INTRODUCTION

A gemstone or gem (also called a precious or semi-precious stone,

a fine gem, or jewel) is a piece of mineral, which, in cut and
polished form, is used to make jewelry or other
adornments. However certain rocks or organic materials that are
not minerals (such as amber or jet), are also used for jewelry, and
are therefore often considered being gemstones as well. Most
gemstones are hard, but some soft minerals are used in jewelry
because of their luster or other physical properties that have
aesthetic value. Rarity is another characteristic that lends value to a
gemstone. Gemstones are naturally formed solids having some
qualities or values which extend beyond the essential and useful
needs to the human being. They are used for personal decoration.
In addition are the ornamental materials used in decoration of
objects rather than for adornment. Gemstones have been in use for
various other reasons also, such as to maintain good health,
cure from deceases, protect from planetary effects and to bring
back luck, fame and prosperity.
Gemstones are naturally formed materials, majority of which
are brightly coloured minerals found in rocks, formed by
inorganic process of nature. Few others are animal or plant
Materials, collectively called organic gems. Most of the minerals
are of crystalline character, having an internal three dimensional
regular atomic growth. They are of single crystals or of aggregates
of small crystalline particles grown together. Few other materials
such as opal and natural glass are called amorphous materials
because of non-crystalline character. Few rocks also are used as
gem or ornamental materials. They are formed in combination of
small grains of several minerals .Out of over 4000+ minerals
classified, around 70 species possess

qualification for gemstones, and approximately 20 out of these are

commonly used.
Gemology or gemmology is the science dealing with natural and
artificial gems and gemstones. It is considered a geoscience and a
branch of mineralogy. Physics and chemistry are involved in
identification of crystalline, chemical and physical (including
structural and optical) properties of gemstones whereas Geology
helps to understand the origin, occurrence and geographical
distribution in prospecting of gem minerals. It deals not only with
the study of gem materials, but also gem testing and evaluation
methods, cutting and polishing, artificial materials, specially of
synthetically manufactured gems, precious metals and alloys,
grading, marketing, and sales.
Gemstones are basically categorized based on their crystal
structure, specific gravity, refractive index, and other optical
properties, such as pleochroism. The physical property of
"hardness" is defined by the non-linear Mohs scale of mineral
hardness.
Gemologists study these factors while valuing or appraising cut
and polished gemstones. Gemological microscopic study of the
internal structure is used to determine whether a gem is synthetic
or natural by revealing natural fluid inclusions, and included
partially melted exogenous crystals to demonstrate evidence of
heat treatment to enhance colour.
The spectroscopic analysis of cut gemstones also allows a
gemologist to understand the atomic structure and identify its
origin as it is a major factor in valuing a gemstone.

TYPES OF STONES
All the gem minerals are grouped into different species according
to their chemical composition, and each species is subdivided into
varieties in relation to colour or any other special optical
characteristics. Some gemstone species are collectively described
into families or groups, especially according to their similar
crystalline character.
Gems and stones are classified into many groups:-

Precious and Semiprecious

Traditionally, common gemstones are classified into two
categories:

Precious stones
Gemstones which are highly valuable for their hardness and
rarity are known as Precious Stones. Precious Stones are
generally expensive in comparison of Semi-Precious Stones.
There are only four Precious Stones:
1. Diamond
Diamonds are considered as precious gem. It is regarded as the 'king of the
gems'. Chemically, diamond is a crystalline isotrophe of carbon and with a
hardness of 10, it is the hardest known substance on earth.
It has a specific density of 3.15 to 3.55 and a refractive index of 2.5.
Incredibly, diamond is the only gemstone made of just one element carbon.

2.

2. Ruby

Color - Bright red, brownish-red, purplish-red, dark red

Mohs hardness scale - 9
Mineral Class - Corundum
Source - Found mainly in Burma, Thailand, Sri Lanka
And Tanzania
Ruby is the red variety of the mineral corundum, one of the hardest minerals on
Earth, of which the sapphire is also a variety. Corundum is the mineral form of
alumina which crystallizes in the hexagonal system. The red color of ruby results
from a small admixture of chromic oxide. Only red corundum is entitled to be
called ruby, all other colors being classified as sapphires. The most prized tint is
blood red or crimson known in the trade as 'pigeon's blood' red.
It has everything a precious stone should have: magnificent color, excellent
hardness and outstanding brilliance. In addition to that, it is an extremely rare
gemstone, especially in its finer qualities. The most important thing about this
precious stone is its color. The red color of the ruby is incomparable: warm and
fiery. This gemstone has excellent hardness, durability, luster, and rarity too.
Transparent rubies of large sizes are even rarer than diamonds.

3. Sapphire

Color - Blue, Yellow, Green, White, Colorless, Pink, Orange, Brown and
Purple
Mohs hardness scale - 9
Mineral Class - Corundum
Source - Found mainly in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Burma, Australia, India,
Brazil and Africa
Sapphire is also a variety of the mineral Corundum and represents all the colors
except red Corundum, which is Ruby. Its physical and chemical properties are

virtually similar to properties of Ruby. Blue is the main color of the Sapphire
whereas this gemstone is also found in colors like green, orange, pink, gray,
colorless, black, brown, and purple.
Sapphire is the most precious blue gemstone. It is a most desirable gem due to
its color, hardness, durability, and luster. Value of this gemstone depends on its
size, color and transparency. Top-quality sapphires are extremely rare in all the
gemstone mines of the world. Cutting of this gemstone requires great skills and
experience and it is the job of the cutter to orientate the raw crystals in such a
way that the color is brought out to its best improvement. Both Sapphires and
Rubies have been successfully and widely produced synthetically in laboratories,
and in appearance, chemical composition and hardness are almost identical to
the natural gems. France is the major production hub for synthetic Corundum

4. Emerald

Color - Emerald Green to Dark Green

Mohs hardness scale - 7.5 - 8
Mineral Class - Beryl
Source - Found in Columbia, Brazil, Zimbabwe, South Africa,
Afghanistan, USA
It is a beautiful green color, combined with durability and rarity, makes it the
one of the most valuable gemstones. Deep green is the most desired color in
emeralds. The green color of this stone occupies a special position in many
cultures and religions.
Its good hardness protects the stone to a large extent from scratches but it may
develop internal cracks if banged hard or if exposed to extreme temperature.
Emeralds that were treated to mask internal flaws should never be cleaned with
an ultrasonic jewelry cleaner, nor should they be washed with soap. These
practices will remove the oil and expose the hidden internal flaws.

Semi-Precious stones
Gemstones those are valued for their beauty and not covered
under any one of the four Precious Stones, Diamond,
Emerald, Ruby or Sapphire, are known as Semi-Precious
Stones. Semi-Precious Stones are available in all price ranges

from low priced to high priced. There are many SemiPrecious Stones:
Alexandrite

Garnet

Amethyst

Opal

Aquamarine

Pearl

There are so many exceptions to this classification, that it no longer

has any value. For example diamonds have always been
considered precious gems, yet there are diamonds that sell for $100
a carat.
On the other hand there are garnets that sell in excess of $1,000 a
carat. Garnets have traditionally been considered semiprecious
gems. For this reason, now-a-days jewelers often refer to
gemstones, other than diamond, as 'Colored Stones'

Diamonds and Colored Stones

Gems can be divided into two categories, Diamonds and Colored
Stones. This is due to the extreme hardness of diamond. It takes
special tools to cut diamonds that arent suitable for cutting
colored stones, and the reverse is also true. (As usual, there are a
few exceptions to this.)
There are also differences in the mining and distribution of
diamonds. They are the one of the few gems that has a consistent
supply. The marketing is monopolized, which is also different
from all other gems.
For example a blue diamond is still a diamond; it is not a colored
stone. A colorless sapphire or topaz would be classified as a
colored stone. In spite of the wording there are only two categories,
diamonds and everything else.

Natural and Man Made

There are a couple of terms commonly used for gem material that
is created in a laboratory. Synthetic refers to materials that
duplicate their natural counterparts. Emerald, sapphires and spinel
are common synthetics.
Homocreate materials have no counterpart in nature. This category
includes the synthetic garnets, GGG and YAG. Cubic Zirconium
was long thought to be a synthetic, but tiny crystals have now been
found in nature. (They were not large enough to be used as gems.)
While natural and man-made materials can share the same
physical and optical properties, there are still considerably
differences, the main one being rarity. A natural gem takes
considerable time to form and is usually millions of years old.
Plus, many feel they have aesthetic qualities not found in
mass produced materials.

 While natural and man-made materials appear nearly

identical, their values vary considerably. For this reason it is
important to be able to distinguish between the two.
It is also worth pointing out the definition of an imitation.
Anything that is posing as something else is an imitation. For
example, a white topaz posing as a diamond is an imitation. A
CZ, described as a Cubic Zirconium, is not an imitation.

Organic and Inorganic

Another approach is to separate gems into organic and inorganic.
Organic gems are those whose creation is associated with living
organisms. Amber begins life as tree sap and pearls are created
inside an oyster. Hence, they are classified as organic materials.
Inorganic covers everything else. That everything else is primarily
the mineral kingdom.

Crystalline and Amorphous Materials

Not all gem materials are crystalline. There are also amorphous
materials that have no regular pattern to their molecules, no
crystalline structure. Amber and opal are good examples of
amorphous materials. Glass is also an amorphous material. Man
made glass is used as an imitation gem, However there are natural
glasses as well. They include obsidian and techtites like
moldavite.
It is important to note that amorphous materials can be both
organic, as is the case with ivory and amber, or inorganic.

EXAMINATION OF GEMSTONES

Physical
General Appearance
The general appearance is studied by simply taking the
gemstone in hand and observing it carefully. You should also
feel the texture of the stone's surface for initial examination.
What you might consider as a gemstone can be a piece of
shiny rock or mineral. Gemstones are clear with a smooth
texture. If the stone surface is rough and feels like sand, it
may not be a precious stone.
Color
Examining the color to identify a gemstone. Stones
characterized as colorless should not have any tinge of color
in them, while colored stones should be dark and deep
colored. Darker the color, better will be the quality. But color
alone should not be a property to study because many times
color can lead to wrong identification. For example, sapphire
is generally considered to be blue in color, but only few know
that this stone is also found in shades of green, yellow, and
pink.
Lustre
It is the appearance of a material surface in reflected light. It
is best assessed where the polish is as fine as possible. A

metallic lustre, the highest lustre of all, displays mirror-like

reflection. Lustre is another clue in the differentiation of gem
species. The following stones are in decreasing order of lustre:
hematite (metallic), diamond (adamantine), tourmaline
(vitreous), amber (resinous).

Dispersion
It is the ability to split white light into its basic spectral
colours (the colours of the rainbow). In gemstones, this is
translated into flashes of colour when the stone or the light
source moves. Not all gemstones exhibit this property.
Diamond is famous for its fire, which is the term given to the
appearance of its moderate, yet highly noticeable, dispersion.
Garnets such as andradite, when light enough, also show
moderate dispersion. Ruby and sapphire, on the other hand,
exhibit a weaker dispersion which is not normally visible.
Carat Size
The purity of a gemstone is determined by its carat size
wherein, one carat is equal to 100 cents. More the carat size,
larger is the stone and better is its purity. The value of a
gemstone is directly proportional to its carat size. More the
carat size, greater is its value and vice-versa.
Crystal Shape
The shape of a crystal is due to its physical structure. Every
gemstone has a peculiar shape owing to its molecular
structure and atomic number. This is a crucial examination

consideration. Examining the crystal morphology of a

gemstone using a magnifying glass can help in its
identification.
Transparency
Crystals have varied transparency quotients. The amount of
light transmitted by a stone is a means for its identification.
The light transmitted through a stone is measured and
compared with standard charts. Transparent gemstones like
diamond and ruby transmit light completely, while semitransparent stones like amber show distortion. There are also
translucent, semi-translucent, and opaque gemstones which
have characteristic transparency levels.
Streak Test
Many crystals have the property of leaving a streak when
subjected to a ceramic surface. Different gemstones produce
different kinds of streaks. To perform this test, the stone can
simply be run over a ceramic plate which will develop a
streak due to the stone. Matching the streak produced with
comparison charts will help you identify the gemstone under
study.
Hardness
This is one of the most important tests for identification of a
gemstone. Hardness is tested using a hardness kit and the
comparison is done using a hardness scale. The most common
hardness scale is "Mohs' Scale" which measures hardness
from one to ten. A stone with hardness 1 is said to have

similar hardness as talc, while 10 would mean hardness of a

diamond.
Cleavage
Stones like quartz and mica are often identified using this test.
Precious and semi-precious stones break along fixed planes
and this characteristic is used for their identification.
Loupe
If you've ever seen someone examining a precious stone with
a little hand-held magnifying glass, you were more than likely
viewing a sophisticated magnifying glass, called a loupe.
Loupes are the handiest pieces of equipment . They are
usually 10x the magnification of the naked eye, although
loupe magnification can reach as high as 400x.
Pleochroism
When a beam of white light enters a colored doubly-refractive
gem material, either synthetic or natural, each of the beams, in
addition to traveling at different velocities, may suffer a
characteristic absorption of certain of its component
wavelengths and emerge as a different color; this is called
PLEOCHROISM (from the Greek "pleo," meaning MORE,
and "chroma" meaning COLOR). Pleochroism is the property
of DR (Doubly refracted) gems which results in their showing
different colors, or different shades of the same color, when
viewed in different crystal axis directions.

 Chemical
A mineral is usually described by a chemical formula that indicates
the type and amount of its major chemical elements. The chemical
formula is a simplified representation of the composition of the
stone and usually contains the main elements only. However, there
are other chemical compounds present in a stone in smaller
quantities: these are the trace elements. In gems, trace elements are
often the agents responsible for adding colour. Despite their small
contribution to the overall chemical composition of the gemstone,
trace elements play a key role in determining whether a mineral is
just a standard stone or a rare and coveted gemstone. By means of
chemical analysis, gem labs can identify and quantify the presence
of such trace elements, which also give valuable hints as to the
geographic origin of a gem.
Aside from the main and trace elements, gemstones also contain a
very high number of other elements in minute concentrations of a
few parts per million or billion. These so-called ultra-trace
elements typically do not have any significant influence on the
appearance of the gemstone, but they shed light on the
environment in which it grew thousands, millions or even billions
of years ago. The type and amount of these elements in a gemstone
are often indicative of a specific location and are used by gem labs
to determine its country of origin.

Chemical Classifications
Chemical Class
Silicates

Anion or Anionic Group

Silicon and Oxygen

An Example
Tourmaline, (Mg,Fe)2 SiO4

Oxides

Oxygen

Corundum, Al2O3

Carbonates

Carbon and Oxygen

Rhodochrosite, MnCO3

Native Elements

One element, such as Carbon

Diamond, C

Sulfides

Sulfur

Sphalerite, ZnS

Halides

Halogen ions, such as Fluorine

Fluorite, CaF2

Phosphates

Phosphorus and Oxygen

Apatite, Ca5(PO4)3 (F,Cl,OH)

Sulfates

Sulfur and Oxygen

Gypsum, CaSO4 2H2O

Sphalerite

Fluorite

Gypsum

Rhodochrosite

Apatite

Corundum

Chemical Bonding
The forces that bind atoms, ions, or ionic groups together in crystalline
solids are electrical. The force type and intensity are responsible for the
physical and chemical properties of minerals. The stronger the bond the
harder the crystal, and higher the melting point. The high hardness of
diamond is because of the strong electrical bonding forces linking the
carbon atoms. These electrical forces holding inorganic minerals
together are chemical bonds, such as: ionic, covalent, van der Waals,
metallic, hydrogen, or some combination.

Chemical Composition of several Precious stones

EMERALD
This green coloured stone is also a prominent jewel among the
Navratnas.
It is worn to please Mercury. It has a specific density of about 3.0;
hardness 8.0 and refractive index of 1.6.
Emerald is usually transparent in appearance and is composed of
aluminium and berilium silicate.
Some people incorrectly call it as aquamarine. Often emerald is
more expensive than diamond.
DIAMOND
Diamonds are considered as precious gem. It is regarded as the
'king of the gems'.
This white coloured transparent and radiant stone is worn to
please Venus. Chemically, diamond is a crystalline isotrophe of

carbon and with a hardness of 10, it is the hardest known

substance on earth.
It has a specific density of 3.15 to 3.55 and a refractive index of
2.5.

CORAL
Like pearl, Coral also is not a true stone. In fact it is fossilized
from a tiny sea creature known as corals.
Coral is worn to please the Mars. Heat and light of the sun play
a major role in the formation of coral.
Its specific density is 2.65; refractive index 1.486 to 1.66 and
hardness is 4.0. Coral reacts with hydrochloric acid to form
froth.
When touched by a hot wire coral smells like burning hair

PEARL

This gem of the moon is at the second position among

Navratnas. It is both natural as well as cultured.

Both kinds of pearls impart mental peace in the wearer.

Pearl is basically not a stone. It has organic origin and develops

inside the sea-shells. Chemically, pearl has calcium carbonate
and an organic compound named conchiolin.

It has a hardness of 3.5 to 4.0 and a specific density of 2.50 to

2.75.

It is opaque and cannot be burnt.

RUBY
This is the stone of the sun and hence has a supreme position
among the Navrartnas.

 The sun is the centre of the solar system. Ruby is an extremely

expensive and rare stone.
It has a hardness of 9 and a refractive index of 1.716 to 1.77 and a
specific density of 4.03.
Aluminum oxide (AlO) is the main constituent of ruby.
Pink colour of the ruby is due to the presence of chromium oxide
(CrO).Ruby is next to diamond only in hardness. Sometimes it
surpasses even diamond in beauty and value.

BLUE SAPPHIRE
It is the most talked about gem that belongs to Navratna
category. This beautiful attractive and transparent gem is the
main stone of Saturn and has tremendous powers.
Basically, sapphire, topaz and ruby belong to same class of
stones.
A slight variation in colour differentiates them from one another.
Aluminum oxide is the main constituent of blue sapphire.
In hardness, specific density and refractive index sapphire is
similar to topaz and ruby.

Analytical
Refractive Index (RI)
The refractive index (RI) of a material is the ratio of the speed of
light in air to the speed of light in the material. It affects the
brilliance of a stone by determining the maximum angle at which
light reflects on its surface instead of refracting into the stone. This,

the critical angle, is measured in gemmology using a

refractometer, a device that features a light source shining through
a hemi-cylindrical glass gradated with RI units. The clean, polished
surface of a stone is put in close contact with the surface of the
glass by means of a special high-density liquid, and the critical
angle measured by reading through the glass where the outline of
the stones facet sits on the scale.
Different stones have different RIs depending on which direction
the light travels into the stone. The maximum difference between
those RIs is known as birefringence. The RI is one of the principle
means of identification in classic gemmology.

Specific Gravity (SG)

The specific gravity (SG) is the ratio of the mass of a material to
the mass of the same volume of water. It is calculated by using
electronic scales to accurately measure the weight of a stone both
in air and in water. Every gem mineral has its own SG or
characteristic SG range; that of diamond, for instance, is 3.52 and of
corundum, 4.00. Specific gravity is a very helpful complementary
property in gemstone identification.
Polariscope
Depending on the nature of the mineral, when a ray of light enters
a stone, it might be refracted (deviated) and travel in a single
direction, or it might be doubly refracted, that is, split into two rays
of light, deviated differently, which travel in two different

directions within the stone. In the first case, the stone would be
singly refractive (SR) or isotropic, while the latter would be doubly
refractive (DR) or anisotropic. These properties greatly affect how
the mineral interacts with light and the appearance of colours.
The polariscope is an instrument that helps to identify this optical
character. It consists of a basic combination of a light source and
two rotating polarising filters. The stone is placed in between the
filters with the light shining through the filters and the stone from
underneath. The stone and the upper filter are then rotated
horizontally in various positions to assess the optical nature of the
stone. This test, though not always conclusive, is another vector
that assists in the gem identification process.

[The effect of optic character on the polarization of light]

Dichroscope
The dichroscope is a small handheld instrument enclosing a calcite
prism. It is used by shining a narrow beam of light through the
stone and observing the light coming out of the stone into the
dichroscope.This device enables to separate light rays travelling in
different directions. Effectively, this shows the pleochroic colours,
when present, which make up the colour of light transmitted in
one direction through the crystal. Singly refractive (SR) minerals,
within which light travels as a single ray, will only ever display
one colour through the dichroscope, regardless of the direction
light passes through the crystal; whereas doubly refractive (DR)
minerals, which split light in two different rays, will display two
different colours through the dichroscope. When those two colours
remain the same no matter what direction light passes through the
crystal, it implies that the stone is DR uniaxial, that is, it has one
optic axis. When a third colour is seen with one of the other
previous two in a different crystal direction (usually best observed
at 90 to the first direction), it reveals that the stone is biaxial,
which means it has two optic axes.Some gemstones have very
similar properties, yet can sometimes be differentiated on the basis
of their optic character.
Spectroscope
It is sometimes possible to estimate the identity of a stone quite
accurately by visual observation only. This is explained partly by
the peculiar shades of colour recognizable in certain gem species.
These can be so unique that they may be distinguished with ease

amongst others.
However, there are many situations when colours will appear so
much alike others that it is impossible to distinguish one gem from
another. For example let us consider a brownish-orange
spessartine garnet against an almandine garnet of the same colour.
If the colours are similar enough, it is virtually impossible to tell
them apart. Naturally, other gemmological tests will reveal almost
identical RI and SG, as well the same singly refractive optical
nature. Although the human eye cannot detect subtle differences
between the colours of those garnet species, it does not mean none
exists. This is where the spectroscope comes in as valuable
assistance. This device enables the observer to view the entire
visible spectrum for those colours, i.e. the splitting of the visible
light into the spectral colours of the rainbow. The visible spectra of
the two garnets would show similarities since the stones are both
garnets of the same colour, yet there will also be marked
differences related to the nature of each species. In this case,
spessartine garnet will display absorption lines (lines of darkness)
at the frequencies of 412, 424 and 432 nm, located in the violet part
of the visible spectrum. These absorption lines, related to the
presence of manganese, will not be present in the visible spectrum
of almandine garnet, which does not contain manganese.
Microscope
The microscope remains an essential tool in gemmology.
Observation of the internal characteristics of gemstones remains
one of the safest and most valuable techniques in the recognition of
the nature of precious minerals. Certain features are so typical of
some varieties that they not only help identify the mineral, but
even point to the geographical origin of a sample.

The fine network of numerous fine particles present in exsolved

rutile (oriented in three directions at 0/60/120 in the basal
plane) in velvety blue sapphire is an indicator however, not a
proof - of Kashmiri origin. These particles appear as tiny dots in
snowflake patterns.
Three-phase inclusions, the association of liquid with a bubble of
gas and a solid crystal in the same confined volume, are the
hallmark of Colombian emeralds.
Although microscopy is a traditional gemmological resource, it has
evolved into a very thorough descriptive science providing
complex interpretations in modern gemmology. Microscopy
remains the base of any professional gemmological analysis.
Spectrophotometry
To help us determine possible treatments and the origin of a
gemstone we use different methods of spectrometry. These
analytical techniques provide information about the constituents
(elements, molecules, crystallographic properties) of materials
through the characteristic absorbance of visible, infrared and/or
ultraviolet light.
Ultraviolet Visible Near-Infrared Spectrometry
(UV-Vis-NIR)
The spectrometer irradiates the sample with monochromatic light.
Both in transmission and reflection electrons are excited, which
absorbs specific amounts of energy characteristic for distinct
chemical elements and their valence. Scanning of the wavelength
ranges of ultraviolet and visible light allows the collection and
interpretation of an absorbance spectrum. The UV-Vis spectra

provide information about the composition of the sample and

allow the differentiation of, say, Fe2+ and Fe3+.

Multi-Channel Spectrometry (MCS)

Multi-channel spectrometry sends a (visible) light flash through
the sample and scans the visible light spectrum from 375 to 775
nanometres producing absorbance spectra.
For example Zeiss MCS 311 spectrometer is used to identify type Ia
diamonds and to quantitatively assess the colour of various types
of gems.
Raman Spectrometry
Raman spectrometry is based on the Raman Effect, which is a
frequency shift of back-scattered laser light. This frequency shift is
comes about as a result of vibrations and rotations of molecular
bonds and is therefore characteristic of the composition and crystal
structure of the sample. For example one of the instruments
Renishaw Raman Microscope System 1000 spectrometer operates
with two different lasers, a green Ar-ion laser at 514 nanometres
and a He-Cd UV laser at 325 nanometres. Raman spectrometry is a
powerful tool for the identification of minerals and gemstones and
of inclusions in gems, and it is also used for the detection of
treatments of diamonds.

Fourier-Transformed Infrared Spectrometry (FT-IR)

Infrared spectrometry measures the characteristic frequency of
vibration or rotation of compounds and molecules in a crystal
lattice. These vibrations of molecular bonds in the crystal structure
are induced by IR light transmitted through the sample or reflected
from the surface. This results in the absorbance of specific IR
wavelengths. Much like the UV-Vis spectrometer, this
spectrometer gathers a wavelength absorbance spectrum. In
gemmology, it is mainly used to identify OH compounds in
gemstones and pearls.
Fluorescence (UV Lamps)
When a gem absorbs either SW or LW UV, or both, and
immediately emits visible light, the phenomenon is called
fluorescence. In order to test for fluorescence it is necessary to have a
controlled source of SW and/or LW and a darkened viewing
chamber. (It is also prudent to have UV protective eyewear as
exposure to these rays can be damaging.) The specifics of the color
and intensity of fluorescence can sometimes be a useful diagnostic
test in identifying gems.
A typical UV test lamp usually consists of a light source which
produces the UV with a pair of filters covering it. On one side a
filter blocks SW and permits LW to pass, and on the other end LW
is blocked passing the SW. In the model below, a simple metal
slider mechanism is moved from one side to the other to block out
the undesired wavelengths. The test would be performed inside a
viewing chamber that blocks out all visible light. The gem to be
tested must be very clean as skin oil and dust particles often
fluoresce brightly.

FLOWCHART DIPICTING IDENTIFICATION OF STONES

WEIGHT
COLOUR
( Visual Estimation)

SPECIFIC GRAVITY
( Hydrostatic method)

REFRACTIVE INDEX
(Refactometer Range
1.30-1.80)

OTHER CHARACTERISTICS
Chatoyancy and iridescence
(visual) surface irregularities
(10 *Loupe) special adsorption
spectral signature (table
spectrometer), magnetism
(magnet), thermal conductivity
(thermal probe), colour
absorption (Chelsea filter,
fibrolite (biaxial/uniaxial
character (polariscope),
Diamond weight and size
(Mohs diamond gauze)

(1 Carat = 200mg
SHAPE

Electronic Balance)

(Compare with standard

cut and shape)

LUSTURE
(Visual Estimation)

PLEOCHROISM
(Dichroscope,
microscope)

LUMINISCENCE
(lw-365nm and sw253.7nm UV Lamps)

NAMING OF
MINERAL / GEMSTONE

TRANSPARENCY
(10 *Loupe)

GROWTH LINES
(10*Loupe,Gemolite
Microscope)

INCLUSION
(10*Loupe,Gemolite
Microscope)

HIGH-TECH MACHINERY USED IN ANALYSIS OF A

GEMSTONE
INSTRUMENTS

Microscope

Dichroscope

THEIR USES

One of the most useful tools for gemologists is the

binocular microscope. These scopes provide both
light field (lighting from below) and dark field
(lighting from the side) views and usually have a
magnification range from 10X to perhaps 100-200X.

Used to detect gemstones from artificial ones and

comes in two types: calcite and polarizing.

Spectroscope
The spectroscope is sometimes used to separate
natural from synthetic gem materials, as variations
in chemical composition can be revealed in the
absorption spectrum of light transmitted through
the stone.

Refractometer
Used to differentiate gemstones that have similar
colors since gemstones can have other optical
properties that make them different from others.
Gem Refractometers are also used for identifying
the Refractive Index of Gemstones

Polariscope

Used to differentiate isotropic and anisotropic

gemstones. Polariscopes are used to quickly and
easily check if gemstones are single or double
Refracting.

Chelsea Filters

Used to determine which gemstones are

emeralds, pastes or faux emeralds with its
special color filter. They are helpful in identifying
certain Red, Blue and Green Gemstones

Portable Longwave/Shortwave UV Lamp

The ultraviolet lamp, also called a UV lamp,

produces a special type of light (actually
radiation) called ultraviolet. These lamps are
used to reveal the presence or absence of
fluorescence in gems. Fluorescence refers to
whether or not a stone produces a color reaction
when exposed to ultraviolet radiationcolor
that is not visible in ordinary lightcolor seen
only when the stone is viewed under ultraviolet
radiation.

Example Analysis of a gemstone using above methods

This is a transparent, blue gem.

With the naked eye, it is clear to see that it has nice color; well saturated and just slightly
greenish. It is factory cut with a big window and has some long straight, inclusions.
As examined it with a loupe, the inclusions jumped right out at me. Most of them are
internal fractures, but a few are clearly parallel growth tubes.

This shows it could be either a tourmaline or an aquamarine.

Then a basic RI reading is taken and determined that it was doubly refractive.
The optic sign is not important, as that appeared to be unnecessary.

The following information is taken using Gemology Tools:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Color: blue
Transparency: transparent
Optic Character: DR
Luster: vitreous
RI high: 1.583
Magnification: hollow growth tubes
RI Low: 1.569
The possible gem is aquamarine.

INDEX
1. Introduction .
2. Types of stones .
Precious and Semi-Precious .
Diamonds and coloured stones
Natural and Man-Made
Organic and Inorganic
Amorphous and Crystalline
3. Examination of Gemstones
Physical
- General Appearance .
- Colour
- Lusture .
- Dispersion .
- Carat Size ..
- Crystal shape .
- Transparency .
- Streak Test
- Hardness ..
- Cleavage
- Loupe
- Pleochorism ..
Chemical
- Chemical Bonding .
- Chemical composition of
various Precious stones
Analytical .
- Refractive Index ..
- Polariscope
- Spectroscope
- Microscope .
- Dichroscope ..
- Spectophotometry ..
- Spectrometry
UV-IF Spectrometry .
Multi-Channel Spectrometry .
Raman Spectrometry
FT-IR Spectrometry
Fluorescence (UV Lamps)
4. Flowchart depicting Identification of Stones .
5. High-Tech Machinery used in analysis of gemstones .
6. Example-Analysis of a Gemstone

SUMMER TRAINING - 2013

TOPIC

GEMSTOnE anaLYSiS

arpiTa Jain