Module 1

MT202: Electrical and Electronic Materials
Module-1
Basic materials science concepts
Complied by: Prof. Vijaya Agarwala

Jan 2010
Basic Materials Science concepts- Module 1
Contents
S No
Topics
Page No
Atomic bonding energy
Crystal systems
13
Allotropes of carbon
36
Stacking sequence
47
Miller Index
52
X tal defects
65
Phase and diagrams
91
Nano X tal
113
Single X tal bulk growth
116
10
Epitaxial growth - coatings
129
11
Material design criteria
140
12
Tutorial 1 & 2
144
(units)
MT 202: Electrical and

Electronic Materials
References:
. From Principles of Electronic
Materials and Devices, Third
Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill,
2005)
Callisters Materials Science and
Engineering
Adapted Version (
www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/surfaces/scc/
scat1_1b.htm
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Introduction to
Physics of the Solid State
5. 8. 2007
, ,
Computational Solid Mechanics
and Design Lab.
The shell model of the atom in which electrons are confined to live within certain
shells and in subshells within shells
Fig 1.1
From Principles of Electronic

Materials and Devices, Third Edition,
S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)
Virial Theorem
1
KE = PE
2
Average kinetic energy is related to the average potential
energy
Total Average Energy
From Principles of
Electronic Materials and
Devices, Third Edition,
S.O. Kasap ( McGrawHill, 2005)
E = PE + KE
(a) Force vs. interatomic separation

(b) Energy vs. interatomic separation
Fig 1.3
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)
The formation of ionic bond between Na and Cl atoms in NaCl. The attraction
Is due to coulombic forces.
Fig 1.8
Sketch of the potential energy per ion-pair in solid NaCl. Zero energy
corresponds to neutral Na and Cl atoms infinitely separated.
Fig 1.10
The origin of van der Walls bonding between water molecules.

(a) The H2O molecule is polar and has a net permanent dipole moment
(b) Attractions between the various dipole moments in water gives rise to
van der Walls bonding
Fig 1.12
Dependence of the linear thermal expansion coefficient (K-1) on temperature T (K) on a

log-log plot. HDPE, high density polyethylene; PMMA, Polymethylmethacrylate (acrylic);
PC, polycarbonate; PET, polyethylene terepthalate (polyester); fused silica, SiO2; alumina,
Al2O3.
SOURCE: Data extracted from various sources including G.A. Slack and S.F. Bartram,
J. Appl. Phys., 46, 89, 1975.
Fig 1.20
From Principles of Electronic Materials and

Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap (
McGraw-Hill, 2005)
Schematic diagram of a stern type experiment for determining the distribution

of molecular velocities
Fig 1.21
Tilting a filing cabinet from state A to its edge in state A* requires an energy EA. After
reaching A*, the cabinet spontaneously drops to the stable position B. PE of state B is lower
than A and therefore state B is more stable than A.
Fig 1.28
Crystal Systems
Most solids are crystalline with their atoms arranged in a
regular manner.
Long-range order : the regularity can extend throughout the
crystal.
Short-range order : the regularity does not persist over
appreciable distances. Ex) amorphous materials such as glass
and wax.
Liquids have short-range order, but lack long-range order.
Gases lack both long-range and short-range order
Ref: http://me.kaist.ac.kr/upload/course/MAE800C/chapter2-1.pdf
13
Crystal Structures (Contd)
Five regular arrangements of lattice points that can

occur in two dimensions.
(a) square; (b) primitive rectangular;
(c) centered rectangular; (d) hexagonal;
(e) oblique.

14
Point lattice

15
Unit cell

Lattice parameters: a, b, c, , and
16
Crystal systems and

Bravais lattice

17
In three dimensions, There are 14

Bravais lattices, ranging from the
lowest-symmetry triclinic type in
which all three lattice constants and
all three angles differ from each
other, to the highest-symmetry cubic
case in which all the lattice
constants are equal and all the
angles are 90.
There are three Bravais lattices in
the cubic system, SC, BCC, and
FCC.
18
Number of lattice points per cell
Where,
Ni = number of interior points,
Nf = number of points on faces,
Nc = number of points on corners.

19
base-centered arrangement
of points is not a new lattice

20
Any of the fourteen Bravais lattices may be referred to a

combinatin of primitive unit cells
.
Face centered cubic lattice
shown may
be referred to the primitive
cell indicated
by dashed lines.
The latter cell
is rhombohedral, its axial
angle a is 600, and each of
its axes is l/ 2
times the length of the axes
of the cubic cell.

21
FCC
BCC
HCP
quartz
DC Xtal structure
=(111) &(110) i
d
agj=(111)
f
ab=2r
bd=2r
ad=3.25r
bf=1.15r
2r
e
g
c
aghi= (110)
ab=2r
bc=2r
ac=3.25r
be= 1.15 r

31
Diamond cubic
ZnS
SiO2
Graphite
C60
Three allotropes of carbon

Fig 1.43
CNT
NaCl

39
(111) Of NaCi
Face-Centered Cubic Nanoparticles

Figure (a) shows the 12 neighbors that surround an atom
(darkened circle) located in the center of a cube for a FCC lattice.
Figure (b) presents another perspective of the 12 nearest neighbors.
These 13 atoms constitute the smallest theoretical nanoparticle for an
FCC lattice.
Figure (c) shows the 14-sided polyhedron, called a
dekatessarahedron, that is generated by connecting the atoms with planer faces

42
If another layer of 42 atoms is layed around the 13-atom

nanoparticle, one obtains a 55-atom nanoparticle with
the same dekatessarahedron shape.
Lager nanoparticles with the same polyhedral shape
are obtained by adding more layers, and the
sequence of numbers in the resulting particles, N
N=1, 13, 55, 147,.., which are called structural magic

numbers.
Atoms in nano clusters

For n layers, the number of
atoms N and the number of
atoms on the surface Nsurf in
this FCC nanoparticle is given
by the formula,
N = 1/3(10 n3 15 n2 +11 n 3)
Nsurf =10n2 20n +12

44
Atomic packing
In two dimensions the most efficient way to pack identical circles is

equilateral triangle arrangement shown in figure (a).
A second hexagonal layer of spheres can be placed on top of the first to
form the most efficient packing of two layers, as shown in figure (b).
For efficient packing, the third layer can be placed either above the first layer
with an atom at the location indicated by T or in the third possible
arrangement with an atom above the position marked by X on the figure.
In the first case a hexagonal lattice with a hexagonal close packed (HCP)
structure is generated, and in the second case a face-centered cubic lattice
results.

45
Voids
X on figure is called an
octahedral site
The radius(aoct) of octahedral site
is = 0.41421ao
where ao is the radius of the

spheres.
There are also smaller sites,
called tetrahedral sites,
labeled T
This is a smaller site since its
radius aT= 0.2247ao
46
Void types
Stacking sequences: FCC & HCP

48
HCP structure
Stacking sequence

51
Fig 1.40
Lattice directionsMI
The direction of any line in
a lattice
may be described by first
drawing a line through the
origin parallel
to the given line and then
giving the coordinates of
any point on the line
through the origin.
-smallest integer value
- Negative directions are
shown by bars eg.

0,0,0
54
Plane designation by
Miller indices
-Miller indices are always cleared of
fractions
- if a plane is parallel to a given axis,
its fractional intercept on that
axis is taken as infinity, Miller index is
zero
- If a plane cuts a negative axis, the
corresponding index is negative and is
written with a bar over it.
-Planes whose indices are the
negatives of one another are parallel
and lie on opposite sides of the origin,
e.g., (210) and (2l0).
-- Planes belonging to the same family
is denoted by curly bracket , {hkl}

55
Miller indices of lattice planes

56
Labeling of crystal planes and typical examples in the cubic lattice

Fig 1.41
Miller Index

58

59
The hexagonal unit cell :

Miller Bravais indices of planes and directions

60
Zone= zonal planes + zonal axis
-Zone axis and (hkl) the zonal plane

All shaded planes belong to the same zone

i.e parallel to an axis called zone axsis
61
Exercises
Crystal defects
1.Point defectVacancy,
Impurity atoms ( substitutional and interstitial)
Frankel and Schottky defect ( ionic solids & nonstochiometric)
2. Line defectEdge dislocation

Screw dislocation,
Mixed dislocation
3. Surface defectsGrain boundaries

Twin boundary
Surfaces, stacking faults
Interphases
66
Frankel and Schottky defect
Non stochiometry
Conduction in ionic crystal
ZnO crystal containing extra Zn2+

Crystal is electronically neutral, (i.e. 2+ & 2- )
O2-

Zn2+
72
Dislocation line and b are perpendicular to each other
Movement of edge dislocation
Cause of slip
Elastic stress field responsible for electron scattering and

increase in electrical resistivity
lattice strain around dislocation
The plane and directions for the dislocation movement
The closest packed plane and the closest packed direction of FCC
Tensile specimen
- breaks
How does the dislocation

affect the failure?
Dislocation line and b are parallel to each other
By resolving, the contribution

from both types of
dislocations can be
determined
TEM
-dislocaions
3. Surface defects
Low angle GB
Stacking fault
-occurs when there is a
flaw in the stacking
sequence
Interphases
Coherent
semi-coherent
Al-Cu system
incoherent
Phase
A phase is a region of material that is
chemically uniform, physically distinct, and
(often) mechanically separable.
Examples of physical properties include
density, index of refraction, and chemical
composition
In a system consisting of ice and water in a glass jar, the ice
cubes are one phase, the water is a second phase, and the
humid air over the water is a third phase. The glass of the jar
is another separate phase.
System - A system is that part of the universe

which is under consideration.
Phase - A phase is a physically separable part
of the system with distinct physical and
chemical properties.
The phase rule is an expression of the number
of variables and equations that can be used to
describe a system in equilibrium.
Gibbs' phase rule

proposed by Josiah Willard Gibbs
Degrees of freedom, F is the number of intensive properties such as
temperature or pressure, which are independent of other intensive variables.
F=CP+2,
Where,
P is the number of phases in thermodynamic equilibrium with each other
C is the number of components.
Typical phases are solids, liquids and gases.
A system involving one pure chemical is an example of a one-component system.
Two-component systems, such as mixtures of water and ethanol, have
two chemically independent components.
Phase rule at constant pressure

Condensed systems have no gas phase.
When their properties are insensitive to the
(small) changes in pressure which occur, one
fewer variable needs to be specified, which
results in the
phase rule at constant pressure as,
F=CP+1
Types of Phase diagram

1. Unary phase diagram
2. Binary phase diagrams
3. Ternary phase diagram

96
Unary phase diagram
Pressure
Critical pressure
Solid Phase
Liquid phase
gaseous phase
Temperature
Degree of freedom at different regions
Binary phase diagrams

1. Binary isomorphous systems (complete solid
solubility)
2. Binary eutectic systems (limited solid
solubility)
3. Binary systems with intermediate
phases/compounds
Binary phase diagram

- isomorphous system
The Lever Rule

Finding the amounts of phases in a two phase region:
1. Locate composition and temperature in diagram
2. In two phase region draw the tie line or isotherm
3. Fraction of a phase is determined by taking the
length of the tie line to the phase boundary for the
other phase, and dividing by the total length of tie
line
The lever rule is a mechanical
analogy to the mass balance
calculation. The tie line in the
two-phase region is analogous to
a lever balanced on a fulcrum.
The Lever Rule

Mass fractions: WL = S / (R+S) = (C - Co) / (C- CL)
W = R / (R+S) = (Co - CL) / (C- CL)
Introduction to Materials Science, Chapter 9, Phase Diagrams
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 14
Derivation of the lever rule
WL = (C - Co) / (C- CL)
1) All material must be in one phase or the other:
W + WL = 1
2) Mass of a component that is present in both phases
equal to the mass of the component in one phase +
mass of the component in the second phase:
WC + WLCL = Co
3) Solution of these equations gives us the Lever rule.
W = (Co - CL) / (C- CL)
microstrucures
Binary phase diagram

2. limited solubility
A phase diagram for a
binary system
displaying an eutectic
point.
Cu-Ag system
Sn-Bi system
Pb-Sn system
Pb-Sn system
Pb-Sn system
Mechanism
of growth
Pb-Sn system
The equilibrium phase diagram of the Pb-Sn alloy.

The microstructure on the left show the observations at various points during the cooling
of a 90% Pb-10% Sn from the melt along the dashed line (the overall alloy composition
remains constant at 10% Sn).
Fig 1.69
Cu- Zn system
Ternary phase diagrams
Three phase region
Ternary phase diagramme contdY
Formation of nano crystallites/ grains

Nuclei of the solid phase form and they grow to
consume all the liquid at the solidus line. (fig a & d)
13 atoms constitute to a theoretical nanoparticle
for a FCC lattice having two layers.55 and 147
atoms for 3 and 4 layer clusters.
If the size of the crystallites are in the nanometer
range, they are called nanocrystals/grains.
f09_03_pg55
Mass spectra lines: nanoparticles vs cube root of number of

atoms in the cluster
When the spectra were recorded for sodium nanoparticles NaN, it was
found that mass peaks corresponding to the first 15 electronic magic
numbers N=3, 9, 20, 36, G were observed for cluster sizes up to
N=1220 atoms (n=15), and FCC structural magic numbers starting with
N=1415 for n=8 were observed for larger sizes.
This result provides evidence that small clusters tend to satisfy electronic criteria and
large structures tend to be structural.
Single crystal
A single crystal solid is a material in which
the crystal lattice of the entire sample is
continuous
no grain boundaries- grain boundaries can
have significant effects on the physical and
electrical properties of a material
single crystals are of interest to electric
device applications
117
Doping
1. Minute addition of elements in a controlled way to the
matrix is doping.
2. An epitaxial layer can be doped during deposition by
adding impurities to the source gas, such as arsine,
phosphine or diborane.The concentration of impurity in
the gas phase determines its concentration in the
deposited film.
3. Doping can be done by diffusion, allowing the dopents
to diffuse at elevated temperature.
4. Ion implantation- bombarding the dopants at high speed
5. During Bulk crystal growth dopents can be added
118
Crystal Growth Techniques
1. Czochralski (CZ)
2. Bridgman (and variations)
3. Various floating zone methods
Thin films: Epitaxial growth

119
Czochralski process
The process is named after Polish scientist Jan
Czochralski
crystal growth method used to obtain single
crystals
semiconductors : silicon, germanium and
gallium arsenide
metals : palladium, platinum, silver, gold
salts, and synthetic gemstones
120
Kept in Ar atmosphere
Process variables:
Pulling speed
Rotation speed
quartz
seed

121
Crucibles used
in
Czochralski
method
Crucible after
being used

300 mm diameter wafers

2 metres in length, weighing
122
Few hundred kilograms
The next step up, 450 mm, is currently scheduled

for introduction in 2012.
Silicon wafers are typically about 0.2 - 0.75 mm thick
polished to a very high flatness for making
integrated circuits, or textured for making solar cells

123
During growth, the walls of the crucible dissolve into the

melt and Czochralski silicon therefore contains oxygen
at a typical concentration of 1018 cm3.
Oxygen impurities can have beneficial effects.
Carefully chosen annealing conditions can allow the
formation of oxygen precipitates.
These have the effect of trapping unwanted transition metal
impurities in a process known as gettering

124
Czochralski
Resistance or RF
heating
Melt contained in quartz
or Si3N4 crucible
Chamber under Argon
Si melts 1421C

125
Growth speed is 12 mm/min

Crucible introduces oxygen
contamination
Feed material form is unconstrained
Axial resistivity uniformity is poor
Heat up/cool down times are long
Materials of construction are issue Nb
Tm= 2477C
Ingot weight can reach 400 kg

126
Bridgman Technique
Uses a crucible
Requires seed crystal
Directional solidification
Precise temperature gradient required

127
Heat profile
Carefully controlled
temperature gradient is required.
Growth rates of about 1 mm/hr
Crucibles is usually used one time
Used for small Nb crystals 10 x
4060 mm
Requires only tip of seed to be
molten
Can reach 200 mm for Si and
GaAs crystals

128
Floating Zone Techniques

EB Floating Zone (electron beam)
refractory alloys including Nb, Ta, Mo, Re, and W

Vacuum melting chamber, annular EB gun
Crystal rotator and translator
No crucible
0.550 mm/min growth rates, 110 mm dia Nb
reported
Floating Zone RF (radio frequency)
Requires multiple passes to achieve pure

crystalMolten zone stability critical:Surface
tension,Cohesion,Levitation
Distribution coefficient=con. of imp. In solid/
con. of imp. in liquid
129
Thin films: Epitaxial growth

Epitaxy
refers
to the method of depositing a monocrystalline film

on a monocrystalline substrate.
The deposited film is denoted as epitaxial film or epitaxial
layer.
The term epitaxy comes from the Greek roots,
epi, meaning "above
taxis, meaning "in ordered manner".
130
Applications
Epitaxy is used in nanotechnology and in
semiconductor fabrication.
semiconductor materials (technologically important
) are,
silicon-germanium, gallium nitride, gallium arsenide,
indium phosphide and graphene.
Epitaxy is also used to grow layers of pre-doped
silicon on the polished sides of silicon wafers, before
they are processed into semiconductor devices. This
is typical of power devices, such as those used in
pacemakers, vending machine controllers, automobile
computers, etc.

131
Methods
1. vapor-phase epitaxy (VPE), a modification
of chemical vapour deposition.
2. Liquid-phase epitaxy (MBE and LPE)
3. Solid-phase epitaxy is used primarily for crystal-damage healing
4. Molecular-beam epitaxy

132
1. vapor-phase epitaxy (VPE), a modification

of chemical vapour deposition
Silicon is most commonly deposited from
silicon tetrachloride in hydrogen at 1200 C:
SiCl4(g) + 2H2(g) Si(s) + 4HCl(g)
Growth rates above 2 per minute produce
polycrystalline silicon.
The silane reaction occurs at 650 C in this way:
SiH4 Si + 2H2
133
Hydrogenated amorphous silicon

High-quality hydrogenated amorphous silicon films (aSi:H) have been produced by decomposition of lowpressure silane gas on a very hot surface with deposition
on a nearby, typically 210 C substrate.
A high-temperature tungsten filament provides the
surface for heterogeneous thermal decomposition of the
low-pressure silane and subsequent evaporation of
atomic silicon and hydrogen
The substrates: flat, oxide-free, single-crystal silicon

134
2. Liquid-phase
From the melt containing dissolved semiconductor
on solid substrates.
the thermal expansion coefficient of substrate and grown
layer should be similar
deposition rates for films range from 0.1 to 1 m/minute.
Doping can be achieved by the addition of dopants.
Example :
ternery and quarternery III-V compounds
on gallium arsenide (GaAs) and
indium phosphide (InP) substrates
.
135
3. Solid-phase
Solid Phase Epitaxy (SPE) is a transition between the
amorphous and crystalline phases of a material.
It is usually done by first depositing a film of amorphous
material on a crystalline substrate.
The substrate is then heated to crystallize the film.
The single crystal substrate serves as a template for crystal
growth.
The annealing step used to recrystallize or heal silicon layers
amorphized during ion implantation is also considered one
type of Solid Phase Epitaxy.

136
4. Molecular-beam
In MBE, a source material is heated to produce an

evaporated beam of particles.
These particles travel through a very high vacuum (10-8
Pa; practically free space) to the substrate, where they
condense.
MBE has lower throughput than other forms of epitaxy.
This technique is widely used for growing III-V
semiconductor crystals.

137
Lattice matching- essential condition for the epitaxial growth

Matching of lattice structures between two different semiconductor
materials, allows a region of band gap change to be formed in a
material without introducing a change in crystal structure.
It allows construction of advanced light-emitting diodes and diode
lasers.
For example, gallium arsenide, aluminium gallium arsenide, and
aluminium arsenide have almost equal lattice constants, making it
possible to grow almost arbitrarily thick layers of one on the other one.

138
Lattice grading
The beginning of the grading layer will have a ratio to

match the underlying lattice and the alloy at the end
of the layer growth will match the desired final lattice
For example, Indium gallium phosphide layers with a
band-gap above 1.9 eV can be grown on Gallium
Arsenide wafers with index grading

139
Design of semiconducting compound materials
Ternary and quaternary compounds

Basic criteria
Eg requirements
Application oriented
1. Design GaxAl(1-x)As for different

device applications.
2. How can GaxIn(1-x)AsyP(1-y) compound
is designed for device applications?
3. What is gradedsemiconducting
compound?
140

141

142

143
Tutorial 1
1.
i.
Consider a multicomponent alloy containing N elements. If w1, w2, w3,Y..,wN are the weight
fractions of the components 1, 2, 3, Y..,N in the alloy and M1, M2, M3,YY..,MN are the respective
atomic masses of the elements, show that the atomic fraction of the ith component is given by,
ni =
ii.
2.
3.
wi Mi
-----------------------------w1 M1+w2 M2+------------+wN MN
Consider the semiconducting II-VI compound cadmium selenide, CdSe. Given the atomic masses
of Cd and Se, find the weight fraction of Cd and Se in the compound and grams of Cd and Se
needed to make 100 grams of CdSe.
Explain the general bonding principle of atoms to form a crystalline solid with the help of energy
verses inter-atomic distance plot.
i.
State various physical and mechanical properties of materials.
ii.
Explain how the bonding type affect the above properties. Give examples.

144
4.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
5.
Define and explain the following with the help of suitable diagrams
Space lattice
Unit cell and lattice parameters
systems
Bravais lattice and their classification

Origin for the creation of FCC Bravais lattice from a primitive cubic lattice
voids and their coordinates
Calculate the following:

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
Effective number of atoms in SC, BCC, FCC, HCP unit cells

Relationship between the size of the unit cell and atomic diameter in SC, BCC, FCC, HCP unit cells
Packing factors of BCC, FCC, HCP unit cells
Packing factor of a diamond cubic crystal structure
Coordination numbers of BCC, FCC, HCP crystal lattice
c/a ratio for an ideal HCP unit cell
Size of largest sphere that can fit into the tetrahedral & octahedral interstitial sites of a close packed
structures without distorting the unit cell.
Volume of unit cell of germanium in cubic meters, the atomic radius of Ge having Diamond Cubic
structure being 1.223 Ao

145
Tutorial 1 contdY
6.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
Show with the help of neat sketches the following:

Planes whose Miller indices are (111), (210), (010), (0 ), (002), (130), (212) and(3 2).
Directions whose Miller indices are [111], [110], [10], [122], [301], [201] and [2 3].
[1210], [01 0], [011] directions and (1210), ( 22), (1230) planes (Miller Bravais
Index) in HCP unit cell
In a cubic unit cell the (hkl) & [hkl] are perpendicular to each other
Miller index of the direction that is common to both planes (110) and (111) inside the
unit cell of a cubic crystal.
3 parallel planes of belonging to {111} inside a cubic unit cell (may be touching the UC).
6 direction <110> on any one {111}

146
Tutorial 2
Q. 1
a)
Given the Si lattice parameter a=0.543 nm. Calculate the number of Si atoms per unit volume, in nm-3.
b)
Calculate the number of atoms per m2 and per nm2 on the (100), (110), and (111) planes in the Si crystal as shown in fig.1 Which
plane has the most number of atoms per unit area?
c)
The density of SiO2 is 2.27 g cm-3 . Given that its structure is amorphous, calculate the number of molecules per unit volume, in
nm-3 . Compare your result with (a) and comment on what happens when the surface of an Si crystal oxidizes. The atomic masses
of Si and O are 28.09 & 16, respectively.
In device fabrication , Si is frequently doped by the diffusion of impurities (dopants) at high temperatures , typically 950-12000C.
The energy of vacancy formation in the Si crystal is about 3.6 eV. What is the equilibrium concentration of vacancies in a Si crystal
at 10000C ? Neglect the change in the density with temperature which is less than 1 percent in this case.
Q.2
Q.3
a)
Describe with neat sketches, 3 types of line defects and relate b Burgers vector with dislocation line.
b)
Describe planar defects ; grain boundaries and surface defects
c)
How do the defects affect the electrical conductivity of the materials?
Fig1.
147
Q.4
Q.5
Q.6
a)
What are the allotropically different forms of carbon?
b)
Give neat sketches of their crystal structures.
c)
How do you classify these materials in terms of electrical conductivity?
a)
Why single crystals are used for electronic applications? Explain methods of bulk single crystal growth.
b)
What is epitaxial growth? Explain with one example each of growth for; binary, ternary and quaternary semiconductor
compounds, with the help of Eg vs lattice parameter of the crystal plot.
c)
What is the significance of distribution coefficient in zone refining?
a)
How amorphous semiconductors are prepared? Give an example.
b)
Explain how the nonstoichiometeric, ZnO crystal with excess Zn at the interstitial sites contribute free electron for
conduction.

148
Q.7
a)
Consider 50% Pb- 50% Sn solder alloy (refer Fig.2):

Sketch the temperature time profile and the microstructure of the alloy at various stages as it is cooled from the
melt. What is the importance of this alloy in electrical applications?
b)
At what temperature does the solid melt? What is the significance of this temperature?
c)
What is the temperature range over which the alloy is a mixture of melt and solid? what is the micro structure of the
solid ?
d)
Consider the solder at room temperature following cooling from 1830C. Assume that the rate of cooling from 1830C to
room temperature is faster than the atomic diffusion rates needed to change the compositions of the and phases
in the solid. Assuming the alloy is 1 kg. Calculate the masses of the following components in the solid.
i. The primary ( proeutectic), ii. in the whole alloy, iii. in the eutectic solid and
iv. in the alloy ( where is the phase?)
e)
For Pb-40Sn, find the degree of freedom at,

i) liquid region, ii) liquidus, iii) two phase mushy region, iv) solidus and v)at room temperature.
Fig.2

149

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MT202: Electrical and Electronic Materials

Complied by: Prof. Vijaya Agarwala

Basic Materials Science concepts- Module 1

Atomic bonding energy

Phase and diagrams

Single X tal bulk growth

Epitaxial growth - coatings

Material design criteria

MT 202: Electrical and

From Principles of Electronic

Total Average Energy

(a) Force vs. interatomic separation

The origin of van der Walls bonding between water molecules.

Dependence of the linear thermal expansion coefficient (K-1) on temperature T (K) on a

From Principles of Electronic Materials and

Schematic diagram of a stern type experiment for determining the distribution

Crystal Structures (Contd)

Five regular arrangements of lattice points that can

MT 202: Electrical and

MT 202: Electrical and

MT 202: Electrical and

Lattice parameters: a, b, c, , and

Crystal systems and

MT 202: Electrical and

In three dimensions, There are 14

Number of lattice points per cell

MT 202: Electrical and

MT 202: Electrical and

Any of the fourteen Bravais lattices may be referred to a

MT 202: Electrical and

MT 202: Electrical and

Three allotropes of carbon

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Face-Centered Cubic Nanoparticles

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If another layer of 42 atoms is layed around the 13-atom

N=1, 13, 55, 147,.., which are called structural magic

Atoms in nano clusters

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In two dimensions the most efficient way to pack identical circles is

MT 202: Electrical and

where ao is the radius of the

Stacking sequences: FCC & HCP

MT 202: Electrical and

MT 202: Electrical and

MT 202: Electrical and

MT 202: Electrical and

Miller indices of lattice planes

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Labeling of crystal planes and typical examples in the cubic lattice

MT 202: Electrical and

MT 202: Electrical and

The hexagonal unit cell :

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Zone= zonal planes + zonal axis

-Zone axis and (hkl) the zonal plane

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All shaded planes belong to the same zone

2. Line defectEdge dislocation

3. Surface defectsGrain boundaries

Frankel and Schottky defect

ZnO crystal containing extra Zn2+

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Dislocation line and b are perpendicular to each other

Crystal Structures (Contd)