Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
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Index
Contents
Objectives IX
Section 1
Lesson 1
Phase 1 Information
Phase 3 - 4 Information
10
11
Equipment Performance
12
Coverage or Capacity
13
Service Area
14
17
21
Lesson 2
23
23
Baseband Information
24
29
31
33
33
36
Cascaded Noise
38
41
43
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45
Modulation Systems
45
46
47
16QAM Modulation
48
64QAM Modulation
48
49
50
53
55
Lesson 5
57
57
57
58
59
59
60
61
Duplex Schemes
62
63
65
66
71
72
Section 2
75
Lesson 1
Propagation Basics
77
77
Sub-Refraction
80
Super-Refraction
81
82
85
89
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Index
Lesson 2
Mechanisms of Propagation
91
93
Fresnel Clearance
94
Multipath Propagation
96
Rayleigh Environment
96
Rician Environment
97
99
101
103
103
105
106
106
109
111
Lesson 4
113
113
Antenna Beamwidth
117
118
Antenna Tilt
120
121
123
127
Lesson 5
129
129
130
130
131
132
132
133
Beamforming
134
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Open-loop Tx Diversity
136
Receive Diversity
136
136
137
137
138
Reporting of UE Feedback
139
143
147
148
155
156
Section 2 Assignment
157
Section 3
159
Lesson 1
161
161
162
163
165
167
Lesson 2
169
169
170
170
171
172
172
173
Lesson 3
175
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Index
Antenna Characteristics for eNB
176
177
179
Lesson 4
Calculating Sensitivity
181
181
182
183
184
185
185
Cascaded Noise
186
188
189
193
193
194
196
Body Loss
197
198
Lesson 6
201
Pathloss Modelling
Propagation Modelling
201
202
Comparison of models
203
205
210
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Objectives
Objectives
At the end of this module you should be able to
Determine the optimum planning cycle for planning LTE radio systems
Show which elements of the LTE technology will have a major impact on the
planning processes
List the modulation and coding schemes used by LTE and comment on the
required level of performance
Show how OFDMA works and explain the advantages over existing
communication systems
Explain the basic theories behind the MIMO antenna technique and discuss
the improved performance
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Section 1
Introduction to Radio Planning
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Lesson 1
Phase 2
Site Selection
+
Backhaul Planning
Phase 3
RF Predictions
+
Confirm Assumptions
Phase 4
Build Plan
+
Drive Test
Optimisation
Information gather during this first phase is used to test the objectives and determine the
viability of the business case. Since there are no major investments at this stage it is also
a good time to analyse the risks involved using known information. The assumptions and
objectives can be tested iteratively until some initial design is decided.
The second phase used the outputs of phase one to determine the best location for the
base sites and to determine the back haul requirements. Issues of co-location and new
site builds would be addressed at this stage.
Once all the site locations have been determined the initial assumptions regarding
coverage will need to be validated. This is possible through the use of software RF
planning tools. Some design optimisations can be determined during this stage. Choice
of software tools and models will have to be made, this is often a matter of scale and
budget.
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Capacity Objective
Marketing
- Mbps
- Pop Density
2
- Mbps/Km
- Demographics
- Market Penetration
- Rural Urban
- Number of Subs
- Quantity of Spectrum
- Revenues
- Services Offered
Equipment Performance
- Service level
Phase 1
- Service Quality
- Growth
- Vendor Selection
- Antenna Type/Performance
- Costs
- UE Performance
- Additional Features
Coverage Objective
- Spectrum Frequency
Planning Process
- Capacity
- RF Model
- Area Type
- Capacity Models
- Service Level
- Spreadsheets
- MIMO/Beamforming
Phase 1 Information
Phase 1 of planning is primarily about information gathering and initial system modelling,
the more information that can be gathered at his stage will allow for more detailed and
accurate modelling. More time spent at this at this stage understanding how the system
responds to changes in design inputs should result in more solid and reliable design in the
later stages. The basic premise of phase one design is to determine the optimum number
of base stations to meet the required objectives of coverage and capacity.
Marketing data
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Coverage objectives
Capacity objectives
A planning process can also be considered at this time taking into account what tools
are available to the designer, RF planning tools, spreadsheets used to determine system
operating criteria etc.
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Site Selection
Backhaul
- Site Availability
- Required Capacity
- Collocated
- Interconnects available
- New Site
Phase 2
- Impact on Coverage
- Future Growth
- FO vs microwave
Site Acquisition
- Planning processes
- Site Availability
- Owned or Leased
- Cost
Use software tools to confirm initial assumptions for coverage and capacity
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Phase 3 - 4 Information
Phase 3 and 4 are primarily about site selection and building, where the use of RF
software planning, capacity planning tools and optimisation tools are heavily used. The
selection of tools is based on the type of system that is being planned and the budget
given to the planning department. There are many different stand-alone tools that ca
be used in the process and an increasing number of integrated tools that will allow the
planner to manage the design process from start to finish.
Typical tools required during the third and fourth stages are:
RF Planning
Capacity Planning
Drive Test
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Planning Tools
Capacity Planning
- Tool Type/Capability
- Tool Type
- Cost
- Accuracy
- Terrain/Clutter Database
- Capacity Models
- Building Database
- Planning Models
Phase
3/4
Optimisation
Drive Test
- Tool Type
- Features
- Tool Type
- Features
- Interpreting Results
- Optimisation
Frequency Band
Channel Bandwidth
Equipment Performance
Service Area
Population Density
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Population Demographic
Population Penetration
Each of the factors mentioned above will have some impact on the overall system design
and the ultimate capacity in each cell and across the system as a whole.
Frequency Band
There are many frequency bands potentially available for the deployment of LTE, the
bands listed opposite have been identified through work done by the ITU and the WRCs.
The bands are part of the IMT spectrum and many are in use already with cellular
technologies like GSM, UMTS and WiMAX.
It is not expected for a UE to support all of the bands shown here, but is highly likely that
UE will support a sunset of the bands depending on the intended are of deployment,
allowing national and international roaming as cost effectively as possible.
The chosen spectrum will have a very large impact on the planning process since
the nominal radius of the LTE radio cell is dependant on the frequency of operation.
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Equipment Performance
System performance will be affected by many factor related to the equipment used in the
network. The fundamental aspects of the link budget rely entirely on the performance
of the equipment. In many case the vendor spec sheet will provide the majority of the
information required to perform basic ink budgets. This may be enough during the
initial phase of planning to establish a baseline for capacity and performance. Once the
basic performance parameters have been worked out and certain levels of performance
have been determined, it is then possible to include the more complex features of the
equipment to determine the additional gains possible. For example MIMO, beamforming
antennas, vendor specific algorithms for interference management.
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Service Area
Having established the performance capabilities of LTE and the vendor specific equipment
the job of planning must then determine the capacity or coverage objectives. The
objectives will of course vary from area to area depending on the planning criteria.
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Heavy Industrial
Indu s t r ia l
Light Industrial
Indu s t r i
al
Council
Residential
Re s ide nt
Private
Residential
Re s ide nt
ia l
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Q1
which phase of the planning cycle would include site selection and backhaul planning?
a)
Phase 1
b)
Phase 2
c)
Phase 3
d)
Phase 4
Q2
which of the following processes are most likely to occur in phase 1 of the planning life
cycle?
a)
b)
c)
d)
RF predictions
Q3
when setting coverage objectives, which if the following information is most useful?
a)
Vendor selection
b)
Market penetration
c)
Allocated spectrum
d)
Number of subscribers
Q4
completion of phase 1 planning yields what kind of information ?
a)
b)
c)
d)
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Phase 1
b)
Phase 2
c)
Phase 3
d)
Phase 4
Q6
drive test tools and optimisation processes are most like to occur in which phase of the
planning cycle ?
a)
Phase 1
b)
Phase 2
c)
Phase 3
d)
Phase 4
Q8
which of the following may cause potential problems for LTE deployment when
considering handset complexity and roaming ?
a)
b)
c)
d)
Q9
how many FFT points will be used to decode an LTE radio channel of 10MHz bandwidth?
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a)
512
b)
1000
c)
1024
d)
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b)
c)
d)
Q11
radio systems which are designed with many radio cell with close spacing can be said to
be
a)
Capacity limited
b)
Capacity reduced
c)
Coverage limited
d)
Coverage reduced
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Question
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
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It should be noted the electric (E) and magnetic (H) fields are perpendicular to each other.
The orientation of the electric field is used to determine the polarisation of the transmitted
energy, it is also used to describe the orientation of the antenna that transmits the signal,
a vertically oriented antenna will transmit a vertically polarised electromagnetic signal.
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The radio frequency signal has that property that it will propagate away from the
transmitting element making it suitable to act as a carrier of information.
Baseband Information
Early systems of radio transmission made used of very simple information systems, simply
switching the transmitter on and off the send information, Morse code maybe the best
know example of this kind of transmission system.
However today we have much more complex signals that we wish to transmit, voice,
video, high speed broadband information, the information that represents the data that
we wish to transmit is known as the baseband information.
The diagram below shows an analogue representation of the speech band, human
speech happens to be very wide, up to 20KHz, however we choose not to transmit all
of the information since our brains are able to understand what is being said with much
less information in the signal. This is also convenient for transmission systems since
the amount of information they can typically carry is limited. In voice based transmission
systems, wired or wireless the amount of speech information that is transmitted is
normally limited to only 3.1KHz of the total amount of information.
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This diagram shows the same information but now the amplitude is shown against the
frequency domain, it is possible to see from this kind of spectral analysis the bandwidth of
the voice signal and the nature of the individual frequency components.
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The same information from above can be shown in the frequency domain. From the
signals shown below it is possible to see that the simple square waveform has signal
components at the fundamental frequency of the wave form and then odd harmonic
components. This is a simplified description of a much more complex theory in
communication known as the Fourier Transform.
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b)
c)
d)
Q2
analogue and digital data that represents information before coding and modulation is
referred to as
a)
Broadband
b)
Wideband
c)
In-band
d)
Baseband
Q3
Fourier state that any complex wave can be represented by..
a)
b)
c)
d)
Q4
a spectrum analyser displays information from which of the following domains ?
a)
b)
c)
d)
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a)
b)
c)
d)
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Question
1
2
3
4
5
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When considering the product of two number that are raised to the power of some index,
m and n in this case, the indexes can be added or subtracted as shown below.
Figure 23 Showing the Addition and Subtraction of Number Indexes
From the statement below it can be understood that the value 10 raised to the index x will
yield the value N, and that the logarithm to the base 10 of N will yield the value x.
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The vaules above however are simply logarithms, the decibel refers much more
specificaly to factors and absolute values.
The example below shows the ratio of two values P1 and P2. If P1 = 10 and P2 = 5 then
the linear value would be 5 , the logartihm i.e. log10 (P1/P2) would be 0.7.
However the answer in dB requires a mutilication by 10 there for the ratio of 10 and 2 is
7dB. The answer in this case is a simple factor, and can be used to describe the gain or
loss of amplifiers, components, pathloss etc.
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It should be noted that dB values that expressed absolute level of power or ratios cannot
be added in this way, the figures must converted back in to linear values before the
addition is made.
The table below shows some commonly used dB values and their linear conversions.
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System components configured in series or cascade will contribute to the overall noise
present in any radio system. The diagram below illustrates the principle. If we could
measure the signal to noise ratio (SNR) at the input and output of a system, represented
by the box in the middle, then the total noise contribution is the difference of the SNR dB
at the input and output. This figure is often expressed as the Noise Figure (NFdB) of the
system.
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Q1
in the following expression X is referred to as the
Xn
a)
Base
b)
Index
c)
Logarithm
d)
Power
Q2
Convert the following from linear units of Watt to dBm
a)
10mW..dBm
b)
30W.dBm
c)
1WdBm
d)
121pW.dBm
e)
99nWdBm
Q3
Convert the following from dBm to linear units of power, Watts
a)
14dBm..W
b)
60dBm..W
c)
-87dBm....W
d)
-100dBm..W
e)
0dBm...W
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30dB
b)
500dB
c)
15dB
d)
27dB
Q5
thermal background noise in radio systems is proportional to
a)
Boltzmans constant
b)
Radio frequency
c)
Channel bandwidth
d)
Transmitter power
Q6
in a cascaded system of three components the noise contributed by the second stage to
the overall noise figure is primarily determined by
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a)
b)
c)
d)
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2
3
4
5
6
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Figure 31
Figure 32
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Figure 33
Figure 34
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Figure 35
64QAM Modulation
Below is the 64QAM modulation scheme, each point on the constellation now represents
6 bits of information. This is a very efficient scheme however it can only be used
successfully in the best signal areas. 64QAM is used by LTE.
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Figure 36
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Figure 37
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Figure 38
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Q1
which of the following modulation schemes could be said to be more spectrally efficient
than power efficient ?
a)
ASK
b)
FSK
c)
PSK
d)
GMSK
Q2
QAM based modulation schemes use which of the following to represent the modulated
data ?
a)
b)
c)
d)
Q3
in 16 QAM how many bit of information are represented by each symbol ?
a)
16
b)
c)
d)
Q4
higher order modulation schemes such as 16QAM and 64QAM generally require
a)
A lower SNR
b)
A higher SNR
c)
d)
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BPSK
b)
QPSK
c)
16QAM
d)
64QAM
Q6
the effect of increasing noise in the transmission channel will..
a)
b)
c)
d)
Q6
in adaptive modulation systems users at the edge of the cell are more likely to use which
of the following modulation schemes?
a)
QPSK
b)
16QAM
c)
64QAM
d)
8PSK
Q7
in systems that support adaptive modulation schemes the capacity of the radio cell will be
reduced when
54
a)
b)
c)
d)
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2
3
4
5
6
7
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.
Figure 39 The Multiple Access Concept
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TDD on the other hand uses the same frequency uplink and downlink so the uplink data
and downlink data is transmitted at different times.
Most LTE deployments will make use of the FDD mode, requiring paired spectrum
allocations
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FDMA
b)
CDMA
c)
TDMA
d)
OFDM
Q2
in TDMA systems the time allocated to the users for transmission and reception is
generally know as a
a)
Slot
b)
Burst
c)
Time slot
d)
Sub channel
Q3
which of the following multiple access schemes is generally thought to be more a more
efficient use of the radio spectrum?
a)
TDMA
b)
FDMA
c)
TDMA/FDMA Hybrid
d)
CDMA
Q4
which of the following modulation schemes will perform better in a multipath environment
for mobile broadband systems ?
a)
TDMA
b)
WCDMA
c)
OFDMA
d)
FDMA
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b)
c)
d)
Q6
in OFDMA the user information uses which of the following to enable a multiple access
scheme
a)
b)
c)
d)
Q7
the individual radio channels that form the overall OFDMA radio channels are know as?
a)
Radio channels
b)
Sub-channels
c)
Sub-carriers
d)
Tones
Q8
which of the following statements is true regarding the LTE radio channel?
64
a)
b)
c)
LTE supports both FDD and TDD but will be deployed using TDD
d)
LTE supports both FDD and TDD but will be deployed using FDD
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2
3
4
5
6
7
8
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Phase 1
b)
Phase 2
c)
Phase 3
d)
Phase 4
Q2
when setting coverage objectives, which if the following information is most useful?
a)
Vendor selection
b)
Market penetration
c)
Allocated spectrum
d)
Number of subscribers
Q3
how many FFT points will be used to decode an LTE radio channel of 10MHz bandwidth?
a)
512
b)
1000
c)
1024
d)
2048
Q4
which of the following statements are true regarding the relationship between capacity and
coverage ?
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a)
b)
c)
d)
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b)
c)
d)
Q6
analogue and digital data that represents information before coding and modulation is
referred to as
a)
Broadband
b)
Wideband
c)
In-band
d)
Baseband
Q7
Fourier states that any complex wave can be represented by..
a)
b)
c)
d)
Q8
Convert the following from linear units of Watt to dBm
a)
20mW..dBm
b)
25W.dBm
c)
0.11W..dBm
d)
140pW.dBm
e)
0.004nW dBm
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24dBm..W
b)
-60dBm..W
c)
-90dBm....W
d)
-103dBm..W
e)
0dBm...W
Q10
a system consists of a x1000 gain amplifier and an cable which loses half the power, what
id the total gain of the system in dB?
a)
30dB
b)
500dB
c)
15dB
d)
27dB
Q11
QAM based modulation schemes use which of the following to represent the modulated
data ?
a)
b)
c)
d)
Q12
in 64QAM how many bit of information are represented by each symbol ?
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a)
16
b)
c)
d)
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A lower SNR
b)
A higher SNR
c)
d)
Q14
the effect of decreasing noise in the transmission channel will..
a)
b)
c)
d)
Q15
in adaptive modulation systems users close to the cell centre are more likely to use which
of the following modulation schemes?
a)
QPSK
b)
16QAM
c)
64QAM
d)
8PSK
Q16
in systems that support adaptive modulation schemes the capacity of the radio cell will be
reduced when
a)
b)
c)
d)
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Slot
b)
Burst
c)
Time slot
d)
Sub channel
Q18
which of the following modulation schemes will perform better in a multipath environment
for mobile broadband systems ?
a)
TDMA
b)
WCDMA
c)
OFDMA
d)
FDMA
Q19
in OFDMA systems the data is..
a)
b)
c)
d)
Q20
which of the following statements is true regarding the LTE radio channel?
a)
b)
c)
LTE supports both FDD and TDD but will be deployed using TDD
d)
LTE supports both FDD and TDD but will be deployed using FDD
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2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
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Section 2
Propagation Principle,
Modelling and Antennas
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The radio wave can be assumed to have a vertical dimension which increases as the
wave front travels further from the transmission source, this means that the top and
bottom of the wave front will be travelling through a transmission medium which as
different properties. The air in this case is the transmission medium, and the air has a
certain refractive index which is determined by the air pressure, temperature, and water
vapour pressure. It can be generally stated that the refractive index is less as height
increases.
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The variation in refractive index will vary the speed at which the radio wave travels,
effectively moving faster at the top of the wave front, thus causing the entire wave front to
follow the curved path.
The figure below shows an alternative view where the radio wave is shown as a straight
line and the geometric line is drawn as a curved line. This is referred to as the 4/3 model,
where the relative size of the earths radius would have to be increase to 4/3s of it actual
radius to cause the radio wave to be drawn as a straight line. The 4/3 rule applies to
normal refractive and propagation conditions, however there are extreme conditions
where the 4/3 does not apply
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The 4/3 earth radius scan be calculated based on the following expression
The refractive index is given the value N, which is a unitless value. Under normal
refractive conditions this value can be seen to change by 40 units for every 1000m gained
in altitude. It is normally shown in a graphical format as seen below.
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Figure 55 Sub-Refraction
The impact of this condition on the radio signal is that it will tend to follow a less curved
trajectory and in extreme case can lift off and fail to reach the target receiver.
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Super-Refraction
When the refractive index falls more rapidly than standard it is referred to as superrefractive conditions and is illustrated below.
Figure 57 Super-Refraction
When this condition occurs the radio wave will follow a more curved trajectory causing it
to be bent more toward the earth than under standard conditions. The impact in this case
maybe reduced radio range.
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The two diagrams below illustrate other forms of ducting that may occur, areas where cool
thermal layers sit over warm surface air (or vice versa) will cause these elevated ducts.
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Greater
b)
Smaller
c)
The same
d)
Wider
Q2
which one of the following parameters will influence the refractive behaviour of the radio
wave ?
a)
Radio frequency
b)
Antenna height
c)
Air pressure
d)
Distance
Q3
under normal refractive conditions the radio wave can be drawn as a straight line when
the earth radius is considered to be
a)
3/4
b)
4/4
c)
4/3
d)
2/3
Q4
the refractive index N will decrease by ______ units for every 1000 metres gained in
altitude.
a)
40
b)
80
c)
20
d)
1000
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b)
c)
Remains constant
d)
Q6
sub-refractive conditions may cause the radio wave to be..
a)
b)
c)
d)
Q7
super-refractive conditions may be observed when the refractive index N ____________
with altitude?
a)
b)
c)
Remains constant
d)
Q8
super-refractive conditions may cause the radio wave to be..
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a)
b)
c)
d)
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Propagation
b)
Pathloss
c)
Ducting
d)
Super-refractive
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Scattering
Scattering of the radio wave would tend to occur when the height of the surface features
is large relative to the wave length of the signal. The incident wave would be dispersed in
multiple directions each of the new signal components having a low energy compared to
the incidence wave.
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Diffraction
When planning macro or micro level cells diffraction of radio energy around objects
in the radio path is one of the main mechanisms that is analysed when making signal
predictions. A radio wave that strikes an object would tend to be bent around the object
yielding a soft shadow behind the object.
The amount of energy diffracted is dependant on the wave length an shape of the object,
basic mathematical analysis of diffraction would model spherical and knife edge objects.
The path between transmitter and receiver may of course have multiple objects therefore
more advance analysis will calculate multiple edge diffraction in order to predict the signal
strength. Software planning tools do this as a matter of course and use both terrain and
building features in their predictions.
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Through this analysis it is possible to determine curves such as the one shown below for
the amount of signal energy behind the object, the shape of the curve being defined by
the wave length, the shape of the object and the percentage of obstruction of the radio
signal.
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The 1st Fresnel zone is shown in cross section below, in point to point links about 9%
of the transmitted power is delivered in this zone, therefore clearance of the zone is
important.
The zone however does not need to be 100% clear. It is sufficient to have 60% of the 1st
Fresnel zone clear for maximum power over the link. Engineers who plan these links will
establish a path profile and determine the height of the transmitting and receiving antenna
based on a 60% clearance.
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Multipath Propagation
In non line of sight system all of the above explained propagation mechanisms will be
present to ensure that there is some level of coverage in all locations in the required cell
area. The mechanisms described however create an environment where there is no
single line of sight path between the transmitter and receiver, there will be instead many
paths of radio energy, this is referred to as the multipath environment. One of the many
issues in these kind of environments is the problem of fading.
Rayleigh Environment
Where there is many radio paths and each of the radio paths has a roughly equal power
distribution the multipaths cause deep fading of the received signal. As much as 30 40
dB less than the expected mean signal. These environments are known as Rayleigh
fading.
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Rician Environment
Multipath can exist where one of the signal paths has a much higher energy than the other
paths, fading will still occur however the magnitude of the fading is much less than that
experienced in the Rayleigh case, fades of up to 10-20 dB less than the expected mean
can be seen.
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Refracted
b)
Diffracted
c)
Reflected
d)
Scattered
Q2
when a radio wave encounters a surface where the surface features are large relative to
the signal wave length the signal is more likely to be
a)
Refracted
b)
Diffracted
c)
Reflected
d)
Scattered
Q3
when considering path clearance which one of the following Fresnel zones are normally
taken in to account?
a)
1st
b)
2nd
c)
3rd
d)
4th
Q4
for point to point links at least _________ of the 1st Fresnel zone must be clear from
obstruction ?
a)
100%
b)
90%
c)
60%
d)
40%
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b)
c)
d)
Q6
in a Rician multipath environment the radio signal would tend exhibit which of the following
properties?
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a)
b)
c)
d)
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Radio systems that use large radio cells (traditional PMR) may not use very many base
stations but they are unable to offer very high capacity (number of simultaneous call,
Mbps). Since the 1940s it has been known that using smaller radio cells and reusing the
same bock of frequencies over and over again will yield much higher network capacities.
However the regulatory regime and the technology were unavailable at that time to allow
such systems to be built.
The diagram below illustrates the main concept of frequency reuse, where cell A though
G will use the same radio channel or set of radio channels. The trick in these types of
systems is to manage the amount of co-channel interference across the system. The
more capacity require the greater the number of time the same radio channel will be used
over the same area, unfortunately this also means that the level of interference will also
be higher. It is a fine balance in designing high capacity networks.
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D/R = 3N
Where N is the number of cells in the reuse pattern. A value of N = 7 will yield a
particular capacity and interference value, where N=4 the capacity will be higher and the
interference will also be higher.
The diagram below describes the interference concept. At the cell edge the mobile device
will receive a wanted signal C but will also receive unwanted power from the interferer
I. The amount interference is expressed as a ratio of these two values, C/I. C/I is also
a factor when calculating the total SNR experience by the device and will determine the
capacity available to the user in that location. This is particularly important in systems like
LTE since the selection of modulation and coding scheme is driven largely by the SNR.
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Systems that support mobility often have multiple layers of cells to increase network
reliability and capacity. It is possible in these systems to services mobiles with different
levels of mobility i.e. speed, with the different layers of radio cell. Smaller radio cells
can be overlaid on the larger macro cells and will have antenna heights of lower altitude.
Of course these days it is very common to have base stations inside public buildings to
increase the reliability of the network.
Large buildings such as shopping centres and airports may use distributed antenna
systems and remote radio heads to provide coverage in a cost effective manner.
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Q1
a radio systems that employs a high radio frequency reuse factor will tend to exhibit which
of the following characteristics.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Q2
in a simplified frequency reuse system the amount of interference is governed primarily
by..
a)
b)
c)
d)
Q3
if the frequency reuse factor N is reduced from 7 to 4 the capacity of the systems will.
a)
b)
Be increased
c)
Be reduced
d)
Q4
as well as increasing the frequency reuse factor, operators may also increase network
capacity in specific areas by..
a)
Cell splitting
b)
c)
d)
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a)
Macro cell
b)
Micro cell
c)
Nano cell
d)
Overlay cells
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The radiation pattern of the half wave dipole is shown below. Since there is no radiation
from the ends of the dipole the radiation is more concentrated perpendicular to the
antenna orientation.
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When compared to the radiation from the isotopic antenna the dipole effectively focus the
energy in a more specific direction. In the diagram below the edges of the radiation fields
are effectively equal power contours, therefore the dipole appears to push the energy field
further from the point of radiation. This can be described as the gain of the antenna.
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The isotropic antenna is normally used as the reference to describe the gain of practical
antennas. The diagram below show the isotropic, the dipole and a practical directional
antenna in comparison. It can be deduced that the gain of the practical antenna has
a significant performance increase over the isotropic in a specific direction, this gain is
described with reference to the isotropic and expressed in dBi.
The gain of the antenna is an important factor when performing link budgets in radio
planning, having a positive impact (generally) on the performance of the radio link. The
radiation patterns are not considered for link budgeting purposes but are important when
predicting coverage when using software planning tools. The software tool will take the
vertical and horizontal radiation field and predict the shape of the radiated energy from the
site, this is particularly important when predicting the behaviour of the radio system when
performing antenna tilting.
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It is common to use phrases such as the radiation pattern when describing antenna
performance and the gain of the antenna is normally attributed to the radiation
performance of the antenna, however the gain in the forward direction (transmitting) can
be assumed to be the same in the reverse (receiving) direction. This is referred to as
reciprocity.
Antenna Beamwidth
One of the other important antenna performance attributes considered when planning
is the horizontal and vertical beamwidth of the antennas. The beamwidth is normally
determined from a point at the edges of the radiated field where the power is 3dB below
the bore sight (main lobe). Antennas used in sectored sites would normally use antennas
whos beamwidth was between 90o and 60o for a geometric 120 o sector.
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Other important antenna attributes include the Front to Back ratio, and the Cross Polar
Discrimination performance.
Front to Back ratio is a measure of how well the antenna discriminates between signals
entering the front lobe (bore sight) and the rear of the antenna and is an important factor
in reducing interference.
Antennas are arranged such that they operate in one plane of polarisation either vertically
or horizontally, this is particularly useful when mitigating co-channel interference in
cellular frequency reuse systems. Thus the ability of the antenna to discriminate between
horizontal and vertical signals is important for interference reduction.
Increasing Antenna Gain
When considering an omni-directional dipole the gain of the antenna may be increased
by increasing the number of radiating elements in the antenna. The individual dipole
elements are normally placed in a vertical array with a phasing coil connecting each
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The arrangement shown below makes use of a duplex filter which allows a single antenna
panel to be used for both transmit and receive functions.
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The arrangement shown below make use of a separate transmit antenna and the receiver
diversity is implemented using a single polarised antenna panel.
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b)
c)
d)
Q2
the simplest practical antenna that can be constructed is the
a)
Isotropic antenna
b)
Collinear antenna
c)
Bipolar antenna
d)
Dipole antenna
Q3
the ability of the antenna to focus energy in a specific direction is referred to as the
antenna.
a)
Gain
b)
Beamwidth
c)
d)
polarisation
Q4
the gain of a dipole antenna is _________ greater than the isotropic radiator?
a)
1.25dB
b)
2.15dB
c)
3dB
d)
0dB
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A reference dipole
b)
c)
Itself
d)
A collinear antenna
Q6
the term used to describe the equal gain of the transmit and receive performance of the
antenna is
a)
Reciprocity
b)
Beamwidth
c)
d)
3dB gain
Q7
the gain of the antenna system can be increases by
a)
b)
c)
d)
Q8
varying the properties of the phasing coil connect multiple radiating elements within the
antenna will cause
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a)
b)
c)
d)
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b)
c)
d)
Q10
in cellular radio networks which of the following is more commonly used
a)
Time diversity
b)
c)
Frequency diversity
d)
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A more advanced form of MIMO includes special pre-coding which results in each
stream being spread across more than one transmit antenna. For this technique to work
effectively the transmitter must have knowledge of the channel conditions and, in the case
of FDD, these conditions must be provided in real time by feedback from the UE. Such
optimization significantly complicates the system but can also provide higher performance.
Pre-coding for TDD systems do not require receiver feedback as the transmitter can
independently determine the channel conditions by analyzing the received signals that are
on the same frequency.
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Beamforming
Beamforming uses the same signal processing and antenna techniques as MIMO but
rather than exploit de-correlation in the radio path, beamforming aims to exploit correlation
so that the radiation pattern from the transmitter is directed towards the receiver. This
is done by applying small time delays to a calibrated phase array of antennas. The
effectiveness of beamforming varies with the number of antennas. With just two antennas
little gain is seen, but with four antennas the gains are more useful. Obtaining the initial
antenna timing calibration and maintaining it in the field are challenges. Turning a MIMO
system into a beamforming system is simply a matter of changing the pre-coding matrices.
In practical systems, however, antenna design has to be taken into account and things
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Reporting of UE Feedback
In order for MIMO schemes to work properly, each UE has to report information about the
mobile radio channel to the base station. A lot of different reporting modes and formats
are available which are selected according to the MIMO mode of operation and network
choice.
The reporting may consist of the following elements:
CQI (Channel Quality Indicator) is an indication of the downlink mobile radio channel
quality as experienced by this UE. Essentially, the UE is proposing to the eNodeB an
optimum modulation scheme and coding rate to use for a given radio link quality, so
that the resulting transport block error rate would not exceed 10%. 16 combinations of
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SISO
b)
MISO
c)
SIMO
d)
MIMO
Q2
receive diversity could also be referred to as
a)
SISO
b)
MISO
c)
SIMO
d)
MIMO
Q3
the term Spatial Multiplexing is associated with which of the following?
a)
SISO
b)
MISO
c)
SIMO
d)
MIMO
Q4
the primary benefit of spatial multiplexing MIMO is
a)
b)
c)
d)
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b)
c)
d)
Q6
Multi user MIMO
a)
b)
c)
d)
Q7
when downlink MIMO information is distributed between 2 or more eNB, this is called
a)
SU-MIMO
b)
MU-MIMO
c)
Co-MIMO
d)
CU-MIMO
Q8
beamforming in LTE networks will provide which of the following performance
improvement?
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a)
b)
c)
d)
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b)
c)
Beamforming
d)
Q10
downlink reference information used to assess the MIMO channel is transmitted
a)
b)
c)
d)
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Section 2 Questions
Q1
Generally speaking the optical horizon will be ____________ than the radio horizon?
a)
Greater
b)
Smaller
c)
The same
d)
Wider
Q2
the refractive index N will decrease by ______ units for every 1000 metres gained in
altitude.
a)
40
b)
80
c)
20
d)
1000
Q3
sub-refractive conditions may be observed when the refractive index _______________
with altitude?
a)
b)
c)
Remains constant
d)
Q4
super-refractive conditions may be observed when the refractive index N ____________
with altitude?
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a)
b)
c)
Remains constant
d)
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Propagation
b)
Pathloss
c)
Ducting
d)
Super-refractive
Q6
when a radio wave encounters a surface where the surface features are large relative to
the signal wave length the signal is more likely to be
a)
Refracted
b)
Diffracted
c)
Reflected
d)
Scattered
Q7
for point to point links at least _________ of the 1st Fresnel zone must be clear from
obstruction ?
a)
100%
b)
90%
c)
60%
d)
40%
Q8
in a Rayleigh multipath environment the radio signal would tend exhibit which of the
following properties?
a)
b)
c)
d)
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b)
c)
d)
Q10
in a simplified frequency reuse system the amount of interference is governed primarily
by..
a)
b)
c)
d)
Q11
if the frequency reuse factor N is increased from 4 to 7 the capacity of the systems will.
a)
b)
Be increased
c)
Be reduced
d)
Q12
radio frequencies in the 2.6GHz range are more suitable for which type of radio cell
deployment?
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a)
Macro cell
b)
Micro cell
c)
Nano cell
d)
Overlay cells
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b)
c)
d)
Q14
the ability of the antenna to focus energy in a specific direction is referred to as the
antenna.
a)
Gain
b)
Beamwidth
c)
d)
polarisation
Q15
the gain of a dipole antenna is _________ greater than the isotropic radiator?
a)
1.25dB
b)
2.15dB
c)
2,15dBi
d)
0dB
Q16
the gain of the antenna system can be increases by
a)
b)
c)
d)
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b)
c)
d)
Q18
diversity in antenna systems is used to .
a)
b)
c)
d)
Q19
antenna systems that have a single receive antenna and multiple transmit antennas are
known as.
a)
SISO
b)
MISO
c)
SIMO
d)
MIMO
Q20
the term transmit diversity is associated with which of the following?
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a)
SISO
b)
MISO
c)
SIMO
d)
MIMO
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b)
c)
d)
Q22
spatial multiplexing MIMO improves radio link capacity
a)
b)
c)
d)
Q23
Multi user MIMO
a)
b)
c)
d)
Q24
when downlink MIMO information is distributed between 2 or more eNB, this is called
a)
SU-MIMO
b)
MU-MIMO
c)
Co-MIMO
d)
CU-MIMO
Q25
a code book technique used in MIMO that requires reporting of channel conditions several
hundred time per second is called?
a)
b)
c)
Beamforming
d)
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Section 2 Assignment
Q1
Super refraction, sub refraction and ducting are examples of extreme propagation
conditions, research what causes these conditions and give examples of where these
might occur. Also, determine what might be done to mitigate these effects when planning
radio systems.
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_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Q2
Building attenuation is one of the most common factors when performing link budgets and
it is generally said that building penetration increases with frequency. Do some research
and build a table of typical attenuation values for different building materials and frequency
bands.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
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Q4
MIMO is an antenna technique that will be widely deployed by LTE operators. Do some
research and fin out which vendors are supporting the MIMO technology, which operators
are planning to use it and where possible include the results of any trails that have taken
place and comment on the performance increases.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
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Section 3
LTE Link Budgets
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The diagram above shows the typical arrangement of components in a radio system, each
of the performance values shown, operating frequency, feeder loss, antenna gain and
noise figures etc., must be understood and quantified in order to successfully plan a radio
system, this module will help to understand some of those values and the impact it has on
link planning
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MAPLDL = (Tx_PWReNB Ltx_eNB + Gtx_eNB ) (Rx_SENSUE Grx_UE) - Margins (fade, body, building,
trees)
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Q1
EiRP IRLmin, Which link budget parameter can be calculate from this expression ?
a)
EiRP
b)
MAPL
c)
System Gain
d)
IRL
Q2
IRLmin can be calculated from which of the following expressions ?
a)
b)
c)
Tx_PWR+ Lrx
d)
EiRP IRLmin
Q3
which one of the following would not typically be considered as a Margin ?
a)
Building Penetration
b)
Body Loss
c)
Foliage Loss
d)
Feeder Loss
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46dBm (10Mhz)
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Exercise
Complete the following table by researching vendor spec sheets for the components listed
in the table.
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LG Handheld Device
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Q1
What is a typical gain figure for a mobile antenna ?
a)
0dB
b)
0dBd
c)
0dBi
d)
3dBi
Q2
Which of the following base station antenna properties would be used when calculation
link budgets?
a)
b)
Beamwidth
c)
Gain
d)
Tilt angle
Q3
Which is the most likely antenna beamwidth to be used in a 120o sector ?
a)
120o
b)
90o
c)
65o
d)
45o
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The thermal background noise is present as a result of the big bang (cosmic background
radiation), the galaxies, the stars, our own sun and natural radiation from the surface of
the earth and the objects upon it. There is no way that we can prevent this kind of noise
entering the radio system but there is a way to quantify the amount of noise present. The
expression;
Nt = kTB
Where
shows that noise is proportional to the bandwidth of the radio systems and temperature.
The bandwidth of the radio system under investigation is really the only variable since
temperature is taken to be that of the warm earth or 290K.
The graph below shows the rise of noise with radio channel bandwidth and the range of
LTE radio channel bandwidths plotted for comparison.
Where
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Nt = kTB
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Use the spread sheet to examine the effect of the number of radio blocks on the sensitivity
of the receiver. You should use the sensitivity tab on the spread sheet, the link budgets
tab will be examined later.
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QPSK
2.5dB
16QAM
3dB
64QAM
4dB
The margin accounts for the difference in the theoretical SINR values and the practical
implementation actually possible.
Receiver Noise Figure
Noise will also be present in the receiver it self. The noise performance of the receiver is
normally quoted as the NF (Noise Figure). How much noise is present is largely down
to the design of the receiver by the vendor of that component however is expected that
the noise will be no more then the example figures given below for a typical eNB and UE
receiver.
Typical eNB NF
5dB*
Typical UE NF
The noise figure (NF) will have an impact on cell range. The LTE documents specify a
figure similar to those for WCDMA devices and it is felt that the figure
is a compromise between reasonable cell range and practical receiver
design performance. It is range of values also allow some scope for
the vendors to improve the performance of the device receivers and
therefore improve the sensitivity of the devices, this is also a key differentiator in the
device market.
Total Noise Floor
The overall system noise floor is the sum of the external noise present and the total
component noise. This is illustrated in the figure opposite.
Where there are multiple components (active and passive) in the receiver system, the total
noise can be calculated using the cascade method.
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Thermal Noise
Total NF
Floor
Cascaded Noise
When using the Cascade formula, the noise figure reference point can be assigned at any
point before the first active (amplifier) component. The first system component will have
the greatest influence, meaning that the system NFdB cant be better than the NFdB of the
first component, on the system NFdB. Stages after an amplifier have progressively less
impact on total system NFdB.
The performance of a cascaded system of components is based on the configuration
and performance parameters of the individual components. The above two systems use
the same components in different configurations. The key to performance of these two
systems is the placement and performance of the Low Noise Amplifiers (LNA). The first
stage in a cascade of stages limits the receiver system NFdBit can never be better than
the NFdb of the first component! The purpose of the LNA is to increase the noise floor
high enough to reduce the impact of loss from successive stages while having a minimum
effect of the C/N. A high gain LNA with a low NFdB can provide benefit even if it is after a
coax loss. Without sufficient gain, benefit is minimum. Too much gain can overdrive the
receiver in the presence of a strong receive signal.
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System 2: Theoretically, this can provide the best performance. If there is a significant
amount of gain in the LNA, the post-LNA losses have little impact on the system NFdB.
If a small amount of gain is used, the LNA provides little or no benefit. In cellular
deployments, this is referred to as a TTA (Tower-Top Amplifier). Since LNAs are typically
rated for their operating NFdB at 23 C ambient temperature, there can be a degradation of
performance when the ambient temperature increases above this value. Remember, an
LNA with too much gain reduces the dynamic range of the receiver and could overload
the receiver, causing other problems.
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Convert the values from dB to linear terms and use the cascade formula to determine the
total noise contribution from the configuration shown above.
You can attempt this with a calculator or use the provided
spreadsheet
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Figure 113 Typical SNR Requirements for LTE Modulation and Coding Schemes
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Figure 115 DFB Factor for Channel Bandwidths in Certain Frequency Bands
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Building loss
Foliage loss
Clutter margin
Body loss
Propagation Index n
Signal at UE
s
eNB
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The standard deviation () statistically describes the path loss variability for arbitrary
locations with the same distance between subscriber unit and cell site. The ratio of /n is
used to determine the amount of margin required to satisfy an area reliability objective
The following expression can be used to work the percentage of useful service area
(assuming a circular cell) where the factors listed below are known. It is more usual to
specify the area reliability figure (e.g. 90% area reliability) and then work out what margin
is required in the link budget to achieve the required availability.
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Exercise
Using the provided spreadsheet (you should find the spreadsheet
on the Distance Learning Adobe platform) determine the following.
What margin is required for an area reliability of 95% if the radio
environment is assumed to be urban (n=3.5) and the standard
deviation is 12dB, assume a threshold value of -80dBm.
Building and Foliage Losses
Many studies provide penetration loss data based on frequency, but without other key
information, the values provided can only provide a general idea of what can be expected.
Key information:
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Angle of incidence
Material composition
Material thickness
Material texture
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Body Loss
In mobile cellular systems, handheld devices will incur an additional loss due to absorption
by the human body. The actual figure will depend on the use of the device i.e. held near
the head, away from the body holding angle of the device. UE antenna radiation patterns
may also affect the amount of energy lost.
The figure normally assumed for radio planning purposes is 3dB.
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If a value for the receive antenna attributes is included it is possible to derive the Free
Space Pathloss model. In the free space pathloss model energy radiated from the source
decays in proportion to the square of the distance - a doubling of distance will increase the
path loss by a factor of 4.
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Physical models
Power law
Free space
Okumura Hata
Lee
TIREM
Longley-Rice
Walfish Ikagami
Anderson 2D
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Exercise
Use this spreadsheet to examine the impact of MAPL on the link distance,
note the varying distances according to the terrain classification.
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UE_________________
eNB________________
TXpwr
23dBm
TXpwr
36dBm
Antenna Gain
0dBi
Losses
3dB
Antenna Gain
15dBi
SINRQPSK
5.5dB
SINRQPSK
5.5dB
IM
2dB
IM
2dB
RX NF
9dB
RX NF
4dB
Div Gain
3dB
Div Gain
3dB
5MHz Channel 25 RB
5MHz Channel 25 RB
Step 1
Determine the EiRP
EiRPUE = Tx_PWRUE + GaUE
EiRPeNB = Tx_PWReNB - Lf + GaeNB
EiRPUE __________________________________________
EiRPeNB _________________________________________
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RXsens_eNB ____________________________________________
RXsens_UE _____________________________________________
The Answer above may now be used to find the IRLreq
Step 3
Determine System Gain
Sys GainUL____________________________________________
Sys GainDL____________________________________________
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Building loss
10dB
Foliage loss
5dB
Body loss
0dB
4dB
Total Margin
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