06 in. (0.13 to 0.15
cm) are average. Because of the small sizes of the electrode and high currents used in
MIG welding, the melting rates of the electrodes are very high. Electrodes must
always be provided as long, continuous strands of tempered wire that can be fed
continuously through the welding equipment. Since the small electrodes have a high
surface-to-volume ratio, they should be clean and free of contaminants which may
cause weld defects such as porosity and cracking.

15

(6) Shielded metal-arc welding. The arc is drawn between a covered consumable
metal electrode and work piece. The electrode covering is a source of arc stabilizers,
gases to exclude air, metals to alloy the weld, and slags to support and protect the
weld. Shielding is obtained from the decomposition of the electrode covering.
Pressure is not used and filler metal is obtained from the electrode. Shielded metal
arc welding electrodes are available to weld carbon and low alloy steels; stainless
steels; cast iron; aluminum, copper, and nickel, and their alloys.
(7) Atomic hydrogen welding. The arc is maintained between two metal electrodes in
an atmosphere of hydrogen. Shielding is obtained from the hydrogen. Pressure and/or
filler metal may or may not be used. Although the process has limited industrial use
today, atomic hydrogen welding is used to weld hard-to-weld metals, such as
chrome, nickel, molybdenum steels, Inconel, Monel, and stainless steel. Its main
application is tool and die repair welding and for the manufacture of steel alloy
chain.
(8) Arc spot welding. An arc spot weld is a spot weld made by an arc welding
process. A weld is made in one spot by drawing the arc between the electrode and
work piece. The weld is made without preparing a hole in either member. Filler
metal, shielding gas, or flux may or may not be used. Gas tungsten arc welding and
gas metal arc welding are the processes most commonly used to make arc spot welds.
However, flux-cored arc welding and shielded metal arc welding using covered
electrodes can be used for making arc spot welds.
(9) Arc seam welding. A continuous weld is made along faying surfaces by drawing
the arc between an electrode and work piece. Filler metal, shielding gas, or flux may
or may not be used.

16

b. Carbon Electrode.
(1) Carbon-arc welding. In this process, the arc is drawn between electrode and the
work piece. No shielding is use. Pressure and/or filler metal may or may not be used.
Two types of electrodes are used for carbon arc welding: The pure graphite electrode
does not erode away as quickly as the carbon electrode, but is more expensive and
more fragile.
(2) Twin carbon-arc welding. In this variation on carbon-arc welding, the arc is
drawn between two carbon electrodes. When the two carbon electrodes are brought
together, the arc is struck and established between them. The angle of the electrodes
provides an arc that forms in front of the apex angle and fans out as a soft source of
concentrated heat or arc flame, softer than a single carbon arc. Shielding and pressure
are not used. Filler metal may or may not be used. The twin carbon-arc welding
process can also be used for brazing.
(3) Gas-carbon arc welding. This process is also a variation of carbon arc welding,
except shielding by inert gas or gas mixture is used. The arc is drawn between a
carbon electrode and the work piece. Shielding is obtained from an inert gas or gas
mixture. Pressure and/or filler metal may or may not be used.
(4) Shielded carbon-arc welding. In this carbon-arc variation, the arc is drawn
between a carbon electrode and the work piece. Shielding is obtained from the
combustion of a solid material fed into the arc, or from a blanket of flux on the arc,
or both. Pressure and/or filler metal may or may not be used.

17

Gas Welding
Gas welding processes are a group of welding processes in which a weld is
made by heating with a gas flame or flares. Pressure and/or filler metal may or may
not be used. Also referred to as oxyfuel gas welding, the term gas welding is used to
describe any welding process that uses a fuel gas combined with oxygen, or in rare
cases, with air, to produce a flame having sufficient energy to melt the base metal.
The fuel gas and oxygen are mixed in the proper proportions in a chamber, which is
generally a part of the welding tip assembly. The torch is designed to give the welder
complete control of the welding flare, allowing the welder to regulate the melting of
the base metal and the filler metal. The molten metal from the plate edges and the
filler metal intermix in a common molten pool and join upon cooling to form one
continuous piece. Manual welding methods are generally used. Acetylene was
originally used as the fuel gas in oxyfuel gas welding, but other gases, such as MAPP
gas, have also been used. The flames must provide high localized energy to produce
and sustain a molten pool. The flames can also supply a protective reducing
atmosphere over the molten metal pool which is maintained during welding.
Hydrocarbon fuel gases such as propane, butane, and natural gas are not suitable for
welding ferrous materials because the heat output of the primary flame is too low for
concentrated heat transfer, or the flame atmosphere is too oxidizing. Gas welding
processes are outlined below.
a. Pressure Gas Welding. In this process, a weld is made simultaneously over the
entire area of abutting surfaces with gas flames obtained from the combustion of a
fuel gas with oxygen and the application of pressure. No filler metal is used.
Acetylene is normally used as a fuel gas in pressure gas welding. Pressure gas
welding has limited uses because of its low flame temperature, but is extensively
used for welding lead.
b. Oxy-Hydrogen Welding. In this process, heat is obtained from the combustion of
hydrogen with oxygen. No pressure is used, and filler metal may or may not be used.
Hydrogen has a maximum flame temperature of 4820F (2660C), but has limited
use in oxyfuel gas welding because of its colorless flare, which makes adjustment of
the hydrogen-oxygen ratio difficult. This process is used primarily for welding low
melting point metals such as lead, light gage sections, and small parts.
18

c. Air-Acetylene Welding. In this process, heat is obtained from the combustion of

acetylene with air. No pressure is used, and filler metal may or may not be used. This
process is used extensively for soldering and brazing of copper piped. OxyAcetylene Welding. In this process, heat is obtained from the combustion of
acetylene with oxygen. Pressure and/or filler metal may or may not be used. This
process produces the hottest flame and is currently the most widely used fuel for gas
welding.
e. Gas Welding with MAPP Gas. Standard acetylene gages, torches, and welding tips
usually work well with MAPP gas. A neutral MAPP gas flame has a primary cone
about 1 1/2 to 2 times as long as the primary acetylene flame. A MAPP gas
carburizing flame will look similar to a carburizing acetylene flame will look like the
short, intense blue flame of the neutral flame acetylene flame. The neutral MAPP gas
flame very deep blue.

Figure 2.3 The diagrams show the section of weld.

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2.2.1.6 Sections of a Weld

a. Fusion Zone (Filler Penetration). The fusion zone is the area of base metal melted
as determined in the cross section of a weld.
b. Leg of a Fillet Weld. The leg of a fillet weld is the distance from the root of the
joint to the toe of the fillet weld. There are two legs in a fillet weld.
c. Root of the Weld. This is the point at which the bottom of the weld intersects the
base metal surface, as shown in the cross section of weld.
d. Size of the Weld.
(1) Equal leg-length fillet welds. The size of the weld is designated by leg-length of
the largest isosceles right triangle that can be scribed within the fillet weld cross
section.
(2) Unequal leg-length fillet welds. The size of the weld is designated by the leglength of the largest right triangle that can be inscribed within the fillet weld cross
section.
(3) Groove weld. The size of the weld is the depth of chamfering plus the root
penetration when specified.
e. Throat of a Fillet Weld.
(1) Theoretical throat. This is the perpendicular distance of the weld and the
hypotenuse of the largest right triangle that can be inscribed within the fillet weld
cross section.

20

(2) Actual throat. This is distance from the root of a fillet weld to the center of its
face.
f. Face of the Weld. This is exposed surface of the weld, made by an arc or gas
welding process on the side from which the welding was done.
g. Toe of the Weld. This is the junction between the face of the weld and the base
metal.
h. Reinforcement of the Weld. This is the weld metal on the face of a groove weld in
excess of the metal necessary for the specified weld size.
2.2.1.7 Types of Welds
It is important to distinguish between the joint and the weld. Each must be
described to completely describe the weld joint. There are many different types of
welds, which are best described by their shape when shown in cross section. The
most popular weld is the fillet weld, named after its cross-sectional shape. The
second most popular is the groove weld. Other types of welds include flange welds,
plug welds, slot welds, seam welds, surfacing welds, and backing welds. Joints are
combined with welds to make weld joints.
1) Fillet Weld: This is a weld of approximately triangular cross section joining
two surfaces at approximately right angles to each other, as in a lap or tee
joint.

Figure 2.4 The picture shows the application of fillet weld in single or double.

21

2) Groove Weld: These are beads deposited in a groove between two members
to be joined.

Figure 2.5 The picture shows the basic groove weld.

3) Surfacing Weld: These are welds composed of one or more strings or weave
beads deposited on an unbroken surface to obtain desired properties or
dimensions. This type of weld is used to build up surfaces or replace metal on
worn surfaces.

Figure 2.6 The picture shows an example of surfacing weld.

22

2.2.2 Theory of Electrode

When molten metal is exposed to air, it absorbs oxygen and nitrogen, and
becomes brittle or is otherwise adversely affected. A slag cover is needed to protect
molten or solidifying weld metal from the atmosphere. This cover can be obtained
from the electrode coating. The composition of the electrode coating determines its
usability, as well as the composition of the deposited weld metal and the electrode
specification. The formulation of electrode coatings is based on well-established
principles of metallurgy, chemistry, and physics. The coating protects the metal from
damage, stabilizes the arc, and improves the weld in other ways, which include:
(1) Smooth weld metal surface with even edges.
(2) Minimum spatter adjacent to the weld.
(3) A stable welding arc.
(4) Penetration control.
(5) A strong, tough coating.
(6) Easier slag removal.
(7) Improved deposition rate.

23

The metal-arc electrodes may be grouped and classified as bare or thinly

coated electrodes, and shielded arc or heavy coated electrodes. The covered electrode
is the most popular type of filler metal used in arc welding. The composition of the
electrode covering determines the usability of the electrode, the composition of the
deposited weld metal, and the specification of the electrode. The type of electrode
used depends on the specific properties required in the weld deposited. These include
corrosion resistance, ductility, high tensile strength, the type of base metal to be
welded, the position of the weld (flat, horizontal, vertical, or overhead); and the type
of current and polarity required.

2.2.2.1 Types of Electrodes.

The coatings of electrodes for welding mild and low alloy steels may have
from 6 to 12 ingredients, which include cellulose to provide a gaseous shield with a
reducing agent in which the gas shield surrounding the arc is produced by the
disintegration of cellulose; metal carbonates to adjust the basicity of the slag and to
provide a reducing atmosphere; titanium dioxide to help form a highly fluid, but
quick-freezing slag and to provide ionization for the arc; ferromanganese and
ferrosilicon to help deoxidize the molten weld metal and to supplement the
manganese content and silicon content of the deposited weld metal; clays and gums
to provide elasticity for extruding the plastic coating material and to help provide
strength to the coating; calcium fluoride to provide shielding gas to protect the arc,
adjust the basicity of the slag, and provide fluidity and solubility of the metal oxides;
mineral silicates to provide slag and give strength to the electrode covering; alloying
metals including nickel, molybdenum, and chromium to provide alloy content to the
deposited weld metal; iron or manganese oxide to adjust the fluidity and properties of
the slag and to help stabilize the arc; and iron powder to increase the productivity by
providing extra metal to be deposited in the weld.

24

2.2.3 Metal Classification

There are two types of ores, ferrous and nonferrous. The term ferrous comes
from the Latin word ferrum meaning iron, and a ferrous metal is one that has a
high iron content. Nonferrous metals, such as copper and aluminum, are those that
contain little or no iron.
The three commonly used classifications for steel are: carbon, low alloy, and
high alloy. These are referred to as the type of steel.
Carbon Steel
Steel is basically an alloy of iron and carbon, and it attains its strength and
hardness levels primarily through the addition of carbon. Carbon steels are classed
into four groups, depending on their carbon levels. Low Carbon up to 0.15% carbon
Mild Carbon Steels.15% to 0.29% carbon. Medium Carbon Steels .30% to 0.59%
carbon. High Carbon Steels.60% to 1.70% carbon. The largest tonnage of steel
produced falls into the low and mild carbon steel groups. They are popular because
of their relative strength and ease with which they can be welded.
Low Alloy Steel
Low alloy steel, as the name implies, contains small amounts of alloying
elements that produce remarkable improvements in their properties. Alloying
elements are added to improve strength and toughness, to decrease or increase the
response to heat treatment, and to retard rusting and corrosion. Low alloy steel is
generally defined as having a 1.5% to 5% total alloy content. Common alloying
elements are manganese, silicon, chromium, nickel, molybdenum, and
vanadium. Low alloy steels may contain as many as four or five of these alloys in
varying amounts. Low alloy steels have higher tensile and yield strengths than mild
steel or carbon structural steel. Since they have high strength-to-weight ratios, they
reduce dead weight in railroad cars, truck frames, heavy equipment, etc. Ordinary
carbon steels, that exhibit brittleness at low temperatures, are un reliable in critical
applications. Therefore, low alloy steels with nickel additions are often used for low
temperature situations. Steels lose much of their strength at high temperatures. To

25

provide for this loss of strength at elevated temperatures, small amounts of chromium
or molybdenum are added.
High Alloy Steel
This group of expensive and specialized steels contains alloy levels in excess
of 10%, giving them outstanding properties. Austenitic manganese steel contains
high carbon and manganese levels that give it two exceptional qualities, the ability to
harden while undergoing cold work and great toughness. The term austenitic refers
to the crystalline structure of these steels. Stainless steels are high alloy steels that
have the ability to resist corrosion. This characteristic is mainly due to the high
chromium content, i.e., 10% or greater. Nickel is also used in substantial quantities
in some stainless steels.

2.2.4 Welding Testing

Guided Bend Test
The quality of the weld metal at the face and root of the welded joint, as well
as the degree of penetration and fusion to the base metal, are determined by means of
guided bend tests. These tests are made in a jig. These test specimens are machined
from welded plates, the thickness of which must be within the capacity of the
bending jig. The test specimen is placed across the supports of the die which is the
lower portion of the jig. The plunger, operated from above by a hydraulic jack or
other device, causes the specimen to be forced into and to assure the shape of the die.
To fulfill the requirements of this test, the specimens must bend 180 degrees and, to
be accepted as passable, no cracks greater than 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) in any dimension
should appear on the surface. The face bend tests are made in the jig with the face of
the weld in tension (i.e., on the outside of the bend).

26

The root bend tests are made with the root of the weld in tension (i. e., on
outside of the bend).

Figure 2.7 The pictures show the guided bend test jig.

27

Figure 2.8 The picture shows the specimen of guided bend test.

Figure 2.9 The picture shows the guided bend and tensile test specimen.

The Tensile Test

a. This test is used to measure the strength of a welded joint. A portion of the welded
plate is located at between the jaws of the testing machine. The width thickness of
the test specimen are measured before testing, and the area in square inches is
calculated by multiplying these before testing , and the area in square inches is
calculated by multiplying these two figures. The tensile test specimen is then
mounted in a machine that will exert enough pull on the piece to break the specimen.
The testing machining may be either a stationary or a portable type.

28

As the specimen is being tested in this machine, the load in pounds is

registered on the gauge. In the stationary types, the load applied may be registered on
a balancing beam. In either case, the load at the point of breaking is recorded.

Figure 2.10 The picture shows the tensile specimen and tensile test method.

b. The tensile strength, which is defined as stress in pounds per square inch, is
calculated by dividing the breaking load of the test piece by the original cross section
area of the specimen. The usual requirements for the tensile strength of welds are that
the specimen shall pull not less than 90 percent of the base metal tensile strength.
c. The shearing strength of transverse and longitudinal fillet welds is determined by
tensile stress on the test specimens. The width of the specimen is measured in inches.
The specimen is ruptured under tensile load, and the maximum load in pounds is
determined. The shearing strength of the weld in pounds per linear inch is
determined by dividing the maximum load by the length of fillet weld that ruptured.
The shearing strength in pounds per square inch is obtained by dividing the shearing
strength in pounds per linear inch by the average throat dimension of the weld in
inches. The test specimens are made wider than required and machined down to size.

29

Charphy Test
Charphy impact test is a test which the a standard notched specimen taken from the
weld metal is struck with a controlled weight pendulum swung from a set height. The
standard Charphy-V notch specimen is 55 mm long, 10 mm square and has a 2 mm
deep notch with a tip radius of 0.25 mm machined on one face. The specimen is
supported at its two ends on an anvil and struck on the opposite face to the notch by
the pendulum. The amount of energy absorbed in fracturing the test-piece is
measured and this gives an indication of the notch toughness of the test material. The
pendulum swings through during the test, the height of the swing being a measure of
the amount of energy absorbed in fracturing the specimen. Conventionally, three
specimens are tested at any one temperature and the results averaged.
Charpy tests show whether a metal can be classified as being either brittle or ductile.
This is particularly useful for ferritic steels that show a ductile to brittle transition
with decreasing temperature. A brittle metal will absorb a small amount of energy
when impact tested; a tough ductile metal absorbs a large amount of energy. The
appearance of a fracture surface also gives information about the type of fracture that
has occurred; a brittle fracture is bright and crystalline, a ductile fracture is dull and
fibrous. The percentage crystallinity is determined by making a judgement of the
amount of crystalline or brittle fracture on the surface of the broken specimen, and is
a measure of the amount of brittle fracture.
Lateral expansion is a measure of the ductility of the specimen. When a ductile metal
is broken, the test-piece deforms before breaking, and material is squeezed out on the
sides of the compression face. The amount by which the specimen deforms in this
way is measured and expressed as millimetres of lateral expansion

30

Magnetic Particle Testing

This is a test or inspection method used on welds and parts made of magnetic
alloy steels. It is applicable only to ferromagnetic materials in which the deposited
weld is also ferromagnetic. A strong magnetic field is set up in the piece being
inspected by means of high amperage electric currents. A leakage field will be set up
by any discontinuity that intercepts this field in the part. Local poles are produced by
the leakage field. These poles attract and hold magnetic particles that are placed on
the surface for this purpose. The particle pattern produced on the surface indicates
the presence of a discontinuity or defect on or close to the surface of the part.
Radiographic Testing or X-ray testing
This is a radiographic test method used to reveal the presence and nature of
internal defects in a weld, such as cracks, slag, blowholes, and zones where proper
fusion is lacking. In practice, an X-ray tube is placed on one side of the welded plate
and an X-ray film, with a special sensitive emulsion, on the other side. When
developed, the defects in the metal show up as dark spots and bands, which can be
interpreted by an operator experienced in this inspection method. Porosity and
defective root penetration as disclosed by X-ray inspection are shown in figure 13-8.

31

CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Methodology
To ensure the stated objectives can be achieved, the project is done according to the
research methodologies as follows:
3.1.1 Data Collection
In order to initialise the project, the author need to have a thoroughly view
upon the subject matters in order to understand the project. Thus, the data collection
regarding need to be done by searching many information about welding, metal
properties, mechanical testing and heat from welding effect upon metals through
various source namely reference books journals, products catalogues, journals and
project files as well through guidance of fellow colleagues, welders and supervisor.
This process was actively done during the first month of SIP to act as foundation for
the coming attempts.

The data acquired including the theory of welding process in order to

understand the basic concept and idea upon the welding and related matters such as
electrode and technique of welding and also the test which examined the strength of
the welded metals. In additional, the author also did some revision on Introduction to
Material Science to have a flashback which required understanding the metals
properties upon heating as the knowledge is very crucial in order to do the analysis.

These knowledge mentions previously will helps to do the analysis. The

concept of theory of welding process will helps the author to have the idea how the
metal welding done. Since the author did not take any subject related with the
welding, it gives great significance to have the deep understanding on the welding
concept. While the information related with the welding, such as electrode and
welding types is an additional to extend the understanding on welding process.

32

Metals properties knowledge helps to understand how the metal behaviour

upon normal state. Mechanical testing information obtained will be used selection
options of material strength testing to have the most precise and accurate results. In
this project, we did not use any non-destructive test as our material strength testing.
Since the non-destructive test mainly test for the defects of the welding since the
defects of the welding later on will be classified as poor skills welders.

3.1.2 Conducting WPQT and Mechanical Testing

After the Data Collection, the author needs to apply the analysis in some sort
of experiment to develop the study case for the analysis. Since the project is
conducted in Fabrication Company and the subject matter for this project is mainly
welding, WPQT was being chosen as method of experiment. WPQT as previously
explained in Relevancy of the Project part, is common procedure which is frequently
taken place in TFCSB. A welder has been selected to weld the different metals which
required following according to the WPS which already being set up by the Quality
Control Engineer (QC) and approved by the client. The author is being assigned to
conduct the WPQT. All the data for the WPQR is recorded such as time taken by the
welder to finish a layer of welding bead.

3.1.3 The Results from the testing

After the WPQT is done, the welded metal is then sent to Nusatek to conduct
mechanical testing. In this testing, the author chooses to attend and witness Nusatek
performing the testing. There are four testing which are Bend Test, Charpy Test,
Tensile Test and Macro Examination. All these tests had already being explained in
the Critical Literature Review. Nusatek will then produce the report for all testing.
The 3rd party company will then review the results and decide whether the welder
can be allowed to pass the WPQT. If the results comply with the code of the
specification, then the welders details will be recorded in WQR. This WQR will be
used as a certificate of qualification of doing the welding job for the project. The
report is then being analysis to identify the strength of the welding metals.

33

3.1.4 Recommendation and Conclusion

Based on the mechanical testing produced by Nusatek, the analysis regarding
the strength of the welding metal can be made which then will be presented with its
data from the reports with its description. The heat effect analysis can be synthesis
from this reports which the will be used by the host company as guidance regarding
the crystal composition of the metal which later on helps in improving the welding
efficiency. This piece of analysis will enhance the whole team member of the
Production and Quality Assurance and Quality Control on the micro structure
deformation due to the heat effects which influence the strength of the welding metal
parts.

The compilation involves the details about how the welding process can tie
two metals and their regions which will be later explained in detail in discussion part
of this report. This will give the idea on how to strengthen the welding part. The
main aim of this project is to analyse the heat effects of welding on the welding
metals which suggesting the improvement of future welding process. Last but not
least, the project is concluded by referring to the desired objectives which is set from
the beginning. From the documentation, it is hope that authors efforts will contribute
to the continuous effort in improving the welding metal which prolonged the lifespan
of the skid structure and piping equipment produce by TFCSB.

Compilation and
Recommendation

Data
Collection

Conducting
WPQT &
Mechanical
Testing

The Result
from the
Testing

Figure 3.1 The flow chart show the summary of research methodology

34

3.2 Key Milestone

Figure 3.2 The diagram shows the Key milestone for the project.

3.3 Gant Chart

Activities
Introduction to TFCSB (Jobscope / Involvement)
SIT Presentation to SV UTP and Company
Confirming SIP Title
Research for Literature Review
- Concept of Welding
- Metal Classification
- Welding Testing
Data Collection
WPQT & Mechanical Testing
Result from Testing
Completion of Report, Documentation
Presentation to SV UTP and Company

Jan

Apr

May

Table 3.1 The table shows the Gant Chart for this project.

35

June

July

Aug

CHAPTER 4
RESULT & DISCUSSION
This chapter compiles the collected data from the previous studies and relevant
findings related to this technology. Firstly, data gathered from the analysis of
welding procedure due to the effect heat from welding are presented, followed by the
WPQT setting specification with its discussion relationship with the previous
analysis. In addition, the result from the mechanical testing will be discussed to
check whether the welding metals have achieved the desirable strength.

4.1 The Data Gathering on the Analysis of Welding Procedure with the heat
effect from welding.
Before going into the analysis, it is best to have the idea how the welding is
conducted. Arc welding uses an electrical arc which melts the work pieces as well as
the filler materials, sometimes is known as welding rod to weld the joints. This
welding consists of attaching a grounding wire to the welding material and placing
another wire known as an electrode lead on the material to be welded. After the lead
is pulled away from the material, this will caused an electric arc generated. It's a little
like the sparks you see when pulling jumper cables off a car battery. The arc then
melts the work pieces along with the filler material that helps to join the pieces. In
order to ensure the detail, the welder needs to have a steady hands and an eye in
feeding the filler into the welding joint. As the rod melts, the welder must
continuously feed the filler into the joint using small, steady, back-and-forth motions
which gives their welds. These motions are what gives welds their distinctive
appearance. Going too fast or slow, or holding the arc too close or far away from the
material can create poor welds.

36

Figure 4.1 The pictures show process of welding.

Heat is the main component in welding. In order to join two similar or

different metal pieces, the pieces need to be molten to allow the diffusion of the
metal atom of the metal pieces which later on bind the metal pieces into one. The
presence of welding heat creates different region on welding metals. Basically, there
are three regions of a basic weld which are Fusion Zone, Heat Affected Zone and
Base Metal.

Fusion Zone

Basic Metal

Heat Affected Zone

Figure 4.2 The picture shows the Weld region.

37

Fusion Zone is the area that is completely melted, while the Heat Affected
Zone is the portion of the base metal not melted but whose mechanical properties and
microstructure were affected by the heat of the joining process. Meanwhile, the Base
Metal is the original metal which is not affected by the heat.

The three regions of the weld can be more finely divided and the distinctions
of where one region ends and another begins is somewhat blurred as indicated above.
The composite region is where the complete mixing occurred between molten base
metal and molten filler metals. While the unmixed region contained only the molten
base metal and happened due to the turbulent stirring in the weld metal. The partially
melted region is a region of fully molten zones and the heat affected zone consisting
the intermittent liquid and solid. On the other hand, the region whose properties or
structure has been affected by the heat of the weld is called True Heat Affected Zone.

Figure 4.3 The picture shows the detail of weld region.

38

The first concern we will consider that occurs in the composite region is
solidification cracking or sometimes called hot cracking. Solidification cracking is
crack happened due to the cooling down temperature of the weld which can be
contributed by weld geometry and impurity elements. Welds with a depth-to-width
ratio greater than 2:1 are susceptible to solidification cracking due to the build-up of
excessive transverse stress. This is especially noted in submerged arc welding,
which exhibits deep penetration.

Excess sulfur and phosphorus drastically lower the solidification temperature

of steel causing complete solidification occurs at a much lower temperature along the
weld center line, where sulfur and phosphorus tend to segregate. As the weld cools,
residual tensile stress develops which leading to centreline cracking due to the high
sulfur and phosphorus areas are weak and may not have completely solidified. In
order to fix the cracked region, it must be cut out beyond the visible end of the crack
and re-welded.

A thermal distribution is set up around the traveling weld in the process of

making a weld. Due to the action of moving thermal gradients, the material expands
and contracts causing the distribution of stress occurred. This stress profile tend to be
compressive in front of the moving weld however behind the weld, it tend to be
tensile where the solidification occurred simultaneously. The factors that affecting
the temperature and stress profiles are overall heats input and preheat and the type of
material welded. In the region of solidification, the tensile stresses become
significant since tends to pull material apart and this would be much trouble in the
hot and weakly solidified areas.

The solidification of welding process is a bit unusual as in within the base

metal contained the liquid weld metal, sort of in its own imaginary very hot mold
which is made up of same or nearly same as the composite weld metal. The
solidification begins at the fusion line where the molten metal and unmelt base metal
meet which also the coolest spot in the weld. This nucleation is called epitaxial
nucleation. The crystal structure present in the hot solid HAZ is transferred to the
initial dendritic crystals which extending into the liquid welds metal. After the
nucleation, the dendrite grains continue to grow into the liquid metal. The rate of
39

growth is determined by the favorable orientation which then pinches off the less
favorable one until the entire liquid is consumed. As metal continues to solidify, the
grain in the center become smaller and finer texture compared to the outside
boundary of the weld deposit as the heat from the center of the weld dissipated into
the base metal through the outer grain that solidified first. As the consequence, the
grain that solidified first was at high temperature for a long period in a solid state
which promotes the growth of the grain.

The second element has a limitation on how much it can be absorbed into the
first which is determine on both temperature and the crystal structure present at that
temperature. The diagram below shows this limit of solubility for carbon in iron and
is called the iron-carbon phase diagram. The delta ferrite can only absorb the carbon
about 0.1% where the temperature is maximum carbon content is allowed; while, the
lower temperature ferrite can only absorb 0.02% carbon. In the contrary, the
austenite can absorb more than 1.6% carbon into its lattice structure if only the
temperature is about 2000oF.

Figure 4.4 The picture shows the phase transformation diagram of C-Fe.

40

In order to understanding deeply about the previous analysis, we need to

know how the solidification happened. Solidification is sometimes known as
crystallization process when the molten metal is cooled down, the atoms in the metal
will assemble into a regular pattern of crystal. In this form, the atoms or molecules
are held in fixed positions which are not free to move around like a liquid or gas.
This fixed position is named as a crystal lattice. As the temperature increased, the
absorbed thermal energy will increase causing their movement become ferocious.
The distance between atom increasing and the lattice breaks down while the crystal
starting to melt. If the lattice is only contain a single type of atom such as in pure
iron, the condition will happen to be same at all point throughout the lattice and the
crystal only melts at a single temperature.

In contrary, if the lattice contains more than one types of atoms like in alloysteel, the metal may melt at certain temperature however not incomplete melting
until it being heated to a higher temperature. This in another word creating a situation
where there is a combination of liquids and solid together within a range of
temperatures. The crystal structure will become permanent at room temperature
which has varies characteristic depending on the type of the metal. Some metals also
may go into alteration in the crystalline form according to the change of the
temperature. This phenomenon is called phase transformation.
Lets look the example of pure iron structure. At 1535oC, the pure iron is
solidifies which transform the delta structure into non-magnetic gamma structure
commonly known as austenite. While at 910oC, the pure iron then is return into the
delta structure back however in this temperature is known as alpha iron. The
different name given for these two phases are to differentiate between high
temperature phase (delta) and the low temperature phase (alpha). This capability in
transforming into two or more crystalline structures at different temperatures is
called as allotropic. The examples of allotropic metals are iron and steels.

41

A small group of atom begin to assemble into crystalline form which

scattered throughout the body of the liquid and are oriented in all directions. As
solidification proceeds, more and more crystals are formed and often they begin in
the dendrite form or treelike structure. The crystallization will goes on until at certain
point the growth will thwart as the crystal begin to touch one another, while
remaining liquid freezes to the adjacent crystals until the solidification is complete.
The grain boundary is where the individual crystals meet at different orientations.
There are many factors influence the initial size of the grain, the important factors
that should be known are cooling rate and temperature.

In order to reduce solidification cracking, the filler metals or flux-wire

combinations that result in higher manganese contents are used. The manganese will
reduce the solidification through two mechanisms:

1) Manganese will combines with sulfur to form manganese sulfide particles.

Since the free segregate at the centerline combine with the manganese, this
will reduce the amount of free sulfur available which causing the lower
solidification temperature leading to low-strength region.

2) Apart from that, as the Manganese atom substitute in the iron crystal
structure, it will strengthen the steel which resulting the weld metal to have
higher strength during the cooling process.

Apart from the defects due to the heating effect of welding, there is other welding
defect cause by other factors. The below table are the list of the other welding
defects, causes and their remedies.

42

Type of Defect

Causes

Remedies

Spatter

Welding current too high,

Reduce welding current,

arc too long and

reduce arc length and

insufficient gas shielding.

check shielding gas flow

rate.

Longitudinal Cracks in

Base metal undergone

Choose material with a

HAZ

hardening and weld cool

better weldability and

down too rapidly.

apply a higher preheat.

Heat input too low.

Increase the welding

Lack of fusion defects

current and slower the

travel speed.
Porosity

Moisture and insufficient

Rebake and check

gas shielding.

shielding gas shielding

type and flow rate.

Deformation

Too many thin beads and

Use a larger electrode and

poor plate fit-up before

clamp the work pieces.

welding.
Crater cracks

Undercut

Lack of root penetration

Welding ended far too

Move back the electrode

abruptly.

to fill-up the crater.

Arc voltage too high and

Lower arc voltage and

travel speed too high.

reduce travel speed.

Root gap too small and

Use wider root gap and

electrode size too big.

electrode with a diameter

of approximately the gap
width.

Table 4.1 The table shows the welding defects, causes and their remedies.

43

4.2 WPQT and Mechanical Testing Result Analysis

4.2.1 WPQT Brief Review

As explained previously in the Problem State, WPQT is Qualification Test

for welder in order to be certified and granted with the welding job of the project. In
this WPQT, the welder selected to be tested is Thanisorn Butdee. According to the
Project Manager, Mr. Anson, the welder is already selected to be the welder of the
project due to the skills that he has and the availability during the fabrication on
period.

The welder is required to welding two different metals plate sizing of 300mm
x 300mm with 25mm thickness which are stainless steel with carbon steel using two
type of filler rod which are ER309L for GTAW welding and E309L-17 for SMAW
welding. The weld joint must be Butt Weld while the welding process is using
GTAW and SMAW since the metal plates have large thickness. The weld joint needs
to do the backing with the weld metal at the root of the weld. Backing is process of
covering the weld metal between the groove for welding to avoid excess weld at the
root or initial point of welding. As for the groove, the required distance gap is
approximately around 5 mm to 41.24 mm.

The detail of metals properties used is as below:

Carbon Steel (A671)

Mechanical Properties:
Yield Stress: 385 MPa
Tensile Stress: 525 MPa
Elongation: 31%

44

Chemical Properties:
Carbon: 0.13%
Silicon: 0.35%
Manganese: 1.5%
Phosphorus: 0.012%
Sulphur: 0.04%
Cromium: 0.013%
Molybdenum: 0.002%
Nickel: 0.13%

Carbon Steel (A240)

Mechanical Properties:Yield Stress: 380MPa

Tensile Stress: 480 MPa
Elongation: 29%

Chemical Properties:Carbon: 0.2%

Silicon: 0.4%
Manganese: 2.5%
Phosphorus: 0.11%
Sulphur: 0.02%
Cromium: 0.024%
Molybdenum: 0.003%
Nickel: 0.15%

45

According to the WPS document prepared, the position of the groove is 3G

which is all position welding; meanwhile the welding movement is progressing
upward. Before the welding start, the metal pieces need to be prepared by heating to
the ambient temperature in order to remove any absorbed moisture in the metal. The
maximum interpass temperature allowed in less than 300oC however according to the
QC it is supposed to be lowered to 100oC to ensure the weld bead really cool down
before another weld bead is done. Interpass temperature is allowable temperature to
proceed to weld another bead. The gas argon which has 99.9% composition is used
as shielding gas for the GTAW technique. This shielding gas is used to protect the
hot weld is contaminated by the surrounding air.

Figure 4.5 The figure shows the position of 3G welding.

Figure 4.6 The figure shows the dimension of the groove weld for this WPQT.

46

Figure 4.7 The figure shows the weld beads done by the welder.

As for the technique, GTAW and SMAW used weave movement; however
SMAW also used stringer movement. Weave and stringer movement is a movement
of hand during the welding process. Weave movement is a movement of hand in zigzag and as for stringer movement is a movement of hand in a straight line. After the
welding while making another layer of welding or weld bead, the weld is required to
do the initial and interpass cleaning. As being decided according with the ASME IV
code, the initial and interpass cleaning used are grinding and brushing.

In order to pass with the this qualification test, the weld metal need to have
higher mechanical properties values Yield, Tensile and Elongation which will be
tested during the mechanical testing.

4.2.2 Mechanical Testing Result

According to the report produced by Nusatek, all the metal is passed with the
requirement. Below are the report produce by the Nusatek:

Tensile Testing:

Table 4.2 The table shows the result of the tensile testing.

47

In this tensile testing, the specimen being tested which is taken from the
welded metal is 2 pieces. Each piece has approximately 19mm and 21mm thickness.
The maximum load that is used to pull the specimen is around 216000.00 N and both
have higher tensile strength from the base metal which is 535.79 N/mm2 and 536.01
N/mm2 which fracture at the base metal itself. Thus according to this report, the
welding part of the metal is stronger than the base metal itself.

Graph 4.1 The graph shows the result of the tensile testing of the metals.

The graph above shows the relationship between the lengths of being pulled
and the tensile strength. As you can see, the maximum tensile strength for the metal
is above 210 000 N. When the metal is stretched until 8 mm, the weld metal is started
to resist, the metal become harder to elongate. Until it reach the peak where the metal
is fractured.

48

Figure 4.8 The figure shows the specimens for the tensile testing.

Figure 4.9 The figure shows the specimens fractured.

Figure 4.10 The figure shows the machine for the tensile test.

49

Bend Testing:

Table 4.3 The table shows the result of the bend testing.

For the bend testing, there are 4 specimens which is cut it the same dimension
which is 20.62 mm width and 10.00 mm thickness. These specimens are then put into
the machine and bend to check whether there is any visible defect. However, all the
specimens show no visible defect which also passed with the testing.

Figure 4.11 The figure shows the specimen for the bending test.

Figure 4.12 The figure shows the machine used for the bend test.

50

Figure 4.13 The figure shows the specimen after the bending test.

Macro Examination:

Figure 4.14 The figure shows the cross sectional of weld part.

51

In the macro examination, the metal is zoomed to 5x across the welding

section in order to see small defects. As you can see the welding part does not have
any defect which is clearly passed with the test.

Charphy Impact Test:

The specimen being prepared is in the form of V-Notch and the sizes are 10 mm x 10
mm x 55 mm. The specimens required for this testing are 9 pieces (3 pieces for the
Weld Metal, while the rest for the HAZ) and being conducted at the temperature 46oC. In order to pass the test, the minimum lateral expansion needs to exceed more
than 0.38 m. The figure below shows the result of the charphy test.

Table 4.4 The table shows the result of the Charphy Test.

For each notch, the test is repeated for thrice and the result is taken as average in
order to obtain the precise value. In this test, we can find 2 data which are the impact
energy absorbed (Joule) and the lateral expansion (mm). As for the impact test, the
HAZ has the higher impact energy absorbed which is 126.14 J. While as for the
lateral expansion result, all specimens exceed from the requirement which average of
all data is 1.29 mm.
Vickers Hardness Test:

In this test, only one specimen is taken from the weld metal. The specimen is then
being pressed by a needle with a force equivalent to 10 kg. Below figures shows the
location of press point and the result of the test.

52

Figure 4.16 The position of the location of the pressed needle on the metal.

Table 4.5 The table show the result of Vicker's Hardness Test

In this data, we will determine the depth of needle pressed at each of point with
different location. The data obtain shows that the depth of the needle pressed for this
test is in range of 144 m to 198 m which is lower for the requirement which is 230
m. The test is considered pass.

53

CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
This chapter concludes the impact of the Analysis of Heating welding on the strength
of the welding metal and also the longevity of the structure equipment. This is
followed by the relevancy to the objectives as stated in Chapter 1. In the last part, the
suggestion for future work for expansion and continuation for this project and the
overall effort of introducing this technology, as a whole.
5.1 Impact

The welding is process is highly demand since the construction of structure

involving metals and thermoplastic materials is blooming from times to time. Thus,
the needed for improvement in welding materials strength is crucial. This analysis
will increase the understanding how the strength of the metal welding can be
determined and which later on will open up the idea to improve the methods or clear
guideline. Until now, various researches related to welding metallurgy are being
conducted as well as training given to welder and the inspector to inculcate the
awareness regarding this matter. Thus, the welders will know the factors affecting
their welding process that will influence the strength of the welding metal.

54

5.2 Relevancy to the Objectives

To analyse the welding process in term of heating effect on the strength of the
material.

In the discussion part, the heat from the welding process mainly affecting the
strength of the welding metals.
.
To understand the importance of the WPQT in fabrication process of the projects.

The importance of WPQT is already being explained in the problem statements. It

mainly involve with the selection of welder to ensure the welder are really qualified
to the welding job for a project which has their welding specification.
5.3 Suggested Future Work for Expansion and Continuation
In order to have precise analysis regarding the strength of the welding metals,
we need to have a comparison and stating the specific variables such as types of
electrode and the environment surrounding condition in order to prove the theory of
welding and heat effect upon the metal is valid. Apart from that, the analysis needs to
be done according to the ASME or API code which usually use for fabrication
guideline.

55

CHAPTER 6
SAFETY TRAINING & VALUE OF THE PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE

This chapter consists of the lessons learned and experience gained throughout
the industrial internship programme (training and project), leadership, teamwork and
individual activities, business values, ethics and management skills and finally the
review on problem or challenges faced and solutions to overcome them.

6.1 Lesson Learned and Experience Gained

The experience gained from the Industrial Internship Programme (both

Industrial Training and Industrial Project) for 32 weeks are truly wonderful by
author. UTP students can understand the real working nature and blend in to the real
working life and attitude due to the opportunity of having a long internship period. It
is believed that the UTP student practical understand well their job scope and even
working like one of the staffs in the Host Company.

TFCSB has provided awesome experiences during industrial internship from

various technical and non-technical activities. These experiences are gain through the
involvement of author in the company events, engagement with the 3rd party or
clients and also arising problems. In TFCSB, the author learns so many lessons.
Among them are including teamwork, leadership, business understanding, safety
exposure and other which later be explained within this chapter.

Having internship in the fabrication site under the contractor company, the
author learns on how to be professional. Since the assigned job for the author is
Project Engineer which mainly dealing communication with the clients, 3rd parties
and the production teams, the author need to be professional. The author sometimes
needs to learn to open up any criticism on him and always be ready to fix up his
mistakes. He also needs to be truthfully but carefully spare the words as do not to stir
any bigger problems. Project Engineer always plays with due date project which
taught the author to be an organized planner. In order to ensure the project can be
done on time, time management skills is highly required. The author need to learn to
prioritize on matter which critical to avoid any time wastage.
56

6.2 Leadership, Teamwork and Individual Activities

Leadership is defined as an ability to lead. In order to become a leader, the
person must know how to manage people, resources and time. At TFCSB, there a
many people which the author can look up to learn the leadership skills such as
staffs, managers and engineers. These people really know how to deal with people
under their command so that they can have a pleasure while performing their tasks.
Good leaders are determined by those who can set the example for everyone else to
follow. One of the example that author notices in TFCSB is a project engineer deals
with superior like a distinguished communicator. Although the age different will be
the possible barrier, however he without any hesitation deliver his point with
firmness and spectacular confidence wisely enough not to offend the senior staff and
getting him cooperation he desired.

Apart from that, teamwork is important to ensure the information is reach to

everyone and useful ideas could be generated collectively to overcome any upcoming
issues. In order to develop a good teamwork, maintaining a good communication
between members is highly important which require good communication skills. In
order to having capability to work in a team, one must possess good skills in
delivering insight or ideas clearly to other people. Based on the observation of author
in numbers of meetings attended and individual tasks assigned, a good teamwork will
resolve many problems faced. It is believed that the only way to complete the task
given by communicating with a lot of people, regardless their positions; Project
Manager, Foreman, QC, Welders and even just helpers or fitters. It also enhances the
authors soft skills.

57

6.3 Business Values, Ethics and Management Skills

It is very crucial for an engineer to develop management skills apart from

having technical skills. It is very important in a professional working environment
and the experiences gained can help to improve and develop existing social skills. In
TFCSB, having excellent work ethic is the priority factor for the staffs. It can show
the actual value of an employee. The best practices of work ethic in TFCSB are
sincerity, punctuality, completion of task in given time, proper dressing and paying
respect to others. Respect is not only paid based on someones age or position but
also portrayed in terms of suggestion or giving opinion in a discussion.

Any task given must be done in a specific time. Thus, time management is
very necessary to ensure all the tasks are done before reaching the dateline. Time
management also is a crucial factor that must be taken into consideration in a project
execution because a delay in work progress will not tarnish only the individuals
reputation, however affecting the whole organization. It can cause a loss in term of
financial and time. Apart from that, one must always have the initiatives to learn
from other credible staffs due to the working environment the scope of knowledge is
wider and beyond our scope of study. By doing this, we will gain advantage by not
restricting the inputs just for our field of study only.

In terms of business values, the author understands the important of ensuring

that the production line to align with the policy of the company in maximising the
profit by avoiding misfits which leading to property damage and workforce injuries.
Thus, the precautionary steps must be taken at all times to prevent any incidents from
occurring and damaging TFCSBs reputation in the eyes of its clients.

58

6.4 Problems or Challenges Faced and Solutions to Overcome Them

The author faced problems from both technical and non-technical

perspectives in completing the Industrial Internship. These difficulties include
adapting to new environment, technical competencies and time management.
However, the seven months of industrial training and industrial project allowing the
author to understand and develop him to overcome those obstacles. In order to adapt
with the new environment of working life, the author take a few days to familiarize
with the working culture and learning the core business of TFCSB as stated in the
Industrial Training. The situation seem to be alienated since the authors colleagues
are mostly different field from the author courses, which requires him to learn at the
beginning and catch up faster in order to mingle around them. However, their
warmth and kindness in accepting his existence somehow decrease the pressure and
enable him to calm himself. Since the author never learn anything about the
fabrication of piping and skid knowledge which mainly used the mechanical engineer
knowledge, the early period of Industrial Training had been utilised to study more
about the fabrication of piping and skid as well as doing personal research about the
welding process. The urge to learn more has becoming a stepping stone for the
author to step forward and approach his colleagues and supervisor obtain their
technical views and ideas. As the result of the cooperation gain in obtaining data and
information, the author finally managed to finish the SIP report although being
hindered by limited access of information as well as time constraint.

59

REFERENCE
People:
Mr. Nasrul Aidli (Engineering Manager True Features Corporation Sdn. Bhd.)
Mr. Hafizul Mohammad (QA/QC Inspector)
Mohd Sharif Yusoff (QA/QC Inspector)
Nazri Nawi (QA/QC Inspector)
Hossein Onn Sulaiman (Production Site Supervisor)
Websites:
True Features Corporation, Retrieved 2014, from http://www.truefeatures.com/
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS. (2013). Industrial Internship Guideline for
Students. UTP: Center for Student Internship, Mobility and Adjunct Lectureship
(CSIMAL)
Welding, Wikipedia, Retrieved 2014, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welding
Welding Procedure Specification, Wikipedia, Retrieved 2014, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welding_Procedure_Specification
Grieve, D.J, (February 23, 2009). Welding Processes, Retrieved May 2014, from
http://www.tech.plym.ac.uk/sme/strc201/weld1.htm

Journal:
P. Bernasovsk, J. Boansk: Welding and technological causes of breakdown of the
lock gate of waterwork chamber on Danube river, In: JOM-10 Conference,
Helsingor, 2001

60

APPENDICES

Appendix A The picture of welding defects.

Appendix B Document of Welding Procedure Specification, Welding Procedure
Qualification Record & Nusatek Mechanical Testing Report.

61

APPENDIX A THE PICTURE OF WELDING DEFECTS

The picture shows the defect of welding.

The picture shows the porosity in the welding.

62