Marine Technology, Vol. 17, No. 4, Oct. 1980, pp.

371-384

New Approaches to the Design of Hopper Dredges

Ernest P. Fortino 1
Three new hopper dredges of different sizes and mission performance are currently under construction for
the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. This paper describes the particular features of the dredges that constitute advances in the state of the art, and reviews the philosophy behind their design. In addition, the author
demonstrates how this new dredge fleet, though smaller than earlier fleets, will improve the Corps' capability, for both civilian and military purposes, to maintain all U. S. coastal waterways as well as locations overseas that are of interest to the United States. Finally, damage stability requirements and noise abatement
specifications are treated in separate appendices.

Table 1

Introduction
IN JUNE OF 1976, the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers embarked
on a program to design three new hopper dredges as a first step
in the establishment of a reduced but modern state-of-the-art
hopper dredge fleet. The fleet reduction is in conformance with
recently enacted legislation (PL 95-269) which indicates t h a t an
increasing share of the national dredging work is to be performed
by commercially owned plant, which is the reason why contractors are now building hopper dredges.
The three new dredges which have been designed and are now
under construction for the Corps are outlined in Table 1, and
preliminary design profiles are shown in Figs. 1, 2 and 3.
The philosophy governing the reduced fleet is that the new
designs will be capable of operating on all coasts and will be
available on short notice for national defense needs or for military
or civil emergencies anywhere in the United States or in any of
its overseas interests. In the absence of such emergencies, the
dredges will be kept in readiness by continuous operation in
regular dredging assignments. Nevertheless, some special capabilities may be provided. The Yaquina is designed to be especially
suitable for operation at shallow draft in such inlets as are found
on the West Coast. The large-class hopper dredge (LCHD) is
intended to have enough power to operate all four of its dredge
pumps simultaneously. It has the usual two side dragarms, each
carrying a submerged dredge pump, and, in addition, a third
dragarm in a centerwell capable of feeding two dredge pumps.
W i t h all four pumps operating, the dredge can be especially effective when working in the agitation mode, t h a t is, simply overflowing from the hoppers continuously, allowing the material
to be broadcast over the water on both sides of the dredge and
letting the current carry the solids to be deposited outside of the
channel boundaries. This dredge is expected to be particularly
effective in dealing with the shoaling which occurs in the Mississippi River passes, which occasionally has required attack by
a sizeable dredging fleet.
The medium-class hopper dredge (MCHD) can be considered
a general-purpose dredge, designed to be efficient and effective
in all assignments. Its dimensions are average, and its loaded
draft can be tolerated by the majority of authorized dredging
projects.
The author has been continuously involved with the design,
1 Chief, Marine Design Division (Ret.), Philadelphia District, U. S.
Army Corps of Engineers.
Presented at the December 7, 1979 meeting of the Philadelphia Section
of THE SOCIETY OF NAVALARCHITECTS AND MARINE ENGINEERS.
The opinions expressed herein are the views of the author and not
necessarily those of the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers or the U. S. Army
at large.
OCTOBER 1980

Three new hopper dredges--general data

Yaquina
Length OA, ft
200
Length BP, ft
193
Beam, molded, ft
58
Depth amidships, molded, ft
17
Hopper volume, yd ~
825
Hopper capacity, sand (min.), yd3
650
Propulsion power, shp
2 1125
Design draft, loaded (est.), ft
12
Displacement at loaded draft, LT
2963
Speed, loaded (est.), knots
10
Dredge Pumps, inboard:
number
2
discharge dia, in.
16
bhp, each
565
Dredge pumps, dragarm-mounted:
number
0
discharge diameter
...
Bhp, each
.
Maximum dredging depth, ft
"4'5
No. in crew
28

MCHD

LCHD

350
333
68
35
6000
4818
2 3500
27
13 950
13.4

409
384
78
39
8400
6000
2 5200
29.5
19 000
14.5

2
26
3000

2
30
3600

2
26"
1450
80
38

2
26'/
1600
80
40

testing, operation and maintenance of Corps of Engineers hopper

dredges since 1939. During t h a t period he has observed and
contributed to changes taking place that could be called keeping
up with the state of the art, and in a few instances even pushing
the state of the art. The Corps can rightfully take credit for pioneering the following features on hopper dredges:
(a) Pilothouse control of propulsion, with the introduction
of electrically propelled dredges in 1924 on the four Kingmanclass dredges.
(b) Automatic control of propulsion horsepower, first introduced on the dredge Goethals in 1937, and later improved on the
Comber class, Essayons and Markham. This feature enables the
vessels to adjust propulsion motor rpm automatically so that 100
percent propulsion power is used when returning light from, as
well as when proceeding loaded to, the disposal area.
(c) Process instrumentation, including the development of
techniques for the direct measurement, display and recording
of hopper load, flow velocity and density, and solids flow rate,
during the decade of the 1950's.
(d) Self-unloading of hopper dredges by direct pumpout, first
to a rehandling vessel (1954) and later directly through long
pipelines to shore disposal areas, begun in 1963.
(e) Controllable-pitch propellers, first installed during repowering of the dredge Harding in 1958.
(f) Bow thrusters, first introduced on the dredge Markham
in 1959. These improve dredge control at slow dredging speeds

0025-331618011704-0371500.5310

371

.....

.....
I I

Fig. 1

....

...........

! ........

o:'

"Y"'"

Hopper dredge, Yaquina, 200 by 58 by 17 ft

and greatly facilitate docking, especially for dredges engaged in

direct pumpout operation which are required to moor, without
assistance, to a disposal facility perhaps a half-dozen times each
24-hour (h) period.
(g) Waste management systems for shipboard use, first provided on the dredge Markham in 1959.
(h) Semi-automatic operation of the dragarms, a feature designed into the dredge McFarland in 1965. At the touch of a
button each dragarm can be deployed out to the dredging position
from its stowed position on deck, and vice versa.
(i) Acoustic habitability. First steps in this direction were
taken in 1955 after conversion of the old steam hopper dredge
New Orleans to a diesel-powered sump rehandler. As a result of
this experience, specifications for the dredge McFarland contained stringent requirements for acoustic engineering and
testing.
Other innovations and improvements have been incorporated
on existing dredges as a result of research and development work
done by the Corps or observation of European practice.
A number of new features or departures from previous practice
mark the design of the three new dredges. The rest of this paper
is devoted to a description of these features.

Damage stability
Heretofore, the U. S. Coast Guard has had no rules enforcing
the subdivision of cargo ship hulls. The Load Line Regulations
make provision for the assignment of lesser freeboards to vessels
if they are designed to "remain afloat in a satisfactory condition
of equilibrium after flooding" of any single or any adjacent pair
of damaged compartments. However, such subdivision is not
mandatory. In the absence of any such regulation the Corps long
ago, commencing with dredges built in the 1930's, adopted a
policy that all dredge hulls would, where practicable, be designed
to survive flooding of any two adjacent compartments. An exception was made for small dredges like the Hains class and the
372

" ......

Pacific, which were designed to a one-compartment standard of

subdivision. The rules followed in implementing this policy were
the Rules and Regulations for Passenger Vessels, Part 73, Watertight Subdivision, and Part 74, Stability. Since the Corps
hitherto has been the only builder of hopper dredges in the
United States it did in effect thus set a standard for design of
dredge hulls, thereby relieving the Coast Guard of having to establish a regulation.
With the entry of commercial firms into hopper dredging, this
picture has changed. Since non-Government-owned hopper
dredges would be operating in harbor channels, with the attendant risk of collision due to traffic and bad weather, the Coast
Guard had to become concerned. In Washington, D. C.~ in December 1975 Corps personnel had a preliminary meeting with
Coast Guard marine safety representatives. In the 2 August 1976
issue of the Federal Register there appeared an Advance Notice
of Proposed Rule Making issued by the U. S. Coast Guard entitled "Damage Stability Standards for Hopper Dredges." The
Corps responded to this proposal with a documentation of its
experience record and with the recommendation that "as a
minimum, a one-compartment subdivision standard under
maximum draft loaded condition be established as the rule
governing damage stability standard for hopper dredges."
In the meantime, both private industry and the Government
were rapidly developing plans for the design of new dredges, and,
in due course, designers and prospective owners began applying
to the Coast Guard for consideration of reduced "working freeboards" such as permitted by Bureau Veritas for European designs. The Coast Guard's reply was that it had no authority to
deviate from the Load Line Regulations. Nevertheless, as the
Coast Guard further considered this problem, it developed a set
of conditions under which it could agree that a "working freeboard up to one-half the tabular B-100 freeboard may be authorized . . . . "These conditions appear in a letter dated 23 June
1977 from the U. S. Coast Guard to the C. F. Bean Corporation
and are reproduced here as Appendix 1.
MARINE TECHNOLOGY

oo

oo

oo

," . . . . .

,;o

cc~s a, ~ E ~ S
US ARMY

oo

r, ; jl

,,i . . . . ! !~! ~ . . . . .

:7~: . . . . . . . .

,~ . . . . . .

::'~-:--:,~:-

x'

,2 _ ) "

Fig, 2

Hopper dredge, medium class, 344 by 68 by 35 ft

At the time that the U. S. Coast Guard made this letter public,
the Corps had virtually completed the design of the shallow-draft
dredge Yaquina to a one-compartment standard. Considerable
redesign was necessary to meet the two-compartment subdivision
required by the conditions of Appendix 1, including an increase
in beam from 56 to 58 ft and the introduction of some longitudinal
subdivision and cross-flooding provisions.
Examination of the conditions set forth in Appendix 1 reveals
two interesting points:
(a) A length of damage is specified, namely, 0.495L2/3. In some
areas of a hull, this length may very well span three compartments.
(b) There is no reference to a margin line as the limit of submergence. Thus the decks may very well be awash. It is simply
required that an equilibrium position be established with the

final angle of heel not exceeding 30 deg, with positive righting arm
of at least 4 in. over a range at least 20 deg beyond equilibrium.
As the Yaquina hull was recalculated in accordance with Appendix 1, it further developed that advantage could be taken of
the spillage which occurs from the hoppers as the vessel heel increases. This represents an appreciable help because the hoppers
are considered to be loaded with a fluid having a specific gravity
of 2.0. This is a penalizing factor when figuring free-surface effect
in calculations of intact stability, but it helps in calculations of
damage stability.

Superstructures
A major change from previous practice is the location of the

_2
,,
....

-::

.....

::::::i

......

a
:

..... ,

.......

.
..........

.........

..,[/

...............................

J,

:: , . . .

Fig. 3

OCTOBER 1980

Hopper dredge, large class, 409 by 78 by 39 ft

373

Table 2

Vessel

LBP, ft

Yaquina

193
333
384

MCHD
LCHD

Light trim data

Estimated Light Trim, ft

@ 0% Burnout
@ 90% Burnout
2.86
10.12
9.33

5.33
13.93
9.67

entire superstructure aft. With two exceptions, both dating back

to the late thirties, it had been general Corps practice to have a
superstructure and pilothouse forward and another superstructure aft, with the hopper space between superstructures.
The provision of two superstructures made it easier to accommodate the larger crews, which for the older dredges numbered between 50 and 110 persons. They also made it a little
easier to maintain reasonable trim from the fully loaded (even
keel) to the light (90 percent burnout with hoppers empty) condition.
The new dredges wili have reduced crews of between 28 and
42 persons, so that a single superstructure aft can accommodate
all crews and the necessary facilities. By carefully spotting the
hopper load and forward tanks, an acceptable light trim condition
can be established. The dredges are designed to be at even keel
with a full load of wet sand in the hoppers and with all tanks full.
W i t h hoppers e m p t y and consumables 0 and 90 percent burned
out, the presently estimated trims by the stern are as given in
Table 2. Retention of the inboard dredge pumps in a compartment just forward of the hoppers places some heavy machinery
and piping forward, and this helps to make tolerable the change
in trim from the loaded to the light condition.
The superstructure, in each instance, is located over the machinery space, which houses all of the diesel engines for propulsion, pumping and ship service power, as well as other noise
generators like hydraulic pumps and control lines. This has given
a d d e d importance to considerations relative to acoustic habitability. Specifications first developed in 1965 for the dredge
McFarland have been further refined and included with the requirements for the three new hopper dredges. As an example,
Appendix 2 presents the noise attenuation requirements excerpted from the MCHD specifications. Note particularly the
requirement for preconstruction engineering and postconstruction testing.
Automation and reduced crews
An objective of the new dredge designs has been to reduce
operating costs, which, of course, became translated into designing dredges requiring fewer operating personnel. This objective could be reached by traveling each of several routes:
(a) Adopt new operating philosophies, such as combining
duties and eliminating classifications, and reducing cosmetic
maintenance like cleaning, chipping and painting.
Table 3

Suction/discharge valve setup switch (LCHD)

Position
No.

Function

Pumps
Used

Discharge
Destination

1
2
3

dredging
dredging
unloading

overside
inboard
inboard

unloading

inboard

dredging
(agitation)

inboard
overside

dredging

dredging
(agitation)

inboard
overside
inboard
overside

hopper loading
hopper loading
port discharge
to shore
starboard discharge
to shore
overboard
to hoppers
and overflows
to hoppers
to hoppers
overboard
overboard

374

(b) Change from the traditional 4-h watches to other duty

cycles, with some scheduled overtime.
(c) Introduce extensive automation into operation of both the
ship and the dredging machinery.
The designs have accomplished this by a combination of all
three methods. The results are indicated by the following comparison:
CLASS

VESSEL

C R E W SIZE

Large
Large
Medium
Medium
Small
Small

Essayons

110
42
90
38
42
28

LCHD

Comber
MCHD

Pacific
Yaquina

The comparisons in the large and medium classes are not totally
fair, as the Essayons and Comber are steam turbine-electric
vessels with firemen, watertenders and electricians in their watch
complements, whereas the new dredges are diesel-propelled. '
An appreciable part of the crew reduction is attributable to the
decision to introduce extensive automation. Additionally, it was
decided to build into these vessels the capability for unattended
engine room operation, following the precepts of U. S. Coast
Guard Navigation and Inspection Circular No. 1-69 dated 8
January 1969. To this end, the vessels are to be inspected and
classed by the American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) with Maltese
Cross ACCU 2 certification. However, it is not intended to operate
immediately without engine room watch personnel, and the figures tabulated in the preceding do not reflect such possible further personnel reductions.
Extensive automation of dredging machinery and equipment
operation is specified. To begin with, a process will be dialed, be
it hopper loading, agitation, direct pumpout, etc. For example,
Table 3 outlines the processes which can be selected on the
LCHD. Upon dialing and pressing the "execute" button, the
proper valves will be automatically opened and closed, and lights
on a mimic diagram will show the status of each valve and the
flow path.
In addition, power for the dredge pumps is derivable from more
than one source. Again using the LCHD as an example, Fig. 4(a)
shows the main p u m p power system diagram and Fig. 4(b) the
power routes t h a t can be selected. The proper circuit breakers
will be opened or closed upon selection and execution of power
paths, and lights will show the status of each circuit breaker.
A dredge control officer (DCO) on the bridge will make all
process decisions and operate the dredging system. During actual
dredging he will be seated at a console housed in a glass blister,
"front" and center of the pilothouse, at a lower level so as not to
interfere with the helmsman's vision. Before initiating dredging
the DCO will first note at his console whether the pumping power
engines are warm. If so, and if they are not running, he can restart
them at the console. If they are not warm, they must be started
by the engineer.
With engines running, and with draghoist motor-generator sets
running, the DCO now presses a button to initiate d r e d g i n g - actually, a button for each dragarm. This deploys the dragarm,
lifting it from its stowed position on the deck, breasting it outboard, then lowering it down the ship's side to a horizontal reference position, with the trunnion properly seated in the operating position. The mechanisms will stop at this point and a light
will advise the DCO t h a t all is ready for dredging.
Next the DCO will press a "lower" button. The dragarm will
now pivot around the trunnion, thereby lowering the draghead
to dredging depth. When the latter touches bottom, the swell
compensator will assume control, stopping the lowering action.
The swell compensator will automatically keep the draghead in
proper contact with the bottom, an a d j u s t m e n t having been
2 Paragraph 41.7 of ABS rules defines this symbol as "Automatic
Control System for Unattended Engine Room Certified."
MARINE TECHNOLOGY

37~75o vD.c.

37s./zso ~c~c

D.C. SWITCHING

.ooo l.ow

4T_

2 3 4 5 6 7

1 DREDGING RECTIFIER NO 1

X O 0 O X 0 X

2 DREDGING RECTIFIER NO 2
c~('DREDGING WITH
3 ~'-LOUTBOARD PUMP ONLY~
4 PUMPOUT

0 0 0 X 0 X X
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
X X X X 0 O 0

T I
ABCDE
NC AC. SWITCHING
I DREDGING--PORT GENERATOR TO OVERSIDE PUMPS O 0 0 X O

~BD

~sPUMP~/MI~(oT~#T)R

AGITATION DREDGING

4
5

PUMPOUT
DREDGING-STBO GENERATOR TO INBOARD PUMPS
(B)THROUGH RECTIFIER NO 2

6
B

4160v i

XlOXO0
O:XXO0

olxlololo
olxlololx

CA)THROUGH RECTIFIER NO l

_----~ ~---JJ 4160V T C

DREDGING-STBO GENERATOR TO OVERSIDE PUMPS X O 0 0 0

DREDGING-PORTGENERATOR TO INBOARD PUMPS

CA)THROUGH RECTIFIER NO1
o
(B)THROUGH RECTIFIER NO 2

OlD,O,
x o o

NOTE SWITCH OPENINGS AND CLOSINGS FOR PUMPOUT SHALL

BE DIRECTLY CONTROLLED THROUGH THE BRIDGE PUMPOuT-DREDGING CONTROL SWITCH. DREDGING MODE SETUPS SHALL BE ACCOMPLISHED THROUGH SET-UP SWITCH
-E5 ON THE SWlTCHGEAR wITH THE PROPER SWITCH
OPERATtONS"EXECUTED'THROUGH THE BRIDGE CONTROL
SWITCH.

POWER
FACTOR
CORP

(a)

(b)
Fig. 4

LCHD dredge pump power system

preset to determine how big a "bite" the head will take, t h a t is, option, course correction information can be fed to the automatic
the degree of e m b e d m e n t into the bottom material. This ad- pilot to hold the dredge on the cut.
Because of the plan eventually to operate on the basis of an
j u s t m e n t establishes what portion of the draghead weight is
supported by the hoisting cables and what portion by the channel unattended engine room, much automation has been introduced
bottom. The swell compensator is a hydraulic cylinder with a in the area of propulsion and auxiliary machiaery operation. Due
stroke of 12 ft, or 4- 6 ft above and below a median. This permits to limitations of space, however, this particular automation
the draghead to follow unevenness of the channel bed within cannot be discussed here. As a final note on this matter, however,
these limits without operation of the drag hoist winches. If a large recognition should be given to the provision of some degree of
hole or hill is encountered, the hydraulic ram will travel to one automation in keeping the ship's log. In the pilothouse the opor the other end of the stroke and automatically start the winches erator will have available an automatic event logger, having a
to hoist or lower the draghead until the ram returns to the median keyboard, a printer and a clock mechanism. By striking the appropriately numbered key, he can cause to be printed the identity
point.
Other automatic dragarm devices keep the draghead from and the time of occurrence of such events as starting and stopping
of dredge pumps, going to and returning from the dump, interdrifting under the ship's hull.
At completion of dredging, the same automatic features pre- ruption and resumption of operation, and any other events t h a t
vail, as needed, in the reverse direction for stowing the dragarms. the dredge master might care to have automatically recorded.
Or, if the dredge is to be turned 180 deg for a reverse cut, raising
the dragarms out of the water is also a pushbutton operation.
Centerwell dragarm
Still other automatic devices will govern the loading in the
The large-class hopper dredge will be particularly distinhoppers and raising and lowering overflow levels forward or aft,
port or starboard, in response to preset instructions and to vessel guished by a third dragarm located in a centerwell designed into
the hull in the hopper area along the centerline. The dragarm is
trim or list,
When the vessel is dumping, automatic controls will open the raised and lowered and permanently located in this well.
Despite the presence of the centerwell, the hull model tests
doors in timed sequence in accordance with preset instructions,
automatically interrupting the dumping operation and advising indicate t h a t a full-power loaded draft speed of about 14 knots
the DCO if the ship starts to take an improper attitude or if some may be expected. The model testing revealed that the centerwell
adds about 21 percent resistance at speeds of 12 knots and higher.
other fault occurs.
If the vessel is unloading its hoppers by direct pumpout, the Two other interesting points were evidenced by the model tests:
automatics are designed to prevent line plugging, as well as to (1) It is better to keep the dragarm low in the centerwell, forming
a sort of rough closure of the well when the ship is underway. This
effect unloading control.
The DCO is provided with remote controls at his station or in prevents oscillation of the water level in the well, which if allowed
the bridge for all details of the dredging, loading and unloading would represent added resistance and a dissipation of energy. (2)
operations. There is also a wealth of instrumentation to tell him By eliminating transverse keelsons between the hopper bottom
what is going on and how well his equipment and systems are doors, hitherto used to form individual hopper door wells, or
functioning. The hopper load is continuously displayed, and so recesses, the hull resistance was decreased about 13 percent at
is the loading rate, so that he can quickly deduce when he has speeds of 12 knots and higher. Thus, a new feature for the LCHD
achieved an "economic load" in the hoppers. Position indicators and M C H D will be a single hopper door trough on each side, inand recorders verify that the ship and the dragheads are actually stead of individual door recesses.
The centerwell dragarm will feed the two inboard dredge
working exactly where desired on the shoaled areas. At the mate's
OCTOBER 1980

375

structure will restrain lateral movement of the dragarm within

the confines of the well.

o
I
z

Overside pumps

~5000
0
EXISTING
DRAGARM

\\

,ELONGATED
DRAGARM

~4000

40

50

60

70

80

90

]00

DREDGING DEPTH-FT
Fig. 5 Calculated pump performance of dredge Essayons(with existing
36-in.-inside-diameter dragarms and with added pipe lengths hypothesized
for depths greater than 60 ft)

pumps. Each of these pumps has a discharge diameter of 30 in.

The diameter of the dragarm suction pipe is 42 in., which is just
1/2 in. shy of the diameter required to provide a cross section equal
to t h a t of two 30-in. sections. This suction source together with
the two side dragarms will permit simultaneous operation of all
four dredge pumps. The power setup is such that this can be done
with one dredge pump generator powering the two overside pump
motors and the other generator powering the two inboard pump
motors.
As previously stated, normal dredging can be carried on with
the inboard pumps if the overside pumps are disabled. However,
a principal reason for providing centerwell suction is to allow this
dredge to be especially effective in agitation dredging. In this type
of dredging, pumping takes place continuously, and the excavated
materials are broadcast over a wide area of the outside water
surface. The solids are of such fine grain as to remain suspended
long enough for the currents to carry them either to deep water
or outside of the channel. In this mode of dredging, the large-class
dredge will have about twice the capability of the dredge Goethals, which is presently the second largest dredge in the Corps
fleet.
The added centerwell suction can be used advantageously for
cutting down the time to load the hoppers also. Ordinarily, it
takes about 15 min on most dredges for the initial filling of the
hoppers before overflow commences. W i t h twice the usual
number of pumps in operation the time can be cut in half. This
reduction can be significant. If, for example, the dredge is working
on a 3-h (180 min) cycle, such as 1 h pumping and 2 h going to and
from the dump, a reduction of 71/,2min in a 180-min cycle gives
a theoretical production gain of 4.3 percent. (Of course, as soon
as the hoppers are initially filled, two of the four pumps will be
shut down; otherwise, the total flow will overwhelm the hopper
area and prevent settling of solids, analogous to trying to fill a
small bucket with a fire hose.)
Just as the two side dragarms are designed to be raised entirely
and stowed on deck, where maintenance can be performed, the
centerwell dragarm can be similarly raised and lowered. A ladder
structure around the suction pipe and guides in the centerwell
376

Two of the three new hopper dredges will have dredge pumps
mounted on the dragarms, so that during dredging these pumps
will be well submerged. This, of course, greatly increases the
weight of each dragarm and makes for increased dragarm handling problems, such as winch power, wire rope sizes and supporting davit structure. However, they are essential, for deep
dredging projects which are planned for the future, and their
increased effectiveness is usable on projects at current depths.
The performance of centrifugal pumps is limited by suction
lift considerations. Heretofore, dredge pumps on hopper dredges
have been installed inboard. The pumps have been so installed
as to place the suctions as low in the hull as hull structural considerations would permit. Even so, when dredging at, say, 40-ft
depth and pulling in a solids/water mixture of perhaps 1.2 average
specific gravity, the pump will pull a vacuum in the range of 22
to 28 inHg, regardless of the fact t h a t the p u m p centerline may
actually be several feet below the outside water surface.
Theoretically, if the pump were to be placed at the channel
bottom, the p u m p suction would always be under a high static
head and the p u m p would never pull a vacuum. The limitation
on pump performance then would be the available power for
pushing the solids/water mixture up the dragarm piping and into
the hoppers.
One dredge was built in Europe with the dredge pump actually
placed at the draghead on the channel bottom. Dredges built later
than this one placed the dredge p u m p about half way up the
dragarm, apparently to reduce handling problems and problemsarising from sending hydraulic or electric power down the dragarm to such depths. On the Corps' medium- and large-class
dredges the pumps are placed about halfway up each dragarm.
Figure 5 demonstrates the need for the submerged dredge
pumps for deep dredging. It shows the calculated pump performance on the dredge Essayons (presently the Corps' largest
dredge) at various dredging depths, with extended suction pipe
hypothesized to reach the greater depths. The pumps are placed
inboard on this dredge and thus are limited in performance by
the increased vacuum exerted at greater depths. Performance
is seen to be acceptable up to about 60- to 65-ft depth, but a sharp
drop-off in performance is seen to start at about 70 ft.
The medium- and large-class hopper dredges will have inboard
dredge pumps in addition to the dragarm-mounted pumps. These
are needed primarily for direct p u m p o u t operation so t h a t the
dredges can unload themselves into a shore disposal area. However, piping connections are such t h a t either or both of the inboard pumps can also be used for dredging in the event the overside pumps are down for repairs. In such a case, the p u m p /
motor module of the d r a g a r m is replaced by a length of pipe, on
the medium-class dredge. On the large-class dredge, the inboard
pumps will take suction from the centerwell drag, and the side
dragarms will be stowed out of service:
T h e pumps and motors of the dragarm-mounted units will be
close-coupled. The pumps will have 28-in. inside diameter suction
and 26-in. inside diameter discharge. The motors will be 3-phase
squirrel-cage induction type, operating at 2400 V and oil-cooled.
Enclosures and seals will be specially designed for submerged
operation.
Motor speed i s controlled by control of engine speed, t h a t is,
by control of ac frequency produced by the generator. Speed
control is automatic, but the operator can change over to manual
control if the situation so requires.

Pump p o w e r
Careful consideration has been given to the dredge p u m p
MARINE TECHNOLOGY

Table 4

Dredge
Comber class
Essayons
Goethals
Lyman class
Harding
McFarland
Markham
Pacific
West Coast
Large class b
Medium class

Comparison of hopper door sizes

Area of bay, ft 2

Volume of Bay, yd 3

Area of Door, ft 2

Area of Door % of area

Area of Door % of VolumeC

300
450
369
196
368
286
433
304
315
404 to 644
425

255
345
401
115
340
262
340
125
150
516 to 743
502

19.5
23.86
23.43
13.77
21.0
18.0 a
20.2a
16.0
24.0
66.0
64.0

6.5
5.3
6.3
7.0
5.7
6-3a
4.7 a
5.3
7.6
16.3 to 10.2
15.0

7.6
6.9
5.8
12.0
6.2
6.8
5.9
12.8
16.0
12.8 to 8.9
12.8

a These are projected areas, half of actual. Doors are on a slope of 60 deg.
b NOTE: Hopper bays not uniform due to hopper arrangement. Data represent span of characteristics.
c Square footage of hopper door area per 100 yd 3.
power requirements, especially for dredging. There was a time
when it was thought t h a t the more power one could apply to a
pump, the better the operation. This thinking was justified when
pumps driven by large low-pressure reciprocating steam engines
were actually underpowered. The advent of the compact electric
motor drive encouraged the use of higher pump power, and
eventually some dredges were built with too much pump power.
This resulted in fluid being discharged into the hopper so fast as
to create a degree of turbulence that inhibited the settling of
solids in the hoppers. Under these conditions, solids were being
washed past the overflows at a rapid rate. T h e pumps had to be
slowed down in order to improve the hopper retention rate, that
is, the settling rate of solids in the hoppers.
An analysis of this situation revealed that there is an optimum
average discharge rate from the pumps into the hoppers and that
this rate is proportional not to the hopper volume b u t to the
h o p p e r surface area. Mathematically, this is expressed as
Q = KA

If A is the hopper area in square feet, Q will be the total discharge

rate into the hoppers, in cubic feet per second. K is a factor having
the dimension cubic feet per second per square foot of h o p p e r
area. The analysis, based on a study of experience with all
Corps-owned hopper dredges, some better than others, indicates
t h a t this factor should not exceed 2.5 to assure an acceptable
solids settling rate. This is known as the "ponding ratio." W i t h
the aid of this figure, and a calculation of the total p u m p head
when flow is taking place at design velocity and density (usually
24 fps at the pump discharge and 1.2 specific gravity of mixture),
the pump power is obtained from the well-known formula
bhp = QWH/550 E
where W is the mixture density in pounds per cubic foot, H is the
total pump head, in feet of fluid, and E is the assumed p u m p
efficiency.
It is emphasized t h a t the p u m p power so derived serves well
the average situation. There are situations where this power
calculation is not binding. For example, if a dredge is pumping
fine silt, which does not settle at all in the hoppers, it has been
found t h a t the most economical mode of operation is simply to
fill the hoppers as rapidly as possible to the point of overflow, and
then stop pumping and take the load to the disposal area. At the
other extreme, settling takes place very rapidly when pumping
very coarse grain sand or gravek In either of these situations, all
available power will be used. Likewise, with a submerged pump,
which can bring up heavier densities unlimited by vacuum considerations, power is limited only by mechanical and geometric
considerations and by how dense a mixture can economically be
" p u s h e d " up the dragarm by the pump.
Some consideration m u s t also be given to the power requirements for direct p u m p o u t operation (DPO). However, the reOCTOBER 1980

quired power may vary with line length, the discharge head to be
developed and the density of the mixture t r a n s p o r t e d to shore.
The power level can be established somewhat arbitrarily, from
practical machinery considerations, b u t it is i m p o r t a n t to consider the head to be developed for the largest combination of line
length and discharge elevation, as this will influence the impeller
diameter and rpm. Since it will be desired to p u m p out with full
power on short lines as well as intermediate and long lines, a range
of r p m with 100 percent power capability m u s t be provided. I t
is for this reason t h a t dc motors will drive the inboard dredge
p u m p s of both the M C H D and the LCHD.
Hopper

door areas

A significant change in hopper door sizing has been accomplished in the three new dredges, to make them faster dumpers,
again to chop a minute or two off the cycle time. A step taken on
two preceding dredges to speed up dumping was the establishm e n t of unsymmetrical hopper slopes, to prevent arching of
material, particularly sand, in the hoppers. T h e next logical
course was to increase the door size to the m a x i m u m p e r m i t t e d
by structural design.
Table 4 shows statistics for the hopper doors of existing dredges
and of the three new dredges. The improvement in the latter is
evident.
The size and number of hopper door openings in the three new
dredges are as follows:
DREDGE

NO. OF D O O R
OPENINGS

SIZE OF O P E N I N G S
L W

Yaquina
MCHD
LCHD

6
12
14

6 ft 9 in. 3 ft 8 in.
8 ft 0 in. x 8 ft 3 in.
8 ft 0 in. X 8 ft 3 in.

A possibility considered, in the interest of speeding up the

dumping process, was to design the dredges as split-hull types,
designs favored by contractors now building hopper dredges in
the United States patterned after European designs. In this
matter, as well as in other aspects of design, top-level operating
personnel of the Corps were consulted prior to commencing the
dredge designs, and a consensus was obtained t h a t for these
particular three dredges adoption of a split-hull design was not
a practical approach. This decision was not reached lightly, and
not without experience. The Corps owns and operates one small
split-hull hopper dredge (the Currituck, Wilmington District,
in N o r t h Carolina) as well as a number of split-hull hopper
barges, and the Corps may very well in the future design and
construct another split-hull type of hopper dredge. For the three
new dredges, however, the reasons for deferral of the split hull
approach were compelling. These included the required versatility of the dredges. In particular, direct pumpout through long
lines, to distances of at least 2 miles, without assistance by external booster stations, is a current need and one which is certain
377

of wider application. This requires provision of large high-pressure high-power pumping plants forward, not easily accommodated in the half hulls of the split-hull design. The split hull might
have been adopted for the small dredge Yaquina, which is not
equipped for direct pumpout capability, but this dredge is required to operate at shallow draft with a 300-yd load as well as
at 12- and t3-ft drafts with heavier loads. Special problems would
have been encountered designing split hulls with provision for
the self-opening and self-closing capability at several drafts,
which is normally expected of this type vessel at a single draft.
C o n t r o l l a b l e - p i t c h propellers
The application of controllable-pitch (CP) propellers for a
hopper dredge is no longer new, since the Corps began this on the
dredge Harding in 1958 and again on the dredge McFarland,
completed in 1967. The Harding wheels were each 2000 hp and
those on the McFarland 3000 shp. The dredge Pacific, repowered
in 1977, was fitted with two CP wheels, each absorbing 1050 shp.
For the large-class dredge each wheel will absorb 5000 shp, and
on the medium-class dredge 3350 shp. On the small dredge Yaquina each propeller will absorb about 1050 hp.
This will bring to six the total number of Corps dredges fitted
with CP propellers, constituting evidence of the eminent suitability of such propellers for dredge service. This is so because
dredges operate basically in three propulsion modes: (1) While
dredging, the vessel is in a towing mode, "towing" its dragarms
against the resistance of the channel bottom; (2) when loaded,
it is in a free-running mode at deep draft, going to the dump; and
(3) when light, it is in the free-running mode at light draft with
trim by the stern, returning to the dredging area. For maximum
working effectiveness it is desirable to use full or nearly full
propulsion power in each of these conditions. With a fixed-pitch
propeller system this is not possible. With a controllable-pitch
propeller system, the diesel engine (and propeller) can be operated at 100 percent speed and the pitch can be adjusted to allow
the engine to deliver 100 percent power in any mode.
Prior to the advent of CP propellers, the Corps used dc electric
motor propulsion with fixed-pitch wheels. Automatic controls
responding to electric current level in the power loop between
propulsion generator and motor armatures adjust the propeller
rpm for the free-running conditions, so that full horsepower is
utilized whether the ship is at loaded or light draft. For the
dredging mode, however, the establishment of a good dredging
speed, usually about 3 knots, requires lowering of the motor
terminal voltage, so that full power cannot be developed. Full
propulsion power when dredging is not always necessary, but
there are many times when the dredges are working against
strong currents and need to generate high thrust to maintain
reasonable headway while "towing" the drags against bottom
resistance.
The availability of full power under any operating mode can
help to cut a minute here and a minute there off the dredging
cycle. These reductions translate in increases in production.
Assuming again the 180-min dredging cycle referred to earlier,
each individual minute cut off this cycle time represents better
than a 0.5 percent increase in production. That is one reason why
CP propellers for dredges are here to stay. Additionally, the CP
propulsion equipment is lighter and less costly than the equivalent motor and generator and electric controls, and somewhat
more energy-efficient. The additional maintenance problems
presented by the CP propulsion control mechanisms are somewhat offset by the elimination of propulsion generator and motor
and control maintenance.

without exceeding the designloaded draft of the hull when all fuel
and water tanks are full. As the consumables are expended, the
vessel can obviously carry more sand load without exceeding the
permissible loaded draft. If, for example, the vessel carries 1170
LT of fuel and water, then, at the 90 percent burnout point, the
hoppers could contain an additional 702 yd 3 of sand without
exceeding the loaded draft, provided, of course, that the hopper
volume is sufficient to hold the extra sand.
But the dredges do not operate exclusively in sand. Frequently,
they dredge much lighter bottoms, in some cases encountering
bottom material densities as light as 75 lb/ft s, or about 0.9 LT/
yd 3. It would take 11 170 yd 3 of this light material to have a
weight equal to 6702 yd 3 of wet sand! A commonly encountered
mud has a density of about 1.2 LT/yd3; 8378 yd 3 of this material
is equal in weight to 6702 yd 3 of wet sand.
It is not practical to design a hopper dredge with hoppers of
such depth as to accommodate the entire spectrum of bottom
densities in sufficient volume always to load the hull to its designed draft. A limit is reached when the center of gravity of the
load in the hoppers gets so high as to affect adversely the vessel
stability. Contributing to this effect is the fact that the weights
of the hopper distribution piping, valves, hopper structure and
all other appurtenances over the hopper area are also moving
upward as the hopper coamings are raised in the effort to enclose
more hopper volume.
Nevertheless, within this limitation the effort should be made
to accommodate a reasonably wide range of densities. With the
three new dredges it has been found that this could be done.
Figure 6 is a chart showing the capabilities in this respect of the
LCHD. This dredge is intended to carry 6000 yd 3 of wet sand at
29.5-ft draft with all tanks full. At 90 percent burnout it will carry
about 6700 yd 3 of sand. The maximum hopper volume was set
at 8400 yd 3. Depending on the specific gravity of the hopper load,
the volume of material that can be carried at any condition of
burnout at 29.5-ft draft is shown in Fig. 6.
A similar chart for the MCHD, designed to carry 4800 yd 3 of
wet sand (1.5 LT/ydU), would show the volumes of lighter densities that can be carried at its loaded draft of 27 ft, up to its
maximum hopper volume of 6000 yd 3.

Hopper overflow level

A dredge can fill its hoppers only to the level of its overflow
weirs. At this point the hopper fluid spills over the weirs and is
conducted via overflow troughs and ducts to the sea, or surrounding water. Most dredges operate with one or more fixed
overflow levels, selected by opening or closing louver-type
structures in the hopper coaming or sides. The location of the
overflow level is now determined with some regard for promoting
the maximum production capability of the dredge during the
burnout cycle. This is best illustrated by example.
One requirement of the small shallow-draft dredge Yaquina
is that it must be capable of carrying 300 yd 3 of wet sand at a draft
not in excess of 10 ft when all fuel and water tanks are full. Since
there had to be provided enough consumables for 12 days of operation, the tank contents, 180 LT, constitute a respectable
percentage relative to the hopper load. In this p~lrticular instance,
the sand used in design computations had a wet density of 1.35
LT/yd 3. Thus the weight of a 300-yd load is 405 LT. At the 90
percent burnout point, therefore, the dredge theoretically could
carry 567 LT or 420 yd 3 of sand.
Consider, now, the two extremes: (1) If the overflow level is set
at 300 yd 3, then the dredge can initially load up to 300 yd, but as
fuel and water are consumed it will be unable to hold any more
than 300 yd. Thus, as burnout occurs, the ship will not be loaded
to design draft. (2) At the other extreme, suppose the overflow
Hopper capacities
level is set at 420 yd. Initially, then, the hoppers must be limited
A hopper dredge is nominally designed to carry, say, 6000 yd 3 to that weight of sand plus water above the sand such that toof wet sand having a density of 1.5 long tons (LT) per cubic yard gether the total weight of hopper contents does not exceed 405
378

MARINE TECHNOLOGY

85OO

MAX

HOPPER

. . . .

VOLUME:8400

-~Z

CU YDS

d)
123
rr"

130
ch

_ _ ~ ~'3_2~
~ ~

j.-/
650C

60C0

IO

20

30
40
50
PERCENT BURNOUT

60

70

80

90

Fig. 6 LCHD hopper capacity. Carrying capacity of vessel at 29.5-ft draft, based on
preliminary design trim and stability conditions as affected by material density. Burnout
includes potable and fresh waters, fuel oil and domestic stores

LT. A simple algebraic calculation will show t h a t the initial sand

capability is about 140 yd S. At 90 percent burnout, when 162 L T
of consumables have been expended, the permissible weight of
hopper contents is 567 LT, so that the dredge can, at this ultimate
point in the provisioning cycle, carry 420 yd ~ of sand. A straight
line can be drawn between these two sand capacities to show how
much sand will be carried at intermediate burnout percentages.
It is seen from Fig. 7 that Alternative 1 never permits the sand
load to rise above its initial 300-yd level. Alternative 2 starts with
the sand at the 140-yd level, but the sand level rises progressively
with burnout until it reaches the maximum permissible 420-yd
level. Over the entire provisioning cycle, which level results in
carrying the most sand? Is there an intermediate overflow level,
less than 420 yd b u t more than 300 yd, which over the provi sioning cycle will permit carrying a maximum a m o u n t of
sand?
The answer is yes, and readers with any fondness for mathematics can do what the author did and set this up as a calculus
problem to find t h a t value of overflow level which, when integrating the total production under the curve between the 0 and
90 percent burnout limits, results in maximum production.
The result is

C=Y, 4

C = 300 4

Accordingly, a fixed overflow level for the Yaquina working at

10-ft draft would be placed at 350 cubic yards. This vessel is also
provided with higher overflow levels for working at drafts up to
12ft.
If a comparison is made of the total areas under the curves of
Fig. 7, it will be found t h a t they are in the ratio of about 101 to
108 to 117. It is seen t h a t the o p t i m u m overflow level permits a
sizeable percentage increase in production over the extreme alternatives.

i j

//

200

/ /

Jl

/1t

I
I
I
I

j -

350

CI)

3oo

u~

Sw Tb
Ss

1 . 3 5 - 0.771 162
= 351
1.35
1.35

./..--~ ~

--

Ss

where C is the cubic yards at the optimum overflow level, Yn the

nominal design sand load with all tanks full (300 yd 3 in the
foregoing example), Ss and Sw the density of sand and water
respectively, in long tons per cubic yard, and Tb the long tons of
consumables expended at the end of the burnout period.
Applying this result to the chosen example

400

a
<

Ss

I
I
1

u~

100

I
I

I
!
I

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

PERCENT BURNOUT
Fig. 7

OCTOBER

1980

Comparison of alternative extreme overflow load levels for dredge

Yaquina

379

420

400

9 3oo-'~-~
&

233

200

. . . . .

Q
Z

~oe
I

0
Fig. 8

I0

20

30
40
50
PERCENT BURNOUT

60

70

80

90

Difference in total cycle production between variable and fixed overflow levels

C o n t i n u o u s l y variable o v e r f l o w s
It follows logically from the preceding discussion of overflow
level that if this level could be made continuously adjustable,
operators could take advantage of burnout continuously.
Pursuing the example of the dredge Yaquina in the previous
section, the initial sand load, when all tanks are full, could be 300
yd 3, which would be obtained by depressing the variable overflows to the 300-yd level. For succeeding loads, the overflows
would be raised a little to take advantage of consumables expended in the interim. Eventually, at the 90 percent burnout
point, the sand load could be 420 yd 3. A straight line can be drawn
between 300 and 420 yd to show how much sand can be carried
at intermediate points of the burnout cycle.
This has been done in Fig. 8, and the shaded area represents
the difference in total cycle production between continuously
variable overflow and o p t i m u m fixed overflow level. A comparison of the areas will show a production capability increase of
better than 10 percent. If compared with that for a fixed overflow
at the 300-yd level, the production increase is over 20 percent!
In view of this possibility for increased productivity, continuously variable overflows are being provided on all three new
hopper dredges.
The variable overflows are vertical large-diameter tubes which
penetrate the hull bottom and which (on the LCHD and MCHD)
are tapered out to form a large-diameter round basin at the top.
The latter feature provides a long weir edge. (On the small dredge
Yaquina, the overflow basins are rectangular.) Four such overflows are being provided, arranged one each port and starboard
forward and aft in the hopper area. The top segment telescopes
in and out of the lower fixed segment for adjustability of level.
T h e overflows are remotely controlled by the dredging control
officer in the pilothouse. They are also incorporated in the automation system for certain types of dredging.

equipped to make repairs, replacements or suitable adjustments

and continue operation.
When something like the parting of dragarm wire rope or
damage to and loss of a dragarm happens to a dredge operating
in the United States, the dredge can call its base and summon
help in the form of tugboats, floating cranes, etc., or proceed to
a nearby shipyard, if necessary, for repairs. When operating
overseas, particularly in military theaters, such is not the case.
For example, dredges operating in South Vietnam during the
most recent military actions had to go considerable distances,
such as to Japan, Guam, Manila or Singapore, for repairs.
A particular problem considered for these dredges, especially
for the MCHD, was how to cope in the event of failure of one or
both of the overside pumps. On the MCHD, to continue operation
using the respective inboard p u m p or pumps, it is necessary to
remove the pump module and to replace it with a length of suction pipe. These modules are heavy; their weight is expected to
approach 40 tons each. A larger crane than usually provided on
hopper dredges would be needed if the dredge was to be selfsufficient in this respect. To accommodate this need, the crane
specified for the MCHD is required to have a lifting capability
of 40 tons at 45-ft radius. Furthermore, it is required that the crane be able also to service
the dredge pump and pump motor compartments forward and
the main machinery compartment aft. To reach these spaces
without having to provide an inordinately long boom, the cranes
will be of the revolving type on a traveling gantry. The necessary
rails will be fitted over the hopper area, and the gantry will in its
travels clear the various items of deck and hopper equipment in
its area.
Similarly on the LCHD, a traveling crane is provided to accommodate the long service area. Traveling cranes of this type
have been provided on recently built European dredges. This will
mark the first use of the traveling-type crane on U. S. dredges.

D e c k cranes

Conclusion

A consideration which had influence on a number of items of

equipment and outfit was the requirement t h a t these dredges,
particularly the MCHD and LCHD, be capable of operating reliably in remote areas, in overseas locations of special interest to
the United States, with minimal logistic support. In particular,
in the event of breakdowns, the dredge must be sufficiently well

The scope of this paper has been purposely limited to a presentation of those features which could be considered "new and
different" in the design of the three new hopper dredges. No att e m p t has been made to delineate the design of any one or more
of the dredges, so there is no presentation and discussion of arrangement plans, scantling plans, compartmentation, outfitting,

380

MARINE TECHNOLOGY

etc. This task is left for others who might wish to and may prepare
one or more papers dealing specifically with each of these dredges
upon their completion and delivery. Nevertheless, this paper
should serve to demonstrate that the design of dredges is not a
static endeavor. There is a continuous motivation to make the
dredging process more effective and to decrease the cost of operation. Holding down the initial cost of the vessel must be
compatible with these two objectives and with the requirement
to build an inherently safe vessel, as dictated not only by Coast
Guard and classification society rules, but also by the hazards
peculiar to dredge operation.
Nor do these designs represent the ultimate. As these dredges
go into construction, advances will continue to be made in materials, equipment and controls. Future designs will take advantage of such new developments and also address new problems that are and will be surfacing, such as even greater energy
conservation. The challenges are unending, but it has been a great
source of satisfaction to the author to have played a part in the
design of these three new hopper dredges that include many
design features new to the United States.

Acknowledgment
This paper has been cleared for publication pursuant to review
by personnel of the Office of the Chief of Engineers, U. S. Army,
Washington, D. C. Comments furnished by Mr. William R.
Murden, of that office, are gratefully acknowledged.

Discussers
George R. Knight, Jr.
Eugene R. Santhin
Frank L. Pavlik
George A. Johnson
W. A. Cleary, Jr.
Hugh P. McManus
Merville Willis

Appendix 1
Letter, 23 June 1977, from U. S. Coast Guard
(G-MMT-5/82) to C. F. Bean Corporation.
C. F. Bean Corporation
Attn: Allen J. Dupont
One Shell Square, Suite 3700
New Orleans, La 70139
Gentlemen:
Subj:
C.F. Bean Corporation
Self-Propelled Trailing Suction Hopper Dredge
Freeboard and Damage Stability
Ref:

(a) Your letter dated 1 June 1977

(b) Bureau Veritas Guidance Note N. I. 144 BM
1--"Freeboard of Dredges and Barges Fitted
with Bottom Dump Doors"
(c) Conference between Messrs Dupont and Schultz
(C. F. Bean) and Johnson and Ewing (G-MMT5) on 13 May 1977

Reference (a) requested a reduced freeboard for a selfpropelled trailing suction hopper dredge when dredging which
is less than that for load line certification. The Load Line
Regulations do not at present permit freeboards less than the
minimum permitted under 46 CFR 42.20 for Coastwise or
International voyages. However, the Coast Guard published
an advance notice of proposed rulemaking in the 2 August
1976 issue of the Federal Register concerning the need for
OCTOBER 1980

subdivision on hopper dredges. In due course, it is anticipated

that the Coast Guard will publish regulations for the safe
design of hopper dredges which will achieve a balance between
reduced freeboards and damage stability standards.
Recognizing that your design is underway, a Coastwise Load
Line Certificate may be issued with a special "working"
freeboard for voyages not more than 20 miles from a safe
harbor. A "working" freeboard up to one-half the tabular
B-100 freeboard may be authorized provided the ship meets
the following conditions:
a. The strength of the ship shall be shown to be adequate at
the draft associated with the decreased freeboard.
b. The operation of the ship shall be limited to not more
than 20 miles from a port of a refuge.
c. The ship shall not proceed to sea when winds greater
than 35 m.p.h, or seas higher than 10 feet are predicted, and it
shall return immediately when such winds or seas are
indicated.
d. An internal draft indicator shall be fitted on the bridge
of the ship showing mean drafts, and the gauge shall be
conspicuously marked at both the "working" drafts for less
than 20-mile voyages and the normal coastwise maximum
draft.
e. Reference (b) is complied with in all respects except that
instead of the free surface formulae given in Appendix 1,
paragraph 6, the actual free surface effect of the moment of
transference method must be used.
f. The ship shall be able to withstand the following side
damage at any position along the length of the vessel at the
deepest "working" draft:
1. Transverse: Beam/5
2. Longitudinal: 0.495(L) 2/s
3. Vertical: Without limit
The following conditions must be met:
1. The final waterline is below the lower edge of any
opening in the hull through which progressive flooding may
take place.
2. The final angle of heel does not exceed 30 degrees.
3. The residual stability must be such that the righting
lever curve has at least a positive range of 20 degrees
beyond the angle of equilibrium in association with a
maximum residual righting lever of at least 4 inches.
g. The ship must meet 46 CFR 93.07, the weather criteria.
h. If centerline bulkheads are used below the bulkhead
deck, access through them shall be by means of class 3 sliding
watertight doors.
The normal coastwise B-100 freeboard shall be calculated and
marked in accordance with the provisions of 46 CFR 42.20-10;
two compartment damage stability must be shown. The '
"working" freeboard shall be stated on the face of the Load
Line Certificate, using the following sentence:
"This ship, when operating on a voyage within the following
operating boundaries, may be loaded to a mean draft of__
feet _ _ inches:
a. not more than 20 miles from safe harbor
b. not more than 35 m.p.h, winds
c. not more than 10 foot waves."
During reference (c), it was indicated that the ship would be
an open hopper design. A ship that does not have hatch covers
on the main deck must be considered a novel vessel under
381

Article 6 of the 1966 International Convention on Load Lines

(ILLC). Article 16 of ILLC, 1966 states that an International
Load Line Exemption Certificate shall be issued to a ship
granted an exemption under Article 6. Exemption certificates
are to be treated the same as other International Load Line
Certificates by Contracting Governments.
When you have a definite design, the American Bureau of
Shipping may be authorized to issue an International Load
Line Exemption Certificate with the following condition
stated on the certificate:
"While making an international voyage, only seawater is
permitted in the ship's hoppers."
Issuance of an Exemption Certificate will be contingent upon
the intact and damage stability of the ship being approved by
the Coast Guard with the hoppers full of seawater.
Any regulations promulgated after the date of this letter
would not be retroactive. However, you would be able to take
advantage of any future regulation that may benefit your
design.
When you have a definite design, submit four copies of a
general arrangement to this office so that final decision can be
made concerning load line assignment. All other plans and
calculations should be submitted to:
Commander(mmt)
Eighth Coast Guard District
New Orleans, Louisiana 70130
Sincerely,
C. B. Glass
CAPT, U.S. Coast Guard
Chief, Merchant Marine Technical Division
By direction of c o m m a n d a n t
CC:

ABS, NY Attn: A. Ritola

CCGD8 (mint)
CCGD8 (m)
R. JOHNSON:dig 6/21/77

Appendix 2
Excerpt of noise and vibration control
requirements from MCHD specifications
GT-09 NOISE AND VIBRATION CONTROL

(a) General. The Contractor shall, in the planning and design

of systems and arrangements and in the selection and installation
of machinery and equipment, take into consideration the quality
and intensity of noise generated by machinery and equipment
to which personnel on and off duty will be subject. The Contractor shall take specific measures outlined in these specifications to reduce noise from specific areas. Elsewhere the Contractor shall exercise reasonable precautions and take practical
steps to limit the level of noise to which personnel on and off duty
will be exposed.
The noise and vibration control program shall be developed
based on the operation of all machinery required for normal
dredging service with two dredge pumps operating.
382

Where and as required by these specifications the following

noise levels shall not be exceeded:
(Sound Pressure Levels in db Re 0.0002 Microbar).
OCTAVE BAND
CENTER
FREQUENCIES
Hz(cps)

63
125
250
500
1000
2000
4000
8000

CATEGORY
A

83
78
75
72
64
58
53
50

CATEGORY

CATEGORY
C

78
70
64
58
54
52
50
49

100
95
90
90
85
85
85
85

CATEGORY
D

100
90
83
75
73
71
71
71

Category A consists of spaces where comfort of personnel is

normally considered to be a factor and includes the pilothouse,
engineer's central control station and all officer and crew quarters
areas (staterooms, mess rooms, recreation spaces, ships office,
and passageways in these areas). Category B consists of spaces
where it is essential to maintain especially quiet conditions. These
spaces shall include the master's and chief engineer's state rooms
and offices. Category C consists of spaces where a higher noise
level is expected and where deafness avoidance is a greater consideration than intelligible speech communication. This may
include spaces adjacent and in close proximity to spaces containing internal combustion engines and other reciprocating
machinery.
Areas covered by this category include but are not limited to
Machine Shop, Frames 112 to 125, starboard 25-ft level and
Electricians Shop, from 131 to 136, Port 15 ft 6 in. level. Category
D consists of those locations on the open deck that require some
degree of noise control and where voice communication is important. These locations are Boat Deck, frames 125 to 145, 17 ft
off centerline port and starboard; Navigation Bridge Deck, frame
118, 18 ft to port of centerline; Poop Deck, frames 118 to 125, 28
ft off centerline port and starboard; Poop Deck, frame 167, 12 ft
off centerline port and starboard; Poop Deck, frames 140 to 155,
28 ft off centerline port and starboard; and Fo'c'sle Deck, frame
20 on centerline.
Spaces which have noise levels that are of sufficient intensity
to cause potential hearing loss shall be identified as "H" spaces
or hazardous spaces. Category H spaces shall include the engine
room, generator room, auxiliary machinery room, fan rooms,
emergency generator room, engine castings and uptakes. These
hazardous noise spaces shall be identified as such at all entrances,
and notices at entrances to these spaces shall advise personnel
of the need for hearing-defender muffs to protect their
hearing.
Noise levels specified shall not be exceeded at any microphone
measuring position when all machinery and equipment in and
around the surveyed space, area or station are being operated in
a normal manner. Measurements shall be made with a calibrated
precision sound level meter and octave band filter set (analyzer)
conforming to ANSI Standard $1.4 and $1.11, respectively, and
a pressure-sensitive microphone. The number and location of
microphone positions in each space or at each area or station
Metric Conversion Table

Original measurements in this paper are given in U. S. customary units.

Following is a list of standard factors for conversion to metric values:
1 mile = 1.6 km
1 yd = 0.9144
1 ft = 0.3048
1 in. = 25.4 mm
1 yd3 = 0.8 m3
1 ft 2 = 0.092 m2
1 long ton = 1.016 047 metric tons
1 inHg = 3.376 85 kPa
1 shp = 0.7457 kW

MARINE TECHNOLOGY

surveyed shall be such that the airborne character is well described.

The minimum number of microphone positions shall be two,
and the chosen positions shall be subject to approval by the
Contracting Officer's Representative. Measurements shall be
made with the sound level meter in the flat frequency response
setting. Sound pressure levels shall be corrected for the frequency
response of the instrumentation used and shall be recorded to
the nearest whole decibel. A set of measurements shall consist
of a wide band sound pressure level and sound pressure levels in
each of the octave bands in the 31.5 to 8000 Hz range.
(b) Specific Measures. Among the specific measures which
the Contractor takes in the interest of noise abatement shall be
included the following, for which specifications may appear
elsewhere:
(1) Enclosure shall be constructed over and around the engineer's central control station.
(2) Install all engine generator sets on suitable isolators
properly selected with regard to the forcing frequencies of the
respective drivers.
(3) Provide efficient sound attenuation for engine intake and
exhaust systems.
(4) Provide flexible noise and vibration attenuating connections between all engines, piping and ductwork.
(5) Acoustically seal all penetrations into the engineer's central
control enclosure.
(6) Provide stiff engine foundations that will assure minimum
transmission of vibration to ship's structure.
(7) All other reciprocating engines or compressors on the vessel
shall be installed in resilient mountings and extra stiff steel
foundations. Piping to all reciprocating machinery shall include
flexible noise attenuating connections at the machines. See
Paragraph (d) for specific installation requirements.
(8) Ductwork for all ventilation systems and air supply or
exhaust systems shall be extra stiff to prevent vibration. Round
ducts shall be used where feasible. Ductwork shall be isolated
from fans or blowers by vibration-attenuating connections. Any
ducts located in quiet areas shall be lined with noise-absorbent
materials to achieve specified sound levels, as and if necessary.
Fans or blowers serving or located in the vicinity of living and
working spaces shall be mounted on vibration isolators as specified in Paragraph TS 4-20 and in Paragraph (d) below, as applicable.
(9) Piping in high-pressure or in high flow velocity systems
from reciprocating machinery shall be supported on mountings
which are secured to the ship,s structure by vibration isolators
as specified in Paragraph (d), below. Flexible connections of
suitable design shall be placed at appropriate points in such
piping to avoid propagation of vibration and improper
stressing.
(10) Care shall be taken in the selection and/or installation
of pumps, compressors and blowers to provide, where practicable,
types which will have less objectionable noise characteristics.
(11) The bulkheads and decks in the engine rooms shall be
lined for attenuation and absorption of noise. Consideration shall
be given the need to attenuate noise in establishing bulkhead and
deck plate thickness.
(12) The engineers' central control station enclosure design
shall take into consideration the acoustic absorption requirements.
(13) All access doors between compartments of different sound
criteria levels shall have automatic door closures and be gasketed.
Each door shall be treated to have a transmission loss equal to
the surrounding bulkheads.
(14) During sea and working trials, the Contractor shall make
every effort to locate and correct unsatisfactory vibration conditions.
(c) Noise Abatement Program. Unless otherwise approved
OCTOBER 1980

by the Contracting Officer, the Contractor shall hire the services

of a well-recognized noise-control consulting firm with broad
marine acoustic experience to develop an Integrated Noise
Abatement Program (INAP) which shall describe all the specific
measures to be taken for the control of noise. One such consulting
firm considered to have the required qualifications is Bolt, Beranek, and Newman, Inc. of Cambridge, Mass. Other such firms,
equally qualified and having marine experience, will be acceptable subject to approval by the Contracting Officer. The INAP
shall be developed during the course of construction and submitted to the Contracting Officer for review and approval. The
program shall include details and technical information on all
sound-reducing materials, components, devices, systems, enclosures, coatings, etc., including method and location of application, typical installation details, and predicted noise levels at
various spaces. All working drawings encompassing sound reduction features shall be reviewed by the consultant and attested
to for suitability of equipment and details of construction, by the
signed statement of the consultant applied thereto, prior to
submittal to the Contracting Officer for approval. During construction and installation, the consultant shall monitor all sound
reduction work to insure adherence to the principles of sound
absorption and sound transmission reduction incorporated in
the design features by the Contractor.
NOTE: The provisions of specification item TS4-21 are not
automatically to override the recommendations contained in the
INAP. Conflicting requirements shall be brought to the attention
of the Contracting Officer for prompt resolution.
(d) Specific Installation Requirement. All machinery determined to be a part of a noise-critical system shall be installed
on isolation mounts of either the low-frequency or the distributed
isolation material (DIM) type. In addition to items that are part
of a noise-critical system, other items shall be sound-isolated as
required by these specifications or at the shipbuilder's discretion.
Where a possibility of misalignment exists between two or
more machinery components connected by shafting, the components shall be mounted on a common subbase with the mounts
installed between the subbase and the ship structure. The subbase should be of sufficient stiffness to prevent misalignment Of
the attached units when the subbase is rigidly supported at three
extreme corner points.
(1) Resilient Type (low-frequency) Mounts. Equipment with
a fundamental rotational frequency at maximum speed of 90 Hz
or below shall be installed on low-frequency (5 to 15 Hz natural
frequency) mounts. Mountings shall comply with MIL-M-17191,
MIL-M-17508, MIL-M-19379 and MIL-M-19863, or MIL-M21649 as applicable, and shall also be approved for marine service.
The resilient elements of mounts shall not be painted.
Mounts shall be installed before their shelf lives exceed seven
years. The date mountings loaded by the units they support shall
be stamped on a metal part of the mount or on a metal tag attached near the mount adjacent to mounting identification data.
When the mountings are installed, this date shall be visible
without removing the mounting from its installed position.
The adjustment and alignment of the mountings shall be such
that all mountings are supporting their designated share of the
equipment weight.
(2) Distributed Isolation Material (DIM). For units with a
fundamental rotational frequency at top rps of above 90 HZ, the
use of a distributed isolation media-type mounting scheme is
approved. The shipbuilder at his option may use low-frequency
mounts for this service as well.
The DIM shall be "Isomode" manufactured by MB Electronics
Co., Inc., "Facabel" manufactured by Fabreeka Products Co.,
"Vibra-check" manufactured by Lowell Industries, Inc., or equal.
DIM shall be selected based on its demonstrated compatibility

383

with the ship's environment, on its ability to attenuate noise and

vibration in the desired frequency range, and to avoid objectionable amplification outside this range.
DIM shall be loaded to the degree specified by the manufacturer for proper isolation and shall be provided with means to
prevent excess loading resulting from overtightening of mounting
bolts as well as means to maintain the mounted item captive
under vessel motions. Bolts shall have bushings of material
similar to the DIM to prevent metal-to-metal contact. The norreal bolt and hole clearance shall be increased by twice the wall
thickness of the bushing.
(3) Flexible Hose. All piping to and from machinery on resilient mounts shall be connected to the mounted unit by flexible
hose of construction, pressure and type consistent with the application, similar to Aeroquip High Strength Synthetic Fibre
Reinforced Hose or other equal polyester or Kevlon reinforced
hose.
All hoses shall be at least one size larger than the piping to
which they are connected in order to match the inside diameters
as closely as possible.
All hoses shall be 24 in. overall length with a stainless steel,
straight, 37-deg J.I.C. female swivel on one end and a stainless
steel, straight, male pipe thread on the other end. It is the intent
to standardize these hoses to the maximum possible extent
consistent with the service. The contractor shall generate a hose
list as specified in Section GT-04(b) and include it in the Consumable Supplies Manual required in that section.
Wherever possible, the hoses shall be installed so as to be
parallel to the axis of least vibration or displacement of the
equipment being connected.
Gages shall be installed using flexible hoses of the same configuration except that the length may be increased not to exceed
48-in. overall; however, all gage line flexible hoses shall be the

384

same length throughout the ship. Where additional length is

required, it shall be made up using high-pressure stainless steel
tubing.
Gage lines and all flexible hoses shall be supported by resilient
pipe hangers where required.
(4) Electrical Connections. When electrical cables are connected to resiliently mounted equipment, a minimum of 18 in.
free length of cable should be provided between the point of attachment on the equipment and the first cable hanger. At least
3 in. of slack should be provided to allow for motion of the machinery. At the first point of attachments to the ship's structure,
the hanger should be terminated in a rigid frame or stiffener.
(5) Pipe Hangers. All fluid systems, except those identified
in Subparagraph (b) (9), that have equipment mounted on lowfrequency mounts shall use resilient pipe hangers for those parts
of the system located below the upper deck and aft of frame 57.
Systems identified in Subparagraph (b) (9) above shall be resiliently supported throughout aft of frame 57. Resilient pipe
hangers for this piping shall incorporate resilient mounts conforming to MIL Specs. MIL-M-19379, MIL-M-24476, or MILM-17508 similar to Parker stainless steel multiclamp system
C-PH-32SS
Hangers shall be attached to heavy stiff structures and shall
not be attached directly to the hull plating.
Other fluid systems that extend into or through spaces specifled not to exceed A, B, and C noise level categories shall be
supported by resilient hanger attachments of the rubber block
type or insert type in the form of an incomplete ring immediately
adjacent to the pipe itself, and compressed as the hanger is bolted
up. Where high-temperature piping is involved, a suitable material shall be substituted for the rubber liner. Rubber shall be
compressed to snub pipes; maximum compression should not
exceed 25 percent of original thickness.

MARINE TECHNOLOGY