LINAGAY'S INSTITUTE OF MGT.

& TECHNOLOGY
FARIDABAD

TO
WHOM IT
MAY
CO#CER.

I hereby certify
that Ankush Arya
Roll
No
06-EE-013
of
Lingaya's Instt. of Mgt & Tech.
Faridabad
has
undergone
six
weeks
industrial
training
from
1st
July, 2009 to
8th
August
2009 at our organization to
fulfill the requirements
for the award of degree of B.E
Electrical
& Elecctronics Engineering.
He works
on Power
Plant
Overview
project
during
the
training
under
the
supervision
of
Mr.
G.
D.
Sharma.
During
his
tenure
with
us
wefound
him
sincere
and
hard
working.

We
wish
him
a
great
success
in
the
future.

Signature
of
the
Student

Ankush Arya
ACK#OWLEDGEME#T

The
authors
are
highly
grateful
to
the
Mr Y.S Goyal, Principal,
Lingayas Instt. Of Mgt. &
Tech. (LIMAT),
faridabad, for
providing
this
opportunity
to
carry out the
six weeks industrial
training
at
National Thermal Power
Corporation,
New
Delhi.

The
authors
would
like
to
express
a
deep
sense
of
gratitude
and
thanks
profusely
to
Mr.
R.
S.
Sharma,
CMD
of
the
Company,
without
the
wise
counsel
and
able
guidance,
it
would
have
been
impossible
to
complete
the
report
in
this
manner.

The
help
rendered
by
Ms
Rachana
Singh
Bhal,
Supervisor,
National
Thermal
Power
Corporation
for
experimentation
is
greatly
acknowledged.

The
author
expresses
gratitude
to
the
HOD and
other
faculty
members
of
Department
of
Electrical & Electronics
Engineering
of
LIMAT
for
their
intellectual
support
throughout the
course
of
this
work.

Finally,
the
authors
are
indebted
to
all
whosoever
have
contributed
in
this
report
work
and
friendly
stay
at
Badarpur
Thermal
Power
Station,
New
Delhi.

Ankush Arya
ankush.arya88@gmail.com
9899611569
CONTENT

1.
Introduction
to
the
Company
a.
About
the
Company
b.
Vision
c.
Strategies
d.
Evolution
2.
Introduction
to
the
Project
3.
Project
Report
a.
Operation
i.
Introduction
ii.
Steam
Boiler
iii.
Steam
Turbine
iv.
Turbine
Generator
b.
EMD�I
i.
Coal
Handling
Plant
ii.
Motors
iii.
Switchgear
iv.
High
Tension
Switchgear
v.
Direct
On
Line
Starter
c.
EMD�II
i.
Generator
ii.
Protection
iii.
Transformer
4.
Reference
I#TRODUCTIO.
TO
THE COMPA#Y

�
About
the
Company
�
Vision
�
Strategies
�
Evolution
#ational
Thermal
Power
Corporation
Limited
Badarpur
Thermal
Power
Station
Badarpur,
#ew
Delhi
ABOUT
THE
COMPANY

NTPC,
the
largest
power
Company
in
India,
was
setup
in
1975
to
accelerate
power
development
in
the
country.
It
is
among
the
world�s
largest
and
most
efficient
power
generation
companies.
In
Forbes
list
of
World�s
2000
Largest
Companies
for
the
year
2007,
NTPC
occupies
411th
place.

A
View
of
Badarpur
Thermal
Power
Station,
#ew
Delhi

NTPC
has
installed
capacity
of
29,394
MW.
It
has
15
coal
based
power
stations
(23,395
MW),
7
gas
based
power
stations
(3,955
MW)
and
4
power
stations
in
Joint
Ventures
(1,794
MW).
The
company
has
power
generating
facilities
in
all
major
regions
of
the
country.
It
plans
to
be
a
75,000
MW
company
by
2017.

NTPC
has
gone

beyond
the
thermal
power
generation.
It
has
diversified
into
hydro
power,
coal
mining,
power
equipment
manufacturing,
oil
&
gas
exploration,
power
trading
&
distribution.
NTPC
is
now
in
the
entire
power
value
chain
and
is
poised
to
become
an
Integrated
Power
Major.
NTPC's
share
on
31
Mar
2008
in
the
total
installed
capacity
of
the
country
was
19.1%
and
it
contributed
28.50%
of
the
total
power
generation
of
the
country
during
2007-08.
NTPC
has
set
new
benchmarks
for
the
power
industry
both
in
the
area
of
power
plant
construction
and
operations.
With
its
experience
and
expertise
in
the
power
sector,
NTPC
is
extending
consultancy
services
to
various
organizations
in
the
power
business.
It
provides
consultancy
in
the
area
of
power
plant
constructions
and
power
generation
to
companies
in
India
and
abroad.
In
November
2004,
NTPC
came
out
with
its
Initial
Public
Offering
(IPO)
consisting
of
5.25%
as
fresh
issue
and
5.25%
as
offer
for
sale
by
Government
of
India.
NTPC
thus
became
a
listed
company
with
Government
holding
89.5%
of
the
equity
share
capital
and
rest
held
by
Institutional
Investors
and
Public.
The
issue
was
a
resounding
success.
NTPC
is
among
the
largest
five
companies
in
India
in
terms
of
market
capitalization.

Recognizing
its
excellent
performance
and
vast
potential,
Government
of
the
India
has
identified
NTPC
as
one
of
the
jewels
of
Public
Sector
'Navratnas'-a
potential
global
giant.
Inspired
by
its
glorious
past
and
vibrant
present,
NTPC
is
well
on
its
way
to
realize
its
vision
of
being
"A
world
class
integrated
power
major,
powering
India's
growth,
with
increasing
global
presence".
VISION

A
world
class
integrated
power
major,
powering
India's
growth
with
increasing
global
presence.

Mission
MissionMissioMMnissionission

Develop
and
provide
reliable
power
related
products
and
services
at
competitive
prices,
integrating
multiple
energy
resources
with
innovative
&
Eco-friendly
technologies
and
contribution
to
the
society

View
of
a
well
flourished
power
plant
Core Values BCOMIT
CoreValuesCoreValuesCoreValuesCoreValues----BBBBCCCCOOOOMMMMIIIITTTT

�
Business
ethics
�
Customer
Focus
�
Organizational
&
Professional
Pride
�
Mutual
Respect
&
Trust
�
Innovation
&
Speed
�
Total
Quality
for
Excellence
STRATEGIES

Technological Initiatives
TechnologicalInitiativesTechnologicalInitiativeTTsechnologicalInitiativesechnologi
calInitiatives

�
Introduction
of
steam
generators
(boilers)
of
the
size
of
800
MW
�
Integrated
Gasification
Combined
Cycle
(IGCC)
Technology
�
Launch
of
Energy
Technology
Center
-A
new
initiative
for
development
of
technologies
with
focus
on
fundamental
R&D
�
The
company
sets
aside
up
to
0.5%
of
the
profits
for
R&D
�
Roadmap
developed
for
adopting
�Clean
Development
�
Mechanism�
to
help
get
/
earn
�Certified
Emission
Reduction
Corporate Social Responsibility
CorporateSocialResponsibilityCorporateSocialResponsibilitCCyorporateSocialResponsi
bilityorporateSocialResponsibility

�
As
a
responsible
corporate
citizen
NTPC
has
taken
up
number
of
CSR
initiatives
�
NTPC
Foundation
formed
to
address
Social
issues
at
national
level
�
NTPC
has
framed
Corporate
Social
Responsibility
Guidelines
committing
up
to
0.5%
of
net
profit
annually
for
Community
Welfare
Measures
on
perennial
basis
�
The
welfare
of
project
affected
persons
and
the
local
population
around
NTPC
projects
are
taken
care
of
through
well
drawn
Rehabilitation
and
Resettlement
policies
�
The
company
has
also
taken
up
distributed
generation
for
remote
rural
areas
Environment Management
EnvironmentMEnvironmentMEnvironmentMEnvironmentMaaaannnnaaaaggggeeeemmmmeeeennnntt
tt

�
All
stations
of
NTPC
are
ISO
14001
certified
�
Various
groups
to
care
of
environmental
issues
�
The
Environment
Management
Group
�
Ash
Utilization
Division
�
Afforestation
Group
�
Centre
for
Power
Efficiency
&
Environment
Protection
�
Group
on
Clean
Development
Mechanism
#TPC
is
the
second
largest
owner
of
trees
in
the
country
after
the
Forest
department.
Partnering government in various initiatives
PartneringgovernmentinvariousinitiativesPartneringgovernmentinvariousinitiativePPs
artneringgovernmentinvariousinitiativesartnernggovernmentinvariousinitiatives

�
Consultant
role
to
modernize
and
improvise
several
plants
across
the
country
�
Disseminate
technologies
to
other
players
in
the
sector
�
Consultant
role
�Partnership
in
Excellence�
Programme
for
improvement
of
PLF
of
15
Power
Stations
of
SEBs.
�
Rural
Electrification
work
under
Rajiv
Gandhi
Grameen
Vidyutikaran
Yojana
EVOLUTION

1975
NTPC
was
set
up
in
1975
with
100%
ownership
by
the
Government
of
India.
In
the
last
30
years,
NTPC
has
grown
into
the
largest
power
utility
in
India.

1997
2004
2005
2008
In
1997,
Government
of
India
granted
NTPC
status
of
�Navratna�
being
one
of
the
nine
jewels
of
India,
enhancing
the
powers
to
the
Board
of
Directors.

NTPC
became
a
listed
company
with
majority
Government
ownership
of
89.5%.

NTPC
becomes
third
largest
by
Market
Capitalization
of
listed
companies

The
company
rechristened
as
NTPC
Limited
in
line
with
its
changing
business
portfolio
and
transforms
itself
from
a
thermal
power
utility
to
an
integrated
power
utility.

National
Thermal
Power
Corporation
is
the
largest
power
generation
company
in
India.
Forbes
Global
2000
for
2008
ranked
it
411th
in
the
world.

#TPC
is
the
largest
power
utility
in
India,
accounting
for
about
20%
of
India�s
installed
capacity.
I#TRODUCTIO.
TO
THEMAL
POWER
PLA#T

�
Introduction
�
Classification
�
Functioning
INTRODUCTION

Power
Station
(also
referred
to
as
generating
station
or
power
plant)
is
an
industrial
facility
for
the
generation
of
electric
power.
Power
plant
is
also
used
to
refer
to
the
engine
in
ships,
aircraft
and
other
large
vehicles.
Some
prefer
to
use
the
term
energy
center
because
it
more
accurately
describes
what
the
plants
do,
which
is
the
conversion
of
other
forms
of
energy,
like
chemical
energy,
gravitational
potential
energy
or
heat
energy
into
electrical
energy.
However,
power
plant
is
the
most
common
term
in
the
U.S.,
while
elsewhere
power
station
and
power
plant
are
both
widely
used,
power
station
prevailing
in
many
Commonwealth
countries
and
especially
in
the
United
Kingdom.
A
coal-fired
Thermal
Power
Plant

At
the
center
of
nearly
all
power
stations
is
a
generator,
a
rotating
machine
that
converts
mechanical
energy
into
electrical
energy
by
creating
relative
motion
between
a
magnetic
field
and
a
conductor.
The
energy
source
harnessed
to
turn
the
generator
varies
widely.
It
depends
chiefly
on
what
fuels
are
easily
available
and
the
types
of
technology
that
the
power
company
has
access
to.

In
thermal
power
stations,
mechanical
power
is
produced
by
a
heat
engine,
which
transforms
thermal
energy,
often
from
combustion
of
a
fuel,
into
rotational
energy.
Most
thermal
power
stations
produce
steam,
and
these
are
sometimes
called
steam
power
stations.
About
80%
of
all
electric
power
is
generated
by
use
of
steam
turbines.
Not
all
thermal
energy
can
be
transformed
to
mechanical
power,
according
to
the
second
law
of
thermodynamics.
Therefore,
there
is
always
heat
lost
to
the
environment.
If
this
loss
is
employed
as
useful
heat,
for
industrial
processes
or
district
heating,
the
power
plant
is
referred
to
as
a
cogeneration
power
plant
or
CHP
(combined
heat-and-power)
plant.
In
countries
where
district
heating
is
common,
there
are
dedicated
heat
plants
called
heat-only
boiler
stations.
An
important
class
of
power
stations
in
the
Middle
East
uses
byproduct
heat
for
desalination
of
water.
CLASSIFICATION

By fuel
ByfuelByfueBBlyfuelyfuel

�
Nuclear
power
plants
use
a
nuclear
reactor's
heat
to
operate
a
steam
turbine
generator.
�
Fossil
fuelled
power
plants
may
also
use
a
steam
turbine
generator
or
in
the
case
of
natural
gas
fired
plants
may
use
a
combustion
turbine.
�
Geothermal
power
plants
use
steam
extracted
from
hot
underground
rocks.
�
Renewable
energy
plants
may
be
fuelled
by
waste
from
sugar
cane,
municipal
solid
waste,
landfill
methane,
or
other
forms
of
biomass.
�
In
integrated
steel
mills,
blast
furnace
exhaust
gas
is
a
low-cost,
although
low-energy-
density,
fuel.
�
Waste
heat
from
industrial
processes
is
occasionally
concentrated
enough
to
use
for
power
generation,
usually
in
a
steam
boiler
and
turbine.
By prime mover
ByprimemoverByprimemoveBBryprimemoveryprimemover

�
Steam
turbine
plants
use
the
dynamic
pressure
generated
by
expanding
steam
to
turn
the
blades
of
a
turbine.
Almost
all
large
non-hydro
plants
use
this
system.
�
Gas
turbine
plants
use
the
dynamic
pressure
from
flowing
gases
to
directly
operate
the
turbine.
Natural-gas
fuelled
turbine
plants
can
start
rapidly
and
so
are
used
to
supply
"peak"
energy
during
periods
of
high
demand,
though
at
higher
cost
than
base-loaded
plants.
These
may
be
comparatively
small
units,
and
sometimes
completely
unmanned,
being
remotely
operated.
This
type
was
pioneered
by
the
UK,
Prince
town
being
the
world's
first,
commissioned
in
1959.
�
Combined
cycle
plants
have
both
a
gas
turbine
fired
by
natural
gas,
and
a
steam
boiler
and
steam
turbine
which
use
the
exhaust
gas
from
the
gas
turbine
to
produce
electricity.
This
greatly
increases
the
overall
efficiency
of
the
plant,
and
many
new
base
load
power
plants
are
combined
cycle
plants
fired
by
natural
gas.
�
Internal
combustion
Reciprocating
engines
are
used
to
provide
power
for
isolated
communities
and
are
frequently
used
for
small
cogeneration
plants.
Hospitals,
office
buildings,
industrial
plants,
and
other
critical
facilities
also
use
them
to
provide
backup
power
in
case
of
a
power
outage.
These
are
usually
fuelled
by
diesel
oil,
heavy
oil,
natural
gas
and
landfill
gas.
�
Micro
turbines,
Sterling
engine
and
internal
combustion
reciprocating
engines
are
low
cost
solutions
for
using
opportunity
fuels,
such
as
landfill
gas,
digester
gas
from
water
treatment
plants
and
waste
gas
from
oil
production.
FUNCTIONING

Functioning of thermal power plant:

Functioningofthermalpowerplant:FunctioningofthermalpowerplantFF:unctioningoftherma
lpowerplant:unctioningofthermalpowerplant:

In
a
thermal
power
plant,
one
of
coal,
oil
or
natural
gas
is
used
to
heat
the
boiler
to
convert
the
water
into
steam.
The
steam
is
used
to
turn
a
turbine,
which
is
connected
to
a
generator.
When
the
turbine
turns,
electricity
is
generated
and
given
as
output
by
the
generator,
which
is
then
supplied
to
the
consumers
through
high-voltage
power
lines.

Process
of
a
Thermal
Power
Plant

Detailed process of power generation in a

DetailedprocessofpowergenerationinaDetailedprocessofpowergenerationinDDaetailedpro
cessofpowergenerationinaetailedprocessofpowerenerationinathermal power plant:
thermalpowerplant:thermalpowerplanttt:hermalpowerplant:hermalpowerplant:

1)
Water
intake:
Firstly,
water
is
taken
into
the
boiler
through
a
water
source.
If
water
is
available
in
a
plenty
in
the
region,
then
the
source
is
an
open
pond
or
river.
If
water
is
scarce,
then
it
is
recycled
and
the
same
water
is
used
over
and
over
again.

2)
Boiler
heating:
The
boiler
is
heated
with
the
help
of
oil,
coal
or
natural
gas.
A
furnace
is
used
to
heat
the
fuel
and
supply
the
heat
produced
to
the
boiler.
The
increase
in
temperature
helps
in
the
transformation
of
water
into
steam.
3)
Steam
Turbine:
The
steam
generated
in
the
boiler
is
sent
through
a
steam
turbine.
The
turbine
has
blades
that
rotate
when
high
velocity
steam
flows
across
them.
This
rotation
of
turbine
blades
is
used
to
generate
electricity.

4)
Generator:
A
generator
is
connected
to
the
steam
turbine.
When
the
turbine
rotates,
the
generator
produces
electricity
which
is
then
passed
on
to
the
power
distribution
systems.

5)
Special
mountings:
There
is
some
other
equipment
like
the
economizer
and
air
pre-heater.
An
economizer
uses
the
heat
from
the
exhaust
gases
to
heat
the
feed
water.
An
air
pre-heater
heats
the
air
sent
into
the
combustion
chamber
to
improve
the
efficiency
of
the
combustion
process.

6)
Ash
collection
system:
There
is
a
separate
residue
and
ash
collection
system
in
place
to
collect
all
the
waste
materials
from
the
combustion
process
and
to
prevent
them
from
escaping
into
the
atmosphere.

Apart
from
this,
there
are
various
other
monitoring
systems
and
instruments
in
place
to
keep
track
of
the
functioning
of
all
the
devices.
This
prevents
any
hazards
from
taking
place
in
the
plant.
PROJECT
REPORT

�
OPERATIO.
�
EMD
�
I
�
EMD
�
II
Module
-I

OPERATIO.

�
Introduction
�
Steam
Generator
or
Boiler
�
Steam
Turbine
�
Electric
Generator
Introduction

The
operating
performance
of
NTPC
has
been
considerably
above
the
national
average.
The
availability
factor
for
coal
stations
has
increased
from
85.03
%
in
1997-98
to
90.09
%
in
2006-
07,
which
compares
favourably
with
international
standards.
The
PLF
has
increased
from
75.2%
in
1997-98
to
89.4%
during
the
year
2006-07
which
is
the
highest
since
the
inception
of
NTPC.

Operation
Room
of
Power
Plant

In
a
Badarpur
Thermal
Power
Station,
steam
is
produced
and
used
to
spin
a
turbine
that
operates
a
generator.
Water
is
heated,
turns
into
steam
and
spins
a
steam
turbine
which
drives
an
electrical
generator.
After
it
passes
through
the
turbine,
the
steam
is
condensed
in
a
condenser;
this
is
known
as
a
Rankine
cycle.
Shown
here
is
a
diagram
of
a
conventional
thermal
power
plant,
which
uses
coal,
oil,
or
natural
gas
as
fuel
to
boil
water
to
produce
the
steam.
The
electricity
generated
at
the
plant
is
sent
to
consumers
through
high-voltage
power
lines.

The
Badarpur
Thermal
Power
Plant
has
Steam
Turbine-Driven
Generators
which
has
a
collective
capacity
of
705MW.
The
fuel
being
used
is
Coal
which
is
supplied
from
the
Jharia
Coal
Field
in
Jharkhand.
Water
supply
is
given
from
the
Agra
Canal.

Table:
Capacity
of
Badarpur
Thermal
Power
Station,
New
Delhi

Sr.
#o.
Capacity
#o.
of
Generators
Total
Capacity
1.
210
MW
2
420
MW
2.
95
MW
3
285
MW
Total
705
MW
There
are
basically
three
main
units
of
a
thermal
power
plant:

1.
Steam
Generator
or
Boiler
2.
Steam
Turbine
3.
Electric
Generator
We
have
discussed
about
the
processes
of
electrical
generation
further.
A
complete
detailed
description
of
the
three
units
is
given
further.

Typical
Diagram
of
a
Coal
based
Thermal
Power
Plant
1.
Cooling
tower
10.
Steam
governor
valve
19.
Superheater
2.
Cooling
water
pump
11.
High
pressure
turbine
20.
Forced
draught
fan
3.
Transmission
line
(3-phase)
12.
Deaerator
21.
Reheater
4.
Unit
transformer
(3-phase)
13.
Feed
heater
22.
Air
intake
5.
Electric
generator
(3-phase)
14.
Coal
conveyor
23.
Economiser
6.
Low
pressure
turbine
15.
Coal
hopper
24.
Air
preheater
7.
Condensate
extraction
pump
16.
Pulverised
fuel
mill
25.
Precipitator
8.
Condensor
17.
Boiler
drum
26.
Induced
draught
fan
9.
Intermediate
pressure
turbine
18.
Ash
hopper
27.
Chimney
Stack

Coal
is
conveyed
(14)
from
an
external
stack
and
ground
to
a
very
fine
powder
by
large
metal
spheres
in
the
pulverised
fuel
mill
(16).
There
it
is
mixed
with
preheated
air
(24)
driven
by
the
forced
draught
fan
(20).
The
hot
air-fuel
mixture
is
forced
at
high
pressure
into
the
boiler
where
it
rapidly
ignites.
Water
of
a
high
purity
flows
vertically
up
the
tube-lined
walls
of
the
boiler,
where
it
turns
into
steam,
and
is
passed
to
the
boiler
drum,
where
steam
is
separated
from
any
remaining
water.
The
steam
passes
through
a
manifold
in
the
roof
of
the
drum
into
the
pendant
superheater
(19)
where
its
temperature
and
pressure
increase
rapidly
to
around
200
bar
and
540�C,
sufficient
to
make
the
tube
walls
glow
a
dull
red.
The
steam
is
piped
to
the
high
pressure
turbine
(11),
the
first
of
a
three-stage
turbine
process.
A
steam
governor
valve
(10)
allows
for
both
manual
control
of
the
turbine
and
automatic
set-point
following.
The
steam
is
exhausted
from
the
high
pressure
turbine,
and
reduced
in
both
pressure
and
temperature,
is
returned
to
the
boiler
reheater
(21).
The
reheated
steam
is
then
passed
to
the
intermediate
pressure
turbine
(9),
and
from
there
passed
directly
to
the
low
pressure
turbine
set
(6).
The
exiting
steam,
now
a
little
above
its
boiling
point,
is
brought
into
thermal
contact
with
cold
water
(pumped
in
from
the
cooling
tower)
in
the
condensor
(8),
where
it
condenses
rapidly
back
into
water,
creating
near
vacuum-like
conditions
inside
the
condensor
chest.
The
condensed
water
is
then
passed
by
a
feed
pump
(7)
through
a
deaerator
(12),
and
pre-warmed,
first
in
a
feed
heater
(13)
powered
by
steam
drawn
from
the
high
pressure
set,
and
then
in
the
economiser
(23),
before
being
returned
to
the
boiler
drum.
The
cooling
water
from
the
condensor
is
sprayed
inside
a
cooling
tower
(1),
creating
a
highly
visible
plume
of
water
vapor,
before
being
pumped
back
to
the
condensor
(8)
in
cooling
water
cycle.

The
three
turbine
sets
are
sometimes
coupled
on
the
same
shaft
as
the
three-phase
electrical
generator
(5)
which
generates
an
intermediate
level
voltage
(typically
20-25
kV).
This
is
stepped
up
by
the
unit
transformer
(4)
to
a
voltage
more
suitable
for
transmission
(typically
250-500
kV)
and
is
sent
out
onto
the
three-phase
transmission
system
(3).

Exhaust
gas
from
the
boiler
is
drawn
by
the
induced
draft
fan
(26)
through
an
electrostatic
precipitator
(25)
and
is
then
vented
through
the
chimney
stack
(27).
Steam
Generator
or
Boiler

The
boiler
is
a
rectangular
furnace
about
50
ft
(15
m)
on
a
side
and
130
ft
(40
m)
tall.
Its
walls
are
made
of
a
web
of
high
pressure
steel
tubes
about
2.3
inches
(60
mm)
in
diameter.

Pulverized
coal
is
air-blown
into
the
furnace
from
fuel
nozzles
at
the
four
corners
and
it
rapidly
burns,
forming
a
large
fireball
at
the
center.
The
thermal
radiation
of
the
fireball
heats
the
water
that
circulates
through
the
boiler
tubes
near
the
boiler
perimeter.
The
water
circulation
rate
in
the
boiler
is
three
to
four
times
the
throughput
and
is
typically
driven
by
pumps.
As
the
water
in
the
boiler
circulates
it
absorbs
heat
and
changes
into
steam
at
700
�F
(370
�C)
and
3,200
psi
(22.1
MPa).
It
is
separated
from
the
water
inside
a
drum
at
the
top
of
the
furnace.
The
saturated
steam
is
introduced
into
superheat
pendant
tubes
that
hang
in
the
hottest
part
of
the
combustion
gases
as
they
exit
the
furnace.
Here
the
steam
is
superheated
to
1,000
�F
(540
�C)
to
prepare
it
for
the
turbine.

The
steam
generating
boiler
has
to
produce
steam
at
the
high
purity,
pressure
and
temperature
required
for
the
steam
turbine
that
drives
the
electrical
generator.
The
generator
includes
the
economizer,
the
steam
drum,
the
chemical
dosing
equipment,
and
the
furnace
with
its
steam
generating
tubes
and
the
superheater
coils.
Necessary
safety
valves
are
located
at
suitable
points
to
avoid
excessive
boiler
pressure.
The
air
and
flue
gas
path
equipment
include:
forced
draft
(FD)
fan,
air
preheater
(APH),
boiler
furnace,
induced
draft
(ID)
fan,
fly
ash
collectors
(electrostatic
precipitator
or
baghouse)
and
the
flue
gas
stack.
Schematic
diagram
of
a
coal-fired
power
plant
steam
generator

For
units
over
about
210
MW
capacity,
redundancy
of
key
components
is
provided
by
installing
duplicates
of
the
FD
fan,
APH,
fly
ash
collectors
and
ID
fan
with
isolating
dampers.
On
some
units
of
about
60
MW,
two
boilers
per
unit
may
instead
be
provided.
Boiler Furnace and Steam Drum
BoilerFurnaceandSteamDrumBoilerFurnaceandSteamDruBBmoilerFurnaceandSteamDrumoilerF
urnaceandSteamDrum

Once
water
inside
the
boiler
or
steam
generator,
the
process
of
adding
the
latent
heat
of
vaporization
or
enthalpy
is
underway.
The
boiler
transfers
energy
to
the
water
by
the
chemical
reaction
of
burning
some
type
of
fuel.

The
water
enters
the
boiler
through
a
section
in
the
convection
pass
called
the
economizer.
From
the
economizer
it
passes
to
the
steam
drum.
Once
the
water
enters
the
steam
drum
it
goes
down
the
down
comers
to
the
lower
inlet
water
wall
headers.
From
the
inlet
headers
the
water
rises
through
the
water
walls
and
is
eventually
turned
into
steam
due
to
the
heat
being
generated
by
the
burners
located
on
the
front
and
rear
water
walls
(typically).
As
the
water
is
turned
into
steam/vapor
in
the
water
walls,
the
steam/vapor
once
again
enters
the
steam
drum.

External
View
of
an
Industrial
Boiler
at
Badarpur
Thermal
Power
Station,
#ew
Delhi

The
steam/vapor
is
passed
through
a
series
of
steam
and
water
separators
and
then
dryers
inside
the
steam
drum.
The
steam
separators
and
dryers
remove
the
water
droplets
from
the
steam
and
the
cycle
through
the
water
walls
is
repeated.
This
process
is
known
as
natural
circulation.

The
boiler
furnace
auxiliary
equipment
includes
coal
feed
nozzles
and
igniter
guns,
soot
blowers,
water
lancing
and
observation
ports
(in
the
furnace
walls)
for
observation
of
the
furnace
interior.
Furnace
explosions
due
to
any
accumulation
of
combustible
gases
after
a
trip-
out
are
avoided
by
flushing
out
such
gases
from
the
combustion
zone
before
igniting
the
coal.

The
steam
drum
(as
well
as
the
superheater
coils
and
headers)
have
air
vents
and
drains
needed
for
initial
startup.
The
steam
drum
has
an
internal
device
that
removes
moisture
from
the
wet
steam
entering
the
drum
from
the
steam
generating
tubes.
The
dry
steam
then
flows
into
the
superheater
coils.
Geothermal
plants
need
no
boiler
since
they
use
naturally
occurring
steam
sources.
Heat
exchangers
may
be
used
where
the
geothermal
steam
is
very
corrosive
or
contains
excessive
suspended
solids.
Nuclear
plants
also
boil
water
to
raise
steam,
either
directly
passing
the
working
steam
through
the
reactor
or
else
using
an
intermediate
heat
exchanger.

Fuel Preparation System

FuelPreparationSystemFuelPreparationSysteFFmuelPreparationSystemuelPreparationSyst
em

In
coal-fired
power
stations,
the
raw
feed
coal
from
the
coal
storage
area
is
first
crushed
into
small
pieces
and
then
conveyed
to
the
coal
feed
hoppers
at
the
boilers.
The
coal
is
next
pulverized
into
a
very
fine
powder.
The
pulverizers
may
be
ball
mills,
rotating
drum
grinders,
or
other
types
of
grinders.
Some
power
stations
burn
fuel
oil
rather
than
coal.
The
oil
must
kept
warm
(above
its
pour
point)
in
the
fuel
oil
storage
tanks
to
prevent
the
oil
from
congealing
and
becoming
unpumpable.
The
oil
is
usually
heated
to
about
100�C
before
being
pumped
through
the
furnace
fuel
oil
spray
nozzles.

Boiler
Side
of
the
Badarpur
Thermal
Power
Station,
#ew
Delhi

Boilers
in
some
power
stations
use
processed
natural
gas
as
their
main
fuel.
Other
power
stations
may
use
processed
natural
gas
as
auxiliary
fuel
in
the
event
that
their
main
fuel
supply
(coal
or
oil)
is
interrupted.
In
such
cases,
separate
gas
burners
are
provided
on
the
boiler
furnaces.
Fuel Firing System and Igniter System
FuelFiringSystemandIgniterFuelFiringSystemandIgniterFuelFiringFuelFiSystemandIgnit
erringSystemandIgniterSSSSyyyysssstttteeeemmm

From
the
pulverized
coal
bin,
coal
is
blown
by
hot
air
through
the
furnace
coal
burners
at
an
angle
which
imparts
a
swirling
motion
to
the
powdered
coal
to
enhance
mixing
of
the
coal
powder
with
the
incoming
preheated
combustion
air
and
thus
to
enhance
the
combustion.

To
provide
sufficient
combustion
temperature
in
the
furnace
before
igniting
the
powdered
coal,
the
furnace
temperature
is
raised
by
first
burning
some
light
fuel
oil
or
processed
natural
gas
(by
using
auxiliary
burners
and
igniters
provide
for
that
purpose).

Air Path
AirPathAirPatAAhirPathirPath

External
fans
are
provided
to
give
sufficient
air
for
combustion.
The
forced
draft
fan
takes
air
from
the
atmosphere
and,
first
warming
it
in
the
air
preheater
for
better
combustion,
injects
it
via
the
air
nozzles
on
the
furnace
wall.

The
induced
draft
fan
assists
the
FD
fan
by
drawing
out
combustible
gases
from
the
furnace,
maintaining
a
slightly
negative
pressure
in
the
furnace
to
avoid
backfiring
through
any
opening.
At
the
furnace
outlet,
and
before
the
furnace
gases
are
handled
by
the
ID
fan,
fine
dust
carried
by
the
outlet
gases
is
removed
to
avoid
atmospheric
pollution.
This
is
an
environmental
limitation
prescribed
by
law,
and
additionally
minimizes
erosion
of
the
ID
fan.

Auxiliary Systems
AuxiliarySystemsAuxiliarySystemAAsuxiliarySystemsuxiliarySystems

Fly
Ash
Collection

Fly
ash
is
captured
and
removed
from
the
flue
gas
by
electrostatic
precipitators
or
fabric
bag
filters
(or
sometimes
both)
located
at
the
outlet
of
the
furnace
and
before
the
induced
draft
fan.
The
fly
ash
is
periodically
removed
from
the
collection
hoppers
below
the
precipitators
or
bag
filters.
Generally,
the
fly
ash
is
pneumatically
transported
to
storage
silos
for
subsequent
transport
by
trucks
or
railroad
cars.

Bottom
Ash
Collection
and
Disposal

At
the
bottom
of
every
boiler,
a
hopper
has
been
provided
for
collection
of
the
bottom
ash
from
the
bottom
of
the
furnace.
This
hopper
is
always
filled
with
water
to
quench
the
ash
and
clinkers
falling
down
from
the
furnace.
Some
arrangement
is
included
to
crush
the
clinkers
and
for
conveying
the
crushed
clinkers
and
bottom
ash
to
a
storage
site.

Boiler
Make-up
Water
Treatment
Plant
and
Storage

Since
there
is
continuous
withdrawal
of
steam
and
continuous
return
of
condensate
to
the
boiler,
losses
due
to
blow-down
and
leakages
have
to
be
made
up
for
so
as
to
maintain
the
desired
water
level
in
the
boiler
steam
drum.
For
this,
continuous
make-up
water
is
added
to
the
boiler
water
system.
The
impurities
in
the
raw
water
input
to
the
plant
generally
consist
of
calcium
and
magnesium
salts
which
impart
hardness
to
the
water.
Hardness
in
the
make-up
water
to
the
boiler
will
form
deposits
on
the
tube
water
surfaces
which
will
lead
to
overheating
and
failure
of
the
tubes.
Thus,
the
salts
have
to
be
removed
from
the
water
and
that
is
done
by
a
water
demineralising
treatment
plant
(DM).

Ash
Handling
System
at
Badarpur
Thermal
Power
Station,
#ew
Delhi

A
DM
plant
generally
consists
of
cation,
anion
and
mixed
bed
exchangers.
The
final
water
from
this
process
consists
essentially
of
hydrogen
ions
and
hydroxide
ions
which
is
the
chemical
composition
of
pure
water.
The
DM
water,
being
very
pure,
becomes
highly
corrosive
once
it
absorbs
oxygen
from
the
atmosphere
because
of
its
very
high
affinity
for
oxygen
absorption.

The
capacity
of
the
DM
plant
is
dictated
by
the
type
and
quantity
of
salts
in
the
raw
water
input.
However,
some
storage
is
essential
as
the
DM
plant
may
be
down
for
maintenance.
For
this
purpose,
a
storage
tank
is
installed
from
which
DM
water
is
continuously
withdrawn
for
boiler
make-up.
The
storage
tank
for
DM
water
is
made
from
materials
not
affected
by
corrosive
water,
such
as
PVC.
The
piping
and
valves
are
generally
of
stainless
steel.
Sometimes,
a
steam
blanketing
arrangement
or
stainless
steel
doughnut
float
is
provided
on
top
of
the
water
in
the
tank
to
avoid
contact
with
atmospheric
air.
DM
water
make-up
is
generally
added
at
the
steam
space
of
the
surface
condenser
(i.e.,
the
vacuum
side).
This
arrangement
not
only
sprays
the
water
but
also
DM
water
gets
deaerated,
with
the
dissolved
gases
being
removed
by
the
ejector
of
the
condenser
itself.
Steam
Turbine

Steam
turbines
are
used
in
all
of
our
major
coal
fired
power
stations
to
drive
the
generators
or
alternators,
which
produce
electricity.
The
turbines
themselves
are
driven
by
steam
generated
in
'Boilers'
or
'Steam
Generators'
as
they
are
sometimes
called.

Energy
in
the
steam
after
it
leaves
the
boiler
is
converted
into
rotational
energy
as
it
passes
through
the
turbine.
The
turbine
normally
consists
of
several
stages
with
each
stage
consisting
of
a
stationary
blade
(or
nozzle)
and
a
rotating
blade.
Stationary
blades
convert
the
potential
energy
of
the
steam
(temperature
and
pressure)
into
kinetic
energy
(velocity)
and
direct
the
flow
onto
the
rotating
blades.
The
rotating
blades
convert
the
kinetic
energy
into
forces,
caused
by
pressure
drop,
which
results
in
the
rotation
of
the
turbine
shaft.
The
turbine
shaft
is
connected
to
a
generator,
which
produces
the
electrical
energy.
The
rotational
speed
is
3000
rpm
for
Indian
System
(50
Hz)
systems
and
3600
for
American
(60
Hz)
systems.

In
a
typical
larger
power
stations,
the
steam
turbines
are
split
into
three
separate
stages,
the
first
being
the
High
Pressure
(HP),
the
second
the
Intermediate
Pressure
(IP)
and
the
third
the
Low
Pressure
(LP)
stage,
where
high,
intermediate
and
low
describe
the
pressure
of
the
steam.

After
the
steam
has
passed
through
the
HP
stage,
it
is
returned
to
the
boiler
to
be
re-heated
to
its
original
temperature
although
the
pressure
remains
greatly
reduced.
The
reheated
steam
then
passes
through
the
IP
stage
and
finally
to
the
LP
stage
of
the
turbine.
A
distinction
is
made
between
"impulse"
and
"reaction"
turbine
designs
based
on
the
relative
pressure
drop
across
the
stage.
There
are
two
measures
for
pressure
drop,
the
pressure
ratio
and
the
percent
reaction.
Pressure
ratio
is
the
pressure
at
the
stage
exit
divided
by
the
pressure
at
the
stage
entrance.
Reaction
is
the
percentage
isentropic
enthalpy
drop
across
the
rotating
blade
or
bucket
compared
to
the
total
stage
enthalpy
drop.
Some
manufacturers
utilise
percent
pressure
drop
across
stage
to
define
reaction.

Steam
turbines
can
be
configured
in
many
different
ways.
Several
IP
or
LP
stages
can
be
incorporated
into
the
one
steam
turbine.
A
single
shaft
or
several
shafts
coupled
together
may
be
used.
Either
way,
the
principles
are
the
same
for
all
steam
turbines.
The
configuration
is
decided
by
the
use
to
which
the
steam
turbine
is
put,
co-generation
or
pure
electricity
production.
For
co-
generation,
the
steam
pressure
is
highest
when
used
as
process
steam
and
at
a
lower
pressure
when
used
for
the
secondary
function
of
electricity
production.
Nozzles and Blades
NozzlesandBladesNozzlesandBladeNNsozzlesandBladesozzlesandBlades

Steam
enthalpy
is
converted
into
rotational
energy
as
it
passes
through
a
turbine
stage.
A
turbine
stage
consists
of
a
stationary
blade
(or
nozzle)
and
a
rotating
blade
(or
bucket).
Stationary
blades
convert
the
potential
energy
of
the
steam
(temperature
and
pressure)
into
kinetic
energy
(velocity)
and
direct
the
flow
onto
the
rotating
blades.
The
rotating
blades
convert
the
kinetic
energy
into
impulse
and
reaction
forces
caused
by
pressure
drop,
which
results
in
the
rotation
of
the
turbine
shaft
or
rotor.

Steam
turbines
are
machines
which
must
be
designed,
manufactured
and
maintained
to
high
tolerances
so
that
the
design
power
output
and
availability
is
obtained.
They
are
subject
to
a
number
of
damage
mechanisms,
with
two
of
the
most
important
being:

Erosion
due
to
Moisture:
-The
presence
of
water
droplets
in
the
last
stages
of
a
turbine
causes
erosion
to
the
blades.
This
has
led
to
the
imposition
of
an
allowable
limit
of
about
12%
wetness
in
the
exhaust
steam;
Solid
Particle
Erosion:
-The
entrainment
of
erosive
materials
from
the
boiler
in
the
steam
causes
wear
to
the
turbine
blades.

Cogeneration Cycles
CogenerationCyclesCogenerationCycleCCsogenerationCyclesogenerationCycles

In
cogeneration
cycles,
steam
is
typically
generated
at
a
higher
temperature
and
pressure
than
required
for
a
particular
industrial
process.
The
steam
is
expanded
through
a
turbine
to
produce
electricity
and
the
resulting
extractions
at
the
discharge
are
at
the
temperature
and
pressure
required
by
the
process.

Turbines
can
be
condensing
or
non-condensing
design
typically
with
large
mass
flows
and
comparably
low
output.
Traditionally,
pressures
were
6.21
MPa
and
below
with
temperatures
441�
C
or
lower,
although
the
trend
towards
higher
levels
of
each
continues.

There
are
now
a
considerable
number
of
co-generation
steam
turbines
with
initial
steam
pressures
in
the
8.63
to
10
MPa
range
and
steam
temperatures
of
482
to
510�
C.

Bearings and Lubrication

BearingsandLubricationBearingsandLubricatioBBnearingsandLubricationearingsandLubri
cation

Two
types
of
bearings
are
used
to
support
and
locate
the
rotors
of
steam
turbines:

�
Journal
bearings
are
used
to
support
the
weight
of
the
turbine
rotors.
A
journal
bearing
consists
of
two
half-cylinders
that
enclose
the
shaft
and
are
internally
lined
with
Babbitt,
a
metal
alloy
usually
consisting
of
tin,
copper
and
antimony;
and
�
Thrust
bearings
axially
locate
the
turbine
rotors.
A
thrust
bearing
is
made
up
of
a
series
of
Babbitt
lined
pads
that
run
against
a
locating
disk
attached
to
the
turbine
rotor.
High-pressure
oil
is
injected
into
the
bearings
to
provide
lubrication.
The
oil
is
carefully
filtered
to
remove
solid
particles.
Specially
designed
centrifuges
remove
any
water
from
the
oil.
Shaft Seals
ShaftSealsShaftSealSSshaftSealshaftSeals

The
shaft
seal
on
a
turbine
rotor
consist
of
a
series
of
ridges
and
groves
around
the
rotor
and
its
housing
which
present
a
long,
tortuous
path
for
any
steam
leaking
through
the
seal.
The
seal
therefore
does
not
prevent
the
steam
from
leaking,
merely
reduces
the
leakage
to
a
minimum.
The
leaking
steam
is
collected
and
returned
to
a
low-pressure
part
of
the
steam
circuit.

Turning Gear
TurningGearTurningGeaTTrurningGearurningGear

Large
steam
turbines
are
equipped
with
"turning
gear"
to
slowly
rotate
the
turbines
after
they
have
been
shut
down
and
while
they
are
cooling.
This
evens
out
the
temperature
distribution
around
the
turbines
and
prevents
bowing
of
the
rotors.
Vibration
VibrationVibratioVVnibrationibration

The
balancing
of
the
large
rotating
steam
turbines
is
a
critical
component
in
ensuring
the
reliable
operation
of
the
plant.
Most
large
steam
turbines
have
sensors
installed
to
measure
the
movement
of
the
shafts
in
their
bearings.
This
condition
monitoring
can
identify
many
potential
problems
and
allows
the
repair
of
the
turbine
to
be
planned
before
the
problems
become
serious.
Electric
Generator

The
steam
turbine-driven
generators
have
auxiliary
systems
enabling
them
to
work
satisfactorily
and
safely.
The
steam
turbine
generator
being
rotating
equipment
generally
has
a
heavy,
large
diameter
shaft.
The
shaft
therefore
requires
not
only
supports
but
also
has
to
be
kept
in
position
while
running.
To
minimize
the
frictional
resistance
to
the
rotation,
the
shaft
has
a
number
of
bearings.
The
bearing
shells,
in
which
the
shaft
rotates,
are
lined
with
a
low
friction
material
like
Babbitt
metal.
Oil
lubrication
is
provided
to
further
reduce
the
friction
between
shaft
and
bearing
surface
and
to
limit
the
heat
generated.

A95MWGeneratoratBadarpurThermalPowerStation,#ewDelhi
Barring Gear (or Turning Gear)
BarringGear(orTurningGear)BarringGear(orTurningGearBB)arringGear(orTurningGear)arr
ingGear(orTurningGear)

Barring
gear
is
the
term
used
for
the
mechanism
provided
for
rotation
of
the
turbine
generator
shaft
at
a
very
low
speed
(about
one
revolution
per
minute)
after
unit
stoppages
for
any
reason.
Once
the
unit
is
"tripped"
(i.e.,
the
turbine
steam
inlet
valve
is
closed),
the
turbine
starts
slowing
or
"coasting
down".
When
it
stops
completely,
there
is
a
tendency
for
the
turbine
shaft
to
deflect
or
bend
if
allowed
to
remain
in
one
position
too
long.
This
deflection
is
because
the
heat
inside
the
turbine
casing
tends
to
concentrate
in
the
top
half
of
the
casing,
thus
making
the
top
half
portion
of
the
shaft
hotter
than
the
bottom
half.
The
shaft
therefore
warps
or
bends
by
millionths
of
inches,
only
detectable
by
monitoring
eccentricity
meters.
But
this
small
amount
of
shaft
deflection
would
be
enough
to
cause
vibrations
and
damage
the
entire
steam
turbine
generator
unit
when
it
is
restarted.
Therefore,
the
shaft
is
not
permitted
to
come
to
a
complete
stop
by
a
mechanism
known
as
"turning
gear"
or
"barring
gear"
that
automatically
takes
over
to
rotate
the
unit
at
a
preset
low
speed.

If
the
unit
is
shut
down
for
major
maintenance,
then
the
barring
gear
must
be
kept
in
service
until
the
temperatures
of
the
casings
and
bearings
are
sufficiently
low.

Condenser
CondenserCondenseCCrondenserondenser

The
surface
condenser
is
a
shell
and
tube
heat
exchanger
in
which
cooling
water
is
circulated
through
the
tubes.
The
exhaust
steam
from
the
low
pressure
turbine
enters
the
shell
where
it
is
cooled
and
converted
to
condensate
(water)
by
flowing
over
the
tubes
as
shown
in
the
adjacent
diagram.
Such
condensers
use
steam
ejectors
or
rotary
motor-driven
exhausters
for
continuous
removal
of
air
and
gases
from
the
steam
side
to
maintain
vacuum.

A
Typical
Water
Cooled
Condenser

For
best
efficiency,
the
temperature
in
the
condenser
must
be
kept
as
low
as
practical
in
order
to
achieve
the
lowest
possible
pressure
in
the
condensing
steam.
Since
the
condenser
temperature
can
almost
always
be
kept
significantly
below
100
oC
where
the
vapor
pressure
of
water
is
much
less
than
atmospheric
pressure,
the
condenser
generally
works
under
vacuum.
Thus
leaks
of
non-
condensible
air
into
the
closed
loop
must
be
prevented.
Plants
operating
in
hot
climates
may
have
to
reduce
output
if
their
source
of
condenser
cooling
water
becomes
warmer;
unfortunately
this
usually
coincides
with
periods
of
high
electrical
demand
for
air
conditioning.

The
condenser
generally
uses
either
circulating
cooling
water
from
a
cooling
tower
to
reject
waste
heat
to
the
atmosphere,
or
once-through
water
from
a
river,
lake
or
ocean.
Feedwater Heater
FeedwaterHeaterFeedwaterHeateFFreedwaterHeatereedwaterHeater

A
Rankine
cycle
with
a
two-stage
steam
turbine
and
a
single
feedwater
heater.

In
the
case
of
a
conventional
steam-electric
power
plant
utilizing
a
drum
boiler,
the
surface
condenser
removes
the
latent
heat
of
vaporization
from
the
steam
as
it
changes
states
from
vapour
to
liquid.
The
heat
content
(btu)
in
the
steam
is
referred
to
as
Enthalpy.
The
condensate
pump
then
pumps
the
condensate
water
through
a
feedwater
heater.
The
feedwater
heating
equipment
then
raises
the
temperature
of
the
water
by
utilizing
extraction
steam
from
various
stages
of
the
turbine.

A
Rankine
cycle
with
a
two-stage
steam
turbine
and
a
single
feedwater
heater

Preheating
the
feedwater
reduces
the
irreversibilities
involved
in
steam
generation
and
therefore

[9]
improves
the
thermodynamic
efficiency
of
the
system.This
reduces
plant
operating
costs
and
also
helps
to
avoid
thermal
shock
to
the
boiler
metal
when
the
feedwater
is
introduced
back
into
the
steam
cycle.
Superheater
SuperheaterSuperheateSSruperheateruperheater

As
the
steam
is
conditioned
by
the
drying
equipment
inside
the
drum,
it
is
piped
from
the
upper
drum
area
into
an
elaborate
set
up
of
tubing
in
different
areas
of
the
boiler.
The
areas
known
as
superheater
and
reheater.
The
steam
vapor
picks
up
energy
and
its
temperature
is
now
superheated
above
the
saturation
temperature.
The
superheated
steam
is
then
piped
through
the
main
steam
lines
to
the
valves
of
the
high
pressure
turbine.

Deaerator
DeaeratorDeaeratoDDreaeratoreaerator

A
steam
generating
boiler
requires
that
the
boiler
feed
water
should
be
devoid
of
air
and
other
dissolved
gases,
particularly
corrosive
ones,
in
order
to
avoid
corrosion
of
the
metal.
Generally,
power
stations
use
a
deaerator
to
provide
for
the
removal
of
air
and
other
dissolved
gases
from
the
boiler
feedwater.
A
deaerator
typically
includes
a
vertical,
domed
deaeration
section
mounted
on
top
of
a
horizontal
cylindrical
vessel
which
serves
as
the
deaerated
boiler
feedwater
storage
tank.

Boiler
Feed
Water
Deaerator
(with
vertical,
domed
aeration
section
and
horizontal
water
storage
section)

There
are
many
different
designs
for
a
deaerator
and
the
designs
will
vary
from
one
manufacturer
to
another.
The
adjacent
diagram
depicts
a
typical
conventional
trayed
deaerator.
If
operated
properly,
most
deaerator
manufacturers
will
guarantee
that
oxygen
in
the
deaerated
water
will
not
exceed
7
ppb
by
weight
(0.005
cm�/L).
Auxiliary Systems
AuxiliarySystemsAuxiliarySystemAAsuxiliarySystemsuxiliarySystems

Oil
System

An
auxiliary
oil
system
pump
is
used
to
supply
oil
at
the
start-up
of
the
steam
turbine
generator.
It
supplies
the
hydraulic
oil
system
required
for
steam
turbine's
main
inlet
steam
stop
valve,
the
governing
control
valves,
the
bearing
and
seal
oil
systems,
the
relevant
hydraulic
relays
and
other
mechanisms.
At
a
preset
speed
of
the
turbine
during
start-ups,
a
pump
driven
by
the
turbine
main
shaft
takes
over
the
functions
of
the
auxiliary
system.

Generator
Heat
Dissipation

The
electricity
generator
requires
cooling
to
dissipate
the
heat
that
it
generates.
While
small
units
may
be
cooled
by
air
drawn
through
filters
at
the
inlet,
larger
units
generally
require
special
cooling
arrangements.
Hydrogen
gas
cooling,
in
an
oil-sealed
casing,
is
used
because
it
has
the
highest
known
heat
transfer
coefficient
of
any
gas
and
for
its
low
viscosity
which
reduces
windage
losses.
This
system
requires
special
handling
during
start-up,
with
air
in
the
chamber
first
displaced
by
carbon
dioxide
before
filling
with
hydrogen.
This
ensures
that
the
highly
flammable
hydrogen
does
not
mix
with
oxygen
in
the
air.

The
hydrogen
pressure
inside
the
casing
is
maintained
slightly
higher
than
atmospheric
pressure
to
avoid
outside
air
ingress.
The
hydrogen
must
be
sealed
against
outward
leakage
where
the
shaft
emerges
from
the
casing.
Mechanical
seals
around
the
shaft
are
installed
with
a
very
small
annular
gap
to
avoid
rubbing
between
the
shaft
and
the
seals.
Seal
oil
is
used
to
prevent
the
hydrogen
gas
leakage
to
atmosphere.

The
generator
also
uses
water
cooling.
Since
the
generator
coils
are
at
a
potential
of
about
15.75
kV
and
water
is
conductive,
an
insulating
barrier
such
as
Teflon
is
used
to
interconnect
the
water
line
and
the
generator
high
voltage
windings.
Demineralized
water
of
low
conductivity
is
used.

Generator
High
Voltage
System

The
generator
voltage
ranges
from
10.5
kV
in
smaller
units
to
15.75
kV
in
larger
units.
The
generator
high
voltage
leads
are
normally
large
aluminum
channels
because
of
their
high
current
as
compared
to
the
cables
used
in
smaller
machines.
They
are
enclosed
in
well-grounded
aluminum
bus
ducts
and
are
supported
on
suitable
insulators.
The
generator
high
voltage
channels
are
connected
to
step-up
transformers
for
connecting
to
a
high
voltage
electrical
substation
(of
the
order
of
220
kV)
for
further
transmission
by
the
local
power
grid.
The
necessary
protection
and
metering
devices
are
included
for
the
high
voltage
leads.
Thus,
the
steam
turbine
generator
and
the
transformer
form
one
unit.
In
smaller
units,
generating
at
10.5
kV,
a
breaker
is
provided
to
connect
it
to
a
common
10.5
kV
bus
system.
Other
Systems

Monitoring and Alarm system

MonitoringandAlarmsystemMonitoringandAlarmsysteMMmonitoringandAlarmsystemonitoring
andAlarmsystem

Most
of
the
power
plant�s
operational
controls
are
automatic.
However,
at
times,
manual
intervention
may
be
required.
Thus,
the
plant
is
provided
with
monitors
and
alarm
systems
that
alert
the
plant
operators
when
certain
operating
parameters
are
seriously
deviating
from
their
normal
range.

An
Engineer
monitoring
the
various
parameters
at
#TPC,
#ew
Delhi

Battery Supplied Emergency Lighting & Communication

BatterySuppliedEmergencyLighting&CommunicationBatterySuppliedEmergencyLighting&Com
municatioBBnatterySuppliedEmergencyLighting&CommunicationatterySuppliedEmergencyLi
ghting&Communication

A
central
battery
system
consisting
of
lead
acid
cell
units
is
provided
to
supply
emergency
electric
power,
when
needed,
to
essential
items
such
as
the
power
plant's
control
systems,
communication
systems,
turbine
lube
oil
pumps,
and
emergency
lighting.
This
is
essential
for
a
safe,
damage-free
shutdown
of
the
units
in
an
emergency
situation.
Module
-II

EMD
-I

�
Coal
Handling
Plant
�
Motors
�
Switchgear
�
High
Tension
Switchgear
�
Direct
On
Line
Starter
Coal
Handling
Plant

Coal
is
delivered
by
highway
truck,
rail,
barge
or
collier
ship.
Some
plants
are
even
built
near
coal
mines
and
coal
is
delivered
by
conveyors.
A
large
coal
train
called
a
"unit
train"
may
be
a
kilometers
(over
a
mile)
long,
containing
60
cars
with
100
tons
of
coal
in
each
one,
for
a
total
load
of
6,000
tons.
A
large
plant
under
full
load
requires
at
least
one
coal
delivery
this
size
every
day.
Plants
may
get
as
many
as
three
to
five
trains
a
day,
especially
in
"peak
season",
during
the
summer
months
when
power
consumption
is
high.
A
large
thermal
power
plant
such
as
the
Badarpur
Thermal
Power
Station,
New
Delhi
stores
several
million
tons
of
coal
for
use
when
there
is
no
wagon
supply.

Coal
Handling
Plant
Layout

Modern
unloaders
use
rotary
dump
devices,
which
eliminate
problems
with
coal
freezing
in
bottom
dump
cars.
The
unloader
includes
a
train
positioner
arm
that
pulls
the
entire
train
to
position
each
car
over
a
coal
hopper.
The
dumper
clamps
an
individual
car
against
a
platform
that
swivels
the
car
upside
down
to
dump
the
coal.
Swiveling
couplers
enable
the
entire
operation
to
occur
while
the
cars
are
still
coupled
together.
Unloading
a
unit
train
takes
about
three
hours.

Shorter
trains
may
use
railcars
with
an
"air-dump",
which
relies
on
air
pressure
from
the
engine
plus
a
"hot
shoe"
on
each
car.
This
"hot
shoe"
when
it
comes
into
contact
with
a
"hot
rail"
at
the
unloading
trestle,
shoots
an
electric
charge
through
the
air
dump
apparatus
and
causes
the
doors
on
the
bottom
of
the
car
to
open,
dumping
the
coal
through
the
opening
in
the
trestle.
Unloading
one
of
these
trains
takes
anywhere
from
an
hour
to
an
hour
and
a
half.
Older
unloaders
may
still
use
manually
operated
bottom-dump
rail
cars
and
a
"shaker"
attached
to
dump
the
coal.
Generating
stations
adjacent
to
a
mine
may
receive
coal
by
conveyor
belt
or
massive
diesel-
electric-drive
trucks.

Layout
of
Coal
Handling
Plant
at
Badarpur
Thermal
Power
Station,
#ew
Delhi

Coal
is
prepared
for
use
by
crushing
the
rough
coal
to
pieces
less
than
2
inches
(50
mm)
in
size.
The
coal
is
then
transported
from
the
storage
yard
to
in-plant
storage
silos
by
rubberized
conveyor
belts
at
rates
up
to
4,000
tons/hour.

In
plants
that
burn
pulverized
coal,
silos
feed
coal
pulverizers
(coal
mill)
that
take
the
larger
2
inch
pieces
grind
them
into
the
consistency
of
face
powder,
classify
them,
and
mixes
them
with
primary
combustion
air
which
transports
the
coal
to
the
furnace
and
preheats
the
coal
to
drive
off
excess
moisture
content.
In
plants
that
do
not
burn
pulverized
coal,
the
larger
2
inch
pieces
may
be
directly
fed
into
the
silos
which
then
feed
the
cyclone
burners,
a
specific
kind
of
combustor
that
can
efficiently
burn
larger
pieces
of
fuel.
Run-Of-Mine
(ROM)
Coal

The
coal
delivered
from
the
mine
that
reports
to
the
Coal
Handling
Plant
is
called
Run-of-mine,
or
ROM,
coal.
This
is
the
raw
material
for
the
CHP,
and
consists
of
coal,
rocks,
middlings,
minerals
and
contamination.
Contamination
is
usually
introduced
by
the
mining
process
and
may
include
machine
parts,
used
consumables
and
parts
of
ground
engaging
tools.
ROM
coal
can
have
a
large
variability
of
moisture
and
maximum
particle
size.

Coal
Handling

Coal
needs
to
be
stored
at
various
stages
of
the
preparation
process,
and
conveyed
around
the
CHP
facilities.
Coal
handling
is
part
of
the
larger
field
of
bulk
material
handling,
and
is
a
complex
and
vital
part
of
the
CHP.

Stockpiles
StockpilesStockpileSSstockpilestockpiles

Stockpiles
provide
surge
capacity
to
various
parts
of
the
CHP.
ROM
coal
is
delivered
with
large
variations
in
production
rate
of
tonnes
per
hour
(tph).
A
ROM
stockpile
is
used
to
allow
the
washplant
to
be
fed
coal
at
lower,
constant
rate.

Coal
Handling
Division
of
Badarpur
Thermal
Power
Station,
#ew
Delhi

A
simple
stockpile
is
formed
by
machinery
dumping
coal
into
a
pile,
either
from
dump
trucks,
pushed
into
heaps
with
bulldozers
or
from
conveyor
booms.
More
controlled
stockpiles
are
formed
using
stackers
to
form
piles
along
the
length
of
a
conveyor,
and
reclaimers
to
retrieve
the
coal
when
required
for
product
loading,
etc.

Taller
and
wider
stockpiles
reduce
the
land
area
required
to
store
a
set
tonnage
of
coal.
Larger
coal
stockpiles
have
a
reduced
rate
of
heat
lost,
leading
to
a
higher
risk
of
spontaneous
combustion.

Stacking
StackingStackinSSgtackingtacking

Travelling,
lugging
boom
stackers
that
straddle
a
feed
conveyor
are
commonly
used
to
create
coal
stockpiles.
Stackers
are
nominally
rated
in
tph
(tonnes
per
hour)
for
capacity
and
normally
travel
on
a
rail
between
stockpiles
in
the
stockyard.
A
stacker
can
usually
move
in
at
least
two
directions
typically:
horizontally
along
the
rail
and
vertically
by
luffing
its
boom.
Luffing
of
the
boom
minimises
dust
by
reducing
the
height
that
the
coal
needs
to
fall
to
the
top
of
the
stockpile.
The
boom
is
luffed
upwards
as
the
stockpile
height
grows.

Wagon
Tripler
at
Badarpur
Thermal
Power
Station,
#ew
Delhi

Some
stackers
are
able
to
rotate
by
slewing
the
boom.
This
allows
a
single
stacker
to
form
two
stockpiles,
one
on
either
side
of
the
conveyor.

Stackers
are
used
to
stack
into
different
patterns,
such
as
cone
stacking
and
chevron
stacking.
Stacking
in
a
single
cone
tends
to
cause
size
segregation,
with
coarser
material
moving
out
towards
the
base.
Raw
cone
ply
stacking
is
when
additional
cones
are
added
next
to
the
first
cone.
Chevron
stacking
is
when
the
stacker
travels
along
the
length
of
the
stockpile
adding
layer
upon
layer
of
material.
Stackers
and
Reclaimers
were
originally
manually
controlled
manned
machines
with
no
remote
control.
Modern
machines
are
typically
semi-automatic
or
fully
automated,
with
parameters
remotely
set.

Reclaiming

Tunnel
conveyors
can
be
fed
by
a
continuous
slot
hopper
or
bunker
beneath
the
stockpile
to
reclaim
material.
Front-end
loaders
and
bulldozers
can
be
used
to
push
the
coal
into
feeders.
Sometimes
front-end
loaders
are
the
only
means
of
reclaiming
coal
from
the
stockpile.
This
has
a
low
up-front
capital
cost,
but
much
higher
operating
costs,
measured
in
dollars
per
tonne
handled.

Coal
Storage
Area
of
the
Badarpur
Thermal
Power
Station,
#ew
Delhi

High-capacity
stockpiles
are
commonly
reclaimed
using
bucket-wheel
reclaimers.
These
can
achieve
very
high
rates.

Coal
Sampling

Sampling
of
coal
is
an
important
part
of
the
process
control
in
the
CHP.
A
grab
sample
is
a
one-
off
sample
of
the
coal
at
a
point
in
the
process
stream,
and
tends
not
to
be
very
representative.
A
routine
sample
is
taken
at
a
set
frequency,
either
over
a
period
of
time
or
per
shipment.

Screening
Screens
are
used
to
group
process
particles
into
ranges
by
size.
These
size
ranges
are
also
called
grades.
Dewatering
screens
are
used
to
remove
water
from
the
product.
Screens
can
be
static,
or
mechanically
vibrated.
Screen
decks
can
be
made
from
different
materials
such
as
high
tensile
steel,
stainless
steel,
or
p
polyethelene.

ScreeningandSeparationUnitofCoalHandlingDivisionofaThermalPowerPlant
Magnetic
Separation
Magnetic
separators
shall
be
used
in
coal
conveying
systems
to
separate
tramp
iron
(including
steel)
from
the
coal.
Basically,
two
types
are
available.
One
type
incorporates
permanent
or
electromagnets
into
the
head
pulley
of
a
belt
conveyor.
The
tramp
iron
clings
to
the
belt
as
it
goes
around
the
pulley
drum
and
falls
off
into
a
collection
hopper
or
trough
after
the
point
at
which
coal
is
charged
from
the
belt.
The
other
type
consists
of
permanent
or
electromagnets
incorporated
into
a
belt
conveyor
that
is
suspended
above
a
belt
conveyor
carrying
coal.
The
tramp
iron
is
pulled
from
the
moving
coal
to
the
face
of
the
separating
conveyor,
which
in
turn
holds
and
carries
the
tramp
iron
to
a
collection
hopper
or
trough.
Magnetic
separators
shall
be
used
just
ahead
of
the
coal
crusher,
if
any,
and/or
just
prior
to
coal
discharge
to
the
in-plant
bunker
or
silo
fill
s
system.

Coal
C
Crusher

Before
the
coal
is
sent
to
the
plant
it
has
to
be
ensured
that
the
coal
is
of
uniform
size,
and
so
it
is
passed
through
coal
crushers.
Also
power
plants
using
pulverized
coal
specify
a
m
maximum
coal
size
that
can
be
fed
into
the
pulverizer
and
so
the
coal
has
to
be
crushed
to
the
specified
size
using
the
coal
crusher.
Rotary
crushers
are
very
commonly
used
for
this
purpose
as
they
can
provide
a
continuous
flow
of
coal
to
the
p
pulverizer.

P
Pulverizer

Most
commonly
used
pulverizer
is
the
Boul
Mill.
The
arrangement
consists
of
2
stationary
rollers
and
a
power
driven
baul
in
which
pulverization
takes
place
as
the
coal
passes
through
the
sides
of
the
rollers
and
the
baul.
A
primary
air
induced
draught
fan
draws
a
stream
of
heated
air
through
the
mill
carrying
the
pulverized
coal
into
a
stationary
classifier
at
the
top
of
the
pulverizer.
The
classifier
separates
the
pulverized
coal
from
the
unpulverized
c
coal.

An
external
view
of
a
Coal
P
Pulverizer

Advantages
of
Pulverized
C
Coal

�
Pulverized
coal
is
used
for
large
capacity
plants.
�
It
is
easier
to
adapt
to
fluctuating
load
as
there
are
no
limitations
on
the
combustion
capacity.
�
Coal
with
higher
ash
percentage
cannot
be
used
without
pulverizing
because
of
the
problem
of
large
amount
ash
deposition
after
combustion.
�
Increased
thermal
efficiency
is
obtained
through
pulverization.
�
The
use
of
secondary
air
in
the
combustion
chamber
along
with
the
powered
coal
helps
in
creating
turbulence
and
therefore
uniform
mixing
of
the
coal
and
the
air
during
combustion.
�
Greater
surface
area
of
coal
per
unit
mass
of
coal
allows
faster
combustion
as
more
coal
is
exposed
to
heat
and
combustion.
�
The
combustion
process
is
almost
free
from
clinker
and
slag
formation.
�
The
boiler
can
be
easily
started
from
cold
condition
in
case
of
emergency.
�
Practically
no
ash
handling
problem.
�
The
furnace
volume
required
is
less
as
the
turbulence
caused
aids
in
complete
combustion
of
the
coal
with
minimum
travel
of
the
particles.
The
pulverized
coal
is
passed
from
the
pulverizer
to
the
boiler
by
means
of
the
primary
air
that
is
used
not
only
to
dry
the
coal
but
also
to
heat
is
as
it
goes
into
the
boiler.
The
secondary
air
is
used
to
provide
the
necessary
air
required
for
complete
combustion.
The
primary
air
may
vary
anywhere
from
10%
to
the
entire
air
depending
on
the
design
of
the
boiler.
The
coal
is
sent
into
the
boiler
through
burners.
A
very
important
and
widely
used
type
of
burner
arrangement
is
the
Tangential
Firing
a
arrangement.

Tangential
B
Burners:

The
tangential
burners
are
arranged
such
that
they
discharge
the
fuel
air
mixture
tangentially
to
an
imaginary
circle
in
the
center
of
the
furnace.
The
swirling
action
produces
sufficient
turbulence
in
the
furnace
to
complete
the
combustion
in
a
short
period
of
time
and
avoid
the
necessity
of
producing
high
turbulence
at
the
burner
itself.
High
heat
release
rates
are
possible
with
this
method
of
f
firing.

The
burners
are
placed
at
the
four
corners
of
the
furnace.
At
the
Badarpur
Thermal
Power
Station
five
sets
of
such
burners
are
placed
one
above
the
other
to
form
six
firing
zones.
These
burners
are
constructed
with
tips
that
can
be
angled
through
a
small
vertical
arc.
By
adjusting
the
angle
of
the
burners
the
position
of
the
fire
ball
can
be
adjusted
so
as
to
raise
or
lower
the
position
of
the
turbulent
combustion
region.
When
the
burners
are
tilted
downward
the
furnace
gets
filled
completely
with
the
flame
and
the
furnace
exit
gas
temperature
gets
reduced.
When
the
burners
are
tiled
upward
the
furnace
exit
gas
temperature
increases.
A
difference
of
100
degrees
can
be
achieved
by
tilting
the
burners.
Ash
H
Handling

The
ever
increasing
capacities
of
boiler
units
together
with
their
ability
to
use
low
grade
high
ash
content
coal
have
been
responsible
for
the
development
of
modern
day
ash
handling
systems.
The
widely
used
ash
handling
systems
a
are

1.
Mechanical
Handling
System
2.
Hydraulic
System
3.
Pneumatic
System
4.
Steam
Jet
System
The
Hydraulic
Ash
handling
system
is
used
at
the
Badarpur
Thermal
Power
S
Station.
Ash
Handling
System
of
a
Thermal
Power
P
Plant

Hydraulic Ash Handling System

HydraulicAshHandlingSystemHydraulicAshHandlingSysteHHmydraulicAshHandlingSystemydr
a
aulicAshHandlingSystem

The
hydraulic
system
carried
the
ash
with
the
flow
of
water
with
high
velocity
through
a
channel
and
finally
dumps
into
a
sump.
The
hydraulic
system
is
divided
into
a
low
velocity
and
high
velocity
system.
In
the
low
velocity
system
the
ash
from
the
boilers
falls
into
a
stream
of
water
flowing
into
the
sump.
The
ash
is
carried
along
with
the
water
and
they
are
separated
at
the
sump.
In
the
high
velocity
system
a
jet
of
water
is
sprayed
to
quench
the
hot
ash.
Two
other
jets
force
the
ash
into
a
trough
in
which
they
are
washed
away
by
the
water
into
the
sump,
where
they
are
separated.
The
molten
slag
formed
in
the
pulverized
fuel
system
can
also
be
quenched
and
washed
by
using
the
high
velocity
system.
The
advantages
of
this
system
are
that
its
clean,
large
ash
handling
capacity,
considerable
distance
can
be
traversed,
absence
of
working
parts
in
contact
with
ash.
ELECTRIC
M
MOTORS

An
electric
motor
uses
electrical
energy
to
produce
mechanical
energy.
The
reverse
process
that
of
using
mechanical
energy
to
produce
electrical
energy
is
accomplished
by
a
generator
or
dynamo.
Traction
motors
used
on
locomotives
and
some
electric
and
hybrid
automobiles
often
performs
both
tasks
if
the
vehicle
is
equipped
with
dynamic
b
brakes.
A
High
Power
Electric
M
Motor

Categorization of Electric Motors

CategorizationofElectricMotorsCategorizationofElectricMotorCCsategorizationofElect
r
ricMotorsategorizationofElectricMotors

The
classic
division
of
electric
motors
has
been
that
of
Direct
Current
(DC)
types
vs
Alternating
Current
(AC)
types.
The
ongoing
trend
toward
electronic
control
further
muddles
the
distinction,
as
modern
drivers
have
moved
the
commutator
out
of
the
motor
shell.
For
this
new
breed
of
motor,
driver
circuits
are
relied
upon
to
generate
sinusoidal
AC
drive
currents,
or
some
approximation
of.
The
two
best
examples
are:
the
brushless
DC
motor
and
the
stepping
motor,
both
being
polyphase
AC
motors
requiring
external
electronic
c
control.

There
is
a
clearer
distinction
between
a
synchronous
motor
and
asynchronous
types.
In
the
synchronous
types,
the
rotor
rotates
in
synchrony
with
the
oscillating
field
or
current
(eg.
permanent
magnet
motors).
In
contrast,
an
asynchronous
motor
is
designed
to
slip;
the
most
ubiquitous
example
being
the
common
AC
induction
motor
which
must
slip
in
order
to
generate
t
torque.
Comparison
of
Motor
T
Types

Type
Advantages
Disadvantages
Typical
Application
Typical
Drive
AC
Induction
(Shaded
Pole)
Least
expensive
Long
life
high
power
Rotation
slips
from
frequency
Low
starting
torque
Fans
Uni/Poly-
phase
AC
AC
Induction
(split-phase
capacitor)
High
power
high
starting
torque
Rotation
slips
from
frequency
Appliances
Uni/Poly-
phase
AC
AC
Synchronous
Rotation
in-sync
with
freq
long-life
(alternator)
More
expensive
Clocks
Audio
turntables
tape
drives
Uni/Poly-
phase
AC
Stepper
DC
Precision
positioning
High
holding
torque
Slow
speed
Requires
a
controller
Positioning
in
printers
and
floppy
drives
Multiphase
DC
Brushless
DC
Long
lifespan
low
maintenance
High
efficiency
High
initial
cost
Requires
a
controller
Hard
drives
CD/DVD
players
electric
vehicles
Multiphase
DC
Brushed
(PM)
DC
Low
initial
cost
Simple
speed
control
(Dynamo)
High
maintenance
(brushes)
Low
lifespan
Treadmill
exercisers
automotive
starters
Direct
(
(PWM)

At
Badarpur
Thermal
Power
Station,
New
Delhi,
mostly
AC
motors
are
employed
for
various
purposes.
We
had
to
study
the
two
types
of
AC
Motors
viz.
Synchronous
Motors
and
Induction
Motor.
The
motors
have
been
explained
f
further.
AC Motor
A
ACMotorACMotoAArCMotorCMotor

Internal
View
of
AC
M
Motors

An
AC
motor
is
an
electric
motor
that
is
driven
by
an
alternating
current.
It
consists
of
two
basic
parts,
an
outside
stationary
stator
having
coils
supplied
with
AC
current
to
produce
a
rotating
magnetic
field,
and
an
inside
rotor
attached
to
the
output
shaft
that
is
given
a
torque
by
the
rotating
f
field.
There
are
two
types
of
AC
motors,
depending
on
the
type
of
rotor
used.
The
first
is
the
synchronous
motor,
which
rotates
exactly
at
the
supply
frequency
or
a
sub
multiple
of
the
supply
frequency.
The
magnetic
field
on
the
rotor
is
either
generated
by
current
delivered
through
slip
rings
or
a
by
a
permanent
m
magnet.
The
second
type
is
the
induction
motor,
which
turns
slightly
slower
than
the
supply
frequency.
The
magnetic
field
on
the
rotor
of
this
motor
is
created
by
an
induced
c
current.

Synchronous
M
Motor

A
synchronous
electric
motor
is
an
AC
motor
distinguished
by
a
rotor
spinning
with
coils
passing
magnets
at
the
same
rate
as
the
alternating
current
and
resulting
magnetic
field
which
drives
it.
Another
way
of
saying
this
is
that
it
has
zero
slip
under
usual
operating
conditions.
Contrast
this
with
an
induction
motor,
which
must
slip
in
order
to
produce
t
torque.

Sometimes
a
synchronous
motor
is
used,
not
to
drive
a
load,
but
to
improve
the
power
factor
on
the
local
grid
it's
connected
to.
It
does
this
by
providing
reactive
power
to
or
consuming
reactive
power
from
the
grid.
In
this
case
the
synchronous
motor
is
called
a
Synchronous
c
condenser.

Electrical
power
plants
almost
always
use
synchronous
generators
because
it's
very
important
to
keep
the
frequency
constant
at
which
the
generator
is
c
connected.

A
Advantages

Synchronous
motors
have
the
following
advantages
over
non-synchronous
m
motors:

�
Speed
is
independent
of
the
load,
provided
an
adequate
field
current
is
applied.
�
Accurate
control
in
speed
and
position
using
open
loop
controls,
eg.
Stepper
motors.
�
They
will
hold
their
position
when
a
DC
current
is
applied
to
both
the
stator
and
the
rotor
windings.
�
Their
power
factor
can
be
adjusted
to
unity
by
using
a
proper
field
current
relative
to
the
load.
Also,
a
"capacitive"
power
factor,
(current
phase
leads
voltage
phase),
can
be
obtained
by
increasing
this
current
slightly,
which
can
help
achieve
a
better
power
factor
correction
for
the
whole
installation.
�
Their
construction
allows
for
increased
electrical
efficiency
when
a
low
speed
is
required
(as
in
ball
mills
and
similar
apparatus).
E
Examples

�
Brushless
permanent
magnet
DC
motor.
�
Stepper
motor.
�
Slow
speed
AC
synchronous
motor.
�
Switched
reluctance
motor.
Induction
M
Motor

An
induction
motor
(IM)
is
a
type
of
asynchronous
AC
motor
where
power
is
supplied
to
the
rotating
device
by
means
of
electromagnetic
i
induction.

Three
Phase
Induction
M
Motors

An
electric
motor
converts
electrical
power
to
mechanical
power
in
its
rotor
(rotating
part).
There
are
several
ways
to
supply
power
to
the
rotor.
In
a
DC
motor
this
power
is
supplied
to
the
armature
directly
from
a
DC
source,
while
in
an
AC
motor
this
power
is
induced
in
the
rotating
device.
An
induction
motor
is
sometimes
called
a
rotating
transformer
because
the
stator
(stationary
part)
is
essentially
the
primary
side
of
the
transformer
and
the
rotor
(rotating
part)
is
the
secondary
side.
Induction
motors
are
widely
used,
especially
polyphase
induction
motors,
which
are
frequently
used
in
industrial
d
drives.

Induction
motors
are
now
the
preferred
choice
for
industrial
motors
due
to
their
rugged
construction,
lack
of
brushes
(which
are
needed
in
most
DC
Motors)
and
�
thanks
to
modern
power
electronics
�
the
ability
to
control
the
speed
of
the
m
motor.
C
Construction

The
stator
consists
of
wound
'poles'
that
carry
the
supply
current
that
induces
a
magnetic
field
in
the
conductor.
The
number
of
'poles'
can
vary
between
motor
types
but
the
poles
are
always
in
pairs
(i.e.
2,
4,
6
etc).
There
are
two
types
of
r
rotor:

1.
Squirrel-cage
rotor
2.
Slip
ring
rotor
The
most
common
rotor
is
a
squirrel-cage
rotor.
It
is
made
up
of
bars
of
either
solid
copper
(most
common)
or
aluminum
that
span
the
length
of
the
rotor,
and
are
connected
through
a
ring
at
each
end.
The
rotor
bars
in
squirrel-cage
induction
motors
are
not
straight,
but
have
some
skew
to
reduce
noise
and
harmonics.
The
motor's
phase
type
is
one
of
two
t
types:

1.
Single-phase
induction
motor
2.
3-phase
induction
motor
Principle
of
O
Operation

The
basic
difference
between
an
induction
motor
and
a
synchronous
AC
motor
is
that
in
the
latter
a
current
is
supplied
onto
the
rotor.
This
then
creates
a
magnetic
field
which,
through
magnetic
interaction,
links
to
the
rotating
magnetic
field
in
the
stator
which
in
turn
causes
the
rotor
to
turn.
It
is
called
synchronous
because
at
steady
state
the
speed
of
the
rotor
is
the
same
as
the
speed
of
the
rotating
magnetic
field
in
the
s
stator.

By
way
of
contrast,
the
induction
motor
does
not
have
any
direct
supply
onto
the
rotor;
instead,
a
secondary
current
is
induced
in
the
rotor.
To
achieve
this,
stator
windings
are
arranged
around
the
rotor
so
that
when
energised
with
a
polyphase
supply
they
create
a
rotating
magnetic
field
pattern
which
sweeps
past
the
rotor.
This
changing
magnetic
field
pattern
can
induce
currents
in
the
rotor
conductors.
These
currents
interact
with
the
rotating
magnetic
field
created
by
the
stator
and
the
rotor
will
t
turn.

However,
for
these
currents
to
be
induced,
the
speed
of
the
physical
rotor
and
the
speed
of
the
rotating
magnetic
field
in
the
stator
must
be
different,
or
else
the
magnetic
field
will
not
be
moving
relative
to
the
rotor
conductors
and
no
currents
will
be
induced.
If
by
some
chance
this
happens,
the
rotor
typically
slows
slightly
until
a
current
is
re-induced
and
then
the
rotor
continues
as
before.
This
difference
between
the
speed
of
the
rotor
and
speed
of
the
rotating
magnetic
field
in
the
stator
is
called
slip.
It
has
no
unit
and
the
ratio
between
the
relative
speed
of
the
magnetic
field
as
seen
by
the
rotor
to
the
speed
of
the
rotating
field.
Due
to
this
an
induction
motor
is
sometimes
referred
to
as
an
asynchronous
m
machine.

T
Types:

�
Based
on
type
of
phase
supply
1.
three
phase
induction
motor
(self
starting
in
nature)
2.
single
phase
induction
motor
(not
self
starting)
�
Other
1.
Squirrel
cage
induction
motor
2.
Slip
ring
induction
motor
S
SWITCHGEAR

The
term
switchgear,
used
in
association
with
the
electric
power
system,
or
grid,
refers
to
the
combination
of
electrical
disconnects,
fuses
and/or
circuit
breakers
used
to
isolate
electrical
equipment.
Switchgear
is
used
both
to
de-energize
equipment
to
allow
work
to
be
done
and
to
clear
faults
d
downstream.

The
very
earliest
central
p
power
stations
used
simple
open
knife
switches,
mounted
on
insulating
panels
of
marble
or
asbestos.
Power
levels
and
voltages
rapidly
escalated,
making
open
manually-operated
switches
too
dangerous
to
use
for
anything
other
than
isolation
of
a
de-
energized
circuit.
Oil-filled
equipment
allowed
arc
energy
to
be
contained
and
safely
controlled.
By
the
early
20th
century,
a
switchgear
line-up
would
be
a
metal-enclosed
structure
with
electrically-operated
switching
elements,
using
oil
circuit
breakers.
Today,
oil-filled
equipment
has
largely
been
replaced
by
air-blast,
vacuum,
or
SF6
equipment,
allowing
large
currents
and
power
levels
to
be
safely
controlled
by
automatic
equipment
incorporating
digital
controls,
protection,
metering
and
c
communications.

A
View
of
Switchgear
at
a
Power
P
Plant
Types
T
TypesTypeTTsypesypes

A
piece
of
switchgear
may
be
a
simple
open
air
isolator
switch
or
it
may
be
insulated
by
some
other
substance.
An
effective
although
more
costly
form
of
switchgear
is
"gas
insulated
switchgear"
(GIS),
where
the
conductors
and
contacts
are
insulated
by
pressurized
(SF6)
sulfur
hexafluoride
gas.
Other
common
types
are
oil
[or
vacuum]
insulated
s
switchgear.

Circuit
breakers
are
a
special
type
of
switchgear
that
are
able
to
interrupt
fault
currents.
Their
construction
allows
them
to
interrupt
fault
currents
of
many
hundreds
or
thousands
of
amps.
The
quenching
of
the
arc
when
the
contacts
open
requires
careful
design,
and
falls
into
four
t
types:

Oil
circuit
breakers
rely
upon
vaporization
of
some
of
the
oil
to
blast
a
jet
of
oil
through
the
a
arc.

Gas
(SF6)
circuit
breakers
sometimes
stretch
the
arc
using
a
magnetic
field,
and
then
rely
upon
the
dielectric
strength
of
the
SF6
to
quench
the
stretched
a
arc.
Vacuum
circuit
breakers
have
minimal
arcing
(as
there
is
nothing
to
ionize
other
than
the
contact
material),
so
the
arc
quenches
when
it
is
stretched
a
very
small
amount
(<2-3
mm).
Vacuum
circuit
breakers
are
frequently
used
in
modern
medium-voltage
switchgear
to
35,000
v
volts.

Air
circuit
breakers
may
use
compressed
air
to
blow
out
the
arc,
or
alternatively,
the
contacts
are
rapidly
swung
into
a
small
sealed
chamber,
the
escaping
of
the
displaced
air
thus
blowing
out
the
a
arc.

Circuit
breakers
are
usually
able
to
terminate
all
current
flow
very
quickly:
typically
between
30
ms
and
150
ms
depending
upon
the
age
and
construction
of
the
d
device.

Several
different
classifications
of
switchgear
can
be
m
made:

By
the
current
r
rating:

�
By
interrupting
rating
(maximum
short
circuit
current
that
the
device
can
safely
interrupt)
�
Circuit
breakers
can
open
and
close
on
fault
currents
�
Load-break/Load-make
switches
can
switch
normal
system
load
currents
�
Isolators
may
only
be
operated
while
the
circuit
is
dead,
or
the
load
current
is
very
small.
By
voltage
c
class:

�
Low
Tension
(less
than
440
volts
AC)
�
High
Tension
(more
than
6.6
kV
AC)
By
insulating
m
medium:

�
Air
�
Gas
(SF6
or
mixtures)
�
Oil
�
Vacuum
By
construction
t
type:

�
Indoor
(further
classified
by
IP
(Ingress
Protection)
class
or
NEMA
enclosure
type)
�
Outdoor
�
Industrial
�
Utility
�
Marine
�
Draw-out
elements
(removable
without
many
tools)
�
Fixed
elements
(bolted
fasteners)
�
Live-front
�
Dead-front
�
Open
�
Metal-enclosed
�
Metal-clad
�
Metal
enclose
&
Metal
clad
�
Arc-resistant
High
Tension
Switchgear
at
Thermal
Power
P
Plant

By
IEC
degree
of
internal
s
separation:

�
No
Separation
�
Bus
bars
separated
from
functional
units
�
Terminals
for
external
conductors
separated
from
bus
bars
�
Terminals
for
external
conductors
separated
from
functional
units
but
not
from
each
other
�
Functional
units
separated
from
each
other
�
Terminals
for
external
conductors
separated
from
each
other
�
Terminals
for
external
conductors
separate
from
their
associated
functional
unit
By
interrupting
d
device:

�
Fuses
�
Air
Blast
Circuit
Breaker
�
Minimum
Oil
Circuit
Breaker
�
Oil
Circuit
Breaker
�
Vacuum
Circuit
Breaker
�
Gas
(SF6)
Circuit
breaker
By
operating
m
method:

�
Manually-operated
�
Motor-operated
�
Solenoid/stored
energy
operated
By
type
of
c
current:

�
Alternating
current
�
Direct
current
By
a
application:

�
Transmission
system
�
Distribution.
A
single
line-up
may
incorporate
several
different
types
of
devices,
for
example,
air-insulated
bus,
vacuum
circuit
breakers,
and
manually-operated
switches
may
all
exist
in
the
same
row
of
c
cubicles.

Ratings,
design,
specifications
and
details
of
switchgear
are
set
by
a
multitude
of
standards.
In
North
America
mostly
IEEE
and
ANSI
standards
are
used,
much
of
the
rest
of
the
world
uses
IEC
standards,
sometimes
with
local
national
derivatives
or
v
variations.

Functions
F
FunctionsFunctionFFsunctionsunctions

One
of
the
basic
functions
of
switchgear
is
protection,
which
is
interruption
of
short-circuit
and
overload
fault
currents
while
maintaining
service
to
unaffected
circuits.
Switchgear
also
provides
isolation
of
circuits
from
power
supplies.
Switchgear
also
is
used
to
enhance
system
availability
by
allowing
more
than
one
source
to
feed
a
l
load.

Safety
S
SafetySafetSSyafetyafety

To
help
ensure
safe
operation
sequences
of
switchgear,
trapped
key
interlocking
provides
predefined
scenarios
of
operation.
James
Harry
Castell
invented
this
technique
in
1922.
For
example,
if
only
one
of
two
sources
of
supply
is
permitted
to
be
connected
at
a
given
time,
the
interlock
scheme
may
require
that
the
first
switch
must
be
opened
to
release
a
key
that
will
allow
closing
the
second
switch.
Complex
schemes
are
p
possible.
HIGH
TENSION
S
SWITCHGEAR

High
voltage
switchgear
is
any
switchgear
and
switchgear
assembly
of
rated
voltage
higher
than
1000
v
volts.

High
voltage
switchgear
is
any
switchgear
used
to
connect
or
to
disconnect
a
part
of
a
high
voltage
power
s
system.

These
switchgears
are
essential
elements
for
the
protection
and
for
a
f
safety
operating
mode
without
interruption
of
a
high
voltage
power
system.
This
type
of
equipment
is
really
important
because
it
is
directly
linked
to
the
quality
of
the
electricity
s
supply.

The
high
voltage
is
a
voltage
above
1000
V
for
alternating
current
and
above
1500
V
for
direct
c
current.

High
Tension
Switchgear
of
a
Thermal
Power
P
Plant

The
high
voltage
switchgear
was
invented
at
the
end
of
the
19th
century
for
operating
the
motors
and
others
electric
machines.
It
has
been
improved
and
it
can
be
used
in
the
whole
range
of
high
voltage
until
1100
k
kV.

Functional Classification
FunctionalClassificationFunctionalClassificatioFFnunctionalClassificationunctional
C
Classification

Disconnectors
and
Earthing
S
Switches

They
are
above
all
safety
devices
used
to
open
or
to
close
a
circuit
when
there
is
no
current
through
them.
They
are
used
to
isolate
a
part
of
a
circuit,
a
machine,
a
part
of
an
overhead-line
or
an
underground
line
for
the
operating
staff
to
access
it
without
any
d
danger.
The
opening
of
the
line
isolator
or
busbar
section
isolator
is
necessary
for
the
safety
but
it
is
not
enough.
Grounding
must
be
done
at
the
upstream
sector
and
the
downstream
sector
on
the
device
which
they
want
to
intervene
thanks
to
the
earthing
s
switches.

In
principle,
disconnecting
switches
do
not
have
to
interrupt
currents,
but
some
of
them
can
interrupt
currents
(up
to
1600
A
under
10
to
300V)
and
some
earthing
switches
must
interrupt
induced
currents
which
are
generated
in
a
non-current-carrying
line
by
inductive
and
capacitive
coupling
with
nearby
lines
(up
to
160
A
under
20
kV)
)
).

A
Vacuum
Circuit
Breaker
(High
Tension
S
Switchgear)
High-Current
Switching
M
Mechanism

They
can
open
or
close
a
circuit
in
normal
load.
Some
of
them
can
be
used
as
a
disconnecting
switch.
But
if
they
can
create
a
short-circuit
current,
they
can
not
interrupt
i
it.

C
Contactor

Their
functions
are
similar
to
the
high-current
switching
mechanism,
but
they
can
be
used
at
higher
rates.
They
have
a
high
electrical
endurance
and
a
high
mechanical
e
endurance.

Contactors
are
used
to
frequently
operate
device
like
electric
furnaces,
high
voltage
motors.
They
cannot
be
used
as
a
disconnecting
s
switch.

They
are
used
only
in
the
band
30
kV
to
100
k
kV.

F
Fuses

The
fuses
can
interrupt
automatically
a
circuit
with
an
overcurrent
flowing
in
it
for
a
fixed
time.
The
current
interrupting
is
got
by
the
fusion
of
an
electrical
conductor
which
is
g
graded.
They
are
mainly
used
ot
protect
against
the
short-circuits.
They
limit
the
peak
value
of
the
fault
c
current.

In
three-phase
electric
power,
they
only
eliminate
the
phases
where
the
fault
current
is
flowing,
which
is
a
risk
for
the
devices
and
the
people.
Against
this
trouble,
the
fuses
can
be
associated
with
high-current
switches
or
c
contactors.

They
are
used
only
in
the
band
30
kV
to
100
k
kV.

Circuit
B
Breaker

A
high
voltage
circuit
breaker
is
capable
of
making,
carrying
and
breaking
currents
under
the
rated
voltage
(the
maximal
voltage
of
the
power
system
which
it
is
protecting)
:
Under
normal
circuit
conditions,
for
example
to
connect
or
disconnect
a
line
in
a
power
system;
Under
specified
abnormal
circuit
conditions
especially
to
eliminate
a
short
circuit.
From
its
characteristics,
a
circuit
breaker
is
the
protection
device
essential
for
a
high
voltage
power
system,
because
it
is
the
only
one
able
to
interrupt
a
short
circuit
current
and
so
to
avoid
the
others
devices
to
be
damaged
by
this
short
circuit.
The
international
standard
IEC
62271-100
defines
the
demands
linked
to
the
characteristics
of
a
high
voltage
circuit
b
breaker.

The
circuit
breaker
can
be
equipped
with
electronic
devices
in
order
to
know
at
any
moment
their
states
(wear,
gaz
pressure�)
and
possibly
to
detect
faults
from
characteristics
derivatives
and
it
can
permit
to
plan
maintenance
operations
and
to
avoid
f
failures.

To
operate
on
long
lines,
the
circuit
breakers
are
equipped
with
a
closing
resistor
to
limit
the
o
overvoltages.

They
can
be
equipped
with
devices
to
synchronize
the
closing
and/or
the
opening
to
limit
the
overvoltages
and
the
inrush
currents
from
the
lines,
the
unloaded
transformers,
the
shunt
reactances
and
the
capacitor
banks.

Some
devices
are
designed
to
have
the
characteristics
of
the
circuit
breaker
and
the
disconnector.
But
their
use
is
limited.
DIRECT
ON
LINE
STARTER

A
direct
on
line
starter,
often
abbreviated
DOL
starter,
is
a
widely-used
starting
method
of
electric
motors.
The
term
is
used
in
electrical
engineering
and
associated
with
electric
motors.
There
are
many
types
of
motor
starters,
the
simplest
of
which
is
the
DOL
starter.

A
motor
starter
is
an
electrical/electronic
circuit
composed
of
electro-mechanical
and
electronic
devices
which
are
employed
to
start
and
stop
an
electric
motor.
Regardless
of
the
motor
type
(AC
or
DC),
the
types
of
starters
differ
depending
on
the
method
of
starting
the
motor.
A
DOL
starter
connects
the
motor
terminals
directly
to
the
power
supply.
Hence,
the
motor
is
subjected
to
the
full
voltage
of
the
power
supply.
Consequently,
high
starting
current
flows
through
the
motor.
This
type
of
starting
is
suitable
for
small
motors
below
5
hp
(3.75
kW).
Reduced-voltage
starters
are
employed
with
motors
above
5
hp.
Although
DOL
motor
starters
are
available
for
motors
less
than
150
kW
on
400
V
and
for
motors
less
than
1
MW
on
6.6
kV.
Supply
reliability
and
reserve
power
generation
dictates
the
use
of
reduced
voltage
or
not.

Internal
View
of
a
Direct
On
Line
Starter

Major Components
MajorComponentsMajorComponentMMsajorComponentsajorComponents

There
are
four
major
components
of
a
Direct
On
Line
Starter.
They
are
given
as
follows:

1.
Switch
2.
Fuse
3.
Conductor
(Electromagnetic)
4.
Thermal
Overload
Relay
(Heat
&
Temperature)
Auxiliary Components
AuxiliaryComponentsAuxiliaryComponentAAsuxiliaryComponentsuxiliaryComponents

According
to
our
desire
and
use
of
work,
we
use
auxiliary
components
in
a
DOL
Starter.
There
are
basically
two
types
of
Auxiliary
Components
given
as
follows:

1.
Auxiliary
Conductor
2.
Timer
(Range
�
0.5s
to
60s)
DOL Reversing Starter
DOLReversingStarterDOLReversingStarteDDrOLReversingStarterOLReversingStarter

Most
motors
are
reversible
or,
in
other
words,
they
can
be
run
clockwise
and
anti-clockwise.
A
reversing
starter
is
an
electrical
or
electronic
circuit
that
reverses
the
direction
of
a
motor
automatically.
Logically,
the
circuit
is
composed
of
two
DOL
circuits;
one
for
clockwise
operation
and
the
other
for
anti-clockwise
operation.
External
View
of
a
Direct
On
Line
Starter

Example of Motor Starters

ExampleofMotorStartersExampleofMotorStarterEEsxampleofMotorStartersxampleofMotorSt
arters

A
very
well-known
motor
starter
is
the
DOL
Starter
of
a
3-Phase
Squirrel-Cage
Motor.
This
starter
is
sometimes
used
to
start
water
pumps,
compressors,
fans
and
conveyor
belts.
With
a
400V,
50
Hz,
3-phase
supply,
the
power
circuit
connects
the
motor
to
400V.
Consequently,
the
starting
current
may
reach
3-8
times
the
normal
current.
The
control
circuit
is
typically
run
at
24V
with
the
aid
of
a
400V/24V
transformer.

Motor Direction Reversal

MotorDirectionReversalMotorDirectionReversaMMlotorDirectionReversalotorDirectionRe
versal

Changing
the
direction
of
a
3-Phase
Squirrel-Cage
Motor
requires
swapping
any
two
phases.
This
could
be
achieved
by
a
contactor
KM1
swapping
phase
L2
and
L3
between
the
supply
and
the
motor.
Module
-II

EMD
-II

�
Generator
�
Protection
�
Transformer
GENERATORS

The
basic
function
of
the
generator
is
to
convert
mechanical
power,
delivered
from
the
shaft
of
the
turbine,
into
electrical
power.
Therefore
a
generator
is
actually
a
rotating
mechanical
energy
converter.
The
mechanical
energy
from
the
turbine
is
converted
by
means
of
a
rotating
magnetic
field
produced
by
direct
current
in
the
copper
winding
of
the
rotor
or
field,
which
generates
three-phase
alternating
currents
and
voltages
in
the
copper
winding
of
the
stator
(armature).
The
stator
winding
is
connected
to
terminals,
which
are
in
turn
connected
to
the
power
system
for
delivery
of
the
output
power
to
the
system.

A
210
MW
Turbine
Generator
at
Badarpur
Thermal
Power
Station,
#ew
Delhi

The
class
of
generator
under
consideration
is
steam
turbine-driven
generators,
commonly
called
turbo
generators.
These
machines
are
generally
used
in
nuclear
and
fossil
fueled
power
plants,
co-generation
plants,
and
combustion
turbine
units.
They
range
from
relatively
small
machines
of
a
few
Megawatts
(MW)
to
very
large
generators
with
ratings
up
to
1900
MW.
The
generators
particular
to
this
category
are
of
the
two-and
four-pole
design
employing
round-rotors,
with
rotational
operating
speeds
of
3600
and
1800
rpm
in
North
America,
parts
of
Japan,
and
Asia
(3000
and
1500
rpm
in
Europe,
Africa,
Australia,
Asia,
and
South
America).
At
Badarpur
Thermal
Power
Station
3000
rpm,
50
Hz
generators
are
used
of
capacities
210
MW
and
95
MW.

As
the
system
load
demands
more
active
power
from
the
generator,
more
steam
(or
fuel
in
a
combustion
turbine)
needs
to
be
admitted
to
the
turbine
to
increase
power
output.
Hence
more
energy
is
transmitted
to
the
generator
from
the
turbine,
in
the
form
of
a
torque.
This
torque
is
mechanical
in
nature,
but
electromagnetically
coupled
to
the
power
system
through
the
generator.
The
higher
the
power
output,
the
higher
the
torque
between
turbine
and
generator.

The
power
output
of
the
generator
generally
follows
the
load
demand
from
the
system.
Therefore
the
voltages
and
currents
in
the
generator
are
continually
changing
based
on
the
load
demand.
The
generator
design
must
be
able
to
cope
with
large
and
fast
load
changes,
which
show
up
inside
the
machine
as
changes
in
mechanical
forces
and
temperatures.
The
design
must
therefore
incorporate
electrical
current-carrying
materials
(i.e.,
copper),
magnetic
flux-carrying
materials
(i.e.,
highly
permeable
steels),
insulating
materials
(i.e.,
organic),
structural
members
(i.e.,
steel
and
organic),
and
cooling
media
(i.e.,
gases
and
liquids),
all
working
together
under
the
operating
conditions
of
a
turbo
generator.

An
open
Electric
Generator
at
Power
Plant

Since
the
turbo
generator
is
a
synchronous
machine,
it
operates
at
one
very
specific
speed
to
produce
a
constant
system
frequency
of
50
Hz,
depending
on
the
frequency
of
the
grid
to
which
it
is
connected.
As
a
synchronous
machine,
a
turbine
generator
employs
a
steady
magnetic
flux
passing
radially
across
an
air
gap
that
exists
between
the
rotor
and
the
stator.
(The
term
�air
gap�
is
commonly
used
for
air-and
gas-cooled
machines).
For
the
machines
in
this
discussion,
this
means
a
magnetic
flux
distribution
of
two
or
four
poles
on
the
rotor.
This
flux
pattern
rotates
with
the
rotor,
as
it
spins
at
its
synchronous
speed.
The
rotating
magnetic
field
moves
past
a
three-phase
symmetrically
distributed
winding
installed
in
the
stator
core,
generating
an
alternating
voltage
in
the
stator
winding.
The
voltage
waveform
created
in
each
of
the
three
phases
of
the
stator
winding
is
very
nearly
sinusoidal.
The
output
of
the
stator
winding
is
the
three-phase
power,
delivered
to
the
power
system
at
the
voltage
generated
in
the
stator
winding.

In
addition
to
the
normal
flux
distribution
in
the
main
body
of
the
generator,
there
are
stray
fluxes
at
the
extreme
ends
of
the
generator
that
create
fringing
flux
patterns
and
induce
stray
losses
in
the
generator.
The
stray
fluxes
must
be
accounted
for
in
the
overall
design.
Generators
are
made
up
of
two
basic
members,
the
stator
and
the
rotor,
but
the
stator
and
rotor
are
each
constructed
from
numerous
parts
themselves.
Rotors
are
the
high-speed
rotating
member
of
the
two,
and
they
undergo
severe
dynamic
mechanical
loading
as
well
as
the
electromagnetic
and
thermal
loads.
The
most
critical
component
in
the
generator
are
the
retaining
rings,
mounted
on
the
rotor.

These
components
are
very
carefully
designed
for
high-stress
operation.
The
stator
is
stationary,
as
the
term
suggests,
but
it
also
sees
significant
dynamic
forces
in
terms
of
vibration
and
torsional
loads,
as
well
as
the
electromagnetic,
thermal,
and
high-voltage
loading.
The
most
critical
component
of
the
stator
is
arguably
the
stator
winding
because
it
is
a
very
high
cost
item
and
it
must
be
designed
to
handle
all
of
the
harsh
effects
described
above.
Most
stator
problems
occur
with
the
winding.

STATOR
SSSSTATORTTTATORATORATOR

The
stator
winding
is
made
up
of
insulated
copper
conductor
bars
that
are
distributed
around
the
inside
diameter
of
the
stator
core,
commonly
called
the
stator
bore,
in
equally
spaced
slots
in
the
core
to
ensure
symmetrical
flux
linkage
with
the
field
produced
by
the
rotor.
Each
slot
contains
two
conductor
bars,
one
on
top
of
the
other.
These
are
generally
referred
to
as
top
and
bottom
bars.
Top
bars
are
the
ones
nearest
the
slot
opening
(just
under
the
wedge)
and
the
bottom
bars
are
the
ones
at
the
slot
bottom.
The
core
area
between
slots
is
generally
called
a
core
tooth.

Stator
of
a
Turbo
Generator

The
stator
winding
is
then
divided
into
three
phases,
which
are
almost
always
wye
connected.
Wye
connection
is
done
to
allow
a
neural
grounding
point
and
for
relay
protection
of
the
winding.
The
three
phases
are
connected
to
create
symmetry
between
them
in
the
360
degree
arc
of
the
stator
bore.
The
distribution
of
the
winding
is
done
in
such
a
way
as
to
produce
a
120
degree
difference
in
voltage
peaks
from
one
phase
to
the
other,
hence
the
term
�three-phase
voltage.�
Each
of
the
three
phases
may
have
one
or
more
parallel
circuits
within
the
phase.
The
parallels
can
be
connected
in
series
or
parallel,
or
a
combination
of
both
if
it
is
a
four-pole
generator.
This
will
be
discussed
in
the
next
section.
The
parallels
in
all
of
the
phases
are
essentially
equal
on
average,
in
their
performance
in
the
machine.
Therefore,
they
each
�see�
equal
voltage
and
current,
magnitudes
and
phase
angles,
when
averaged
over
one
alternating
cycle.

The
stator
bars
in
any
particular
phase
group
are
arranged
such
that
there
are
parallel
paths,
which
overlap
between
top
and
bottom
bars.
The
overlap
is
staggered
between
top
and
bottom
bars.
The
top
bars
on
one
side
of
the
stator
bore
are
connected
to
the
bottom
bars
on
the
other
side
of
the
bore
in
one
direction
while
the
bottom
bars
are
connected
in
the
other
direction
on
the
opposite
side
of
the
stator.
This
connection
with
the
bars
on
the
other
side
of
the
stator
creates
a
�reach�
or
�pitch�
of
a
certain
number
of
slots.
The
pitch
is
therefore
the
number
slots
that
the
stator
bars
have
to
reach
in
the
stator
bore
arc,
separating
the
two
bars
to
be
connected.
This
is
always
less
than
180
degrees.

Once
connected,
the
stator
bars
form
a
single
coil
or
turn.
The
total
width
of
the
overlapping
parallels
is
called
the
�breadth.�
The
combination
of
the
pitch
and
breadth
create
a
�winding
or
distribution
factor.�
The
distribution
factor
is
used
to
minimize
the
harmonic
content
of
the
generated
voltage.
In
the
case
of
a
two
parallel
path
winding,
these
may
be
connected
in
series
or
parallel
outside
the
stator
bore,
at
the
termination
end
of
the
generator.
The
connection
type
will
depend
on
a
number
of
other
design
issues
regarding
current-carrying
ability
of
the
copper
in
the
winding.

In
a
two-parallel
path,
three-phase
winding,
alternating
voltage
is
created
by
the
action
of
the
rotor
field
as
it
moves
past
these
windings.
Since
there
is
a
plus
and
minus,
or
north
and
south,
to
the
rotating
magnetic
field,
opposite
polarity
currents
flow
on
each
side
of
the
stator
bore
in
the
distributed
winding.

The
currents
normally
flowing
in
large
turbo
generators
can
be
in
the
order
of
thousands
of
amperes.
Due
to
the
very
high
currents,
the
conductor
bars
in
a
turbo
generator
have
a
large
cross-sectional
area.
In
addition
they
are
usually
one
single
turn
per
bar,
as
opposed
to
motors
or
small
generators
that
have
multiple
turn
bars
or
coils.
These
stator
or
conductor
bars
are
also
very
rigid
and
do
not
bend
unless
significant
force
is
exerted
on
them.

ROTOR
RRRROTOROOOTORTORTOR

The
rotor
winding
is
installed
in
the
slots
machined
in
the
forging
main
body
and
is
distributed
symmetrically
around
the
rotor
between
the
poles.
The
winding
itself
is
made
up
of
many
turns
of
copper
to
form
the
entire
series
connected
winding.
All
of
the
turns
associated
with
a
single
slot
are
generally
called
a
coil.
The
coils
are
wound
into
the
winding
slots
in
the
forging,
concentrically
in
corresponding
positions
on
opposite
sides
of
a
pole.
The
series
connection
essentially
creates
a
single
multi-turn
coil
overall,
that
develops
the
total
ampere-turns
of
the
rotor
(which
is
the
total
current
flowing
in
the
rotor
winding
times
the
total
number
of
turns).
There
are
numerous
copper-winding
designs
employed
in
generator
rotors,
but
all
rotor
windings
function
basically
in
the
same
way.
They
are
configured
differently
for
different
methods
of
heat
removal
during
operation.
In
addition
almost
all
large
turbo
generators
have
directly
cooled
copper
windings
by
air
or
hydrogen
cooling
g
gas.

Rotor
of
a
Turbo
Generator
Cooling
passages
are
provided
within
the
conductors
themselves
to
eliminate
the
temperature
drop
across
the
ground
insulation
and
preserve
the
life
of
the
insulation
m
material.

In
an
�axially�
cooled
winding,
the
gas
passes
through
axial
passages
in
the
conductors,
being
fed
from
both
ends,
and
exhausted
to
the
air
gap
at
the
axial
G
center
of
the
rotor.
In
other
designs,
�radial�
passages
in
the
stack
of
conductors
are
fed
from
sub
slots
machined
along
the
length
of
the
rotor
at
the
bottom
of
each
slot.
In
the
�air
gap
pickup�
method,
the
cooling
gas
is
picked
up
from
the
air
gap,
and
cooling
is
accomplished
over
a
relatively
short
length
of
the
rotor,
and
then
discharged
back
to
the
air
gap.
The
cooling
of
the
end-regions
of
the
winding
varies
from
design
to
design,
as
much
as
that
of
the
slot
section.
In
smaller
turbine
generators
the
indirect
cooling
method
is
used
(similar
to
indirectly
cooled
stator
windings),
where
the
heat
is
removed
by
conduction
through
the
ground
insulation
to
the
rotor
body.
The
winding
is
held
in
place
in
the
slots
by
wedges,
in
a
similar
manner
as
the
stator
windings.
The
difference
is
that
the
rotor
winding
loading
on
the
wedges
is
far
greater
due
to
centrifugal
forces
at
speed.
The
wedges
therefore
are
subjected
to
a
tremendous
static
load
from
these
forces
and
bending
stresses
because
t
of
the
rotation
effects.
The
wedges
in
the
rotor
are
not
generally
a
tight
fit
in
order
to
accommodate
the
axial
thermal
expansion
of
the
rotor
winding
during
o
operation.

There
are
also
many
available
designs
and
configurations
for
the
end-winding
construction
and
ventilation
methods.
As
in
the
rotor
slots,
the
copper
turns
in
the
end-winding
must
be
isolated
from
one
another
so
that
they
do
not
touch
and
create
shorts
between
turns.
Therefore
packing
and
blocking
are
used
to
keep
the
coils
separated,
and
in
their
relative
position
as
the
rotor
winding
expands
from
thermal
effects
during
operation.
To
restrain
the
end
winding
portion
of
the
rotor
winding
during
high-speed
operation,
retaining-rings
are
employed
to
keep
the
copper
coils
in
p
place.

BEARINGS
B
BBBBEARINGSEGEEARINSARINGSARINGS

All
turbo
generators
require
bearings
to
rotate
freely
with
minimal
friction
and
vibration.
The
main
rotor
body
must
be
supported
by
a
bearing
at
each
end
of
the
generator
for
this
purpose.
In
some
cases
where
the
rotor
shaft
is
very
long
at
the
excitation
end
of
the
machine
to
accommodate
the
slip/collector
rings,
a
�steady�
bearing
is
installed
outboard
of
the
slip-
collector
rings.
This
ensures
that
the
excitation
end
of
the
rotor
shaft
does
not
create
a
wobble
that
transmits
through
the
shaft
and
stimulates
excessive
vibration
in
the
overall
generator
rotor
or
the
turbo
generator
l
line.

There
are
generally
two
common
types
of
bearings
employed
in
large
generators,
�journal�
and
�tilting
pad�
bearings.
Journal
bearings
are
the
most
common.
Both
require
lubricating
and
jacking
oil
systems,
which
will
be
discussed
later
in
the
book,
under
auxiliary
s
systems.

When
installing
the
bearings,
they
must
be
aligned
in
terms
of
height
and
angle
to
ensure
that
the
rotor
�sits�
in
the
bearing
correctly.
Such
things
as
shaft
�catinery�
must
be
considered
and
�pre-loading�
or
�shimming�
of
the
bearings
to
account
for
the
difference
when
the
rotor
is
at
standstill
and
at
speed.
Getting
any
of
these
things
wrong
in
the
assembly
can
cause
the
rotor
to
vibrate
excessively
and
damage
either
the
rotor
shaft
or
the
bearing
itself.
Generally,
a
�wipe�
of
the
bearing
running
surface
or
�babbitt�
r
results.

AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
A
AAAAUXILIARYUXILIARYUXILIARYUXILIARYSSSSYYYYSSSSTTTTEEEEMMMMSSSS

All
large
generators
require
auxiliary
systems
to
handle
such
things
as
lubricating
oil
for
the
rotor
bearings,
hydrogen
cooling
apparatus,
hydrogen
sealing
oil,
de-mineralized
water
for
stator
winding
cooling,
and
excitation
systems
for
field-current
application.
Not
all
generators
require
all
these
systems
and
the
requirement
depends
on
the
size
and
nature
of
the
machine.
For
instance,
air
cooled
turbo
generators
do
not
require
hydrogen
for
cooling
and
therefore
no
sealing
oil
as
well.
On
the
other
hand,
large
generators
with
high
outputs,
generally
above
400
MVA,
have
water-cooled
stator
windings,
hydrogen
for
cooling
the
stator
core
and
rotor,
seal
oil
to
contain
the
hydrogen
cooling
gas
under
high
pressure,
lubricating
oil
for
the
bearings,
and
of
course,
an
excitation
system
for
field
c
current.

There
are
five
major
auxiliary
systems
that
may
be
used
in
a
generator.
They
are
given
a
as
f
follows:

1.
Lubricating
Oil
System
2.
Hydrogen
Cooling
System
3.
Seal
Oil
System
4.
Stator
Cooling
Water
System
5.
Excitation
System
Each
system
has
numerous
variations
to
accommodate
the
hundreds
of
different
generator
configurations
that
may
be
found
in
operation.
But
regardless
of
the
generator
design
and
which
variation
of
a
system
is
in
use,
they
all
individually
have
the
same
basic
function
as
described
b
before.

1.
Lubricating
Oil
System
The
lube-oil
system
provides
oil
for
all
of
the
turbine
and
generator
bearings
as
well
as
being
the
source
of
seal
oil
for
the
seal-oil
system.
The
lube-oil
system
is
generally
grouped
in
with
the
turbine
components
and
is
not
usually
looked
after
by
the
generator
side
during
maintenance.
It
is
mentioned
primarily
for
c
completeness.

Lubricating
Oil
System
L
Layout

The
main
components
of
the
lube-oil
system
consists
generally
of
the
main
lube-oil
tank,
pumps,
heat
exchangers,
filters
and
strainers,
centrifuge
or
purifier,
vapor
extractor,
and
various
check
valves
and
instrumentation.
The
main
oil
tank
serves
both
the
turbine
and
generator
bearing
and
is
often
also
the
source
of
the
sealing
oil
for
the
hydrogen
seals.
It
is
usually
located
under
the
turbines
and
holds
thousands
of
gallons
of
o
oil.
Heat
exchangers
are
provided
for
heat
removal
from
the
lube
oil.
Raw
water
from
the
local
lake
or
river
is
circulated
on
one
side
of
the
cooler
to
remove
the
heat
from
o
the
lube
oil
circulating
on
the
other
side
of
the
heat
e
exchanger.

Full
flow
filters
and/or
strainers,
or
a
combination
of
both,
are
employed
for
removal
of
debris
from
the
lube
oil.
Strainers
are
generally
sized
to
remove
larger
debris
and
filters
for
debris
in
the
range
of
a
few
microns
and
larger.
They
can
be
mechanical
or
organic
type
filters
and
strainers.
Debris
removal
is
important
to
reduce
the
possibility
of
scoring
the
bearing
Babbitt
or
plugging
of
the
oil
l
lines.

A
centrifuge
or
purifier
is
used
to
remove
moisture
from
the
oil.
Moisture
is
also
a
contaminant
to
oil
and
can
cause
it
to
lose
its
lubricating
p
properties.

2.
Hydrogen
Cooling
System
As
the
hydrogen
cooling
gas
picks
up
heat
from
the
various
generator
components
within
the
machine,
its
temperature
rises
significantly.
This
can
be
as
much
as
46oC,
and
therefore
the
hydrogen
must
be
cooled
down
prior
to
being
re-circulated
through
the
machine
for
continuous
cooling.
Hydrogen
coolers
or
heat
exchangers
are
employed
for
this
p
purpose.

Hydrogen
coolers
are
basically
heat
exchangers
mounted
inside
the
generator
in
the
enclosed
atmosphere.
Cooling
tubes
with
�fins�
are
used
to
enlarge
the
surface
area
for
cooling,
as
the
hydrogen
gas
passes
over
the
outside
of
the
finned
tubes.
�Raw
water�
(filtered
and
treated)
from
the
local
river
or
lake
is
pumped
through
the
tubes
to
take
the
heat
away
from
the
hydrogen
gas
and
outside
the
generator.
The
tubes
must
be
extremely
leak-tight
to
ensure
that
hydrogen
gas
does
not
enter
into
the
tubes,
since
the
gas
is
at
a
higher
pressure
than
the
raw
w
water.

3.
Seal
Oil
System
As
most
large
generators
use
hydrogen
under
high
pressure
for
cooling
the
various
internal
components.
To
keep
the
hydrogen
inside
the
generator,
various
places
in
the
generator
are
required
to
seal
against
hydrogen
leakage
to
atmosphere.
One
of
the
most
difficult
seals
made
is
the
juncture
between
the
stator
and
the
rotating
shaft
of
the
rotor.
This
is
done
by
a
set
of
hydrogen
seals
at
both
ends
of
the
machine.
The
seals
may
be
of
the
journal
(ring)
type
or
the
thrust-collar
type.
But
one
thing
both
arrangements
have
in
common
is
the
requirement
of
high-
pressure
oil
into
the
seal
to
make
the
actual
�seal.�
The
system,
which
provides
the
oil
to
do
this,
is
called
the
seal-oil
s
system.

In
general,
the
most
common
type
of
seal
is
the
journal
type.
This
arrangement
functions
by
pressurized
oil
fed
between
two
floating
segmented
rings,
usually
made
of
bronze
or
Babbitt
steel.
At
the
ring
outlet,
against
the
shaft,
oil
flows
in
both
directions
from
the
seals
along
the
rotating
shaft.
For
the
thrust-collar
type,
the
oil
is
fed
into
a
Babbitt
running
face
via
oil
delivery
ports,
and
makes
the
seal
against
the
rotating
thrust
collar.
Again,
the
oil
flows
in
two
directions,
to
the
air
side
and
the
hydrogen
side
of
the
s
seals.

The
seal
oil
itself
is
actually
a
portion
of
the
lube
oil,
diverted
from
the
lubricating
oil
system.
It
is
then
fed
to
a
separate
system
of
its
own
with
pumps,
motors,
hydrogen
detraining
or
vacuum
degassing
equipment,
and
controls
to
regulate
the
pressure
and
f
flow.
Seal
Oil
System
�
Packaged
U
Unit

The
seal-oil
pressure
at
the
hydrogen
seals
is
maintained
generally
about
15
psi
above
the
hydrogen
pressure
to
stop
hydrogen
from
leaking
past
the
seals.
The
differential
pressure
is
maintained
by
a
controller
to
ensure
continuous
and
positive
sealing
at
all
times
when
there
is
hydrogen
f
in
the
generator.
One
of
the
critical
components
of
the
seal
oil
system
is
the
hydrogen
degasifying
plant.
The
most
common
method
of
removing
entrained
hydrogen
and
other
gases
is
to
vacuum-treat
the
seal
oil
before
supplying
it
to
the
seals.
This
is
generally
done
in
the
main
seal
oil
supply
tank.
As
the
oil
is
pulled
into
l
the
storage
tank
under
vacuum,
through
a
spray
nozzle,
the
seal
oil
is
broken
up
into
a
fine
spray.
This
allows
the
removal
of
dissolved
gases.
In
addition
there
is
often
a
re-circulating
pump
to
re-circulate
oil
back
to
the
tank
through
a
series
of
spray
nozzles
for
continuous
gas
r
removal.

After
passing
through
the
generator
shaft
seals,
the
oil
goes
through
the
detraining
sections
before
it
returns
to
the
bearing
oil
drain.
As
a
safety
feature
there
is
often
a
dc
motor
driven
emergency
seal-oil
pump
provided.
This
motor
will
start
automatically
on
loss
of
oil
pressure
from
the
main
seal-oil
pump.
This
is
to
ensure
that
the
generator
can
be
shut
down
safely
without
risk
to
personnel
or
the
e
equipment.

4.
Stator
Cooling
Water
System
The
stator
cooling
water
system
(SCW)
is
used
to
provide
a
source
of
de-mineralized
water
to
the
generator
stator
winding
for
direct
cooling
of
the
stator
winding
and
associated
components.
SCW
is
generally
used
in
machines
rated
at
or
above
300
MVA.
Most
SCW
systems
are
provided
as
package
units,
mounted
on
a
singular
platform,
which
includes
all
of
the
SCW
system
components.
All
components
of
the
system
are
generally
made
from
stainless
steel
or
copper
m
materials.
Stator
Water
Cooling
S
System

System Components
S
SystemComponentsSystemComponentSSsystemComponentsystemComponents

Pumps:
Generally,
ac
motor
driven
pumps
are
used
to
deliver
the
cooling
water
to
the
windings.
In
some
instances
a
dc
motor
driven
pump
is
used
for
emergency
s
shutdown.

Heat
Exchangers:
Heat
exchangers
are
provided
for
heat
removal
from
the
SCW.
Raw
water
from
the
S
local
lake
or
river
is
circulated
on
one
side
of
the
cooler
to
remove
the
heat
from
the
de-
mineralized
SCW
circulating
on
the
other
side
of
the
heat
e
exchanger.

Filters
and/or
Strainers:
Full-flow
filters
and/or
strainers,
or
a
combination
of
both,
are
employed
for
removal
of
debris
from
the
SCW.
Strainers
are
generally
sized
to
remove
debris
in
the
20
to
50
�
range
and
larger
and
filters
for
debris
in
the
range
of
3
�
and
larger.
They
can
be
mechanical
or
organic
type
filters
and
strainers.
Debris
removal
is
important
to
reduce
the
possibility
of
plugging
in
the
stator
conductor
bar
s
strands.

De-Ionizing
Subsystem:
A
de-ionizing
subsystem
is
required
to
maintain
low
conductivity
in
the
SCW,
generally
in
the
order
of
0.1
�S/cm.
High
conductivity
can
cause
a
flashover
to
ground
in
the
stator
winding,
particularly
at
the
Teflon
hoses
where
an
internal
tracking
path
to
ground
exists.
The
system
generally
maintains
a
continuous
bleed-off
of
5%
from
the
main
SCW
flow
to
keep
the
conductivity
in
the
operable
r
range.

Stator
Cooling
Water
System
Storage
or
Makeup
Tank:
In
the
event
the
SCW
is
lost,
or
the
SCW
system
must
be
refilled
after
shutdown
and
draining,
the
system
requires
replenishing.
Therefore
a
storage
tank
to
hold
sufficient
makeup
water
is
required.
Some
systems
are
open
t
to
atmosphere
while
others
maintain
a
hydrogen
blanket
on
top
of
the
water
to
keep
the
level
of
oxygen
at
a
m
minimum.

Gas
Collection
and
Venting
Arrangement:
Since
no
SCW
system
is
leak
proof,
there
is
some
ingress
of
hydrogen
and
natural
collection
of
other
gases
such
as
oxygen
in
the
SCW
system.
A
means
for
venting
off
these
gases
is
required.
Generally,
the
excess
gases
are
vented
to
atmosphere.
In
some
systems
the
venting
process
is
monitored
and/or
quantified
and
in
other
systems
there
is
none.
This
is
m
manufacturer-specific.

5.
Excitation
System
Rotating
commutator
exciters
as
a
source
of
DC
power
for
the
AC
generator
field
generally
have
been
replaced
by
silicon
diode
power
rectifier
systems
of
the
static
or
brushless
t
type.

�
A
typical
brushless
system
includes
a
rotating
permanent
magnet
pilot
exciter
with
the
stator
connected
through
the
excitation
switchgear
to
the
stationary
field
of
an
AC
exciter
with
rotating
armature
and
a
rotating
silicon
diode
rectifier
assembly,
which
in
turn
is
connected
to
the
rotating
field
of
the
generator.
This
arrangement
eliminates
both
the
commutator
and
the
collector
rings.
Also,
part
of
the
system
is
a
solid
state
automatic
voltage
regulator,
a
means
of
manual
voltage
regulation,
and
necessary
control
devices
for
mounting
on
a
remote
panel.
The
exciter
rotating
parts
and
the
diodes
are
mounted
on
the
generator
shaft;
viewing
during
operation
must
utilize
a
strobe
light.
Schematic
Diagram
of
Excitation
System
(
(Brushless)

�
A
typical
static
system
includes
a
three-phase
excitation
potential
transformer,
three
single-
phase
current
transformers,
an
excitation
cubicle
with
field
breaker
and
discharge
resistor,
one
automatic
and
one
manual
static
thyristor
type
voltage
regulators,
a
full
wave
static
rectifier,
necessary
devices
for
mounting
on
a
remote
panel,
and
a
collector
assembly
for
connection
to
the
generator
f
field.

s
P
PROTECTION

The
protection
system
of
any
modern
electric
power
grid
is
the
most
crucial
function
in
the
system.
Protection
is
a
system
because
it
comprises
discrete
devices
(relays,
communication
means,
etc.)
and
an
algorithm
that
establishes
a
coordinated
method
of
operation
among
the
protective
devices.
This
is
termed
coordination.
Thus,
for
a
protective
system
to
operate
correctly,
both
the
settings
of
the
individual
relays
and
the
coordination
among
them
must
be
right.
Wrong
settings
might
result
in
no
protection
to
the
protected
equipment
and
systems,
and
improper
coordination
might
result
in
unwarranted
loss
of
production.
The
key
function
of
any
protective
system
is
to
minimize
the
possibility
of
physical
damage
to
equipment
due
to
a
fault
anywhere
in
the
system
or
from
abnormal
operation
of
the
equipment
(over
speed,
under
voltage,
etc.).
However,
the
most
critical
function
of
any
protective
scheme
is
to
safeguard
those
persons
who
operate
the
equipment
that
produces,
transmits,
and
utilizes
e
electricity.

Protective
systems
are
inherently
different
from
other
systems
in
a
power
plant
(or
for
that
matter
any
other
place
where
electric
power
is
present).
They
are
called
to
operate
seldom,
and
when
they
are,
it
is
crucial
they
do
so
flawlessly.
One
problem
that
arises
from
protective
systems
being
activated
not
often
is
that
they
are
sometimes
overlooked.
This
is
a
recipe
for
disaster.
The
most
common
reason
for
catastrophic
failure
of
equipment
in
power
systems
is
failure
to
operate
or
miss-operation
of
protective
s
systems.

Purchasing,
installing,
setting/coordinating,
and
properly
maintaining
protective
systems
are
not
an
insignificant
expense.
Therefore
the
extent
any
device
or
electric
circuit
is
protected
depends
on
the
potential
cost
of
not
doing
so
a
adequately.

Electric
power
generators
are
most
often
the
most
critical
electrical
apparatus
in
any
power
plant.
In
fact,
given
the
electrical
proximity
between
the
generator
and
the
main
step-up
transformer
(SUT),
those
two
most
important
apparatuses
share
some
of
the
protective
functions.
Given
the
prohibited
cost
of
replacing
any
of
these
two,
in
particular,
the
generator,
significant
expense
goes
in
providing
the
most
comprehensive
protection
coverage.
Protection
is
considered
by
many
an
art
as
much
as
a
science.
Although
the
basic
protective
components
are
well
known,
and
the
commonly
used
settings
for
those
devices
are
spelled
out
in
a
number
of
standards
and
other
widely
available
literature,
the
particular
combination
of
protective
relays,
settings,
and
coordination
schemes
are
particular
to
every
c
site.
Therefore
it
is
impossible
to
describe
or
prescribe
a
single
protective
system
for
generators.
The
description
we
attempt
here
is
on
the
most
commonly
encountered
protection
arrangements
and
f
functions.

Protection
systems
can
be
divided
into
systems
monitoring
current,
voltage
(at
the
machine�s
main
terminals
and
excitation
system),
windings,
and/or
cooling
media
temperature
and
pressure,
and
systems
monitoring
internal
activity,
such
as
partial
discharge,
decomposition
of
organic
insulation
materials,
water
content,
hydrogen
impurities,
and
flux
probes.
Protective
functions
acting
on
the
current,
voltage,
temperature,
and
pressure
parameters
are
commonly
referred
to
as
primary
protection.
The
others
are
referred
to
as
secondary
protection
or
monitoring
devices.
Secondary
functions
tend
to
be
monitored
real
time,
or
on
demand.
F
For
instance,
hydrogen
purity
is
monitored
on-line
real
time,
while
water
content
(for
water
leaks)
is
not.
Temperature
detectors
(RTDs
or
thermocouples)
on
bearings
(and
sometimes
in
on
windings)
may
be
monitored
on-line
real
time,
or
they
may
not.
Furthermore
these
functions
may
more
often
than
not
result
in
an
alarm,
rather
than
directly
trip
the
unit
o
(e.g.,
core
monitors).
The
discussion
of
where
and
when
to
use
these
monitoring
devices
and
how
to
set
them
is
provided
in.
To
the
primary
protective
functions
monitoring
currents,
voltages,
temperatures
and
pressures,
there
can
be
added
the
mechanical
protective
function
of
vibration.
Typically
it
will
alarm,
but
it
can
also
be
set
to
trip
the
unit.
Protections
function
can
also
be
divided
into
short-
circuit
protection
functions.
The
short-circuit
protection
comprises
impedance,
distance,
and
current
differential
p
protection.

Multi-functionGeneratorProtectionDevice
GENERATOR PROTECTIVE FUNCTION
GGGGENERATORENERATORENERATORENERATORPPPPROTECTIVERRROTECTIVEOTECTIVEOTECTIVEFFFFUU
U
UUNNNNCCCCTTTTIIIIOOOONNNN

Protection
devices
are
designed
to
monitor
certain
conditions,
and
subsequently,
to
alarm
or
trip
if
a
specified
condition
is
detected.
The
condition
is
represented
by
a
function
or
protective
function
code.
Thus
there
is
a
relay
for
every
protective
function.
If
a
relay
only
monitors
and
thus
protects
against
a
single
set
of
conditions,
it
is
said
that
the
relay
is
a
�single-function
device�.
In
the
past
most
relays
were
single-function
devices.
With
the
advent
of
solid-state
electronics,
manufacturers
have
combined
several
functions
in
one
unit
or
d
device.
These
�multi-function�
relays
or
protective
devices
offer
specific
protective
functions
designed
for
certain
types
of
apparatus.
Some
multi-function
relays
are
dedicated
to
transformers,
others
to
motors,
and
others
to
generators.
Advances
in
solid-state
electronics
have
led
to
less
costly
devices.
Today
a
multi-function
solid-state
device
with,
for
instance,
five
protective
functions,
is
less
expensive
than
five
separate
relays
for
five
protective
f
functions.

The
number
of
functions
covered
by
different
relays
and
the
number
of
multifunction
devices
are
decided,
among
other
things,
by
the
expected
losses
of
all
the
protective
functions
covered
by
the
multi-functional
relay,
if
that
particular
device
becomes
faulty.
A
multi-functional
r
relay
containing
all
the
protective
functions
required
for
the
protection
of
a
generator
can
be
combined
with
a
few
discrete
relays
providing
backup
protection
for
critical
functions.
Alternatively,
two
or
more
multi-functional
relays
can
be
applied,
providing
partial
or
comprehensive
redundancy.
There
are
many
combinations
of
these
discrete
and
multi-functional
relays
that
can
be
adopted,
depending
on
when
the
power
plant
was
build,
the
size
of
the
units,
system
conditions,
the
idiosyncrasy
of
the
designer,
and
many
other
f
factors.

Relays
or
protection
devices
are
divided
into
two
categories
according
to
how
they
process
data.
The
first
category
is
that
of
analog
relays;
the
second
is
that
of
numerical
(also
called
digital)
relays.
Bear
in
mind
that
a
relay
can
be
electronic
but
still
process
the
data
in
an
analog
manner.
The
advantages
of
numerical
processing
are
various.
Accuracy
is
enhanced.
So
is
flexibility
in
use.
For
instance,
a
numerical
relay
offers
user-shaped
protection
widows
such
that
the
user
can
change
the
shape
of
the
operation/non-operation
areas
for
a
specific
function
of
the
relay.
Furthermore
the
shape
of
the
region
of
operation
may
change
according
to
system
conditions
(adaptive
f
function).

Finally,
there
is
rather
a
new�still
evolving�approach
(from
the
early
1990s)
for
protecting
large
generating
units
by
the
so-called
expert
protection
systems.
The
idea
is
to
protect
the
unit
based
not
only
on
the
basic
protective
functions
(given
below),
but
also
as
a
combination
of
protective
and
monitoring
data
and
built-in
expertise
in
the
form
of
diagnostic
prescriptions.
Invariably,
building
the
expertise
base
of
these
systems
consists
in
expressing
probable
causes
for
a
particular
combination
of
symptoms,
expressed
as
a
probabilistic
t
tree.

A
number,
according
to
a
worldwide-accepted
nomenclature,
identifies
protective
functions.
The
functions
shown
in
table
are
typical
of
generation
protection.
A
number
of
the
functions
included
in
table
are
so
important
that
they
will
always
find
their
way
into
the
protection
scheme
of
any
generator
(e.g.,
25,
59,
and
87).
Others
may
be
omitted
in
some
applications
(e.g.,
49).
The
larger
and
more
expensive
the
generator
and
the
more
critical
the
application,
the
more
intense
is
the
protection
applied
to
protect
it
from
abnormal
operating
conditions
or
f
faults.

As
explained
before,
for
most
large
machines,
some
of
the
applied
protective
functions
are
covered
by
more
than
one
relay
or
protective
d
device.

Table: Generator Protection Device Function Numbers

Table:GeneratorProtectionDeviceFunctionNumbersTable:GeneratorProtectionDeviceFunct
ionNumberTTsable:GeneratorProtectionDeviceFunctionNumbersable:GeneratorProtectionD
e
eviceFunctionNumbers

15
Synchronizer
21
Distance
protection;
backup
for
system
generator
zone
phase
faults
24
Volts/Hertz
protection
for
the
generator
25
Sync-check
protection
27
Under
voltage
32
Reverse
power
protection;
anti-motoring
protection
for
generator
(and
associated
prime
mover)
40
Loss-of-field
protection
46
Stator
unbalanced
current
protection
49
Stator
thermal
protection
50B
Instantaneous
over
current
protection
used
as
current
detector
in
a
breaker-
failure
s
scheme
51GN
Time
over
current
protection;
backup
for
generator
ground
faults
51TN
Time
over
current
protection;
backup
for
ground
faults
51V
Voltage-controlled
or
voltage-restrained
time
over
current
protection;
backup
for
system
and
generator
zone
phase
faults
59
Overvoltage
protection
59BG
Zero-sequence
voltage
protection;
ground
fault
protection
for
an
ungrounded
bus
59GN
Voltage
protection;
primary
ground
fault
protection
for
a
generator
60
Voltage
balance
protection;
detection
of
blown
potential
transformer
fuses
or
otherwise
open
circuits
61
Time
over
current
protection;
detection
of
turn-to-turn
faults
in
generator
windings
62B
Breaker
failure
protection
64F
Voltage
protection;
primary
protection
for
rotor
ground
faults
78
Loss-of-synchronism
protection;
not
commonly
used
as
part
of
the
generator
protection
package
81
Over-and
under
frequency
protection
86
Hand-reset
lockout
auxiliary
relay
87B
Differential
protection.
Primary
phase-fault
protection
for
the
generator
87GN
Sensitive
ground
fault
protection
for
the
generator
87T
Differential
protection
for
the
transformer;
may
include
the
generator
in
some
protective
schemes
87U
Differential
protection
for
overall
unit
protection
of
generator
and
transformers
94
Self-reset
auxiliary
tripping
r
relay

It
is
beyond
the
scope
and
purpose
of
this
report
to
go
into
a
detailed
description
of
each
protective
function
and
the
various
schemes
that
incorporate
them
into
a
generator�s
protection
package.
Instead,
a
basic
description
of
the
protective
functions
and
their
application
will
follow.
For
the
same
reason
no
specific
values
are
recommended
for
setting
protective
relays.
These
values
oftentimes
depend
in
the
particular
machine
and
system
to
which
it
is
connected.
There
are
numerous
sources
for
information
on
the
setting
of
protective
relays.
The
vendors�
manuals
are
one
good
place
to
start.
Various
methods
of
Generator
Protection
are
explained
f
further.

Synchronizer
and
Sync-Check
Relays
(Functions
15
and
2
25)

The
combination
of
function
(15)
with
function
(25)
provides
the
means
by
which
the
unit
can
be
brought
up
to
speed
automatically
and
synchronized
to
the
system.
Before
doing
so,
the
amplitude
of
the
voltages
of
the
system
and
generator
terminal
must
be
within
a
narrow
margin
so
that
the
breaker
can
be
closed.
So
must
be
the
angle
of
the
terminal
and
system
voltages.
The
slip,
which
is
the
frequency
difference
between
the
machine
and
the
system,
must
be
lower
than
a
given
value.
Almost
always
two
relays
are
provided:
the
synchronizer
and
the
sync-check.
This
division
of
labor
is
based
on
the
need
to
avoiding
the
destructive
results
of
synchronizing
a
unit
out
of
step
due
to
the
failure
of
a
single
protective
d
device.

In
older
installations,
mainly
with
steam-driven
units,
it
is
customary
to
start
and
bring
the
unit
up
to
speed
under
manual
control.
Closing
the
breaker
is
done
manually
while
the
s
sync-check
relay
monitors
all
voltages,
vector
angles,
and
frequencies,
making
sure
they
are
within
their
prescribed
values.
Although
seldom
encountered,
some
operators
close
the
breaker
by
keeping
the
�close�
button
depressed
when
the
unit
is
brought
to
the
right
speed
and
voltages,
letting
the
angle
be
taken
care
by
the
sync-check
relay.
This
practice
has
resulted
in
a
more
than
one
unit
synchronizing
out
of
step
due
to
a
failure
of
the
relay
(function
25).
The
failure
can
be
catastrophic.
Thus
it
is
imperative
that
during
manual
operation
the
actual
breaker-closing
signal
be
sent
when
the
conditions
for
synchronization
are
met;
leaving
the
sync-check
system
as
a
backup
device,
as
it
is
supposed
to
b
be.
Short-Circuit
Protection
(Functions
21,
50,
51,
51V,
and
8
87)

These
functions
are
designed
to
protect
the
unit
against
short-circuits
in
or
outside
the
windings
of
the
alternator.
Outside
faults
can
be
in
the
system
close
to
the
station�s
busses,
on
the
main
unit
transformer
or
auxiliary
transformer(s),
on
the
cable,
segregated
busses,
or
insulated
phase
busses
(IPB),
between
the
alternator
and
the
transformers,
or
on
the
alternator�s
windings.
In
large
units
the
IPB
is
designed
to
reduce
any
short-circuit
between
the
generator
and
main
and
auxiliary
transformers
to
a
single
phase-to-ground
fault.
This
is
possible
because
of
the
high-
impedance
grounding
of
the
machine,
and
the
fact
that
all
transformers
connected
to
the
generator
are
connected
delta
on
the
generator�s
side,
which
results
in
ground
faults
of
very
low
currents.
However,
a
�benign�
single-ground
fault
inside
the
generator
can
develop
into
a
highly
destructive
phase-to-phase
short-circuit,
and
this
is
the
main
reason
why
ground
faults
inside
the
generator
ought
to
trip
to
unit
p
promptly.

Short
Circuit
and
Volts/Hertz
Protection
D
Device

The
(51V)
is
a
voltage-controlled
over
current
relay,
where
the
voltage
control
is
provided
to
differentiate
between
a
low-current
fault
and
a
normal
or
abnormally
high
load
c
condition.

To
some
extent
most
of
these
functions
back
each
other
up.
Thus
occasionally
some
are
omitted.
Additionally
current-based
relays
are
backed
in
the
detection
of
short-circuit
events
by
some
voltage-based
relays.
A
typical
case
is
on
the
ground-fault
detection
scheme
of
the
generator
with
high-impedance
grounding
via
a
transformer.
The
differential
protection
function
(87)
is
the
most
critical
as
it
provides
protection
against
the
very
serious
phase-to-phase
short
circuits.
Normally
there
are
at
least
three
protected
areas,
each
one
covered
by
its
own
87
relay.
One
i
is
the
generator
itself.
The
other
covers
the
auxiliary
transformer,
and
the
third
covers
the
main
transformer,
generator,
and
low-voltage
side
of
the
auxiliary
transformer.
Each
87
scheme
utilizes
a
dedicated
set
of
current
t
transformers.

The
ground
protection
schemes
in
use
today
often
incorporate
a
third-harmonic
function.
This
addition
to
the
standard
overvoltage
and/or
over
current
relays
is
based
on
the
fact
that
during
normal
operation
of
the
generator
a
given
amount
of
third-harmonic
voltages
are
present,
and
during
a
ground
fault
these
third
harmonic
voltages
are
highly
reduced.
This
fact
is
used
for
protection
of
the
third
of
the
generator�s
winding
close
to
the
neutral,
where
ground-faults
tend
to
generate
very
small
neutral
currents
(and
hence
may
not
be
detected
by
the
neutral
overvoltage
or
over
current
protection).
Third-harmonic
protective
devices
must
be
tested
periodically,
the
same
as
any
other
protective
functions.
In
some
instances,
no
overload
protection
is
provided,
other
than
alarming
and
expected
operator
intervention.
In
others,
function
(51)
relays
are
provided
that
will
alarm,
and
then
trip
the
unit
under
overload
conditions.
The
overload
can
be
extremely
onerous
if
allowed
to
continue
beyond
the
withstand
capabilities
of
the
w
windings.

Volts/Hertz
Protection
(Function
2
24)

Core
damage
due
to
over
excitation
is
a
rare
event.
However,
when
a
severe
over
excitation
occurs,
the
most
probable
result
is
partial
or
complete
destruction
of
the
core�s
insulation,
with
the
consequential
need
to
replace
it.
Therefore
it
is
critical
that
V/Hz
protection
be
applied
and
properly
set.
Almost
invariably,
the
cases
of
severe
over
excitation
occur
during
run-up,
prior
to
synchronization.
One
vital
component
in
all
V/Hz
schemes
for
any
turbo
generator
is
double
feed
from
two
independent
potential
transformers
(PTs).
Otherwise,
loss
of
a
single
PT
connection
may
give
the
excitation
system
wrong
information
about
the
terminal
voltage,
forcing
the
field
current
(and
terminal
voltage)
beyond
the
V/Hz
capability
of
the
m
machine.

Over
and
Under
Voltage
Protection
(Functions
59
and
2
27)

Some
voltage
relays
are
used
for
short-circuit
protection
(on
the
neutral
of
the
generator�
59GN).
Overvoltage
relays
are
also
used
as
backup
to
the
(24)
(over
excitation)
during
normal
operation
of
the
machine.
During
start-up,
the
(59)
will
not
provide
backup
to
the
(24),
because
a
V/Hz
condition
can
readily
develop
during
run-up,
even
while
the
terminal
voltage
is
below
its
rated
v
value.

The
under
voltage
relays
are
mainly
installed
for
the
purpose
of
identifying
loss
of
PT
voltage,
or
to
identify
dead-bus
condition
for
certain
a
alignments.

Reverse
Power
Protection
(Function
3
32)

This
protective
function
trips
the
unit
when
power
flows
from
the
system
to
the
generator.
In
this
situation,
depending
on
the
generator�s
field
condition,
the
alternator
is
driven
as
a
synchronous
or
induction
motor.
If
it
is
driven
as
an
induction
motor,
negative-sequence
currents
will
be
established
in
the
rotor,
potentially
damaging
damper
windings,
wedges,
retaining-rings,
and
forging.
This
phenomenon
is
discussed
elsewhere
in
this
book.
However,
in
either
case,
reverse
power
condition
may
adversely
affect
the
integrity
of
the
prime
mover.
Of
all
the
prime
movers,
steam
turbines
are
the
most
sensitive
to
motoring.
They
also
happen
to
operate
on
less
power
input
(only
a
few
percent
of
rated
load,
compared
to
combustion
turbines
requiring
up
to
50%
of
rated
power).
For
these
reasons
steam-driven
generators
require
sensitive
settings
for
the
reverse
power
relays
(32),
plus
some
additional
protection
that
may
be
i
indicated.

Loss-of-Field
Protection
(Function
4
40)

There
are
a
number
of
events
that
may
result
in
an
accidental
removal
of
the
source
of
excitation
to
the
generator.
This
can
happen
for
both
brushless
and
externally
excited
units.
For
instance,
a
unplanned
opening
of
the
field
breaker,
a
failure
of
the
exciter,
a
flashover
in
the
brush-rigging,
a
failure
of
the
automatic
voltage
regulator
(AVR),
and
a
short-circuit
in
the
field
winding,
can
all
result
in
a
loss-of-excitation
c
condition.

When
a
generator
loses
its
excitation
during
normal
operation,
its
speed
increases
by
some
amount
of
up
to
3
to
5%
of
normal.
The
amount
of
speed
increase
depends
on
the
generator�s
load
prior
to
losing
its
excitation.
A
lightly
loaded
unit
will
experience
a
much
smaller
increase
in
speed
than
one
fully
loaded.
Additionally
the
stator
current
will
normally
increase
because
the
generator
without
its
field
will
operate
as
an
induction
machine,
receiving
its
excitation
VARs
from
the
network.
Accordingly
the
stator
current
may
increase
by
up
to
100%
of
its
nominal
v
value.

The
increase
in
line
current
will
be
aggravated
by
the
overheating
of
rotor
components,
by
the
currents
induced
in
the
forging
and
damping
winding
if
present,
and
by
the
overheating
of
the
stator
core-end
regions.
A
fully
loaded
unit
that
loses
its
field
may
experience
serious
damage
very
quickly
under
these
conditions.
Therefore
the
protection
against
loss-of-field
occurrences
is
set
to
alarm
and
trip
the
unit
relatively
q
quickly.

The
most
widely
utilized
method
of
protecting
against
loss-of-field
conditions
is
that
relying
on
impedance
elements.
They
are
based
on
the
fact
that
the
impedance
seen
from
the
terminals
of
the
machine
follows
a
distinctive
pattern
when
the
field
is
lost.
Sometimes
two
relays
are
used,
each
looking
at
the
impedance
within
a
different
region
of
operation,
so
that
a
loss-of-field
condition
is
captured
regardless
of
the
level
of
pre-fault
loading.
Sensing
the
field
current
directly
or
sensing
the
VAR
power
flowing
into
the
generator
is
sometimes
used
for
alarm
and
trip,
but
mainly
for
alarm
and
rarely
as
primary
p
protection.

Stator
Unbalanced
Current
Protection
(Function
4
46)

There
are
a
number
of
incidents
that
may
result
in
unbalanced
three-phase
currents
at
the
terminals
of
an
alternator:
for
instance,
unbalance
loads,
single-pole
opening
of
a
breaker,
asymmetrical
transmission
systems
(without
or
with
insufficient
transposition)
and
open
circuits.
Unbalanced
currents
will
result
in
negative-sequence
current
components
flowing
on
the
rotor
forging
surfaces,
retaining-rings,
rotor
wedges,
and
to
some
extent
in
the
field
windings,
in
particular,
the
amortisseur.
These
rotor
negative-sequence
currents
have
the
potential
of
generating
high
temperatures
within
seconds,
with
severe
detrimental
effects
to
specific
areas
of
the
forging
and
other
rotor
components.
However,
rotors
with
spindle-mounted
retaining-rings
are
also
susceptible
to
damage
by
negative-sequence
c
currents.
Generators
must
meet
minimal
requirements
for
sustaining
unbalance
currents
without
damage.
The
protection
against
unbalanced
currents
is
implemented
by
using
over
current
relays
that
measure
negative-sequence
components.
Electromechanical
relays
provide
basic
protection
against
most
negative-sequence
current
conditions.
However,
digital
relays
allow
setting
the
protected
region
of
operation
in
such
a
way
that
closely
matches
the
withstand
capability
of
the
protected
generator.
This
allows
a
more
sensitive
and
discriminatory
a
approach.

Stator
and
Rotor
Thermal Protection
(Function
4
49)

There
are
a
number
of
conditions
that
may
result
in
elevated
temperature
inside
the
generator.
Presently
available
techniques
allow
directly
monitoring
temperatures
of
the
stator
winding,
core,
and
cooling
media.
Rotor
winding
temperature,
when
monitored,
is
done
by
measuring
field
voltage
and
current,
then
calculating
the
rotor-field
resistance,
and
comparing
the
obtained
resistance
with
a
known
value
of
ohms
at
a
known
temperature.
Conditions
that
may
result
in
higher
than
normal
temperatures
are
overload,
core
hot
spots,
bent
laminations
swelling
into
vent-ducts,
winding
failures,
and
cooling
failure
(clogged
filters
in
air-cooled
machines,
lack
of
hydrogen
pressure
in
hydrogen-cooled
generators
or
failure
of
the
hydrogen
cooling
system,
and
water
blockage
or
other
failure
of
the
water
cooling
system
in
water-cooled
units).
There
are
other
conditions
that
may
result
in
higher
temperatures
such
as
unbalanced
currents;
however,
these
are
detected
and
protected
by
other
protective
functions,
so
they
are
discussed
e
elsewhere.

In
addition
to
the
design
limits
of
each
machine
(based
on
such
things
as
temperature
rise
class
and
class
of
insulation),
there
are
ANSI
guidelines
regarding
minimum
withstand
capability
requirements
under
overload
conditions.
For
instance,
at
130%
overload,
the
machine
should
be
able
to
operate
without
damage
for
a
minimum
of
60
seconds.
These
numbers
show
that
once
in
an
overload
condition,
the
time
available
to
remove
the
dangerous
situation
gets
very
short
very
fast.
Typically
generators
have
a
number
of
RTDs
(resistance
temperature
detectors)
embedded
in
their
stator
windings,
with
a
minimum
of
two
per
phase.
In
some
designs
these
RTDs
are
wired
to
the
control
room
via
SCADA
or
DCS.
In
manned
stations
(all
large
turbo
generators
fall
under
this
category,
with
exception
of
some
�peaking�
units),
the
winding
RTDs
are
used
for
alarming
(over
current
protection
is
used
for
high
and
sudden
overload
conditions).
In
unattended
stations
(mainly
smaller
machines)
the
output
from
the
RTDs
may
be
used
to
remotely
alarm
and
to
control
and/or
trip
the
unit.
In
the
United
States
the
standard
RTD
has
a
resistance
of
25
ohms
at
25.C.
When
the
RTDs
are
installed
during
original
manufacture,
the
OEM
will
place
the
proper
RTD.
However,
if
for
any
reasons
RTDs
are
installed
by
the
operator
(e.g.,
during
a
partial
rewind
or
any
other
overhaul),
the
RTDs
must
match
the
operating
temperature
of
the
winding.
This
temperature
will
most
likely
be
related
to
the
temperature
class
of
the
unit
and
the
insulation
c
class.

Some
vendors
of
directly
cooled
stators-by-hydrogen
generators
omit
the
embedded
RTDs.
In
lieu
of
them,
they
install
a
number
of
RTDs
monitoring
the
hydrogen
paths
in
the
stator
bars
(in
addition
to
other
RTDs
monitoring
other
areas
along
the
machine�s
gas
flow
path).
The
RTDs
monitoring
the
flow
of
gas
in
the
stator
bars
are
normally
installed
in
the
exit
boxes
at
the
end-
windings.
If
any
overheating
occurs
in
a
bar
or
section
of
the
winding,
some
RTDs
will
pick
up
the
excess
temperature
in
the
gas
flowing
in
that
region.
During
troubleshooting
a
activities
carried
out
on
a
number
of
hydrogen-cooled
units
with
directly
cooled
stators,
the
authors
ascertained
that
the
existence
of
embedded
RTDs,
in
addition
to
the
gas-flow
RTDs
made
it
easier
to
determine
the
location
of
the
faults
in
the
coils.
Therefore
it
is
not
a
bad
idea
to
specify
generators
with
embedded
RTDs
(a
minimum
of
two
per
phase),
for
those
machines
with
gas-
path-flow
RTDs.
All
RTDs
should
be
monitored,
including
the
embedded
o
ones.

Another
way
for
monitoring
onerous
temperatures
in
the
stator
is
by
applying
tagging
compounds.
This
technique
can
also
be
used
to
alarm
for
developing
core
problems.
These
tagging
components
may
be
used
in
hydrogen-cooled
machines
where
a
core
monitor
is
i
installed.

Core
monitors
have
the
ability
to
monitor
and
alarm
against
deterioration
of
the
field
winding
due
to
overheating.
Recall
that
for
rotor
winding,
the
only
method
of
estimating
the
temperature
rise
of
the
winding
is
by
measuring
the
field
voltage
and
current
at
the
collector,
and
comparing
the
resistance
calculated
thereof,
with
known
value
at
known
temperature.
This
technique
is
restricted
to
those
machines
with
collector
rings
(external
excitation).
One
method
commonly
used
is
to
monitor
the
excitation
current.
As
the
excitation
current
exceeds
certain
nominal
value,
relays
time
the
duration
of
the
occurrence
and
trip
the
unit
as
soon
as
a
certain
setting
is
reached.
The
time-current
characteristics
followed
by
the
protection
try
to
match
the
withstand
curves
for
short-time
field
overloading
as
contained
in
ANSI
g
guidelines.

Voltage
Balance
Protection
(Function
6
60)

The
main
function
of
the
voltage
balance
relay
is
to
avoid
false
tripping
of
other
protection
relays
due
to
a
loss
of
secondary
voltage
feed�for
instance,
by
a
blown
potential
transformer
(PT)
fuse.
Voltage
balance
schemes
are
possible
in
most
modern
and/or
large
generators
because
such
units
have
at
least
two
PTs
feeding
the
protection
and
monitoring
systems.
The
voltage
balance
relays
senses
and
compares
the
secondary
voltage
of
different
PTs,
and
when
it
determines
that
a
�blown-fuse�
situation
arises,
it
blocks
the
operation
of
certain
voltage
controlled
relays
and
a
alarms.

In
those
older
alternators
(or
small
units)
where
only
one
PT
feeds
the
protective
and
excitation
systems,
it
is
still
possible
to
sense
and
alarm
for
a
blown-fuse
condition.
This
is
attained
by
using
a
scheme
that
compares
negative-sequence
voltages
in
the
secondary
of
the
PT
(that
will
arise
as
consequence
of
a
primary
fault
or
a
blown-fuse
condition),
with
negative
currents
in
the
secondary
of
the
current
transformer
(CT).
If
negative-sequence
currents
are
not
present,
it
indicates
that
a
fault
in
the
primary
system
does
not
occur,
and
thus
it
must
be
a
blown
fuse
condition.
This
voltage/current
negative-sequence
comparative
function
can
be
found
in
certain
modern
digital
protective
p
packages.
Time
over
Current
Protection
for
Detection
of
Turn-to-Turn
Faults
(Function
6
61)

The
most
common
stator
winding
design
for
large
turbine
generators
is
based
on
a
single-turn
arrangement.
Smaller
machines
may
sport
multi-turn
windings.
For
such
machines
with
at
least
two
parallel
circuits,
the
�split-phase�
protective
scheme
can
be
used
for
the
protection
against
turn-to-turn
short
circuits.
In
this
scheme
the
circuits
in
each
phase
are
split
into
two
e
equal
groups
and
the
currents
in
each
group
are
compared.
Any
significant
difference
would
indicate
an
inter
turn
failure.
The
relays
used
are
normally
very
inverse
over
current
relays
and
instantaneous
trip
c
combination.

Breaker
Failure
Protection
(Function
6
62B)

Most
faults
involving
the
generator
require
tripping
the
line
breakers.
Failure
of
any
such
breaker
to
operate
properly
results
in
loss
of
protection
and
other
abnormal
conditions,
such
as
motoring.
Adverse
conditions
arise
also
if
only
one
or
two
poles
of
a
line
breaker
operates,
for
instance,
resulting
in
energization
from
one
line,
or
single-phase
operation
with
the
accompanying
negative-sequence
c
currents.

Activation
of
a
breaker
failure
scheme
is
carried
out
by
a
combination
of
triggering
signals
from
the
generator
protective
relays,
over
current
relays
and
breaker
auxiliary
switches,
via
a
timer.
Some
modified
schemes
also
included
in
their
triggering
circuit
the
trip
signal
from
the
neutral
of
the
main
step-up
transformer�s
over
current
relay.
This
change
is
to
protect
against
breaker
head
flashover,
which
is
when
arcing
occurs
across
the
breaker
contacts
due
to
high
voltages.
The
protection
is
designed
to
operate
against
the
flashover
of
two
p
poles.

Rotor
Ground
Fault
Protection
(Function
6
64F)

Rotor
field-windings
are
designed
to
operate
ungrounded.
As
a
result
a
single
short
to
ground,
in
theory,
should
not
be
reason
for
concern,
because
it
will
not
interfere
with
the
normal
operation
of
the
machine.
However,
the
appearance
of
a
second
ground
can
be
very
detrimental
to
the
operation
of
the
generator,
as
well
as
to
its
integrity.
In
fact
the
existence
of
one
ground
fault
will
make
a
second
more
probable,
due
to
induced
field
voltages
resulting
from
stator
transients.
Two
coetaneous
grounds
may
result
in
the
f
following:

�
Unbalanced
air/gas
gap
fluxes
with
increased
rotor
vibrations
�
Unbalanced
thermal
heating
of
the
rotor
with
increased
vibrations
�
Fluctuating
VARs
and
output
voltage
�
Major
damage
to
the
forging
by
dc
currents
(dc
currents
are
known
to
be
able
to
produce
arcs
several
inches
long
in
the
forging
of
a
turbo
generator�s
rotor,
during
a
double
ground
occurrence).
There
are
enough
cases
documented
of
large
rotors
having
to
be
replaced
because
of
such
events.
There
are
a
number
of
methods
in
existence
for
the
detection,
alarming,
and/or
tripping
of
generators
due
to
field
ground
faults.
Some
methods
use
a
voltage
source,
and
others
use
a
passive
unbalanced
bridge.

One
can
still
found
an
older
unit
protected
by
an
ac-source
field-ground
detection
method.
Such
methods
can
damage
the
non
insulated
bearing
of
the
generator
if
the
grounding
brush
somehow
becomes
ineffective.
To
avoid
this
from
happening,
the
newer
designs
have
the
ac
source
replaced
with
a
dc,
or
any
one
of
the
nonlinear
resistor-based
bridge
methods.
Generators
with
brushless
excitation
cannot
be
directly
protected
with
the
type
of
schemes
shown
above,
due
to
the
lack
of
collector
rings.
Many
designs
of
such
units
sport
a
set
of
small
rings
that
p
periodically
can
be
temporarily
connected
to
brushes,
via
which
the
tests
described
above
can
be
performed.
For
large
generators
additional
circuits
can
be
found
that
complement
the
basic
schemes.
For
instance,
a
circuit
is
added
to
verify
that
the
brushes
are
sitting
on
the
r
rotor.

Over/Under
Frequency
Protection
(Function
8
81)

Over
and
under
w
frequency
operation
generally
results
from
full
or
partial
load
rejection
or
overloading
conditions.
Load
rejection
can
be
caused
by
a
fault
in
the
system
or
load
shedding.
Overload
conditions
may
arise
from
tripping
a
large
generator
or
a
transmission
line.
What
frequency
the
machine
will
attain
following
load
rejection
or
overload
is
a
function
of
how
much
load
has
changed
and
the
governor
droop
characteristics.
For
instance,
a
governor
with
a
5%
droop
characteristic
will
cause
a
1.5%
speed
increase
for
a
30%
load
rejection.
The
manufacturers
provide
withstand
curves
that
should
be
used
in
setting
the
Function
(81)
r
relay.

Over/Under
Frequency
Protection
D
Device

Out-of-Step
Operation
(Loss
of
Synchronism)
(Function
7
78)
There
are
a
number
of
reasons
why
a
generator
may
lose
synchronization
to
the
system
during
operation.
Regardless
of
the
reason,
loss
of
synchronization
(out
of
step)
can
have
serious
detrimental
effects
to
the
generator.
The
end-windings
and
end-windings�
support
are
prone
to
damage
and
dislocation
during
such
an
event.
Rotor
and
coupling
damage
is
also
possible.
This
condition
is
not
too
unlike
the
out-of-step
synchronization.
To
minimize
any
harmful
effects,
the
protection
should
separate
the
generator
from
the
system
as
soon
as
possible,
preferably
during
the
first
half-slip
cycle.

Protection
against
out-of-step
condition
is
based
on
the
fact
that
the
apparent
impedance,
as
seen
at
the
generator�s
terminals,
changes
in
a
predicted
manner
during
an
unstable
condition.
This
is
similar
to
the
loss-of-excitation
condition.
However,
the
loss-of-excitation
relay
will
not
pick
up
an
out-of-step
condition
in
every
occurrence
because
the
apparent-impedance
behavior
is
different
for
both
conditions.
Therefore,
to
fully
protect
against
out-of-step
condition,
a
dedicated
relay
(or
protective
function
within
a
multi-functional
device)
must
be
included
in
the
protection
p
package.

Tripping
the
unit
within
the
first
slip
cycle
has
major
advantages
in
the
case
of
out-of-step
events.
This
fast
protective
action
tends
to
reduce
considerably
the
very
large
oscillating
shaft
torque
that
can
otherwise
o
occur.
T
TRANSFORMER

A
transformer
is
a
static
device
consisting
of
a
winding,
or
two
or
more
coupled
windings,
with
or
without
a
magnetic
core,
for
inducing
mutual
coupling
between
circuits.
When
an
alternating
current
flows
in
a
conductor,
a
magnetic
field
exists
around
the
conductor.
If
another
conductor
is
placed
g
in
the
field
created
by
the
first
conductor
such
that
the
flux
lines
link
the
second
conductor,
then
a
voltage
is
induced
into
the
second
conductor.
The
use
of
a
magnetic
field
from
one
coil
to
induce
a
voltage
into
a
second
coil
is
the
principle
on
which
transformer
theory
and
application
is
b
based.

A
220
kV
Transformer
at
Power
Plant
ANSI/IEEE
defines
a
transformer
as
a
static
electrical
device,
involving
no
continuously
moving
parts,
used
in
electric
power
systems
to
transfer
power
between
circuits
through
the
use
of
electromagnetic
induction.

The
transformer
is
one
of
the
most
reliable
pieces
of
electrical
distribution
equipment.
It
has
no
moving
parts,
requires
minimal
maintenance,
and
is
capable
of
withstanding
overloads,
surges,
faults,
and
physical
abuse
that
may
damage
or
destroy
other
items
in
the
circuit.
Often,
the
electrical
event
that
burns
up
a
motor,
opens
a
circuit
breaker,
or
blows
a
fuse
has
a
subtle
effect
on
the
transformer.
Although
the
transformer
may
continue
to
operate
as
before,
repeat
occurrences
of
such
damaging
electrical
events,
or
lack
of
even
minimal
maintenance
can
greatly
accelerate
the
eventual
failure
of
the
t
transformer.

The
fact
that
a
transformer
continues
to
operate
satisfactorily
in
spite
of
neglect
and
abuse
is
a
testament
to
its
durability.
However,
this
durability
is
no
excuse
for
not
providing
the
proper
care.
Most
of
the
effects
of
aging,
faults,
or
abuse
can
be
detected
and
corrected
by
a
comprehensive
maintenance,
inspection,
and
testing
p
program.
Transformers
are
exclusively
used
in
electric
power
systems
to
transfer
power
by
electromagnetic
induction
between
circuits
at
the
same
frequency,
usually
with
changed
values
of
voltage
and
current.
There
are
numerous
types
of
transformers
used
in
various
applications
including
audio,
radio,
instrument,
and
power.
In
Badarpur
Thermal
Power
Station,
we
deal
exclusively
with
power
transformer
applications
involving
the
transmission
and
distribution
of
electrical
power.
Power
transformers
are
used
extensively
by
traditional
electric
utility
companies,
power
plants,
and
industrial
p
plants.

The
term
power
transformer
is
used
to
refer
to
those
transformers
used
between
the
generator
and
the
distribution
circuits,
and
these
are
usually
rated
at
220
kVA
and
above.
Power
systems
typically
consist
of
a
large
number
of
generation
locations,
distribution
points,
and
interconnections
within
the
system
or
with
nearby
systems,
such
as
a
neighboring
utility.
The
complexity
of
the
system
leads
to
a
variety
of
transmission
and
distribution
voltages.
Power
transformers
must
be
used
at
each
of
these
points
where
there
is
a
transition
between
voltage
levels.
Power
transformers
are
selected
based
on
the
application,
with
the
emphasis
toward
custom
design
being
more
apparent
the
larger
the
unit.
Power
transformers
are
available
for
step-up
operation,
primarily
used
at
the
generator
and
referred
to
as
generator
step-up
(GSU)
transformers,
and
for
step-down
operation,
mainly
used
to
feed
distribution
circuits.
Power
transformers
are
available
as
single-phase
or
three-phase
a
apparatus.
A
Power
Transformer
at
a
Thermal
Power
P
Plant

a
CONSTRUCTION
CCCCONSTRUCTIONOUCTIOOONSTRNNSTRUCTIONNSTRUCTION

A
power
transformer
is
a
device
that
changes
(transforms)
an
alternating
voltage
and
current
from
one
level
to
another.
Power
transformers
are
used
to
�step
up�
(transform)
the
voltages
that
are
produced
at
generation
to
levels
that
are
suitable
for
transmission
(higher
voltage,
lower
current).
Conversely,
a
transformer
is
used
to
�step
down�
(transform)
the
higher
transmission
voltages
to
levels
that
are
suitable
for
use
at
various
facilities
(lower
voltage,
higher
current).
Electric
power
can
undergo
numerous
transformations
between
the
source
and
the
final
end
use
p
point.

�
Voltages
must
be
stepped-up
for
transmission.
Every
conductor,
no
matter
how
large,
will
lose
an
appreciable
amount
of
power
(watts)
to
its
resistance
(R)
when
a
current
(T)
passes
through
it.
This
loss
is
expressed
as
a
function
of
the
applied
current
(P=I2R).
Because
this
loss
is
dependent
on
the
current,
and
since
the
power
to
be
transmitted
is
a
function
of
the
applied
volts
(E)
times
the
amps
(P=IE),
significant
savings
can
be
obtained
by
stepping
the
voltage
up
to
a
higher
voltage
level,
with
the
corresponding
reduction
of
the
current
value.
Whether
100
amps
is
to
be
transmitted
at
100
volts
(P=IE,
100
amps
X
100
volts
=
10,000
watts)
or
10
amps
is
to
be
transmitted
at
1,000
volts
(P=IE,
10
amps
X
1,000
volts
=
10,000
watts)
the
same
10,000
watts
will
be
applied
to
the
beginning
of
the
transmission
line.
�
If
the
transmission
distance
is
long
enough
to
produce
0.1
ohm
of
resistance
across
the
transmission
cable,
P=I2R,
(100
amp)2
X
0.1
ohm
=
1,000
watts
will
be
lost
across
the
transmission
line
at
the
100
volt
transmission
level.
The
1000
volts
transmission
level
will
create
a
loss
of
P=I2R,
(10
amp)2
X
0.1
ohm
=
10
watts.
This
is
where
transformers
play
an
important
role.
�
Although
power
can
be
transmitted
more
efficiently
at
higher
voltage
levels,
sometimes
as
high
as
500
or
750
thousand
volts
(kV),
the
devices
and
networks
at
the
point
of
utilization
are
rarely
capable
of
handling
voltages
above
32,000
volts.
Voltage
must
be
�stepped
down�
to
be
utilized
by
the
various
devices
available.
By
adjusting
the
voltages
to
the
levels
necessary
for
the
various
end
use
and
distribution
levels,
electric
power
can
be
used
both
efficiently
and
safely.
�
All
power
transformers
have
three
basic
parts,
a
primary
winding,
secondary
winding,
and
a
core.
Even
though
little
more
than
an
air
space
is
necessary
to
insulate
an
�ideal�
transformer,
when
higher
voltages
and
larger
amounts
of
power
are
involved,
the
insulating
material
becomes
an
integral
part
of
the
transformer�s
operation.
Because
of
this,
the
insulation
system
is
often
considered
the
fourth
basic
part
of
the
transformer.
It
is
important
to
note
that,
although
the
windings
and
core
deteriorate
very
little
with
age,
the
insulation
can
be
subjected
to
severe
stresses
and
chemical
deterioration.
The
insulation
deteriorates
at
a
relatively
rapid
rate,
and
its
condition
ultimately
determines
the
service
life
of
the
transformer.
C
Core

The
core,
which
provides
the
magnetic
path
to
channel
the
flux,
consists
of
thin
strips
of
high-
grade
steel,
called
laminations,
which
are
electrically
separated
by
a
thin
coating
of
insulating
material.
The
strips
can
be
stacked
or
wound,
with
the
windings
either
built
integrally
around
the
core
or
built
separately
and
assembled
around
the
core
sections.
Core
steel
can
be
hot-or
cold-
rolled,
grain-oriented
or
non
grain
oriented,
and
even
laser-scribed
for
additional
performance.
Thickness
ranges
from
0.23
mm
to
upwards
of
0.36
mm.
The
core
cross
section
can
be
circular
or
rectangular,
with
circular
cores
commonly
referred
to
as
cruciform
construction.
Rectangular
cores
are
used
for
smaller
ratings
and
as
auxiliary
transformers
used
within
a
power
transformer.
Rectangular
cores
use
a
single
width
of
strip
steel,
while
circular
cores
use
a
combination
of
different
strip
widths
to
approximate
a
circular
cross-section.
The
type
of
steel
and
arrangement
depends
on
the
transformer
rating
as
related
to
cost
factors
such
as
labor
and
p
performance.

Just
like
other
components
in
the
transformer,
the
heat
generated
by
the
core
must
be
adequately
dissipated.
While
the
steel
and
coating
may
be
capable
of
withstanding
higher
temperatures,
it
will
come
in
contact
with
insulating
materials
with
limited
temperature
capabilities.
In
larger
units,
cooling
ducts
are
used
inside
the
core
for
additional
convective
surface
area,
and
sections
of
laminations
may
be
split
to
reduce
localized
l
losses.

The
core
is
held
together
by,
but
insulated
from,
mechanical
structures
and
is
grounded
to
a
single
point
in
order
to
dissipate
electrostatic
buildup.
The
core
ground
location
is
usually
some
readily
accessible
point
inside
the
tank,
but
it
can
also
be
brought
through
a
bushing
on
the
tank
wall
or
top
for
external
access.
This
grounding
point
should
be
removable
for
testing
purposes,
such
as
checking
for
unintentional
core
grounds.
Multiple
core
grounds,
such
as
a
case
whereby
the
core
is
inadvertently
making
contact
with
otherwise
grounded
internal
metallic
mechanical
structures,
can
provide
a
path
for
circulating
currents
induced
by
the
main
flux
as
well
as
a
leakage
flux,
thus
creating
concentrations
of
losses
that
can
result
in
localized
h
heating.

The
maximum
flux
density
of
the
core
steel
is
normally
designed
as
close
to
the
knee
of
the
saturation
curve
as
practical,
accounting
for
required
over
excitations
and
tolerances
that
exist
due
to
materials
and
manufacturing
processes.
For
power
transformers
the
flux
density
is
typically
between
1.3
T
and
1.8
T,
with
the
saturation
point
for
magnetic
steel
being
around
2.03
T
to
2.05
T
T.

There
are
two
basic
types
of
core
construction
used
in
power
transformers:
core
form
and
shell
f
form.

�
In
core-form
construction,
there
is
a
single
path
for
the
magnetic
circuit.
For
single-phase
applications,
the
windings
are
typically
divided
on
both
core
legs
as
shown.
In
three-phase
applications,
the
windings
of
a
particular
phase
are
typically
on
the
same
core
leg.
Windings
are
constructed
separate
of
the
core
and
placed
on
their
respective
core
legs
during
core
assembly.
Schematic
Diagram
of
Shell-form
C
Construction

�
In
shell-form
construction,
the
core
provides
multiple
paths
for
the
magnetic
circuit.
The
core
is
typically
stacked
directly
around
the
windings,
which
are
usually
�pancake�-type
windings,
although
some
applications
are
such
that
the
core
and
windings
are
assembled
similar
to
core
form.
Due
to
advantages
in
short-circuit
and
transient-voltage
performance,
shell
forms
tend
to
be
used
more
frequently
in
the
largest
transformers,
where
conditions
can
be
more
severe.
Variations
of
three-phase
shell-form
construction
include
five
and
seven-
legged
cores,
depending
on
size
and
application.
Schematic
Diagram
of
Shell-form
C
Construction
W
Windings

The
windings
consist
of
the
current-carrying
conductors
wound
around
the
sections
of
the
core,
and
these
must
be
properly
insulated,
supported,
and
cooled
to
withstand
operational
and
test
c
conditions.

Copper
and
aluminum
are
the
primary
materials
used
as
conductors
in
power-transformer
windings.
While
aluminum
is
lighter
and
generally
less
expensive
than
copper,
a
larger
cross
section
of
aluminum
conductor
must
be
used
to
carry
a
current
with
similar
performance
as
copper.
Copper
has
higher
mechanical
strength
and
is
used
almost
exclusively
in
all
but
the
smaller
size
ranges,
where
aluminum
conductors
may
be
perfectly
acceptable.
In
cases
where
extreme
forces
are
encountered,
materials
such
as
silver-bearing
copper
can
be
used
for
even
greater
strength.
The
conductors
used
in
power
transformers
are
typically
stranded
with
a
rectangular
cross
section,
although
some
transformers
at
the
lowest
ratings
may
use
sheet
or
foil
conductors.
Multiple
strands
can
be
wound
in
parallel
and
joined
together
at
the
ends
of
the
winding,
in
which
case
it
is
necessary
to
transpose
the
strands
at
various
points
throughout
the
winding
to
prevent
circulating
currents
around
the
loop(s)
created
by
joining
the
strands
at
the
ends.
Individual
strands
may
be
subjected
to
differences
in
the
flux
field
due
to
their
respective
positions
within
the
winding,
which
create
differences
in
voltages
between
the
strands
and
drive
circulating
currents
through
the
conductor
loops.
Proper
transposition
of
the
strands
cancels
out
these
voltage
differences
and
eliminates
or
greatly
reduces
the
circulating
currents.
A
variation
of
this
technique,
involving
many
rectangular
conductor
strands
combined
into
a
cable,
is
called
continuously
transposed
cable
(
(CTC).

A
view
of
Pancake
W
Winding

In
core-form
transformers,
the
windings
are
usually
arranged
concentrically
around
the
core
leg,
which
shows
a
winding
being
lowered
over
another
winding
already
on
the
core
leg
of
a
three-
phase
transformer.
Shell-form
transformers
use
a
similar
concentric
arrangement
or
an
interleaved
a
arrangement.
With
an
interleaved
arrangement,
individual
coils
are
stacked,
separated
by
insulating
barriers
and
cooling
ducts.
The
coils
are
typically
connected
with
the
inside
of
one
coil
connected
to
the
inside
of
an
adjacent
coil
and,
similarly,
the
outside
of
one
coil
connected
to
the
outside
of
an
adjacent
coil.
Sets
of
coils
are
assembled
into
groups,
which
then
form
the
primary
or
secondary
w
winding.

When
considering
concentric
windings,
it
is
generally
understood
that
circular
windings
have
inherently
higher
mechanical
strength
than
rectangular
windings,
whereas
rectangular
coils
can
have
lower
associated
material
and
labor
costs.
Rectangular
windings
permit
a
more
efficient
use
of
space,
but
their
use
is
limited
to
small
power
transformers
and
the
lower
range
of
medium-
power
transformers,
where
the
internal
forces
are
not
extremely
high.
As
the
rating
increases,
the
forces
significantly
increase,
and
there
is
need
for
added
strength
in
the
windings,
so
circular
coils,
or
shell-form
construction,
is
u
used.

In
some
special
cases,
elliptically
shaped
windings
are
used.
Concentric
coils
are
typically
wound
over
cylinders
with
spacers
attached
so
as
to
form
a
duct
between
the
conductors
and
the
cylinder.
As
previously
mentioned,
the
flow
of
liquid
through
the
windings
can
be
based
solely
on
natural
convection,
or
the
flow
can
be
somewhat
controlled
through
the
use
of
strategically
placed
barriers
within
the
winding.
This
concept
is
sometimes
referred
to
as
guided
liquid
f
flow.

A
variety
of
different
types
of
windings
have
been
used
in
power
transformers
through
the
years.
Coils
can
be
wound
in
an
upright,
vertical
orientation,
as
is
necessary
with
larger,
heavier
coils;
or
they
can
be
wound
horizontally
and
placed
upright
upon
completion.
As
mentioned
previously,
the
type
of
winding
depends
on
the
transformer
rating
as
well
as
the
core
construction.
Several
of
the
more
common
winding
types
are
discussed
f
further.

1. Pancake Windings
1111....PancakeWindingsPndingPPancakeWisancakeWindingsancakeWindings
Several
types
of
windings
are
commonly
referred
to
as
�pancake�
windings
due
to
the
arrangement
of
conductors
into
discs.
However,
the
term
most
often
refers
to
a
coil
type
that
is
used
almost
exclusively
in
shell-form
transformers.
The
conductors
are
wound
around
a
rectangular
form,
with
the
widest
face
of
the
conductor
oriented
either
horizontally
or
vertically.
This
type
of
winding
lends
itself
to
the
interleaved
arrangement
previously
d
discussed.

2. Disc Windings
2222....DiscWindingsDngDDiscWindisiscWindingsiscWindings
A
disc
winding
can
involve
a
single
strand
or
several
strands
of
insulated
conductors
wound
in
a
series
of
parallel
discs
of
horizontal
orientation,
with
the
discs
connected
at
either
the
inside
or
outside
as
a
crossover
point.
Each
disc
comprises
multiple
turns
wound
over
other
turns,
with
the
crossovers
alternating
between
inside
and
outside.
Most
windings
of
25-kV
class
and
above
used
in
core
form
transformers
are
disc
type.
Given
the
high
voltages
involved
in
test
and
operation,
particular
attention
is
required
to
avoid
high
stresses
between
discs
and
turns
near
the
end
of
the
winding
when
subjected
to
transient
voltage
surges.
Numerous
techniques
have
been
developed
to
ensure
an
acceptable
voltage
distribution
along
the
winding
under
these
c
conditions.
3. Helical Windings
3333....HelicalWindingsHndingHHelicalWiselicalWindingselicalWindings
Helical
windings
are
also
referred
to
as
screw
or
spiral
windings,
with
each
term
accurately
characterizing
the
coil�s
construction.
A
helical
winding
consists
of
a
few
to
more
than
100
insulated
strands
wound
in
parallel
continuously
along
the
length
of
the
cylinder,
with
spacers
inserted
between
adjacent
turns
or
discs
and
suitable
transpositions
included
g
to
minimize
circulating
currents
between
parallel
strands.
The
manner
of
construction
is
such
that
the
coil
resembles
a
corkscrew.
Helical
windings
are
used
for
the
higher-current
applications
frequently
encountered
in
the
lower-voltage
c
classes.

A
View
of
Helical
W
Winding

4. Layer (Barrel) Windings

4444....Layer(Barrel) WindingsLel) WindingLLayer(Barrsayer(Barrel)
Windingsayer(Barrel) Windings
Layer
(barrel)
windings
are
among
the
simplest
of
windings
in
that
the
insulated
conductors
are
wound
directly
next
to
each
other
around
the
cylinder
and
spacers.
Several
layers
can
be
wound
on
top
of
one
another,
with
the
layers
separated
by
solid
insulation,
ducts,
or
a
combination.
Several
strands
can
be
wound
in
parallel
if
the
current
magnitude
so
dictates.
Variations
of
this
winding
are
often
used
for
applications
such
as
tap
windings
used
in
load-tap-changing
(LTC)
transformers
and
for
tertiary
windings
used
for,
among
other
things,
third-harmonic
s
suppression.
A
View
of
Layer
W
Winding

Taps-Turns
Ratio
A
Adjustment

The
ability
to
adjust
the
turn�s
ratio
of
a
transformer
is
often
desirable
to
compensate
for
variations
in
voltage
that
occur
due
to
the
regulation
of
the
transformer
and
loading
cycles.
This
task
can
be
accomplished
by
several
means.
There
is
a
significant
difference
between
a
transformer
that
is
capable
of
changing
the
ratio
while
the
unit
is
on-line
(a
load
tap
changing
[LTC]
transformer)
and
one
that
must
be
taken
off-line,
or
de-energized,
to
perform
a
tap
c
change.

Most
transformers
are
provided
with
a
means
of
changing
the
number
of
turns
in
the
high-
voltage
circuit,
whereby
a
part
of
the
winding
is
tapped
out
of
the
circuit.
In
many
transformers,
this
is
done
using
one
of
the
main
windings
and
tapping
out
a
section
or
s
sections.

With
larger
units,
a
dedicated
tap
winding
may
be
necessary
to
avoid
the
ampere-turn
voids
that
occur
along
the
length
of
the
winding.
Use
and
placement
of
tap
windings
vary
with
the
application
and
among
manufacturers.
A
manually
operated
switching
mechanism,
a
DETC
(de-
energized
tap
changer),
is
normally
provided
for
convenient
access
external
to
the
transformer
to
change
the
tap
position.
When
LTC
capabilities
are
desired,
additional
windings
and
equipment
are
required,
which
significantly
increase
the
size
and
cost
of
the
transformer.
This
option
is
specified
on
about
60%
of
new
medium
and
large
power
transformers.
It
should
be
recognized
that
there
would
be
slight
differences
in
this
schematic
based
on
the
specific
LTC
being
u
used.

It
is
also
possible
for
a
transformer
to
have
dual
voltage
ratings,
as
is
popular
in
spare
and
mobile
transformers.
While
there
is
no
physical
limit
to
the
ratio
between
the
dual
ratings,
e
even
ratios
(for
example
24.94
X
12.47
kV
or
138
X
69
kV)
are
easier
for
manufacturers
to
a
accommodate.

MAINTENANCE AND TESTING

MMMMAINTENANCEANDAINTENANCEANDAINTENANCEAINTENANDANCEANDTTTTEEEESSSSTTTTIIIINNNNGG
G
GG

Heat
and
contamination
are
the
two
greatest
enemies
to
the
transformer�s
operation.
Heat
will
break
down
the
solid
insulation
and
accelerate
the
chemical
reactions
that
take
place
when
the
oil
is
contaminated.
All
transformers
require
a
cooling
method
and
it
is
important
to
ensure
that
the
transformer
has
proper
cooling.
Proper
cooling
usually
involves
cleaning
the
cooling
surfaces,
maximizing
ventilation,
and
monitoring
loads
to
ensure
the
transformer
is
not
producing
excess
h
heat.

�
Contamination
is
detrimental
to
the
transformer,
both
inside
and
out.
The
importance
of
basic
cleanliness
and
general
housekeeping
becomes
evident
when
long
term
service
life
is
considered.
Dirt
builds
up
and
grease
deposits
severely
limit
the
cooling
abilities
of
radiators
and
tank
surfaces.
Terminal
and
insulation
surfaces
are
especially
susceptible
to
dirt
and
grease
build
up.
Such
buildup
will
usually
affect
test
results.
The
transformer�s
general
condition
should
be
noted
during
any
activity,
and
every
effort
should
be
made
to
maintain
its
integrity
during
all
operations.
�
The
oil
in
the
transformer
should
be
kept
as
pure
as
possible.
Dirt
and
moisture
will
start
chemical
reactions
in
the
oil
that
lower
both
its
electrical
strength
and
its
cooling
capability.
Contamination
should
be
the
primary
concern
any
time
the
transformer
must
be
opened.
Most
transformer
oil
is
contaminated
to
some
degree
before
it
leaves
the
refinery.
It
is
important
to
determine
how
contaminated
the
oil
is
and
how
fast
it
is
degenerating.
Determining
the
degree
of
contamination
is
accomplished
by
sampling
and
analyzing
the
oil
on
a
regular
basis.
�
Although
maintenance
and
work
practices
are
designed
to
extend
the
transformer�s
life,
it
is
inevitable
that
the
transformer
will
eventually
deteriorate
to
the
point
that
it
fails
or
must
be
replaced.
Transformer
testing
allows
this
aging
process
to
be
quantified
and
tracked,
to
help
predict
replacement
intervals
and
avoid
failures.
Historical
test
data
is
valuable
for
determining
damage
to
the
transformer
after
a
fault
or
failure
has
occurred
elsewhere
in
the
circuit.
By
comparing
test
data
taken
after
the
fault
to
previous
test
data,
damage
to
the
transformer
can
be
determined.
SAFETY
SSSSAFETYAAAFETYFETYFETY

Safety
is
of
primary
concern
when
working
around
a
transformer.
The
substation
transformer
is
usually
the
highest
voltage
item
in
a
facility�s
electrical
distribution
system.
The
higher
voltages
found
at
the
transformer
deserve
the
respect
and
complete
attention
of
anyone
working
in
the
area.
A
6.6
kV
system
will
arc
to
ground
over
1.5
to
2.5
in.
However,
to
extinguish
that
same
arc
will
require
a
separation
of
15
in.
Therefore,
working
around
energized
conductors
is
n
not
recommended
for
anyone
but
the
qualified
professional.
The
best
way
to
ensure
safety
when
working
around
high
voltage
apparatus
is
to
make
absolutely
certain
that
it
is
d
de-energized.

�
Although
inspections
and
sampling
can
usually
be
performed
while
the
transformer
is
in
service,
all
other
service
and
testing
functions
will
require
that
the
transformer
is
de-
energized
and
locked
out.
This
means
that
a
thorough
understanding
of
the
transformer�s
circuit
and
the
disconnecting
methods
should
be
reviewed
before
any
work
is
performed.
�
A
properly
installed
transformer
will
usually
have
a
means
for
disconnecting
both
the
primary
and
the
secondary
sides;
ensure
that
they
are
opened
before
any
work
is
performed.
Both
disconnects
should
be
opened
because
it
is
possible
for
generator
or
induced
power
to
back
feed
into
the
secondary
and
step
up
into
the
primary.
After
verifying
that
the
circuit
is
de-energized
at
the
source,
the
area
where
the
work
is
to
be
performed
should
be
checked
for
voltage
with
a
�hot
stick�
or
some
other
voltage
indicating
device.
�
It
is
also
important
to
ensure
that
the
circuit
stays
de-energized
until
the
work
is
completed.
This
is
especially
important
when
the
work
area
is
not
in
plain
view
of
the
disconnect.
Red
or
orange
lock-out
tags
should
be
applied
to
all
breakers
and
disconnects
that
will
be
opened
for
a
service
procedure.
The
tags
should
be
highly
visible,
and
as
many
people
as
possible
should
be
made
aware
of
their
presence
before
the
work
begins.
�
Some
switches
are
equipped
with
physical
locking
devices
(a
hasp
or
latch).
This
is
the
best
method
for
locking
out
a
switch.
The
person
performing
the
work
should
keep
the
key
at
all
times,
and
tags
should
still
be
applied
in
case
other
keys
exist.
�
After
verifying
that
all
circuits
are
de-energized,
grounds
should
be
connected
between
all
items
that
could
have
a
different
potential.
This
means
that
all
conductors,
hoses,
ladders
and
other
equipment
should
be
grounded
to
the
tank,
and
that
the
tank�s
connection
to
ground
should
be
verified
before
beginning
any
work
on
the
transformer.
Static
charges
can
be
created
by
many
maintenance
activities,
including
cleaning
and
filtering.
The
transformer�s
inherent
ability
to
step
up
voltages
and
currents
can
create
lethal
quantities
of
electricity.
�
The
inductive
capabilities
of
the
transformer
should
also
be
considered
when
working
on
a
de-energized
unit
that
is
close
to
other
conductors
or
devices
that
are
energized.
A
de-
energized
transformer
can
be
affected
by
these
energized
items,
and
dangerous
currents
or
voltages
can
be
induced
in
the
adjacent
windings.
�
Most
electrical
measurements
require
the
application
of
a
potential,
and
these
potentials
can
be
stored,
multiplied,
and
discharged
at
the
wrong
time
if
the
proper
precautions
are
not
taken.
Care
should
be
taken
during
the
tests
to
ensure
that
no
one
comes
in
contact
with
the
transformer
while
it
is
being
tested.
Set
up
safety
barriers,
or
appoint
safety
personnel
to
secure
remote
test
areas.
After
a
test
is
completed,
grounds
should
be
left
on
the
tested
item
for
twice
the
duration
of
the
test,
preferably
longer.
�
Once
the
operation
of
the
transformer
is
understood,
especially
its
inherent
ability
to
multiply
voltages
and
currents,
then
safety
practices
can
be
applied
and
modified
for
the
type
of
operation
or
test
that
is
being
performed.
It
is
also
recommended
that
anyone
working
on
transformers
receive
regular
training
in
basic
first
aid,
CPR,
and
resuscitation.

NAMEPLATE DATA
NNNNAMEPLATEDATAAATEDATAAMEPLAMEPLATEDATAMEPLATEDATA

The
transformer
nameplate
contains
most
of
the
important
information
that
will
be
needed
in
the
field.
The
nameplate
should
never
be
removed
from
the
transformer
and
should
always
be
kept
clean
and
legible.

A
Wye
Delta
Transformer
Nameplate

Although
other
information
can
be
provided,
industry
standards
require
that
the
following
information
be
displayed
on
the
nameplate
of
all
power
transformers:

a.
Serial
Number:
The
serial
number
is
required
any
time
the
manufacturer
must
be
contacted
for
information
or
parts.
It
should
be
recorded
on
all
transformer
inspections
and
tests.
b.
Class:
The
class
will
indicate
the
transformer�s
cooling
requirements
and
increased
load
capability.
c.
kVA
Rating:
The
kVA
rating,
as
opposed
to
the
power
output,
is
a
true
indication
of
the
current
carrying
capacity
of
the
transformer.
kVA
ratings
for
the
vaious
cooling
classes
should
be
displayed.
For
three
phase
transformers,
the
kVA
rating
is
the
sum
of
the
power
in
all
three
legs.
d.
Voltage
Rating:
The
voltage
rating
should
be
given
for
the
primary
and
secondary,
and
for
all
tap
positions.
e.
Temperature
Rise:
The
temperature
rise
is
the
allowable
temperature
change
ambient
that
the
transformer
can
undergo
without
incurring
damage.
from
f.
Polarity
(single
phase):
The
polarity
is
important
when
the
transformer
is
to
be
paralleled
or
used
in
conjunction
with
other
transformers.
g.
Phasor
Diagrams:
Phasor
Diagrams
will
be
provided
for
both
the
primary
and
the
secondary
coils.
Phasor
diagrams
indicate
the
order
in
which
the
three
phases
will
reach
their
peak
voltages,
and
also
the
angular
displacement
(rotation)
between
the
primary
and
secondary
h.
Connection
Diagram:
The
connection
diagram
will
indicate
the
connections
various
windings,
and
the
winding
connections
necessary
for
the
various
tap
voltages.
of
the
i.
Percent
Impedance:
The
impedance
percent
is
the
vector
sum
of
the
transformer�s
resistance
and
reactance
expressed
in
percent.
It
is
the
ratio
of
the
voltage
required
to
circulate
rated
current
in
the
corresponding
winding,
to
the
rated
voltage
of
that
winding.
With
the
secondary
terminals
shorted,
a
very
small
voltage
is
required
on
the
primary
to
circulate
rated
current
on
the
secondary.
The
impedance
is
defined
by
the
ratio
of
the
applied
voltage
to
the
rated
voltage
of
the
winding.
If,
with
the
secondary
terminals
shorted,
138
volts
are
required
on
the
primary
to
produce
rated
current
flow
in
the
secondary,
and
if
the
primary
is
rated
at
13,800
volts,
then
the
impedance
is
1
percent.
The
impedance
affects
the
amount
of
current
flowing
through
the
transformer
during
short
circuit
or
fault
conditions.
j.
Impulse
Level
(BIL):
The
impulse
level
is
the
crest
value
of
the
impulse
voltage
the
transformer
is
required
to
withstand
without
failure.
The
impulse
level
is
designed
to
simulate
a
lightning
strike
or
voltage
surge
condition.
The
impulse
level
is
a
withstand
rating
for
extremely
short
duration
surge
voltages.
Liquid-filled
transformers
have
an
inherently
higher
BIL
rating
than
dry-type
transformers
of
the
same
kVA
rating.
k.
Weight:
The
weight
should
be
expressed
for
the
various
parts
and
the
total.
Knowledge
of
the
weight
is
important
when
moving
or
untanking
the
transformer.
l.
Insulating Fluid: The type of insulating fl.uid is important when additional fluid
must be
added or when unserviceable fluid must be disposed of. Different insulating fluids
should
never be mixed. The number of gallons, both for the main tank, and for the various

compartments should also be noted.

m.
Instruction
Reference:
This
reference
will
indicate
the
manufacturer�s
publication
number
for
the
transformer
instruction
manual.
Ankush Arya
ankush.arya88@gmail.com
9899611569