Chapter 6

Experimental Methods for Engineers, 6th edition, J.P.

Holman, 1994

PRESSURE
MEASUREMENTS

OVERVIEW
|

Introduction
What is Pressure?
y Why measure Pressure?
y How to measure Pressure?
y

Measuring Devices
High Pressure Sensors
Calibrating
y Elastic Deformation Sensors
y Low Pressure Sensors
y Ultra Low Pressure Sensors
y
y

WHAT IS PRESSURE?
Pressure is a normal force exerted by a fluid over
a surface area
| Absolute, Gage, Vacuum Pressure
| Static & Dynamic Pressure
| Pa, Bar, atm, Psi
|

PGag
e

Pat
m

Pvac
Pabs
Pabs

Pabs =
0
Absolute, gage, vacuum pressures

WHY MEASURE PRESSURE?

Pressure negates the properties of a fluid:
State, flow, forces
| Quality and Safety of Operation:
Tire, compressors, etc
| Pressure measurements is used in various
general, industry and research applications
|

INDUSTRY APPLICATION
Drilling Technology utilise pressure sensors for real
time downhole data transfer
| Weather forecasting
| Medicine
| Aviation
Pressure Chart
| Pressure Vessels
| Many other application Sphygmomanometer
you are guarantee to see
working as an engineer
|

Fluid Manometer

HOW TO MEASURE PRESSURE?

Pabs = gh + Patm
PDI: Differential Pressure Indicator
PI: Pressure Indicator

q=

1 2
v
2
General Instrument Symbol

E=

P = RT

Hydrostatic Level Type

Symbol

P&ID Pressure Sensor Symbol

HIGH PRESSURE SENSORS

& CALIBRATION
Roger Marley

INTRODUCTION
|

Types of medium pressure sensors

Manometer & Barometer
y Microphone
y

Types of high pressure sensors

Bourdon-tube Gauge
y Schrader Gauge
y

Calibration of pressure sensors

MANOMETERS
|

The manometer consists of a

tube filled with liquid of
known density

A pressure difference across

the tube causes the liquid to
shift position

The change in position can be

measured to give the pressure

Best suited to static pressure

measurement

Difficult to use for small

pressure changes, unsuitable
for very large pressures

PA = gh1
PB = gh2

Very simple manometer

MANOMETER
TOPOLOGIES

PA PB = mangh

PA = mangh2

P1 P2 = gz2 (If D >> d)

P1 P2 = gx sin

BAROMETER
|

One common application of the

manometer is the barometer

The barometer measures

atmospheric pressure

This barometer uses a reference

gas separated from the
atmosphere by a liquid

If the atmospheric pressure

changes, the reference gas
expands/contracts

Static pressure gauge

How it works
Dodgy barometer

MICROPHONE
|

The most common pressure

sensor in daily use

Designed for use at around

1 atm. pressure

Only measures fluctuations

measures dynamic not
static pressure

Has several different

constructions of varying
complexity

Condenser Microphone construction

BOURDON-TUBE GAUGE
|

Invented by Eugene
Bourdon in 1849

Can be used to measure

pressures up to 100,000
psi

Uses an elastic tube as

its primary element

The tube straightens out

with increasing pressure,
moving the pointer via
mechanical links

Measures static pressure

Diagram

Commercial bourdontube gauge

SCHRADER GAUGE
|

Uses a piston connected to a

spring

Simple & sturdy construction

Not particularly accurate

Common use is in simple tyre

pressure gauges

Performs better than

bourdon-tube under dynamic
loads

Tyre pressure gauge

Construction

F = PA
kx=F
x = (A/k)P
Pressurised gauge

CALIBRATION
|

The most common way to

calibrate pressure sensors is with
a dead-weight tester

Has accuracy in the 0.005% to

0.1% range

Allows pressure tests up to

10kBar (~145,000 psi)

1 - Hand pump
2 - Testing Pump
3 - Pressure Gauge to be calibrated
4 - Calibration Weight
5 - Weight Support
6 - Piston
7 - Cylinder
8 - Filling Connection

ELASTIC DEFORMATION
SENSORS
Haidyn McLeod

BELLOWS GAUGE
Uses the elastic deformation of a convoluted unit
which expands and contracts with changes in
pressure.
| Either electrical or mechanical output.
| Doesn't work well with
dynamic pressures due to
mass and large
displacements.
|

SPRING LOADED BELLOWS GAUGE

A spring opposes the bellows.
| Limits the expansion of the
unit and prolongs the
bellows life.
| Resulting deflection is the
force acting on the bellows
and the opposing spring
force.
|

DIAPHRAGM GAUGES

Uses the elastic deformation of a flexible

membrane that separates two different
pressures.
| The deformation of the diaphragm is dependent
on the difference in pressure between the two
faces.
|

DIAPHRAGM GAUGES
Can be used to measure gauge, differential,
vacuum or absolute.
| Can be measured using mechanical, electrical,
piezoresistive and capacitive means.
| Follows a linear variation with p when the
deflection is less than 1/3 the diaphragm
thickness.
| Good Dynamic sensor.
|

DIAPHRAGM GAUGES
The natural frequency of a circular diaphragm is

ELECTRICAL PRESSURE SENSOR

Consists of foil strain gauges.
| Typically contains 4 gauges in a Wheatstone
bridge formation.
| Accuracies of 0.5%
|

PIEZORESISTIVE PRESSURE
SENSOR
Piezoresistive consist of a silicon diaphragm with
a semiconductor strain gauge bonded to the
diaphragm.
| Pressure sensitivity: S = R/ (p*R) (mV/V-bar)
| Advantages:
- High sensitivity
- Good linearity at constant temperature.
|

MEMS DIAPHRAGM SENSOR

|

Current MEMS pressure sensors can contain

onchip compensation and amplification.

Can perform signal conditioning and compensate

for temperature.

CAPACITIVE PRESSURE SENSORS

The variable gap created by a moving diaphragm
can be used as a capacitance sensor.
| The capacitance of the sensor is related to
pressure.
|

CAPACITIVE PRESSURE SENSORS

Basic concept: C = A/x
| Sensitivity: C/x = - A/x
| Advantages
y more sensitive than piezoresistive
y less temperature dependant
y great dynamic pressure sensor
| Disadvantages
y requires special electronics
y diaphragm mechanical properties
|

CORRUGATED DIAPHRAGM SENSOR

Creates a larger linear response over a larger
range of deflections.
| Is better suited for mechanical sensing devices as
amplification may not be required.
|

LVDT-DIAPHRAGM
The motion of a diaphragm sensed by a Linear
Variable Differential Transformer or (LVDT).
| http://www.rdpe.com/displacement/lvdt/lvdtprinciples.htm
|

BRIDGMAN GAUGE

BRIDGMAN GAUGE
The wire is typically Manganin (84% Cu, 12%Mn,
4%Ni).
| Where b = 2.5 x 10 Pa
| Resistance is less affected by temperature
change.
| Resistance can respond to variations in pressure
in the megahertz range.
| The total resistance of the wire is about 100
and is usually employed in a Wheatstone bridge.
|

LOW PRESSURE SENSORS

Adam Millen

LOW PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

Absolute Pressure below 133 Pa
Textbook 6.8-6.10

THE MCLEOD GAUGE

Lower the reservoir to take a

sample of the vacuum.

Vc = ay
pc = p (VB/Vc)
pc p = y
p = ay2/ (VB ay)
p = yVc / (VB ay)
p = ay2 / VB

Sensitive to condensed vapors

Measures pressures for 0.0013
to 13.3 Pa
Electronic vacuum gauges are now
more common, but the McLeod
Gauge is often used to calibrate
them.

PIRANI GAUGE
Measures thermal conductivity of a gas

0.1 to 100 Pa

ULTRA LOW SENSORS

James McBride

ULTRA LOW PRESSURE (ULP)

|

|
|

Also known as Ultra High Vacuum

(UHV)
Pressures below 100 nPa (10~9 torr)
Extreme conditions so require
extensive measures to ensure
accuracy. Issues include:
y

y
y
y
y

High Speed Pumps. No one single pump

is capable of operating from standard
pressure to UHV so need several.
Seals Need special metal seals to
prevent trace leakage.
Extremely Clean.
Minimal Surface area
Outgassing. Construction materials
absorb other chemicals.

Example Vacuum Chamber

USES FOR ULTRA LOW PRESSURE

Uses for UHV generally revolve around research:
| X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)
y

Analyse the composition, chemical and electrical state within a material.

Auger electron spectroscopy (AES)

Secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS)

Thermal desorption spectroscopy (TPD)

Angle resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES)

y
y
y
y
|
|

Used to study surfaces for material sciences.

Measure the composition of thin films and solids.
Measure adsorption binding energy.

Analyse the density and distribution of electrons.

Particle accelerators
Atomic Physics Experiments involving cold atoms

UHV is necessary for these applications to reduce surface

contamination, by reducing the number of molecules reaching the
sample over a given time period. At 0.1 mPa (106 Torr), it only takes
1 second to cover a surface with a contaminant, so much lower
pressures are needed for long experiments.

ULP SENSORS

Types of ULP Sensors

Ionisation Gage
y Knudsen Gage
y Alphatron
y Others
y

ULP Requires specialised sensors:

High Precision & accuracy.
y Indirect Pressure Measurement measure some property
of the vacuum rather than the vacuum itself.
y Mustnt contaminate environment
y Only concerned with gases.
y

IONISATION GAGE
Three Types Hot
Cathode, Cold
Cathode and Spinning
Rotor
| General Range of
0.13 Pa 1.3x10-6Pa.
| Can measure as low
as .13 nPa.
| Detect Ionisation of
gas.
|

IONISATION GAGE
|

Works by emitting electrons

from the cathode. These
collide with gas atoms and
ionise them. The electrons
and negative ions are then
attracted to the positively
charged grid to produce the
grid current. The positive ions
are attracted to the plate and
produce the plate current.
Hot cathode generates
electrons by heat, cold cathode
generates electrons by a large
potential difference

p=

1 ip
S ig

p Pressure
ig Grid Current
ip Plate Current
S Sensitivity (Chemical Dependant)

IONISATION GAGE CALIBRATION

|

Most ultra-low pressure gages measure pressure

indirectly, hence are non-absolute.
y

Eg. Ionisation gage measurements are dependant on

the chemical properties of the gas in the vacuum.

Non-Absolute pressure measurement requires

calibration.

Use either McLeod, Knudsen or deadweight.

Must also be used in conjunction with a mass

spectrometer to calculate chemical composition.

KNUDSEN GAGE

Consists of two vanes with

heated panels that rotate freely
in a pressure chamber,
suspended by a filament from a
fixed point with a mirror
attached.

|
|

Works by heating panels

slightly so that Tg T is small.
Gas atoms striking the panels
are energised and leave at a
greater velocity than they
arrived.
This difference in velocity
results in a net momentum
imparted to the vanes.
The force can calculated by
measuring the angular
displacement of the mirror.
Force is related to pressure
by:
Tg
p = 4F
T Tg

KNUDSEN GAGE
|

Range between 1Pa and 10-6Pa

Key Advantages
Can be configured to be absolute.
i.e. Doesnt require calibration
y Unlike McLeod Gauge doesnt introduce foreign contaminants such as
Mercury and oil and is therefore better for high precision
environment.
y Doesnt require expensive auxiliary sensors like the ionisation gage.
y Filaments cant burn out and suspension is not delicate so more
versatile.
y

Disadvantages
y

Cannot measure pressure as accurately as Ionisation.

ALPHATRON & OTHERS

|
|
|

Alphatron (Shown Below) is a special radioactive Ionisation

Gage.
Emits radiation and determines the resulting ionisation of
gas.
No filament, so can measure pressures up to 1 atm as well.

Other Type:
| Langmuir Gage measures pressure in terms of
damping on high frequency vibration of quartz fibres

SUMMARY
What is Pressure and Why Measure it?
| How to Measure Pressure?
| Measuring Devices
|

High Pressure Sensors

Calibrating
y Low Pressure Sensors
y Elastic Deformation Sensors
y Ultra Low Pressure Sensors
y
y

SUMMARY
What is Pressure and Why Measure it?
| How to Measure Pressure?
| Measuring Devices
|

y
y
y
y
y

High Pressure Sensors

Calibrating
Low Pressure Sensors
Elastic Deformation Sensors
Ultra Low Pressure Sensors

QUESTIONS?