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stmjls/
noun
1. a thing or event that evokes a specific functional reaction in an organ or tissue.
"areas of the brain which respond to auditory stimuli"
o a thing that arouses activity or energy in someone or something; a spur or incentive.
"if the tax were abolished, it would act as a stimulus to exports"
synony spur, stimulant, encouragement, impetus, boost, prompt, prod,incentive, inducement, ins
ms:
piration, fillip; More
o an interesting and exciting quality.
"she loved the stimulus of the job"
classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental
stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.
PAVLOVS
DOG
researching why this associate learning occurred, which is now called classical
conditioning.
To experiment on classical conditioning, Pavlov utilized a tuning fork and meat powder. He hit
the tuning fork and followed the sound with the meat powder. Pavlov presented the sound
(tuning fork) with the meat powder at the exact same time increments. In the beginning, the dog
salivated only to the meat powder, but after this was repeated, salivated at the sound of the
tuning fork. Even when Pavlov took away the meat powder, the dog continued to salivate at the
sound of the tuning fork.
PRINCIPLES
OF
CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
In classical conditioning, an organism learns to associate one stimulus with another. The
organism learns that the first stimulus is a cue for the second stimulus. In Pavlovs experiment
above, the tuning fork cued the dogs that food might be coming. Following is an example of
classical conditioning.
In technical terms, the food is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the salivation is the
unconditioned response (UCR). The bell is a neutral stimulus until the dog learns to associate
the bell with food. Then the bell becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) which produces the
conditioned response (CR) of salivation after repeated pairings between the bell and food.
WATSONS
BABY
ALBERT
John B. Watson was interested in how classical conditioning could be applied to humans. In
1921, Watson and his research assistant Rosalie Rayner experimented on a 11-month-old infant
named Albert. The goal was to condition Albert to fear a white rat by paring the white rat with a
loud bang (UCS). Initially, Albert showed no fear of rats, but once the rat was repeatedly paired
with the loud noise (UCS), Albert developed a fear of rats. The noise (UCS) induced fear
(UCR). After pairings between the loud noise (UCS) and the rat (CS), Albert started to fear the
rat. Watsons experiment suggested that classical conditioning could cause some phobias.
Acquisition
The acquisition phase is the consistent parings of the CS (bell) and the UCS (food) that
produces a CR (salivation). In the example above, this phase occurs when the dog
begins to salivate at the sound of the bell. Conditioning occurs more rapidly when the
food follows the bell by a half a second.
Extinction
The extinction phase is when the conditioned response no longer occurs after
repeated pairings without the unconditioned stimulus. The dogs response to
the bell can be extinguished by repeatedly presenting the bell (CS) without the
food (UCS). The dog has not completely forgotten the association between the
bell and the food. If the experimenter waits a day, the dog may have a
spontaneous recovery of the conditioned response and salivate again to the
bell.
Generalization
Occurs when there is a small difference in the presented stimulus and the
original conditioned stimulus. If Pavlovs dog heard a bell of a similar tone,
the dog would still salivate.
Discrimination
The opposite of generalization, discrimination happens when a conditioned response does
not occur when there is a difference between the presented stimulus and the original
conditioned stimulus. If Pavlovs dog heard a bell with a different tone and was not
awarded the unconditioned stimulus (food), the dog would learn not to salivate to the
second tone.
SKINNERS
OPERANT
CONDITIONING
Beginning in the 1930s, Skinner started his experimentation on the behavior of
animals. Skinner's quest was to observe the relationship between observable stimuli
and response. Essentially, he wanted to know why these animals behaved the way
that they do. Skinner controlled his experiments by using Skinner boxes. The
Skinner box was a contraption that would automatically dispense food pellets and
electric shocks. Skinner believed that the learning he observed in his Skinner boxes
could apply to human behavior.
He called this learning operant
conditioning. Operant conditioning can be described as behavior adjustments as a
result of greater or lesser negative or positive reinforcement and punishment. Skinner
hypothesized that human behaviors were controlled by rewards and punishment and
that their behaviors can be explained by principles of operant conditioning
Reinforcement
The process in which a behavior is strengthened, and thus, more likely to
happen again.
o
Positive
Reinforcement
Making a behavior stronger by following the behavior with a pleasant
stimulus. For example, a rat presses a lever and receives food.
Negative
Reinforcement
Making a behavior stronger by taking away a negative stimulus. For
example, a rat presses a lever and turns off the electric shock
Punishment
The process in which a behavior is weakened, and thus, less likely to happen
again.
Negative
Punishment
Reducing a behavior by removing a pleasant stimulus when the
behavior occurs. If the rat was previously given food for each
lever press, but now receives food consistently when not pressing
the lever (and not when it presses the lever), the rat will learn to
stop pressing the lever.
Positive
Punishment
Reducing a behavior by presenting an unpleasant stimulus when
the behavior occurs. If the rat previously pressed the lever and
received food and now receives a shock, the rat will learn not to
press the lever.
Shaping
Technique of reinforcement used to teach new behaviors. At the beginning,
people/animals are reinforced for easy tasks, and then increasingly need to perform more
difficult tasks in order to receive reinforcement. For example, originally the rat is given a
food pellet for one lever press, but we gradually increase the number of times it needs to
press to receive food, the rat will increase the number of presses.
Extinction
The elimination of the behavior by stopping reinforcement of the behavior. For
example, a rat who received food when pressing a bar, receives food no longer,
will gradually decrease the amount of lever presses until the rat eventually
stops
lever
pressing.
Generalization
In generalization, a behavior may be performed in more than one situation. For
example, the rat who receives food by pressing one lever, may press a second
lever in the cage in hopes that it will receive food.
Discrimination
Learning that a behavior will be rewarded in one situation, but not another. For example,
the rat does not receive food from the second lever and realizes that by pressing the first
lever only, he will receive food.
Note: For each of the ten examples below, decide if the behavior in question was
acquired through operant or classical conditioning. If you decide the behavior is
operant, identify which type of consequence was responsible for the behavior
change (i.e., positive/negative reinforcement; positive/negative punishment). If you
decide the behavior is classical, identify the US, UR, CS, and CR. If you want to make
this a good learning exercise, you will check your answers only AFTERyou have
attempted to analyze each example on your own. You can check your answer
against mine by following the answer link after the example.
Example Number 1
Every time someone flushes a toilet in the apartment building, the shower becomes
very hot and causes the person to jump back. Over time, the person begins to jump
back automatically after hearing the flush, before the water temperature changes.
This example is classical conditioning because jumping away from hot water is an
automatic response.
Go Back to Example 1
Go Forward to Example 2
Example Number 2
Your father gives you a credit card at the end of your first year in college because you
did so well. As a result, your grades continue to get better in your second year.
This example is operant conditioning because school performance is a voluntary
behavior.
Go Back to Example 2
Go Forward to Example 3
Example Number 3
Your car has a red, flashing light that blinks annoyingly if you start the car without
buckling the seat belt. You become less likely to start the car without buckling the seat
belt.
This example is operant conditioning because buckling a seat belt is voluntary.
Go Back to Example 3
Go Forward to Example 4
Example Number 4
You eat a new food and then get sick because of the flu. However, you develop a
dislike for the food and feel nauseated whenever you smell it.
This example is classical conditioning because nausea is an automatic response.
Go Back to Example 4
Go Forward to Example 5
Example Number 5
An individual receives frequent injections of drugs, which are administered in a small
examination room at a clinic. The drug itself causes increased heart rate but after
several trips to the clinic, simply being in a small room causes an increased heart
rate.
This example is classical conditioning because the increased heart rate is an
automatic response.
Go Back to Example 5
Go Forward to Example 6
Example Number 6
A lion in a circus learns to stand up on a chair and jump through a hoop to receive a
food treat.
This example is operant conditioning because standing on a chair and jumping
through a hoop are voluntary behaviors.
Go Back to Example 6
Go Forward to Example 7
Example Number 7
A professor has a policy of exempting students from the final exam if they maintain
perfect attendance during the quarter. His students attendance increases
dramatically.
This example is operant conditioning because attendance is a voluntary behavior.
Go Back to Example 7
Go Forward to Example 8
Example Number 8
You check the coin return slot on a pay telephone and find a quarter. You find
yourself checking other telephones over the next few days.
This is an example of operant conditioning because checking the coin return slot is a
voluntary behavior.
The quarter would be a positive reinforcement because it was given and led to
an increase in the behavior.
Go Back to Example 8
Go Forward to Example 9
Example Number 9
Your hands are cold so you put your gloves on. In the future, you are more likely to
put gloves on when its cold.
This is an example of operant conditioning because putting gloves on is a voluntary
behavior.
Go Back to Number 9
Go Forward to Number 10
Example Number 10
John Watson conducted an experiment with a boy named Albert in which he paired a
white rat with a loud, startling noise. Albert now becomes startled at the sight of the
white rat.
This is an example of classical conditioning because a startle response is an
automatic behavior.
Go Back to Example 10
Classical Conditioning
First, let's visit Mr. Pavlov. He studied what is called classical conditioning. Sometimes you will also
hear this referred to as respondent conditioning. In classical conditioning, learning refers to
involuntary responses that result from experiences that occur before a response.
Classical conditioning occurs when you learn to associate two different stimuli. No behavior is
involved. The first stimulus that you will encounter is the unconditioned stimulus. An
unconditioned stimulus produces a response without any previous learning. This response is
called an unconditioned response.
For an example of a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response, let's imagine a kiss. Kissing
creates involuntary arousal responses and causes you to experience an elevated heart rate, for
example. This is a natural response, it is not learned, and it happens automatically. The unconditioned
stimulus in this example is the kiss and an elevated heart rate is the unconditioned response.
In classical conditioning you now add a neutral stimulus to the experience. It is called a neutral stimulus
because it is not associated with the unconditioned response. Thinking of our example of a kiss,
imagine that your favorite song is playing when you kiss. The song will be the neutral stimulus. When
the song is paired with kissing, your heart rate still increases because of the kiss. However, after
repeated pairing of your favorite song with the act of kissing your brain will start to think, 'I hear my
favorite song so kissing will happen soon!' Because of this you will experience an increased heart rate
when you hear your favorite song. Your brain is now associating your favorite song with kissing. Rather
than continuing as a neutral stimulus, the song has now become a conditioned stimulus because it
produces a response with or without the occurrence of kissing. The increased heart rate is an
unconditioned response following kissing but now also becomes a conditioned response when it follows
your favorite song. It is a conditioned response following the song because the song would not produce
the elevated heart rate if it were not associated with the act of kissing.
Operant Conditioning
Next, let's visit Mr. Skinner. He studied what is called operant conditioning. Sometimes you will also
hear this referred to as instrumental conditioning. In operant conditioning, learning refers to changes in
behavior as a result of experiences that occur after a response.
Operant conditioning involves changing voluntary behaviors. A behavior response is followed by
eitherreinforcement or punishment. Reinforcement following a behavior will cause the behavior to
increase, but if behavior is followed by punishment the behavior will decrease.
Let's go back to the example of the kiss. What would happen if the person put their arms around you
and kissed you back enthusiastically? This would be an example of reinforcement and would probably
increase the likelihood that you would seek another kiss from the person.
There are two types of reinforcement. Positive reinforcement refers to the addition of something
positive. Examples would be offering praise or a treat when a desired behavior is displayed. Negative
reinforcement occurs when something undesirable is removed when a behavior is displayed. Examples
of this are taking aspirin to get rid of a headache or doing the dishes to avoid a fight with your
roommate.
Because of its name, negative reinforcement is often confused with punishment. The key difference is
that negative reinforcement involves the removal of a negative consequence to increase the likelihood
of a response. Reinforcement always increases the occurrence of a response, while punishment always
decreases the occurrence of a response.
Now, let's think about the example of the kiss again. What would happen if, when you attempted to kiss
someone, the person became angry and pushed you away? This would be an example of punishment
and would probably decrease the likelihood that you would seek a kiss from the person again.
There are also two types of punishment that occur in operant conditioning. Positive punishment is the
addition of something undesirable. Examples would be a child receiving a spanking or receiving extra
chores for misbehaving. The other type of punishment is negative punishment. Negative
punishment is the removal of something pleasing. Examples would be a child being placed in timeout
or losing video game privileges for misbehavior.
Lesson Summary
In review, let's compare Pavlov's classical conditioning and Skinner's operant conditioning alongside
each other. Both classical conditioning and operant conditioning are processes that lead to learning.
Classical conditioning pairs two stimuli, while operant conditioning pairs behavior and response. The
learning occurs before the response in classical conditioning and after the response in operant
conditioning. You learn by association in classical conditioning, and by reinforcement or punishment in
operant conditioning. Also, classical conditioning always works with involuntary responses while operant
conditioning works with voluntary behaviors. Extinction, an extinction burst, spontaneous recovery, and
stimulus generalization are different phenomena that can occur.
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
behavior
Let's go back to the example of the kiss. What would happen if the person
put their arms around you and kissed you back enthusiastically? This would
response,
it
is
not
learned,
and
it
happens
automatically.
The
response
is
followed
by
either
reinforcement
or
Now, let's think about the example of the kiss again. What would happen if,
when you attempted to kiss someone, the person became angry and pushed
your favorite song is playing when you kiss. The song will be the neutral
decrease the likelihood that you would seek a kiss from the person again.
stimulus. When the song is paired with kissing, your heart rate still
increases because of the kiss. However, after repeated pairing of your
favorite song with the act of kissing your brain will start to think, 'I hear my
There
favorite song so kissing will happen soon!' Because of this you will
experience an increased heart rate when you hear your favorite song. Your
brain is now associating your favorite song with kissing. Rather than
misbehaving.
are
also two
The
types
other
of
type
punishment that
of
occur
punishment
in
is
operant
negative
kissing but now also becomes a conditioned response when it follows your
favorite song. It is a conditioned response following the song because the
song would not produce the elevated heart rate if it were not associated with
the act of kissing.