CHAP.

51

FOURIER ANALYSIS OF TIME SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

Table 5-2. Common Fourier Transforms Pairs

sin at

5.5

A.

THE FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF CONTINUOUS-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

Frequency Response:

In Sec. 2.2 we showed that the output y ( t ) of a continuous-time LTI system equals the
convolution of the input x ( t ) with the impulse response h(t 1; that is,

Applying the convolution property (5.58),we obtain

FOURIER ANALYSIS O F TIME SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

[CHAP. 5

Equation (5.64) is called Parseual's identity (or Parseual's theorem) for the Fourier
transform. Note that the quantity on the left-hand side of Eq. (5.64) is the normalized
energy content E of x(t) [Eq. (1.14)]. Parseval's identity says that this energy content E
can be computed by integrating Ix(w)12 over all frequencies w . For this reason Ix(w)l2 is
often referred to as the energy-density spectrum of x(t), and Eq. (5.64) is also known as
the energy theorem.
Table 5-1 contains a summary of the properties of the Fourier transform presented in
this section. Some common signals and their Fourier transforms are given in Table 5-2.

Table 5-1.
Property

Linearity
Time shifting
Frequency shifting
Time scaling
Time reversal
Duality
Time differentiation
Frequency differentiation
Integration
Convolution
Multiplication
Real signal
Even component
Odd component
Parseval's relations

Properties of the Fourier Transform

Signal

Fourier transform

FOURIER ANALYSIS OF DISCRETE-TIME SlGNALS AND SYSTEMS

[CHAP. 6

Table 6-2. Common Fourier Transform Pairs

sin Wn
,o<w<sr
77 n

6.5

A.

THE FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

Frequency Response:

In Sec. 2.6 we showed that the output y [ n ] of a discrete-time LTI system equals the
convolution of the input x [ n ] with the impulse response h [ n ] ; that is,

Applying the convolution property (6.581,we obtain

CHAP. 61 FOURIER ANALYSIS O F DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

Table 6-1. Properties of the Fourier Transform

Property

Periodicity
Linearity
Time shifting
Frequency shifting
Conjugat ion
Time reversal
Time scaling
Frequency differentiation
First difference
Accumulation

Convolution
Multiplication
Real sequence
Even component
Odd component

Parseval's relations

Sequence

Fourier transform

CHAP. 31

LAPLACE TRANSFORM AND CONTINUOUS-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

Table 3-1 Some Laplace Transforms Pairs

1

All s

cos wotu(t)
sin wotu(t

e-"' cos wotu(t)

A.

s+a

(s+a12+w;

Re(s) > - Re(a)

Linearity:

If

The set notation A I B means that set A contains set B, while A n B denotes the
intersection of sets A and B, that is, the set containing all elements in both A and B.
Thus, Eq. (3.15) indicates that the ROC of the resultant Laplace transform is at least as
large as the region in common between R , and R 2 . Usually we have simply R' = R , n R , .
This is illustrated in Fig. 3-4.

CHAP. 31

LAPLACE TRANSFORM AND CONTINUOUS-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

Table 3-2 Properties of the Laplace Transform

Property

Linearity
Time shifting
Shifting in s
Time scaling

Signal
x(t)
x,(t)
x2W
a , x , ( t )+ a 2 x 2 ( l )
x(t - t o )
es"'x(t
x( at

Transform

ROC

X(s)

R
R1
R2
R'IR, nR2
R' = R
R' = R Re(s,)

x,w
x,w

a ,X , ( s )+ a , X 2 ( s )
e-""X(s)
X ( s - so)
1
-X(s)
la l

Time reversal

R'

= aR

R'= - R

Differentiation in t
Differentiation in s

dX( s )
ds

-t x ( t )

Rf=R

Integration
Convolution

then

%(t) * ~

2 0 H)

X I ( ~ ) X ~ ( ~ ) R'IR, nR2

(3.23)

This convolution property plays a central role in the analysis and design of continuous-time
LTI systems.
Table 3-2 summarizes the properties of the Laplace transform presented in this
section.

3.5

THE INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

Inversion of the Laplace transform to find the signal x ( t ) from its Laplace transform
X(s) is called the inverse Laplace transform, symbolically denoted as

A.

Inversion Formula:

There is a procedure that is applicable to all classes of transform functions that

involves the evaluation of a line integral in complex s-plane; that is,

In this integral, the real c is to be selected such that if the ROC of X(s) is a,< Re(s) < a 2 ,
then a, < c < u2.The evaluation of this inverse Laplace transform integral requires an
understanding of complex variable theory.

THE Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

[CHAP. 4

Thus,
all z

6 [ n ]H 1
B.

Unit Step Sequence d n l :

Setting a

C.

1 in Eqs. (4.8) to (4.101, we obtain

z-Transform Pairs:

The z-transforms of some common sequences are tabulated in Table 4-1.

Table 4-1. Some Common z-Transform Pairs

All z

lzl > 1
Izl< 1

(COSRon)u[nl
(sin R,n)u[n]
( r n cos R,n)u[n]
( r nsin R,n)u[nI

O<nsN-1
otherwise

Z-"'

All z except 0 if ( m > 0) or m if ( m < 0)

1
Z
1-az-''2-a

Izl > lal

z 2 - (COSn o ) z
z 2 - (2cos R o )t + 1
(sin n o ) z
z 2 - (2cos R,)z + 1
z2- (rcosR0)z
z 2 - (2r cos R o ) z + r 2
( r sin R,)z
z 2 - (2r cos R,)z

+r2

1-~ " ' z - ~

1- az-'

lzl> 1
Izl> 1
Izl> r
Izl> r
lzl> 0

CHAP. 41

173

T H E Z-TRANSFORM AND DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS

Table 4-2. Some Properties of the z-Transform

Property

Sequence

Transform

ROC

Linearity
Time shifting
Multiplication by z,"
Multiplication by einon
Time reversal
Multiplication by n

-2-

&(z)
d.?

Accumulation
Convolution

H.

Summary of Some z-transform Properties

For convenient reference, the properties of the z-transform presented above are
summarized in Table 4-2.
4.5 THE INVERSE Z-TRANSFORM
Inversion of the z-transform to find the sequence x [ n ] from its z-transform X ( z ) is
called the inverse z-transform, symbolically denoted as

~ [ n =]s - ' { X ( z > }

(4.27)

A. Inversion Formula:
As in the case of the Laplace transform, there is a formal expression for the inverse
z-transform in terms of an integration in the z-plane; that is,

where C is a counterclockwise contour of integration enclosing the origin. Formal

evaluation of Eq. (4.28) requires an understanding of complex variable theory.

B. Use of Tables of z-Transform Pairs:

In the second method for the inversion of X(z), we attempt to express X(z) as a sum
X(z) =X,(z)

+ . . . +X,(z)

(4.29)