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Chapter 8
Deformation of Solids
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.

Deformation of solids
Behaviour of spring
Work done & Strain Energy
Stress & strain & Young Modulus
Elastic and plastic behaviour of material
Force Extension graph for ductile, brittle & polymeric
materials
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appreciate that deformation is caused by a force

in one dimension the deformation can be tensile or compressive

1. DEFORMATION

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Introduction
Deformation means change in shape / change in size.
Deformation cause an object to
i. Stretch
ii. Compress
iii. Twist

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Force
Deformation occur because of forces
For an object being compressed/shortened, we call
that the forces act are compressive forces.

For an object being stretched, we call that the forces

act are tensile forces

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Elastic deformation
Elastic deformation is
Change in
shape/size/length/dime
nsion of an object and
when (deforming) force
is removed, the object
returns to its original
shape/size.

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Elastic deformation
Simplified structure of
atoms arrangement
Structure with an applied
load
Structure when load is
removed
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Describe the behaviour of springs in terms of

Hookes law and the spring load, extension, elastic limit,spring
constant

2. BEHAVIOUR OF SPRING
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Hookes Law
Hookes law states that the extension x of an object is directly
proportional to the force F applied. This may be written as
F =k x
(k is the constant of proportionality(a measure of 'stiffness')
This behaviour only holds true for certain objects under
certain loads. Once the load exceeds a limit, known as the
limit or proportionality, the behaviour is no
longer linear.
This is shown in the force-extension graph
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Force extension graph

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Load applied
( F/N)

Limit of
proportionality

Elastic limit

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Extension (x/m)

The limit of proportionality - point beyond which

Hookes law is no longer true when stretching a
material.
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Elastic limit
Before the elastic limit is reached, the sample is
experiencing Elastic Deformation, where it will
return to its original shape when the load (force)
has been removed.
Once the material passes that point, it experienced
Plastic Deformation, where its shape is
permanently changed.

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Spring

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Spring is one of the object which its elastic

deformation obeys Hookes law
Spring constant measure the stiffness of spring.
This relates to thee resistance which a material
offers to have its size or shape changed.
Stiffer spring has larger spring constant

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Spring constant

Load
( F/N)

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F
S1

S2
S3

x1

x2

Extension
(x/m)

x2

Three different spring under same load show different extension, x.

The stiffest spring (highest spring constant, k) show smallest
extension under same load
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Spring extension

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Lo
x=0

x = x1

F1

Spring load = F1
Extension = x
New length = Lo + x1
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F2

x = x2

Spring load = F2
Extension = x2
New length = Lo + x2

Force-extension graph of spring

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Load
( F/N)

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Force
apply

F3
F2
F1

x1

x3

x2

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Extension (x/m)

Spring extension

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Lo
x=0

x = xe
Spring load = 0
Extension = xe
New length = Lo + xe

x = x3

F3
Spring load = F3
Extension = x3
New length = Lo +BrightxMinds
3

Force-extension graph for spring

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If too much load is applied to the spring,

It deforms and does not return to it's original length when the load is
removed.
The load applied has exceeded the elastic limit of spring.
Spring undergone permanent deformation
Load
( F/N)
Force
remove

Force
apply

Extension (x/m)

xe

Permanent deformation

x = xe

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Springs in parallel
Spring always used as a combination of a few spring.
When using the same load,
Spring combined in parallel will have
1. Total extension as

Extension for one spring

number of spring

Total spring constant as

spring constant for one spring x no. of parallel spring used

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Springs in parallel

Each spring has spring constant k

x=0

x new= ?

Total Spring Constant : 2k

Total extension = x/2

Spring constant = k

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Example spring in parallel

(b)

(a)

x2

x1

3 cm

1 kg

1 kg
1. Calculate

x1 =

x2 =

2. Calculate total spring constant , kT for

a)
b)
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Springs in series
When using the same load,
Spring combined in series will have
1. Total extension as

extension for one spring no. of series spring used

Total spring constant as

1
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+ ......
k T k1 k 2 k 3
kn
1,2,3....n = spring number
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Example - Springs in series

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(b)

(a)

3 cm

1 kg
Spring
has
spring
constant
of k

1 kg

Calculate for b
x = ( no. of springs
x extension for one spring )
= 2 x 3 cm = 6 cm
Calculate total spring constant
(1/kT) = ( no. of spring /
extension for one spring).
=2/k
So, kT = k/2

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Question
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A number of similar springs, each having the same spring constant,

are joined in four arrangements. The same load is applied to each.
Which arrangement gives the greatest extension?

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deduce the strain energy in a deformed material from the area under the
force-extension graph

3. WORK DONE & STRAIN ENERGY

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Work done on spring

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Work done by a force

Force x distance in the direction of the force
But, for spring, the work done is calculated as\
Work done by spring = average force x extension
= F x (area under graph of spring-extension graph )
And from Hookes Law , F = kx,
2
Work
done
=

kx
Load
( F/N)
F

x
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Extension
(x/m)

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Work done on spring

(b)

(a)

3 cm

1 kg

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Average force x displacement

=Fx
work done by applied force
= 1 kg x 9.81 ms-2 x 0.03m
= 0.15 J

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Energy stored in spring

1. When work is done to deform a spring (stretch or
compress), the spring gain energy equal to work done on it.
2. This energy is called elastic potential energy or strain energy.
3. This energy means; the spring has ability to return back to its
equilibrium position.
4. Thus, when load/force applied is removed, work is done by
the spring using strain energy it gains during deformation and
thus, spring returns back to its original position.

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Energy stored in spring

What is the energy stored in the spring when the

length is 70 mm?
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define and use the terms stress, strain and the Young modulus

4.STRESS & STRAIN

YOUNG MODULUS
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Stress
If forces are applied to deform material, the
material itself is said to be being stressed.
Force ( F )
stress ( ) =
Area ( A)

Unit of stress is Nm-2

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Strain
As a result of the stress, the material
becomes strained.
change in length(L)
strain ( ) =
length ( L)

As strain is a ratio of length, thus, it has

no unit.

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Stiffness of material
If we have two different material with different
length and diameter, we cannot simply take the
gradient of their force-extension graph as a measure of the
stiffness of the materials.
It is because, the extension (deformation) of a material
depends on
its length
its diameter
the material its made of
Thus, we have standard method to measure the stiffness of
different material; using Young Modulus constant.
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The Young Modulus (E )

The Young Modulus is a material property, meaning
it can be applied to all samples of the same material.
It is calculated by the formula:
stress ( )
Young Modulus (E) =
strain ( )

This is a measure of the stiffness of materials

It is defined as a ratio of stress / strain, provided
that limit of proportionality is not exceeded
Unit = Nm-2 (same as stress)
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Examples of Young Modulus

Material

E / x 109 Pa

diamond
titanium carbide
steel
copper
brass

1200
345
210
130
100

E are constant for the same materials. For example, a

copper wire of 1m long and 2cm diameter has same value
of E with another copper wire of 0.5 cm long and 1 cm in
diameter.
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describe an experiment to determine the Young modulus of a metal in the

form of a wire

YOUNG MODULUS EXPERIMENT

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Simple Experiment to measure

Young Modulus, E, of a wire

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Measurement of E
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1. Measure original length, x

2. Calculate the average cross-section area of the wire, A
from A = D2/4 (D = diameter of materials cross section)
3. Applying loads, F = mg to a wire
4. For every load, measure the extension, x.
5. Plot graph of Force applied, F against extension, x

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Measurement of E
Load applied
( F/N)

stress,
strain,
F x
=

x A

E=

= gradient of graph x

Extension (x/m)

7. Thus, Young modulus = gradient of graph

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x (x/A)

x
A

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Young Modulus
Loads

Extension

F1

x1

F2

x2

F3

x3

stress, F x
Young Modulus, E =
=
strain,
A x
F x
=

x A
x
= gradient of graph x
A

F = applied load (N)

x = original length of material
A = cross section of wire (m2)
x = change in length

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Energy per unit volume

Young Modulus constant can also

be calculated from the gradient
of stress-strain graph as E =
stress/strain
By finding the area under a
stress-strain graph, (stress x
strain) it is possible to work out
the energy stored per unit
1
volume in a material
Area under graph = stress, strain,

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2
1F
=
x
x
2 A
1 Fx Work done on spring
=
=
volume
2 Ax
1 energy gained by spring
=
volume
2

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Question 1
Which of the following correctly defines the terms
stress, strain and Young modulus?

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Question 2
The Young modulus of steel is determined using
a length of steel wire and is found to have the value
E. Another experiment is carried out using a wire
of the same steel, but of twice the length and
half the diameter. What value is obtained for the
Young modulus in the second experiment?

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Question 3
Two steel wires P and Q have lengths l and 2l
respectively, and cross-sectional areas A and A
respectively. Both wires obey Hookes law. What is
the ratio
when both wires are
stretched to the same extension?
Answer: 4/1

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Students should be able to:

Distinguish between elastic and plastic deformation of a material

5. ELASTIC AND PLASTIC DEFORMATION

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Elastic & Plastic Deformation

Elastic deformation
A material change its shape/size/length/dimension
upon exerted by a force and when (deforming) force is
removed, the object returns to its original shape/size.

Plastic deformation
A material change its shape/size/length/dimension
upon exerted by a force and when (deforming) force is
removed, the object contracts but does not return to its
shape/size/length/dimension
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Demonstrate knowledge of the force-extension graphs for typical

Ductile materials
brittle materials
polymeric materials
understanding of ultimate tensile stress (UTS)

6. FORCE-EXTENSION GRAPH
DUCTILE, BRITTLE & POLYMERIC MATERIAL
UTS
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Force extension graph of materials

Applied force can cause a material undergo elastic or non-elastic
deformation OR elastic and inelastic deformation.
This can be seen from force-extension-graphs of materials.
The force-extension graph of materials are different for
ductile,
brittle and
polymeric materials,

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Ductile material
Force extension graphs of most metals in the forms of wire have
general shape as shown below
Force

Breaking point/ fracture point

Extension

X = point where ultimate tensile stress is calculated

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Ductile material
UTS =

maximum force
original cross section of wire

UTS give idea of how maximum stress a material could

support.

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Ductile material
1. Up to point (P),
Extension is proportional to
the force applied. Material
obeys Hookes Law
2. Between P and E,
Material is elastic but not
plastic.
Means, extension is not
directly proportional to the
force applied but material
still returns to its original
length after force is
removed.

UTS

Force

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E
P

Breaking point/
fracture point

Extension

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Ductile material
1. From E to UTS, the wire
will become permanently
stretched and suffer plastic
deformation.

Force
Maximum
force

2. Beyond UTS, the wire loses

its strength, extends and
becomes narrower (necking)
at its weakest point where it
fractures at B

UTS
E

necking

Fracture

Extension

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Ductile material
Both steel and copper are both
ductile but
copper is more ductile because it
can withstand a greater strain
(L/L) than steel before breaking
although it is not as strong or as
stiff as steel.

Force
steel

copper

Extension

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Brittle Material
2.

Brittle material

Materials which obeys Hookes law over almost whole range

of extension

very little /no plastic deformation

will fracture soon after its limit of proportionality, P.

Example: glass

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Brittle Material
Force extension graphs for brittle materials
Force
P

fracture

extension

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Polymeric material
3.

Polymeric materials.

Materials which stretch to many times of its original length but

not proportional to the force applied.

Means, it obeys Hookes law over small part of extension

(near origin).

When force is removed, the material returns to its original

length but may not along the same path.
Example: rubber

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Polymeric material
force

energy lost
to heating
the rubber

loading

unloading

extension

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Polymeric material
Force (F)

loading

Extension ( L )

The work done in stretching rubber up to extension

L is equal to the area under the loading curve.
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Polymeric material
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Force (F)

unloading

Extension ( L )

When the material is unloaded only the energy equal to the area
under the unloading curve is returned.
Thus, unloading curve for polymeric material is different from its
loading curve.
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Polymeric material
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Force (F)
unloading
loading

Extension ( L )

This means, the material does not return to its original length using
the same path.
Thus, the material do less work to return to its original shape than
the work done on it during stretching.
So, where the rest of the strain energy stored goes to?
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Polymeric materials

Thus, this energy lost represented

by the area shaded between loading
& unloading path
The closed loop of loading and
unloading curve of force- extension
graph of polymeric material is
called elastic hysteresis
This energy is actually transferred
to internal energy, due to which
the rubber band becomes warmer
(energy conserve principle)

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force

energy lost
to heating
the rubber

loading

unloading
0

extension

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Question 1
What is plastic deformation?

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Question 2

A sample of metal is subjected to a

force which increases to a
maximum value and then
decreases back to zero. A forceextension graph for the sample is
shown.

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When the sample contracts it

follows the same force-extension
curve as when it was being
stretched. What is the behaviour
of the metal between X and Y?
A.
B.
C.
D.

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both elastic and plastic

elastic but not plastic
plastic but not elastic
not elastic and not plastic

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Question 3
A piece of copper is drawn into a continuous wire.
What behaviour is the copper exhibiting?

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Question 4
Which row best defines elastic and plastic behaviour of a material?

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THE END

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