530

Chapter 7

Systems of Equations and Inequalities

7.4 PARTIAL FRACTIONS

What you should learn
Recognize partial fraction decompositions of rational expressions.
Find partial fraction decompositions
of rational expressions.

Why you should learn it

Partial fractions can help you analyze
the behavior of a rational function.
For instance, in Exercise 62 on page
537, you can analyze the exhaust
temperatures of a diesel engine using
partial fractions.

Introduction
In this section, you will learn to write a rational expression as the sum of two or more
simpler rational expressions. For example, the rational expression
x7
x2 x 6
can be written as the sum of two fractions with first-degree denominators. That is,
Partial fraction decomposition
x7
of 2
x x6

2
1 .
x7

x2 x 6 x 3 x 2

Michael Rosenfeld/Getty Images

Partial
fraction

Partial
fraction

Each fraction on the right side of the equation is a partial fraction, and together they
make up the partial fraction decomposition of the left side.

Decomposition of Nx/Dx into Partial Fractions

1. Divide if improper: If NxDx is an improper fraction degree of
Nx degree of Dx, divide the denominator into the numerator to obtain
N x
Nx
polynomial 1
Dx
Dx
You can review how to find
the degree of a polynomial
(such as x 3 and x 2) in
Appendix A.3.

and apply Steps 2, 3, and 4 below to the proper rational expression

N1xDx. Note that N1x is the remainder from the division of Nx
by Dx.
2. Factor the denominator: Completely factor the denominator into factors of
the form

px qm and ax 2 bx cn
Appendix A.4 shows you how to
combine expressions such as
5
1
1

.
x 2 x 3 x 2x 3

where ax 2 bx c is irreducible.
3. Linear factors: For each factor of the form px qm, the partial fraction
decomposition must include the following sum of m fractions.
A1
A2
Am

. . .
px q px q2
px qm

The method of partial fraction

decomposition shows you how
to reverse this process and write

4. Quadratic factors: For each factor of the form ax 2 bx cn, the partial
fraction decomposition must include the following sum of n fractions.

5
1
1

x 2x 3 x 2 x 3

B1x C1
B2 x C2
Bn x Cn

. . .
2
2
2
ax bx c ax bx c
ax 2 bx cn

Section 7.4

Partial Fractions

531

Partial Fraction Decomposition

Algebraic techniques for determining the constants in the numerators of partial
fractions are demonstrated in the examples that follow. Note that the techniques vary
slightly, depending on the type of factors of the denominator: linear or quadratic,
distinct or repeated.

Example 1

Distinct Linear Factors

Write the partial fraction decomposition of

x7 .
x2 x 6

Solution
The expression is proper, so be sure to factor the denominator. Because
x 2 x 6 x 3x 2, you should include one partial fraction with a constant
numerator for each linear factor of the denominator. Write the form of the decomposition
as follows.
x2

A
B
x7

x6 x3 x2

Write form of decomposition.

Multiplying each side of this equation by the least common denominator,

x 3x 2, leads to the basic equation
x 7 Ax 2 Bx 3.

T E C H N O LO G Y
You can use a graphing utility to
check the decomposition found
in Example 1. To do this, graph
x7
y1 2
x x6

2 7 A2 2 B2 3

Substitute 2 for x.

5 A0 B5
1 B.
To solve for A, let x 3 and obtain

1
2

y2
x3 x2

3 7 A3 2 B3 3

in the same viewing window. The

graphs should be identical, as
shown below.
6

Substitute 3 for x.

10 A5 B0
10 5A
2 A.
So, the partial fraction decomposition is

Because this equation is true for all x, you can substitute any convenient values of x that
will help determine the constants A and B. Values of x that are especially convenient are
ones that make the factors x 2 and x 3 equal to zero. For instance, let x 2.
Then

5 5B

and

Basic equation

2
1
x7

.
x2 x 6 x 3 x 2
Check this result by combining the two partial fractions on the right side of the
equation, or by using your graphing utility.
Now try Exercise 23.

532

Chapter 7

Systems of Equations and Inequalities

The next example shows how to find the partial fraction decomposition of a rational
expression whose denominator has a repeated linear factor.

Example 2

Repeated Linear Factors

Write the partial fraction decomposition of

x 4 2x3 6x2 20x 6

.
x3 2x2 x

Solution
You can review long division
of polynomials in Section 2.3.
You can review factoring of
polynomials in Appendix A.3.

This rational expression is improper, so you should begin by dividing the numerator by
the denominator to obtain
x

5x2 20x 6
.
x3 2x2 x

Because the denominator of the remainder factors as

x 3 2x 2 x xx 2 2x 1 xx 12
you should include one partial fraction with a constant numerator for each power of x
and x 1 and write the form of the decomposition as follows.
5x 2 20x 6 A
B
C

xx 12
x
x 1 x 12

Write form of decomposition.

Multiplying by the LCD, xx 12, leads to the basic equation

WARNING / CAUTION
To obtain the basic equation, be
sure to multiply each fraction in
the form of the decomposition
by the LCD.

5x 2 20x 6 Ax 12 Bxx 1 Cx.

Basic equation

Letting x 1 eliminates the A- and B-terms and yields

512 201 6 A1 12 B11 1 C1
5 20 6 0 0 C
C 9.
Letting x 0 eliminates the B- and C-terms and yields
502 200 6 A0 12 B00 1 C0
6 A1 0 0
6 A.
At this point, you have exhausted the most convenient choices for x, so to find the value
of B, use any other value for x along with the known values of A and C. So, using x 1,
A 6, and C 9,
512 201 6 61 12 B11 1 91
31 64 2B 9
2 2B
1 B.
So, the partial fraction decomposition is
x 4 2x3 6x2 20x 6
6
1
9
.
x

x3 2x2 x
x
x 1 x 12
Now try Exercise 49.

Section 7.4

Partial Fractions

533

The procedure used to solve for the constants in Examples 1 and 2 works well when
the factors of the denominator are linear. However, when the denominator contains
irreducible quadratic factors, you should use a different procedure, which involves
writing the right side of the basic equation in polynomial form and equating the
coefficients of like terms. Then you can use a system of equations to solve for the
coefficients.

Example 3

HISTORICAL NOTE

Distinct Linear and Quadratic Factors

Write the partial fraction decomposition of

3x 2 4x 4
.
x 3 4x

The Granger Collection

Solution

John Bernoulli (16671748), a

Swiss mathematician, introduced
the method of partial fractions
and was instrumental in the
early development of calculus.
Bernoulli was a professor at the
University of Basel and taught
many outstanding students,
the most famous of whom
was Leonhard Euler.

This expression is proper, so factor the denominator. Because the denominator factors as
x 3 4x xx 2 4
you should include one partial fraction with a constant numerator and one partial
fraction with a linear numerator and write the form of the decomposition as follows.
3x 2 4x 4 A Bx C
2
x 3 4x
x
x 4

Write form of decomposition.

Multiplying by the LCD, xx 2 4, yields the basic equation

3x 2 4x 4 Ax 2 4 Bx C x.

Basic equation

Expanding this basic equation and collecting like terms produces

3x 2 4x 4 Ax 2 4A Bx 2 Cx
A Bx 2 Cx 4A.

Polynomial form

Finally, because two polynomials are equal if and only if the coefficients of like terms
are equal, you can equate the coefficients of like terms on opposite sides of the equation.
3x 2 4x 4 A Bx 2 Cx 4A

Equate coefficients of like terms.

You can now write the following system of linear equations.

AB

4A

3
C4
4

Equation 1
Equation 2
Equation 3

From this system you can see that A 1 and C 4. Moreover, substituting A 1 into
Equation 1 yields
1 B 3 B 2.
So, the partial fraction decomposition is
3x 2 4x 4 1 2x 4
2
.
x 3 4x
x
x 4
Now try Exercise 33.

534

Chapter 7

Systems of Equations and Inequalities

The next example shows how to find the partial fraction decomposition of a rational
expression whose denominator has a repeated quadratic factor.

Example 4

Repeated Quadratic Factors

Write the partial fraction decomposition of

8x 3 13x
.
x 2 22

Solution
Include one partial fraction with a linear numerator for each power of x 2 2.
Cx D
8x 3 13x Ax B
2
2
x 2 22
x 2
x 22

Write form of decomposition.

Multiplying by the LCD, x 2 22, yields the basic equation

8x 3 13x Ax Bx 2 2 Cx D

Basic equation

Ax 3 2Ax Bx 2 2B Cx D
Ax 3 Bx 2 2A C x 2B D.

Polynomial form

Equating coefficients of like terms on opposite sides of the equation

8x 3 0x 2 13x 0 Ax 3 Bx 2 2A C x 2B D
produces the following system of linear equations.

A
B

2A

C
2B

8
0
13
0

Equation 1
Equation 2
Equation 3
Equation 4

Finally, use the values A 8 and B 0 to obtain the following.

28 C 13

Substitute 8 for A in Equation 3.

C 3
20 D 0

Substitute 0 for B in Equation 4.

D0
So, using A 8, B 0, C 3, and D 0, the partial fraction decomposition is
8x 3 13x
3x
8x
.

2
x 2 22
x 2 x 2 22
Check this result by combining the two partial fractions on the right side of the
equation, or by using your graphing utility.
Now try Exercise 55.

Section 7.4

Partial Fractions

535

Guidelines for Solving the Basic Equation

Linear Factors
1. Substitute the zeros of the distinct linear factors into the basic equation.
2. For repeated linear factors, use the coefficients determined in Step 1 to rewrite
the basic equation. Then substitute other convenient values of x and solve for
the remaining coefficients.
Quadratic Factors
1. Expand the basic equation.
2. Collect terms according to powers of x.
3. Equate the coefficients of like terms to obtain equations involving A, B, C,
and so on.
4. Use a system of linear equations to solve for A, B, C, . . . .

Keep in mind that for improper rational expressions such as

Nx
2x3 x2 7x 7

Dx
x2 x 2
you must first divide before applying partial fraction decomposition.

CLASSROOM DISCUSSION
Error Analysis You are tutoring a student in algebra. In trying to find a partial
fraction decomposition, the student writes the following.
A
x2 1
B

xx 1
x
x1
Ax 1
Bx
x2 1

xx 1
xx 1
xx 1
x 2 1 Ax 1 Bx

Basic equation

By substituting x 0 and x 1 into the basic equation, the student concludes that
A 1 and B 2. However, in checking this solution, the student obtains the
following.
1
2
1x 1 2x

x
x1
xx 1

What is wrong?

x1
xx 1

x2 1
xx 1