Fatigue :Failure under fluctuating / cyclic stress

Under fluctuating / cyclic stresses, failure can occur at loads

considerably lower than tensile or yield strengths of material under a
static load: Fatigue
Estimated to cause 90% of all failures of metallic structures (bridges,
aircraft, machine components, etc.)
Fatigue failure is brittle-like (relatively little plastic deformation) even in normally ductile materials. Thus sudden and catastrophic!
Fatigue failure proceeds in three distinct stages: crack initiation in the
areas of stress concentration (near stress raisers), incremental crack
propagation, final catastrophic failure.
Cyclic stresses characterized by maximum, minimum and mean
stress, the range of stress, the stress amplitude, and the stress ratio

Remember the convention that tensile stresses are

positive, compressive stresses are negative

Jack hammer component, shows no yielding before fracture.

Crack initiation site

Propagation zone, striation

Fracture zone

Propagation zone, striations

Crack initiation site

Fracture area

928 Porsche timing pulley

Crank shaft

Gear tooth failure

bicycle crank spider arm

This is a long term fatigue crack in a high quality component. It took considerable
time to nucleate from a machining mark between the spider arms. Once initiated
propagation of the crack was rapid and accelerating as shown in the increased
spacing of the 'beach marks' on the surface caused by the advancing fatigue crack.

Hawaii, Aloha Flight 243, a Boeing 737, an upper part of the plane's cabin
area rips off in mid-flight. Metal fatigue was the cause of the failure.

Fatigue: Cyclic Stresses

mean =

max + min
2

range = max min

amplitude =

max min

Stress _ ratio =

Fatigue: SN curves
Fatigue: rotating-bending tests produce S-N curves

S (stress) vs. N (number of cycles to failure)

Low cycle fatigue: high loads, plastic and elastic deformation
High cycle fatigue: low loads, elastic deformation (N > 105)

2
min
max

Fatigue limit occurs for some

materials (some Fe and Ti
alloys). SN curve becomes
horizontal at large N. Stress
amplitude below which the
material never fails, no matter
how large the number of cycles
is.
In most alloys (ex. FCC), S
decreases continuously with N.
Fatigue strength: stress at
which fracture occurs after
specified number of cycles (e.g.
107)
Fatigue life: Number of cycles
to fail at specified stress level

Fatigue Failure, S-N Curve

Se

Se = endurance limit of the specimen

Fatigue: Crack initiation and propagation

Three stages of fatigue failure:
1.crack initiation in the areas of stress concentration (near stress raisers)
2.incremental crack propagation
3.final rapid crack propagation after crack reaches critical size
The total number of cycles to failure is the sum of cycles at the first and the
second stages:
Nf = Ni + Np
Nf : Number of cycles to failure
Ni : Number of cycles for crack initiation
Np : Number of cycles for crack propagation
High cycle fatigue (low loads): Ni is relatively high. With increasing stress
level, Ni decreases and Np dominates

Crack initiation: Quality of surface is important. Sites of stress

concentration (microcracks, scratches, indents, interior corners,
dislocation slip steps, etc.).

 Crack propagation
I: slow propagation along crystal planes with high
resolved shear stress. Involves just a few grains,
has flat fracture surface
II: faster propagation perpendicular to the applied
stress. Crack grows by repetitive blunting and
sharpening process at crack tip. Rough fracture
surface.
Crack eventually reaches critical dimension and
propagates very rapidly
Factors that affect fatigue life
Magnitude of stress (mean, amplitude...)
Quality of the surface (scratches, sharp transitions and edges).
Solutions:
Polishing (removes machining flaws etc.)
Introducing compressive stresses (compensate for applied tensile stresses) into thin
surface layer by Shot Peening- firing small shot into surface to be treated. Hightech solution - ion implantation, laser peening.
Case Hardening - create C- or N- rich outer layer in steels by atomic diffusion from
the surface. Makes harder outer layer and also introduces compressive stresses
Optimizing geometry - avoid internal corners, notches etc.

Fatigue
Fracture surface with crack
initiation at top. Surface
shows predominantly dull
fibrous texture where rapid
failure occurred after crack
achieved critical size.
Fatigue failure
1.Crack initiation
2.Crack propagation
3.Final failure

11

 Striations are close together

indicating
low stress, many cycles.
Widely spaced striations mean Fatigue failure is brittle in nature, even in
high stress few cycles.

normally ductile materials; there is very

little plastic deformation associated with the
failure.
The image shows fatigue striations
(microscopic).

 Federal investigators say metal fatigue caused a hole to rip open in the roof of a
Southwest Airlines jet as it cruised at 35,000 feet last year (2009). The National
Transportation Safety Board says the 14-inch crack developed in a spot where two
sheets of aluminum skin were bonded together on the Boeing 737 jet.
The pilot made an emergency landing in Charleston, W.Va. There were no injuries
among the 126 passengers and five crew members. Two months after the scare,
Boeing told all airlines with 737s to conduct repeated inspections of the top of the
fuselage near the vertical tail fin. The Federal Aviation Administration has since
made those inspections mandatory.
Southwest got the plane in 1994 it's much older than the average Southwest jet
and had flown it for 50,500 hours and made 42,500 takeoffs and landings before it
sprang a hole in the roof, according to the safety board report. The safety board said
it found signs of metal fatigue by magnifying the area in front of the tail fin. In a 3inch stretch, the crack penetrated completely through the aluminum skin.
FAA records showed that eight cracks had been found and repaired in the fuselage
during the plane's 14-year checkup.

Fatigue Mechanism
Crack grows incrementally
increase in crack length
per loading cycle

da
m
= (K )
dN

Typically between.
1 to 6

~ ( ) a

crack origin

Failed rotating shaft

-- crack grew even though
Kmax < Kc
-- crack grows faster as
increases
crack gets longer
loading freq. increases.

Adapted from
Fig. 9.28, Callister &
Rethwisch 3e. (Fig.
9.28 is from D.J.
Wulpi, Understanding
How Components Fail,
American Society for
Metals, Materials Park,
OH, 1985.)

14

Crack growth rate

1. Initially, growth rate is small, but
increases with increasing crack
length.
2. Growth rate increases with
applied stress level for a given
crack length (a1).

Fatigue Crack Propagation

Three stages of crack growth, I, II and III.
Stage I: transition to a finite crack growth
rate from no propagation below a
threshold value of K.
Stage II: power law dependence of crack
growth rate on K.
Stage III: acceleration of growth rate with
K, approaching catastrophic fracture.

Paris Law:

da
= C ( K )n
dN

n ~ 3 (steel); n ~ 4 (aluminum).
Crack nucleation ignored!
Threshold ~ Stage I

Notes on crack growth equation

da
n
= C (K )
dN
K = Y max a Y min a
K = Y a
da

dN =
N=

n
2

n
2

CY n n a
2 ac( 2 n ) / 2 ai( 2 n ) / 2

(2 n)CY
n

n
2

Material constant n and C

ac; the flaw size required for
fracture
ai; initial flaw size
Crack will not propagate during
compression
If min is less than zero put
it as zero

Example
A high-strength steel plate has Kic of 80MPa.m0.5 is alternately loaded
in tension to 500 MPa and a compression to 60 MPa. The plate is to
survive 10 years, with the stress being applied at a frequency of once
every 5 minutes. Design a manufacturing and testing procedure. Data:
Y=1
Solution K Ic = 80 MPa m = Y a c = 1 * 500 Mpa ac

a c = 0.0081m = 8.1mm
1cycle 60 min 24h 365d
10 y = 1,051,200cycles
N=
5 min h
d
y
N=

2 ac( 2 n ) / 2 ai( 2 n ) / 2
(2 n)Cf n n

1,051,200 =

n
2

2 0.081( 2 n ) / 2 ai( 2 n ) / 2
(2 n)C1 500
n

n
2

For an specific material, use n=3.2, C=1.62*10-12

ai=1.82*106 m=0.00182 mm for surface flaw
If internal flow 2ai=0.00264 mm
Manufacturing process must produce surface and internal flaws
less than the above numbers
Non-destructive test must be able to detect this flaw size

Surface Treatments
During machining operations, small
scratches and grooves can be introduced;
these can limit the fatigue life.
Improving the surface finish by polishing
will enhance fatigue life significantly.
One of the most effective methods of
increasing fatigue performance is by
imposing residual compressive stresses
within a thin outer surface layer. A
surface tensile stress will be offset by the
compressive stress.
Shot peening (localized plastic deformation) with
small (diameters ranging from 0.1 to 1.0 mm), hard
particles (shot) are projected at high velocities on to
the surface. The resulting deformation induces
compressive stresses to a depth of roughly to of
the shot diameter.
The influence of shot peening is compared in the
graph.
20

Improving Fatigue Life

1. Impose a compressive surface stress
(to suppress surface cracks from growing)
--Method 1: shot peening

--Method 2: carburizing

shot

put
surface
into
compression

2. Remove stress
concentrators.

C-rich gas

bad

better

bad

better

21

Case Hardening
Case hardening is a technique where
both surface hardness and fatigue life
are improved for steel alloys.
Both core region and carburized
outer case region are seen in image.
Knoop microhardness shows case
has higher hardness (smaller indent).
A carbon or nitrogen rich outer
surface layer (case) is introduced by
atomic diffusion from the gaseous
phase. The case is typically 1mm
deep and is harder than the inner core
material.

Creep

Stress

Time dependant permanent

deformation
At constant stress, strain
continues to increase

Strain
Time

Heat Damaged Blades

SC Grain
Structure

Creep Failure

Mechanisms of Creep
High rates of diffusion induces the reshaping of crystals to relieve
stress
Diffusion is significant at both grain boundaries and in the bulk
High energy and weak bonds allow dislocations to climb around
structures that pin them at lower temperature

The Creep Test

Usually a tensile bar

Dead load applied
Strain is plotted with time
Test usually ends with rupture (failure)

Classical creep
curve

Creep
Time-dependent and permanent deformation of materials when subjected
to a constant load at a high temperature (> 0.4 Tm). Examples: turbine
blades, steam generators.

Application of Classical Curve

Stages of creep

Steady state creep rate determined

from straight section (secondary
creep)
Arhennius model captures
temperature dependence
(diffusion!)
Several tests at different
temperatures & stress levels can be
used to determine material model
parameters

1.Instantaneous deformation, mainly elastic.

2.Primary/transient creep. Slope of strain vs. time decreases with time:
work-hardening
3.Secondary/steady-state creep. Rate of straining constant: workhardening and recovery.
4.Tertiary. Rapidly accelerating strain rate up to failure: formation of
internal cracks, voids, grain boundary separation, necking, etc.
Secondary/steady-state creep is of longest duration and
the steady-state creep rate
.
Most important parameter of the creep behavior in longlife applications:
Another parameter, especially important in short-life
creep situations, is time to rupture, or the rupture
lifetime, tr.

&s =

/t

tr

Creep: stress and

temperature effects
With increasing stress or temperature:
The instantaneous strain increases
The steady-state creep rate increases
The time to rupture decreases

Example:
The steady-state creep strain rate for a Carbon-Nickel alloy is
0.1%/1000h at 650C and 10MPa stress. Estimate the lifetime of a
turbine blade that is 75 mm long initially and can creep 0.5mm
before contacting the casing.

creep = &s .t
creep
Lo=75 mm

Lc 0.5mm
=
=
Lo
75mm

creep = 0.0067=0.67%

creep = 0.67% = (0.1% / 1000h ) (t )

t = 6.7x103 h

Creep in the Concorde

16 were built. Speed: Mach 2.2; Length 25.5 m
Design Life: 20,000 flying hrs.
Primary Structural Alloy : 2618 Aluminum for
Creep Resistance.

Design
The operating temperature of
the airframe is about 100C due
to kinetic heating at cruising
altitude. The design creep strain
limit was 0.1% over the design
life of 20,000 hrs. Hence, the
age hardened aluminum alloy
2618 was selected.
How much would the length change
if this creep was distributed evenly
over the entire airframe?

Stress = 175 MPa

(25.5 mm!)

Creep Constitutive Models

In physics, a constitutive model (equation) mathematically describes the relationship
between two physical quantities (often described by tensors) that is specific to a
material, and approximates the response of that material to external stimulus.

Qc

n
= &s = K 2 exp

t
RT
For T = constant

Creep Rupture Method

n
= K1
t

When rupture (catastrophic failure) is the only concern (eg

boiler tubes) a simpler method will do
Maps of time to rupture as a function of stress and
temperature are used to determine the expected life

Stress Rupture Curve

(Applied stress vs. time to rupture)

Threshold for Creep

The Critical Temperature for Creep is 40% of the Melting Temperature.
If T > 0.40 TM Creep Is Likely

Example

Will Lead Products Creep at Room Temperature?

TM = 327 C = 600 K
TROOM = 23 C = 296 K
100 x 296 / 600 =49.3 % Will Creep

Secondary Creep
Strain rate is constant at a given T,
-- strain hardening is balanced by recovery
stress exponent (material parameter)

Qc

& s = K 2 exp

RT
n

strain rate
material const.

activation energy for creep

(material parameter)

applied stress

Strain rate increases

for higher T,
n and Qc are important as they indicate the
creep mechanism in operation
n = 1: diffusional creep
n = 1-2: grain boundary sliding
n = 3: viscous glide of dislocations
n = 4-5: dislocation climb
Qc may be compared to activation energies
for various diffusion processes that may
control creep

200
100

Stress (MPa)

40
20
10
10 -2
10 -1
Steady state creep rate

427C
538 C
649 C
1
s (%/1000hr)

Data Extrapolation
Creep tests at low temperatures are often too time-consuming to
conduct in practice. Hence, methods have been devised to
extrapolate creep data measured at high temperature to lower
temperatures.
One method employs the Larson-Miller parameter, LMP, which
is a constant for a material subjected to given stress.

LMP = T (C + log tr )
Where C is constant, T is in Kelvin and tr is the rupture lifetime in
hours.

Larson-Miller Parameter for an Iron Alloy

Stress (MPa)

1000

100

10
12

17

22

27

T (20 + log t r ) x10 ( K h)

3

32

Creep Failure
Failure:

Estimate rupture time

along grain boundaries.

S-590 Iron, T = 800C, = 20 ksi

g.b. cavities
applied
stress

From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of

Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig. 4.32, p. 87, John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: Pergamon
Press, Inc.)

Time to rupture, tr

T ( 20 + logt r ) = L

function of
applied stress
time to failure (rupture)

temperature

Adapted from Callister 7e.

(from F.R. Larson and J.
Miller, Trans. ASME, 74, 765
(1952).)

Stress, ksi

100
20
10
data for
S-590 Iron
1
12 16 20 24 28
L(10 3 K-log hr)

24x103 K-log hr

T ( 20 + logt r ) = L
1073K

Ans: tr = 233 hr

L is the
LarsonMiller
parameter

Considering a Problem:
S-590 steel subject to stress of 55 MPa
Using Data in L vs stress plot, L 26.2x103
Determine the temperature for creep at which the component
fails at 200 hours

T ( 20 + log tr ) = L
T= L

( 20 + log tr )

T = 902C o

3
26.2
10

( 20 + log(200) )

1175K o

For the Iron alloy (S-590), determine the sustained stress

that will allow a rupture life of 250 hrs at a temperature of
800C. L = T (C + log(t )) = (800 + 273){20 + log(250)}
r
L = 24000 K h
1000

Stress (MPa)

Stress = 130 MPa

100

10
12

17

22

24

27

T ( 20 + log t r ) x10 ( K h )
3

32

The stress-temperature dependence

of the steady-state creep rate can be
described by

Qc

& s = K 2 exp

RT
n

where Qc is the activation energy for

creep, K2 and n are material constants.

Mechanisms of Creep
Different mechanisms are responsible
for creep in different materials and
under different loading and
temperature conditions. The
mechanisms include:
Stress-assisted vacancy
diffusion
Grain boundary diffusion
Grain boundary sliding
Dislocation motion
Different mechanisms result in
different values of n, Qc.

Grain boundary diffusion

Dislocation glide and climb

Alloys for high-temperature use

(turbines in jet engines, hypersonic airplanes, nuclear reactors, etc.)
Creep is generally minimized in materials with:
9 High melting temperature
9 High elastic modulus
9 Large grain sizes (inhibits grain boundary sliding)
The following materials are especially resilient to creep:
9 Stainless steels
9 Refractory metals (containing elements of high melting point, like Nb, Mo,
W, Ta)
9 Superalloys (Co, Ni based: solid solution hardening and secondary
phases)

1.

Reduce the effect of grain boundaries

Use Single Crystals

Stress Rupture in Single Crystals

CMSX-4 & CM 186 (yellow) are Single Crystals

Advanced Materials & Processes April 1995

Where Does Creep Occur?

Combustion chambers (gas & oil fired furnaces)

Pressurized piping (steam power plants, nuclear plants, heat exchangers)
Blades and components in gas turbines (Jet engines, power plant turbines)
Polymeric systems

http://www.moelleraircraft.com/airfoil2.htm

Semi-Log Data
Creep Rupture

David Woodford
http://www.creeprupture.com/paper1.htm

Log-Log Data
Chris Wilson and Brett Marmo
http://www.virtualexplorer.com.au/VEjournal

d
ln = ln K1 + n ln
dt

y = b + mx

Variability of Properties
Materials properties (such as tensile strength) are not exact quantities (such
as density)
Several samples from the same material may have slightly different stressstrain diagrams.
Average of several different data:
x = xi /n
2
1 /2
Variability (standard deviation) s = [ (xi - x) / (n-1) ]

Safety Factors
Materials variability and uncertainty about loads, hence:
DESIGN MUST PREVENT

PREMATURE FAILURE

Safety factor (N = 1.5 - 3) determines working (allowed) stress:

allowed = y / N