FILOZOFSKA FAKULTETA

NADSEGMENTNE
ZNAILNOSTI
ANGLEKEGA
GLASOSLOVJA
ODDELEK ZA ANGLISTIKO
2011/2012

ZAPISKI S PREDAVANJ DR. SMILJANE KOMAR IN IZPISKI IZ PREDPISANE TUDIJSKE

LITERATURE

INTONATION
Intonation is the melody of speech. This means that the study of intonation is mainly concerned with the
rising and falling of the pitch of the voice. The prosodic characteristics of speech are:
PITCH (height of voice)
LOUDNESS/VOLUME
TEMPO/SPEECH RATE/SPEED

RHYTHM

Intonation is concerned only with the pitch changes within an utterance and is thus a narrower than
prosody or suprasegmentals. Speech without intonation does not exist (language without intonation sound
literally inhuman giving a robot-like effect). Intonation is an integral part of any language therefore part
of the linguistic study. Intonation helps convey linguistic and pragmatic meaning it is a bridge between
grammar and meaning. It is important in communication because it provides additional meaning to what
is supplied by the words themselves (It wasnt so much what they said, but how they said it). Intonation
varies considerably from one language to another.
Intonation roughly performs 4 functions (has 4 different meanings):
Emotional colouring, attitude (pragmatic) - tone
Conveys grammatical/syntactic structure of an utterance (e.g. statements vs. questions)
Textual function / discourse function (how text, either written or spoken, are structured
coherence, cohesion. In speech (especially spontaneous speech) intonation adds to the
organisation of a text)
Socio-linguistic structure (shows you the origin of the speaker dialects)
Intonation has two important functions in the organization of the information in an utterance:
TONALITY division into intonation units
TONICITY the placement of nucleus in an intonation unit

TONALITY

CHUNKING OR DIVISION INTO INTONATION PHRASES (IPs)

TONALITY IS THE SYSTEM THAT DIVIDES SPOKEN DISCOURSE INTO SMALLER UNITS.
In order to make themselves understood, speakers organize the flow of speech into smaller, meaningful
chunks, called intonation phrases (IPs). Each unit contains one piece of information. Tonality largely
reflects and depends on the grammatical structure of a language, but it is also very much conditioned by
the speakers perception of the context of interaction. Intonation phrases are also referred to as word
groups, tone units, intonation units. The boundary between two successive intonation phrases is an
intonation break. We regularly place an intonation break between successive sentences, usually between
successive clauses, sometimes between successive phrases, and occasionally between successive words. We
can even break within a word though this is unusual and only used for special emphasis. Tonality
basically signals to the hearer the syntactic as well as the information structure of the sentence.

1. SIGNALLING THE STRUCTURE

NEUTRAL TONALITY : When one IP is realized by one clause (sentence):
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Milk comes from cows. || Wool comes from sheep.

Milk comes from cows, | and wool comes from sheep.

two pieces of information

= two IPs

MARKED TONALITY : When IPs occur within a clause, phrase, word, or even syllable
boundaries, or one IP covers more than 1 clause or sentence (division into IPs does not follow
the division of clauses):
Milk | comes from cows.
Delicious, | cool | milk.

I don't | like it.

Abso | lutely | de | licious!

Bor | ing!

Marked tonality requires some sort of context.

1.1 Ambiguous syntactic structures

In certain cases the division into IPs can disambiguate the grammatical structure (the presence or absence
of intonation breaks signals the syntactic structure of a sentence).

Help keep the dog off! Help! | Keep the dog off!
What's that in the road ahead? What's that in the road? || A head?
Do you like pawpaw? -I'm sorry, || I don't know. I'm sorry, || I don't, || no.
You can have cheese, | salad | or quiche. You can have cheese salad | or quiche.
This will give teachers time | to prepare and mark work. This will give teachers time to prepare |
and mark work.
I was talking to a chap I met in the pub. I was talking to a chap I met | in the pub.
The competitors who finished | first received a goody bag. The competitors who finished first |
received a goody bag.

1.2 Tonality & Punctuation

Although tonality in speech plays a role similar to punctuation in writing, there are numerous cases where
the comma in writing does not correspond to a boundary between IPs.

Oh, I quite understand.

Well, I'm not sure.
No, I love it.
We'll see you on Tuesday, then.
It hasn't stopped him smoking, though.
Her health's pretty poor, you know.

Oh, well, you know etc. have little

meaning the utterance makes complete sense
without them.

EXERCISE
Locate suitable intonation breaks in the following passage. Put double marks at the end of each sentence, and single marks where
appropriate within each sentence.
When we got to the top we paused for a rest. Fortunately we had some chocolate with us and
some bottles of water, and Nell had some raisins, which were very welcome. After wed rested
there for a few minutes we were ready to continue our journey, which we did with a new spring
in our steps.

2. CHUNKING & GRAMMAR

Tonality varies considerably according to the style of speech. Speakers can insert intonation breaks almost
anywhere they want in order to make their message as clear as possible. However, there are some strong
tendencies exerted by the grammar over tonality. Some components of syntactic structure are more likely
than others to be made into separate IPs, set off by intonation breaks.
General rule 1: intonation break after each sentence || or clause |
When I cough, | it hurts my throat.
First take the lid off, | and then unscrew the base.
I'll tell you, | but you must keep it a secret.
General rule 2: intonation break anywhere to make the grammatical structure clear
He was looking up the street. (possibly ambiguous)
He was looking | up the street. (direction)
He was looking up | the street. (searching)

2.1 Vocatives
Vocatives are not an essential part of the clause structure (the clause would be grammatically complete
even without them). This explains why under some circumstances they are given their own IP. Vocatives
are treated differently depending on the position theyre in:
Vocatives in initial position (their function is to draw attention): separate IP
Linda, | could I have a word?

Jenny and Peter, | I want you to take the left side.

Vocatives in middle or final position (the function of drawing attention is less important/not really
there): no separate IP
This, Mr. Robinson, | is the young man I was telling you about.
Have you got your passport, Mother?

2.2 Adverbials
Adverbials, too, often stand apart from the basic clause structure (the clause would be grammatically
correct without them). This explains why they, too, are frequently given their own IP. Their behaviour
varied depending on their relationship to the rest of the clause:
Adverbials modifying the verb or an adjective: not their own IP
She quickly picked up the pencil.
We were really pleased with it.

EXERCISE
Insert intonation breaks as necessary:

In the beginning of a clause: separate IP

On Thursday evening | I'm having dinner at Patsy's.
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Wed better consider them individually.

Theyve all vanished, | unfortunately.

Well finish them tomorrow, | hopefully.

The water evaporated naturally.
The water evaporated, | naturally.

Under the circumstances | we've got no choice.

Technically | we have to reject it.
In the middle of a clause: may have their own IP
Well we could | this year | do something different.
The rest of us, | unfortunately, | will have to accept it.
At the end of a clause:
Adverbs of manner: integrated into the clause structure
She dances beautifully.
I just can't take him seriously.
I'll pay you back soon.
Sentence adverbials (adjuncts) that modify the whole clause or sentence: their own IP
Apparently, | she's getting divorced.
I'm rather disappointed, | frankly.
Ambiguous
She talked to me honestly.
(honestly modifying talked = How did she talk to me?)
She talked to me, | honestly.
(honestly modifying She talked to me = She DID talk to me, I assure you)

2.3 Defining and non-defining items

In writing the distinction between defining and non-defining relative clauses is marked by commas,
whereas in speech the distinction is achieved by intonation breaks.
There are two kinds of relative clause:
Defining: no IP
She's my sister who lives in Canada. (= I have more sisters)
Look at that house near the bus stop. (= not the other houses)
Non-defining: separate IP
Look at that house, | near the bus stop. (= which is near the bus stop)
She's my sister, | who lives in Canada. (= my only sister)

The same rule applies to appositions*:

This is my colleague Charles. (= a particular one of my various colleagues)
This is my colleague, | Charles. (= 2 pieces of information: colleague, name)
This is my colleague, Charles. 2 interpretations:

*The relationship between two usually consecutive

nouns or noun phrases that refer to the same

person or thing and have the same relationship to
other sentence elements. In the sentence My son,
an actor, lives with me, the phrase My son, an
actor is an example of apposition.

Charles is a vocative;
I mentioned several people named Charles, and this one is my colleague
rather than my cousin

2.4 Parallel structures

With parallel words or phrases, there is likely to be an intonation break after each component if there are
more than two components or if the components are heavy. The decision whether to treat each
enumerated item on a list as a separate IP is to a large extent left to the speakers perception of the context
of interaction. If the parallel words or phrases are placed in contrast by the speaker, then they too are likely
to be separated by an intonation break.
Parallel words and phrases: separate IP if emphasized
I come on Mondays, | Wednesdays | and Fridays. (emphasis)
I want to buy some fruit | some milk | and some bread. (emphasis)
I can see a sort of tree | and the outline of a person. (emphasis)
Im not going to repeat the mistake I made last time | this time. (contrast)
Ambiguous; some coordinated structures are potentially ambiguous, and can optionally be
disambiguated by the insertion of an intonation break:
old men and women
(ambiguous: who is old?)
old | men and women (= both are old)
old men | and women (= men are old)
Strings of letters or numbers: one IP unless explicit/very clear
A: How do you spell to seize?
With a string of letters or numbers there are equally two possibilities. If we think they will be
B: S, E, I, Z, E.
familiar with the hearer, or if there is no need to be particularly explicit, we run them together in
the same IP. If we think they may be unfamiliar to the hearer or need to be made especially
A: What was that again?
clear, we can make the message easier for the hearer to process by placing an intonation break
B: S, | E, | I, | Z, | E.
after each item,

2.5 Tag questions

Not all tag question have their own IP. Speakers usually make a distinction between reverse-polarity tag,
where the tag is negative if the main clause is positive and positive if the main clause is negative, and
constant polarity tags, where both the tag and the main clause are either positive or negative.
Reverse polarity (checking) tags : own IP
We could do it tomorrow, | couldnt we?
It wasnt a disaster, | was it?
Constant-polarity (copy) tags: no IP
Close the window, would you, please.
Youre ready to go, are you?

2.6 Heavy noun phrases

A noun phrase (NP) is particularly likely to have its own IP if it is heavy (=long, consisting of several
words, important lexical items). Since the grammatical subject of a sentence is often just such a NP, there
if often an intonation break between the subject and the rest of the clause or sentence.
Heavy noun phrases (=long, consisting of several important lexical items) when a grammatical
subject: own IP
The people Ive been talking to | were quite definite about it.
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London and the southeast | will have showers. || The rest of the country | will be dry.

2.7 Topics
English has a fixed SVO (subject, verb, object) order of sentence elements. In this sequence the subject is
the topic or theme, while the rest of the clause is the comment or rheme. Sometimes the context of
interaction requires topicalization of other sentence elements, such as objects ot complements, which
means that they occur in the initial position of the clause preceding the grammatical subject. All such
instances require their own IP. In other words, a marked theme is always followed by an intonation break.
Topical status of the subject & other sentence elements is signalled:

In various syntactic ways

By choosing an appropriate tone
By giving it a separate IP
Cleft & pseudo cleft structures

As for Jeremy, | he can do what he likes. (subject)

Martha | will have to wait. (subject)
His rudeness | I shall ignore. || But his actions | I cannot forgive. (objects)
More important | is the question of what we do next. (complement)
I chose Veronica. (not cleft)
It was Veronica that I chose. (cleft)
It was Veronica | that I chose. (cleft, with focus on I for contrast between my and someone elses choice)
What they didnt like | was the noise. (pseudocleft)
Getting caught | is exactly what Im trying to avoid. (pseudocleft)
A: I suppose youll criticize his callousness?
B: No his callousness | is what I shall ignore.

TONICITY

NUCLEUS-PLACEMENT
TONICITY IS THE SYSTEM WHICH GOVERNS A RANGE OF POSSIBILITIES FOR THE
PLACEMENT OF THE MOST PROMINENT SYLLABLE (THE NUCLEUS) IN AN
INTONATION UNIT.
If tonality is a system by means of which speakers organize their messages into intonation phrases, then
tonicity is a system by means of which speakers decide on the focus of information. Thus, in every IP
speakers have to select one word which they find most important for the meaning, i.e. the focus of
information. The stressed syllable between that word becomes the nucleus or nuclear syllable of that
particular IP and bears the tone.

1. BASIC PRINCIPLES
Each IP contains ONE item which is particularly important for the MEANING
The STRESSED syllable in that item is called NUCLEUS
The NUCLEUS bears the nuclear TONE
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Within each intonation break, we select one word as particularly important for the meaning. This is where
we place the nucleus (or nuclear accent), the syllable that is more prominent than others and bear the
nuclear tone. The syllable is made prominent though pitch change, extra length and loudness. The nucleus is
the syllable where one of five English tones is realized.
The most important decision the speaker makes in selecting an intonation pattern is to decide where the
nucleus goes: which is the word to be accented. In doing this the speaker chooses the tonicity of the
intonation phrase. In an IP there may be other accents besides the nuclear accent. If so, the nucleus is the
last accent in the IP. Any other accents come earlier in the IP and are called prenuclear.

Tonicity can be either:

NEUTRAL tonicity means that the nucleus is places within the last lexical item in an intonation
unit. This also implies, that the information of the whole intonation unit is in focus (=broad
focus)
MARKED tonicity means that the nucleus is not placed within the last lexical item but within an
item which comes earlier in the intonation focus. In this case, only the section up to the nucleus is
in focus (=narrow focus).

2. NEUTRAL TONICITY
In order for an IP to be neutral in tonicity, the nucleus should occur on the last lexical item.
Content words: adjectives, lexical verbs, nouns, adverbs
Function words: pronouns, prepositions, articles, auxiliary verbs, modal verbs
Neutral tonicity: N is located on the LAST CONTENT WORD

2.1 On or near the last word

The nucleus is usually located on or near the last word of the intonation phrase. By definition, the nuclear
accent is the last accent in the IP, so the general tendency is for the nucleus to be
towards the end of the IP, provided that the last word in an IP is important for the
Initials, names of letters and
numerals are treated like
meaning.
I want to buy a lemon.
The bridge is about to collapse.

She just started a new relationship.

Could you tell me the time?

It is only if the words towards the end of the IP are for some reason not accented that
the nucleus will go on an earlier word.

separate word. In a string of

several letters or numerals, the
nucleus generally goes on the
last one:
In the exam, she got a C.
My room number is 506. (=five
oh six)

2.2 Content words and function words

Content words: N typically on the last content word in an IP
Content words are words that have meaning that can be defined in a dictionary: nouns, adjective, most
verbs and most adverbs.
I cant hear you.
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Im very annoyed with her.

Ask her what that noise is.
Function words: no N (=generally speaking, we accent content words but not function words)
Function words are words whose meaning may need to be explained in a grammar rather than a
dictionary, and which may not have exact equivalents in other languages: pronouns, prepositions, articles,
auxiliary verbs, modal verbs

2.3 Compounds
Single-stressed compounds: N on the first element
Most compounds in English are single-stressed (=front-stressed), i.e. the main lexical stress goes on the first
element.
Its well past your bedtime.
Put the grass in the wheelbarrow.
Wheres your grandmother?

Open compounds (two-word compounds)

Is that my library book?
They were playing video games.
Ive lost my credit cards.
I need some new running shoes.
Are you still at high school?
At ten we have a physics class.
Nested compounds (one of the elements of the compound may itself consist of more than one
element. If the outer compound is single-stressed, the nucleus will still go on the first element:
Credit card bill ["["credit card] bill]

It does not matter whether a single-stressed compound is written as one word, or hyphenated, or as two
words. All single-stressed compounds behave as if they were single words.
Double-stressed compounds: N on the second element
Also called end-stressed or late-stressed. The first element may also be accented:
It was Christmas Eve.
There are some ham sandwiches.
5 GROUPS:
1. proper names of people: ,James McGregor; De,nise Harris
2. proper names of roads and public places (except those ending in street: Oxford Street): Vic,toria
Road; ,Oxford Avenue; ,Leicester Square
3. names of institutions such as hotels and schools: the ,Festival Hall; ,Goldsmiths College; ,Baileys
Restaurant; the ,Marlborough Hotel
4. compounds in which the first element names the place or time: ,Town Hall; ,kitchen window;
,Christmas Eve (BUT: Christmas present; Christmas card)
5. compounds in which the first element names the material or ingredient (except those ending in juice
or cake: orange juice; carrot cake): ,leather jacket; ,cheese sandwich: ,pork chop;

3. THE OLD AND THE NEW

3.1

Information status

The location of the nucleus is strongly affected by whether the words in the utterance contain old or new
information. Information status is the status of how we want to express our ideas, pieces of information. In
addition to syntax, it represents additional help in conveying the information structure.
The nucleus is always located on new information. When all pieces of information are new
information, the N is on the last lexical item:
Yes madam? -Id like a gin and tonic.
If the last lexical item contains old information, the N moves to the left and is placed on the first
lexical item which does contain new information
How about a gin and tonic?
-Id prefer a vodka and tonic.
Repeated words, even if they contain new information, do not become N.
A green chair and a blue curtain.
BUT: A green chair and a blue chair.
Tina Rodman and Jane Stuart.
BUT: Tina Rodman and Jane Rodman.

3.2 Synonyms, hypernims, hyponyms

Old information can also be repeated using synonyms: no N
Shall we wash the clothes?
Oh I hate doing the laundry.
(wash the clothes = doing the laundry)
Shall we walk there?
Yes I like going on foot.
(walk = going on foot)
Hypernyms: no N
Malaria | and other tropical diseases.
Do you like whist?
- Oh I like most card games.
Hyponyms: because you narrow down the meaning of a word or phrase already mention by using a
hyponym, it is accented and attracts the nucleus.
Do you like ball games?
-Im quite fond of football.

4. BROAD AND NARROW FOCUS

Another way of analysing the linguistic function of tonicity involves the notion of focus: the
concentration of attention on a particular part of the message. The opposition between neutral and
marked tonicity is closely related to the opposition between broad and narrow focus. The focus is dynamic
the speakers constantly shift the place of the nucleus around, though always in agreement with the
development of the interaction and their perception of given, implied and new information.
Broad focus: the whole IP is in focus
To give a stretch of utterance broad focus, we use neutral tonicity. The nucleus goes on the last lexical
item:
What happened next? -Everyone burst out laughing.
Whats going on here? -Selenas had a heart attack.
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 Narrow focus: only part of the IP is in focus

The nucleus shows where the focus domain ends. In bellow examples the focus domain is just the item
Mary, and the intonation indicated that we are concentrating attention on the relevant part (Mary):
Who brought the wine?
- Mary.
-Mary did.
-Mary brought the wine.
-I think it was Mary that brought the wine.

5. Contrastive focus

A particular kind of narrow focus. It is used to put two items in contrast; these two items can be either
grammatical or lexical. Any following material within the same IP is unaccented:
You may have started your essay, | but have you finished your essay? (contrast between started and finished)
Philip | can run faster than Jim can.
I know what Peter wants, | but what do you want?
I can send a fax to him, | but I cant receive one from him.
The speaker can make an explicit or implicit contrast between two pieces of information. The above
examples are all examples of explicit contrast; they presuppose a previous context in which these sentences
are uttered. If the contrast is implicit, the hearer is left to infer the other term in the contrast:
I dont know what youre complaining about. (implicit contrast between the addressee (you) and some other possible
complainant who may have better grounds for complaint than the addressee).

Pronouns & demonstratives: acquire N if they are placed in contrastive focus:

Im as surprised as you are.
I know how she feels, | but how do you feel?
If you ask me, |
If you ask me, |
The contrast between me and
As far as Im concerned |
others is not explicitly expressed
In my opinion |
implicit contrast
and is therefore implicit.
From his point of view |
If you want to know what I think |

Idioms or set expression with fixed tonicity

Good for you!
Blow me! (=I am very surprised)
Search me! (=I dont know, Ive no idea)
Final demonstratives tend to convey new information and attract the nucleus:
Look at this!
Whos that?
Id like some of those, please.

Reflexive, reciprocal & indefinite pronouns

True reflexive pronouns (myself etc.): do not attract N

She feels rather pleased with herself.
Have you hurt yourself?
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Emphatic: may attract N

Ill write to him myself.
Shes not very enthusiastic herself.

Reciprocal pronouns (each other, one another): do not attract N

I think we all ought to help one another.
At least Phil and Sue are talking to each other.

Indefinite pronouns (someone, anything etc.): do not attract N

Can you see anyone?
Can I get you anything?
Ive just read something really funny.

6. Nucleus on function words

In some cases the nucleus always falls on a function word even when the focus is broad.

Polarity questions & tags

Yes, no, sure, definitely, no way as direct answers to yes-no questions take N
A: Have you finished?
B: Yes. / Definitely. / Oh sure. / No. / Not really.

A sentence fragment without yes or no: N on the auxiliary

A: Have you finished?
B: I have.

preceded by yes or no:

o 2 IPs
A: Have you finished?
B: Yes, I have.
o

De-accent the initial yes or no

A: Have you finished?
B: Yes, I have.

N goes on the polarity word in tag questions

A: Were nearly ready.
B: Are you?
A: Youre quite wrong, you know.
B: Am I?
Its a beautiful day, isnt it?
Wayne didnt call, did he?

Prepositions

Usually do not attract N unless brought into contrastive focus

Look at this button. Whats it for?
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Thats Mary. Whos she with?

A: You know my essay?
B: Yes, what about it?
Wh + to be

Direct or indirect wh-questions with the pattern: wh-word + be + pronoun: N on be

How are you?
Tell me how you are.
Who is it?
Tell me who it is.
How would it be if we met for lunch?
The man over there who is he?
When was it that you came back from Canada?

Function words with N

Function words which regularly attract N: too, as well, either, anyway, anyhow
A: Im going to the library.
B: Oh, Ill come, too.
Were going to the beach. Why dont you come along as well?
I dont like Jim, and I dont like Tammy, either.
This idea may not work, but lets try it anyway.
Anyway, why were you looking at my letters?
She doesnt smoke - not nowadays, anyhow.
Anyhow, Ive got to be going now.

6. FINAL, BUT NOT NUCLEAR

Some categories of lexical items may occur in the final position in the IP with broad focus, but
nevertheless do not receive the nucleus.
Empty words & pro-forms

General nouns with vague meanings: things, people, places, the man, that woman etc.
I keep seeing things.
(= I keep hallucinating)
What are you going to tell people?
(= What are you going to say?)
Theyre really going places.
(= Theyre really successful.)
Have a word with the guy!
(= Have a word with him)
I cant stand that woman!
(= I cant stand her.)

Plural or mass nouns, the pro-form does not attract N

A: Could I borrow some sugar?
B: I havent got any.
We need some cards. Can you see any?
Ive got lots of milk left - would you like some?

Reporting clauses
Reporting clause follows quoted words: N on the appropriate item among the quoted words
How are you doing? he asked.
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I dont believe it, she explained.

Adverbs of time & place
In final position (although they contain new information) do not attract N
I had an unexpected visitor yesterday.
Does a Mr. Pomfrey live here?
Did you see Big Brother on television last night?
Theres a fly in my soup.

In final position when they are obligatory: they attract N

Put it on the table.
Write the details in the book.

7. PHRASAL VERBS
Phrasal verb: verb + particle (adverb or preposition) = primary stress on the particle N on the
particle
How are you getting on ?
The prisoner broke down.
The next month she passed away.
Ill leave you to carry on, then.
Phrasal verb: verb + adverb + preposition N on the adverb
She felt that her mother-in-law always looked down on her.
Prepositional verb: verb + preposition = primary stress on the verb N on the verb
A: Here are the photos.
B: May I look at them?
Are these the books I sent for?
Which of them can you really rely on?

TONES AND MEANINGS

THE PITCH MOVEMENT REALIZED ON THE NUCLEUS IS CALLED THE TONE.

Intonation plays a crucial role in the expression of the grammatical and the attitudinal meaning of an
utterance. Longer utterances are divided into shorter, grammatically relevant intonation phrases which
have a particular and complete intonation structure or a tune. These tunes carry attitudinal and emotional
meaning. The structure of an intonation phrase is composed of maximum four elements, of which only
the nucleus or the tonic syllable is obligatory. The pitch movement realised on the nuclear syllable is called
the nuclear tone. However, an IP may contain more than just one (obligatory) accent. In that case, the
first accented syllable in the IP constitutes the beginning of the head of the IP. In other words, the head
extends from the first accent to the last syllable before the nucleus. The pitch movement realized on the
nucleus is called the tone. The syllables which follow the nucleus are called the tail, whereas those
preceding the head are referred to as the pre-head.

IP = (PRE-HEAD) + (HEAD) + TONE + (TAIL)

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Various intonation models of the English language recognize different number of nuclear tones. However,
regardless of the intonation model, it seems that the English language uses five different pitch movements
or tones. Anything else is just a variation of these tones1:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

(low/high) FALL ()
(low/high) RISE ()
FALL-RISE ()
RISE-FALL ()
LEVEL ()

The high/low fall, the high/low rise and the level tone are all simple tones (include one pitch movement).
The fall rise and rise-fall tones are complex tones (include two pitch movements).

`wonderful

_wonderful

'wonderful?

7wonderful?

wonderful

^wonderful

>wonderful

high fall

low fall

high rise

low rise

fall-rise

rise-fall

level

pitch
range

FALLING TONES

For the simple fall () the pitch of the voice starts relatively high, i.e. between the mid and the high part
of the pitch range, and then moves downwards, almost to the bottom of the pitch range. If there are any
syllables following the nuclear tone, they form the tail and are always low and level in pitch.

1. HIGH FALL ( ` )
The voice falls during the word from a high to a very low pitch.
EXAMPLE:

`lovely

`Then well see what happens.

2. LOW FALL ( _ )
The voice falls during the word from a medium to very low pitch.
EXAMPLE:

_lovely

_Then well see what happens.

Arnold and O'Connor distinguish 7 different tones, but the additional two do not vary in pitch movement, but
pitch height.

15

RISING TONES
For the simple rise () the pitch of the voice starts relatively low, i.e. between the low and the mid part of
the pitch range, and then moves upwards to the mid to high part of the pitch range. The difference
between the fall and the rise is that the latter has a rising tail, the former a low level one.
3. LOW RISE ( 7 )
The voice rises during the word from a low to a medium pitch or a little above.
EXAMPLE:

7All of us?

7Chicken?

4. HIGH RISE ( ' )

The voice rises during the word from a medium to a high pitch.
EXAMPLE:

'All of us?

'Chicken?

COMPLEX TONES
5. FALL RISE ( )
The pitch of the voice starts as high as for the simple fall, moves downwards almost to the bottom
of the pitch range, and then moves upwards again reaching the mid part of the pitch range. If the
IP consists only of the nuclear syllable, then the two pitch movements have to be realized on that
syllable. If, on the contrary, the nucleus is followed by a tail, then the realization of the fallrise is
spread over the tail. In other words, the falling part of the tone is realized on the nucleus, whereas
the rising part begins towards the end of the tail and extends to the last syllable of the IP.
EXAMPLE:

Mine.

Mine, you mean.

6. RISE FALL ( ^ )
The rising part starts at a mid pitch, rises to a high pitch and then falls to the bottom of the pitch
range. As with the fall-rise, the realization of the rise-fall is spread over the nucleus and the first
one or two syllables of the tail. The low level pitch is usually not reached until the second syllable
of the tail.

16

EXAMPLE:

^ Wonderful.

^Take physics then.

MID-LEVEL
7. LEVEL ( > )
The voice maintains a pitch between high and low, neither rising nor falling.

EXAMPLE:

>Actually.

DIFFERENT MEANINGS OF ENGLISH TONES

Intonation is multi-functional. It is difficult to discuss the grammatical meanings of tones separately from
the attitudinal and discourse meanings when discussing the grammatical meaning of tones, we have to
presuppose the use of tones is unmarked or neutral. Default tones occur in unmarked contexts of
interaction; if the context is marked, some other tone is used. According to Wells there are two
generalizations regarding the uses of default tones. The first one claims that the default tone in statements,
exclamations, wh-questions and commands is a fall, whereas a rise is a default tone in yes-no questions.
The second generalization claims that the default tone of utterances consisting of two IPs has a fall on the
main part and a non-fall on the subordinate or dependant part.

1. STATEMENTS
default: FALL
marked: RISE, FALL RISE
The default tone in statements is a FALL which signals syntactic and semantic finality. It can be either
the simple fall or the complex rise-fall; the difference between them is of attitudinal nature.
She won "two thousand pounds.
"John adores her.
If a statement is said with a non-fall, this means that the speaker has not said everything yet. Typically,
the simple rise is used in declarative questions which have the syntactic structure of a statement but have
the function of polarity or yes-no questions:
She "speaks Swahili?

17

When the fall-rise is used in statements it means that the IP which bears this tone is part of a larger
syntactic structure. In addition to this non-finality, the fall-rise often expresses semantic non-finality where
the remaining part of the message is implied in the context of interaction. The implication is usually a
contract or a reservation. Sometimes the implied message is explicitly pronounced in the following IP:
No matter "what you say, | Im "going to buy it.
Well I "like his acting.
(But not his singing)
Daddy thinks | its "too expensive.
(But Mummy may not agree.)
We "could meet on Monday | but "later Im away.
2. QUESTIONS
The default tones used in various questions are different.
WH-QUESTIONS
default: fall
"Which way is the Covent Garden?
YES-NO QUESTIONS
default: rise
Have you "ever been to Slovenia?
TAG QUESTIONS
default: rise (asks for information; suggests)
marked: fall (appeals for approval)
"Dame Judi Dench played Lady Bracknel, | didnt she?
"Dame Judi Dench is a magnificent actress, | isnt she?

(Am I right?)
(Im sure you agree)

INDEPENDENT ELLIPTICAL QUESTIONS

default: rise (keeps the conversation going)
Im "thinking of taking a break.

Are you?

3. EXCLAMATIONS, COMMANDS, INTERJECTIONS, GREETINGS, FAREWELLS

EXCLAMATIONS
default: fall
"What a pity!
How "very nice of him!
I "dont believe it!
"Welcome to Brighton!
COMMANDS
default: fall
marked: rise (soothing, encouraging)

18

"Stop that noise!

"Come to Daddy!
"Dont worry.
"Blow your nose, dear.
INTERJECTIONS
default: fall
marked: rise (encouraging)
Thank you.
My goodness!
A: Oh mary!
B: Yes?
GREETINGS
default: fall (formal, businesslike)
rise (personal, encouraging)
Good morning.
Good morning.
FAREWELLS
default: rise
"Good night. || "See you tomorrow.

PRE-NUCLEAR PITCH PATTERNS

The part of the tune preceding the nucleus is called the pre-nuclear pattern. It can be divided into two
parts:
the PRE-HEAD
the HEAD
THE PRE-HEAD
.The pre-head consists of any syllables before the stress syllable of the first accented word, whether the
latter syllable is the nucleus or the beginning of the head.
It was an unusually dark night.
pre- head

head

I could have kicked myself.

nucleus

pre-head nucleus tail

There are two types of pre-head, the low pre-head and the high pre-head:
the low pre-head
the high pre-head

19

THE HEAD
The first pitch-prominent pre-nuclear segment is called the head = the head begins with the stressed
syllable of the first accented word (before the nucleus).
Wheres John?
head nucleus

The pre-head and head may occur together or separately, or they may not be present at all if the nucleus is
the first syllable of a word group.
There are four different types of head:
1. THE HIGH HEAD
All syllables are said on the same rather high pitch. The high head is always level (the high level
head).
It was" easier than I ex`pected.

The high head is symbolized by placing the mark ["] before it. If there are other accented words in
the head they have [] before their stressed syllables:
"Why did you tell me you couldnt `come?
2. THE LOW HEAD
All the syllables are said on the same low pitch.
It !ought to be perfectly 'clear.

The low head is symbolised by placing the mark [ ! ] before its first stressed syllable. If there are
other accented words in the head, their stressed syllables are preceded by [ ].
!Dont be 7silly.

!Someones bound to come along 7soon.

3. THE FALLING HEAD

The first syllable of the falling head is rather high in pitch and any following syllables gradually
carry the pitch lower. It always precedes the fall-rise tone.
I cant be certain.

The symbol for the falling head is [] placed before the stressed syllable of the first accented word
in the head. If there are other accented words, the mark [] is placed before the stressed syllables of
each of them:
20

Everyones bound to see it sometime.

Dont fall.

4. THE RISING HEAD

Its first syllable is low in pitch and any following syllables gradually carry the pitch higher. It only
occurs before the high-fall tone.
Its absolutely in`tolerable.

The symbol for the rising head [] is placed before the stressed syllable of the first accented word
in the head. The stressed syllable of any other accented word in the head is marked with []:
How did you manage to do `that?

Dont `pay him.

THE TAIL
All syllables following the nucleus are called the tail. The seven nuclear tones correspond to the seven tune
endings:
high fall ending
rise-fall ending
low rise ending
high rise ending
fall-rise ending
mid-level ending

TUNES AND TONE GROUPS

A simple tune may have a low pre-head, a high pre-head or no pre-head at all; it may have one of the four
different kinds of head or no head at all; and it will have one of the seven nuclear tones (with or without
the appropriate tail). If every one of these parts of a tune can be combined with every other part, the total
number of basic pitch patterns will be 105. But it is not necessary to deal with 105 or more different units
for two reasons:
1. some of the patterns occur very much more frequently than others
2. some patterns which are different have differences of meaning so slight that they would be very
difficult to define in any very helpful way
Any tune which means substantially the same can be usefully grouped together. Such a grouping of tunes
all conveying the same attitude on the part of the speaker is called a tone group. Besides expressing the
same attitude, the tunes in a tone group also have one or more pitch features in common, as the following
specification makes clear. So a tone groups is unified and distinguished from all other tone groups both by
the attitude it conveys and by the pitch features of its tunes. In Arnolds and OConnors Intonation of
colloquial English ten tunes are described:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

THE LOW DROP

THE HIGH DROP
THE TAKE-OFF
THE LOW BOUNCE
THE SWITCHBACK

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
21

THE LONG JUMO

THE HIGH BOUNCE
THE JACKNIFE
THE HIGH DIVE
THE TERRACE

PRE-HEAD
HEAD
TONE

STATEMENT

WH-QUESTION

YES-NO
QUESTION

COMMAND

INTERJECTIONS

THE LOW
DROP

THE HIGH
DROP

THE
TAKE-OFF

THE LOW
BOUNCE

THE
SWITCHBACK

THE LONG
JUMP

THE HIGH
BOUNCE

THE
JACKKNIFE

THE HIGH
DIVE

THE
TERRACE

(low)
(high)
low fall

(low)
(high)
high fall

(low)
(low)
low rise

(low) / (high)
(high)
low rise

(low)
(falling)
fall-rise

(low)
(rising)
high fall

(low)
(high)
high rise

(low)
(high)
rise-fall

(low)
(high)
high fall + low rise

(low)
(high)
mid-level

no head:
detached, cool,
reserved, full, grim
with head:
categoric, weighty,
judicial

conveying a sense
of involvement,
light, airy

encouraging
further
conversation,
guarded, reserving
judgement,
deprecatory

soothing,
reassuring, hint of
great selfconfidence; in
echoes:
questioning

grudgingly, admitting,
reluctantly or
defensively dissenting,
concerned, reproachful,
hurt, reserved; echoes:
astonished

protesting, as if
suffering under a
sense of injustice

impressed, awed,
complacent, selfsatisfied,
challenging,
censorious,
disclaiming
responsibility

no head:
detached, flat,
unsympathetic
with head:
searching, serious,
intense, urgent

brisk, businesslike,
considerate, not
unfriendly, lively,
interested

n on the
interrogative
word: wondering,
puzzled
otherwise: very
calm but resentful

n on the
interrogative word:
puzzled; echoes:
disapproving;
otherwise:
sympathetically
interested

echoes: greatly
astonished; otherwise:
interested and
concerned as well as
surprised

protesting,
somewhat
unpleasantly
surprised

appealing to the
listener to
continue with the
topic of
conversation;
expressing
gladness regret,
surprise
very emotive,
expressing
plaintiveness,
despair, gushing
warmth

in non final word

groups: marking
non-finality,
without conveying
any impression of
expectancy; calling
out to someone as
from a distance
in non final word
groups: marking
non-finality,
without conveying
any impression of
expectancy

no head:
uninterested,
hostile
with head:
serious, urgent

willing to discuss
but not urgently,
sometimes
sceptical

disapproving,
sceptical

genuinely
interested

echoes: greatly
astonished; otherwise:
interested and
concerned as well as
surprised

willing to discuss
but protesting the
need for settling a
crucial point

questioning, trying
to elicit a
repetition, but
lacking any
suggestion of
disapproval or
puzzlement; nonfinal: casual
n on the
interrogative word:
calling for a
repetition; n on
the following int.
word: echoing;
non-echo
questions:
tentative, casual
either echoing the
listeners question
or light and casual

impressed,
challenging,
antagonistic

very emotive,
expressing
plaintiveness,
despair, gushing
warmth

no head:
unemotional,
calm, controlled
with head: very
serious, very
strong

suggesting a
course of action
and not worrying
about being
obeyed

beginning with
dont: appealing to
the listener to
change his mind;
calmly warning,
exhortative

soothing,
encouraging,
calmly patronising

urgently warning with a

note of reproach or
concern

recommending a
course of action
but with a note of
critical surprise

disclaiming
responsibility,
sometimes hostile

pleasing,
persuading

no head: calm,
unsurprised,
reserved
with head: very
strong

mildly surprised,
not so reserved or
self-possessed as
with the low-drop

sometimes
reserving
judgement,
sometimes calm

airy, causal, yet

encouraging, often
friendly, brighter
than when said
with the take-off

scornful

protesting,
surprised

querying all or
part of the
listeners
command or
interjection, but
with no critical
intention
querying all or
part of the
listeners
command or
interjection, but
with no critical
intention

in non final word

groups: marking
non-finality,
without conveying
any impression of
expectancy
in non final word
groups: marking
non-finality,
without conveying
any impression of
expectancy

impressed,
sometimes a hint
of accusation

intensely
encouraging,
protesting

22

challenging,
antagonistic,
disclaiming
responsibility

in non final word

groups: marking
non-finality,
without conveying
any impression of
expectancy; calling
out to someone as
from a distance