Air Pollution PDF

Chapter 3
AIR POLLUTION
AIR POLLUTION
Topics to be studied
Physical and chemical fundamentals
Ideal gas laws

Daltons law of partial pressure
Adiabatic expansion and compression
Units of measure
Converting g/m3 to ppm
Effects of air pollutants

Effects on materials
Mechanism of deterioration
Effects on vegetation
Cell and leaf anatomy
Problems of diagnosis
AIR POLLUTION
Effects on health
Susceptible population
Anatomy of the respiratory system
Inhalation and retention of particles
Chronic respiratory disease
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Hazardous air pollutants (HAPs)
Lead (Pb)
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
Photochemical oxidants
PM10
Sulphur oxides (SOx) and total suspended particles (TSP)
AIR POLLUTION
Origin and fate of air pollutants
Carbon monoxide
Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs)
Lead
Nitrogen dioxide
Sulphur oxides
Particulates
Micro and macro air pollution
Indoor air pollution
Acid rain
Ozone depletion
Global warming
Scientific basis
Impacts
A rationale for action
AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution metrology
The atmospheric engine
Highs and lows
Turbulence
Mechanical turbulence
Thermal turbulence
Stability
Neutral stability
Unstable atmosphere
Stable atmosphere
Plume types
AIR POLLUTION
Atmospheric dispersion
Factors affecting dispersion of air pollutants
Source characteristics
Downwind distance
Wind speed and direction
Stability
Indoor air quality control
AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution control of stationary sources
Gaseous pollutants
Absorption
Adsorption
Combustion
Flue gas desulfurization (FGD)
Non regenerative systems
Control technologies of nitrogen dioxides
Prevention
Post combustion
Particulate pollutants
Cyclones
Filters
Liquid scrubbing
Electrostatic precipitation
Control technologies for mercury
AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution control of mobile sources
Engine fundamentals
The gasoline engine
The diesel engine
The jet engine
Effects of design and operating variables on emission
AIR POLLUTION
Physical and chemical fundamentals
Ideal gas law
Assuming that at the same temperature and pressure,
different kinds of gases have densities proportional to
their molecular masses. This may be written as
= PM
RT
= density of gas, kg/m3
M = molecular mass, grams/mole
T = absolute pressure, K
Universal gas constant
Ideal gas law

Since density is mass per unit volume, hence
PV = nRT
Where V is the volume occupied by n moles of gas.
Daltons law of partial pressure
Forms the basis for the calculation of the correction factor.
Dalton found that the total pressure exerted by the mixture of
gases is equal to the sum of the pressures that each type of gas
would exert if it alone occupied the container
Pt = P1 + P2 + P3 +..
Pt = total pressure of mixture
P1, P2, P3 = pressure of each gas if it were in container alone, partial
pressure
Ideal gas law

Daltons law also may be written in terms of the ideal
gas law:
Pt = n1 RT + n2 RT + n3 RT +.
V
V
V
= (n1 + n2 + n3 + ) RT
V
Adiabatic expansion and compression

Air pollution metrology is in part a consequence of the
thermodynamic processes of the atmosphere
One such process is adiabatic expansion and
contraction
Ideal gas law

Let us consider a piston and cylinder.
The cylinder and the piston face are assumed to be
perfectly insulated.
The gas is at pressure at P. A force, equal to PA must be
applied to the piston to maintain equilibrium.
If the force is increased and the volume is compressed the
pressure will be increased and the work will be done on the
gas by the piston.
Since no heat enters or leaves the gas, the work will go into
increasing the thermal energy of the gas in accordance with
the first principle of thermodynamics that is
Heat added to gas = increase in thermal energy + external
work done by or on the gas
Ideal gas law

Since the left side of the equation is zero (because it is
an adiabatic process), the increase in thermal energy is

equal to the work done.
Increase in thermal energy is reflected by an increase
in the temperature of the gas.
If the gas is expanded adiabatically, its temperature
will decrease.
Units of measure
The three basic units of measure used in reporting air
pollution data are micrograms per cubic meter (g/m3),

parts per million (ppm), and micron or micrometre (m).
Converting (g/m3) ppm
The conversion between g/m3 and ppm is based on the fact
that at standard condition (0oC and 101.325 KPa), one mole of

an ideal gas occupies 22.414 L.
Thus we may write an equation that converts the mass of the
pollutant Mp in grams to its equivalent volume Vp in liters at
standard temperature and pressure.
Vp = Mp x 22.414 L/GM
GMW
where GMW is the gram molecular weight of the pollutant.
Converting (g/m3) ppm

We use ideal gas law to make the correction
22.414 L/GM x T2 x 101.325 kPa
273K P2
Where T2 and P2 are the absolute temperature and
absolute pressure at which the readings were made.
Since ppm is a low volume ratio, we may write as
ppm = Vp
Va

Effects in material (mechanism of deterioration)
Five mechanism of deterioration
Abrasion
Deposition and removal
Direct chemical attack
Indirect chemical attack
Electrochemical corrosion
Solid particles of large enough size and travelling at high
enough speed can cause deterioration by abrasion.

With the exception of soil particles in dust storm and lead
particles from automatic weapons fire, most air pollutant
particles either too small or travel at too slow a speed to be
abrasive.

Solubilization and oxidation/ reduction reactions typify
direct chemical attack.

Water must be present as a medium for these reactions
to take place.
Sulphur dioxide and SO3 in the presence of water react
with limestone (CaCO3) to form calcium sulphate
(CaSO4) and gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) are more soluble in
water than CaCO3 and both are leached away when it
rains.
The tarnishing of silver by H2S is a classic example of an
oxidation/reduction reactions.

Indirect chemical attack occurs when pollutants are absorbed
and then react with some component of the absorbent to

form a destructive compound.
The compound maybe destructive because it forms an
oxidant, reductant, or solvent.
A compound can be destructive by removing an active bond
in some lattice structure.
Leather becomes brittle after it absorbs SO2, which reacts to
form sulphuric acid because of the presence of minute
quantities of iron.
The iron acts as a catalyst for the formation of the acid.
Oxidation/reduction reactions cause local chemical and
physical differences on metal surfaces.

Effects on vegetation (Cell and leaf anatomy)
Leaf is the primary indicator of the effects of air pollution on plants
is should be understood how the leaf functions.
A typical plant has three main components
The cell wall

The protoplast
The inclusions
Cell is in younger plants is thick and gradually thickens with age.
Protoplast is the terms used to describe the protoplasm of one cell.

It consists of water but it also includes protein, fat , carbohydrates.
The nucleus contains DNA which controls the operation of cell.
Protoplasm located outside the nucleus is called cytoplasm.

Problems of diagnosis
Various factors make it difficult to diagnose actual air
pollution damage.
Droughts, insects, disease, herbicide overdose, and
nutrient deficiencies call can cause injury that resembles
air pollution damage.
Combinations of pollutants that alone cause no damage
are known to produce acute effects when combined.
This effect is known as synergism.

Effects on health
Susceptible population
It is difficult at best to assess the effects of air pollution on human

health.
Personal pollution from smoking results in exposure to air pollutant
concentrations far higher than the low levels found in the ambient
atmosphere.
Anatomy of respiratory system

The respiratory system is the primary indicator of air pollution
effects in humans.
The major organs of the respiratory system are the nose, pharynx,
larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs known as the upper respiratory
tract (URT)
Lower respiratory tract (LRT) consists of the branching structures
known as bronchi and the lung itself, composed of grape like
clusters of sacs called alveoli.

The degree of penetration of particles into the LRT is
primarily a function of the size of the particles and the rate of
breathing.
Particles greater than 5 to 10 m are screened out by the hairs
of the nose.
Sneezing also helps the screening process.
Particles in the 1 to 2 m size range penetrate to alveoli.
These particles are small enough to bypass screening and
deposition in the URT, how ever they are big enough that
their terminal settling velocity allows them to deposit where
they can do most damage.

Particles that are 0.5m in diameter do not have a large enough
terminal velocity to be removed efficiently.
Smaller particles diffuse to the alveolar walls.
Carbon monoxide (CO)
colourless, odourless, gas is lethal to humans within a few minutes
at concentrations exceeding 5,000 ppm.
CO reacts with haemoglobin in the blood to form
carboxyhemoglobin (COHb).
Haemoglobin has a greater affinity for CO than it does for oxygen.
Hence the formation of COHb effectively deprives the body of
oxygen.
At COHb levels of 5 to 10 percent, visual perception, manual
dexterity and ability to lean are impaired.

Exposure to air toxics in the workplace is generally much
higher than the ambient air.
Asbestos, arsenic, benzene, coke oven emissions, and
radionuclides may cause cancer.
Lead (Pb)
Lead is a cumulative poison.
Has the ability to ingested in food and water.
Lead is measured in the urine and blood for diagnostic
evidence of lead poisoning.
Chronic exposure to lead may result in brain damage
characterized by seizure, mental incompetence, and highly
active aggressive behaviour.

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
Exposure to NO2 concentrations above 5 ppm for 15 minutes
results in cough and irritation of the respiratory tract.
Continued exposure may produce an abnormal accumulation
of fluid in the lung.
The gas is reddish brown in concentrated form and gives a
brownish yellow tint at lower concentrations.
Photochemical oxidants include peroxyacetyl nitrate,
acrolein, aldehydes, and nitrogen oxides, the major oxidant is
ozone (O3).
Ozone is commonly used as an indicator of the total amount
of oxidant present.

Sulphur oxides (SOx) and total suspended particulates
(TSP)
Sulphur oxides include sulphur dioxide, trioxide, their
acids, and the salts of their acids.

Patients suffering from chronic bronchitis have shown
an increase in respiratory symptoms when the TSP levels
exceeds 350 g/m3 and the SO2 level was above 0.095
ppm.
Origin and fate of air pollutants

Carbon monoxide
Incomplete oxidation of carbon results in the production of
carbon monoxide.
The natural formation of CO results in formation of an
intermediate step in the oxidation of methane.
The hydroxyl radical (OH.) serves as the initial oxidizing
agent.
it combines with CH4 to form an alkyl radical.
CH4 + OH.
CH3. + H2O
This reaction is followed by a complex series of 39 reactions,
which have been oversimplified to the following
CH3. + O2 + 2(hv)
CO + H2 + OH.

This says that CH3 and O2 are each zapped by a
photon of light energy (hv)

The symbol v stands for the frequency of the light. The
h planks constant = 6.626 x 10-34 J/Hz.
Anthropogenic sources (those associated with the
activities of human beings) include motor vehicles,
fossil fuel burning for electricity and heat, industrial
processes, solid waste disposal, and miscellaneous
burning of such things as leaves and brush.

EPA has identified 166 categories of major sources and 8
categories of area sources for the HAPs.
The source categories represent a wide range of
industrial groups such as
Fuel combustion
Metal processing
Petroleum and natural gas production
Surface coating processes
Waste treatment
Disposal processes
Agricultural chemical production

Lead
Volcanic activity and airborne soil are the primary sources of
atmospheric lead.
Smelters and refining processes, as well as incineration of
lead containing wastes are major point sources of lead.
Approximately 70 to 80 percent of the lead that used to be
added to gasoline was discharged to the atmosphere.
Nitrogen dioxide
Bacterial action in the soil releases nitrous oxide (N2O) to the
atmosphere.
In the upper troposphere and stratosphere, atomic oxygen
reacts with the nitrous oxide to form nitric oxide (NO).
N2O + O2
2NO

Nitrogen dioxide
The atomic oxygen results from the dissociation of ozone. The
nitric oxide reacts with ozone to form nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
NO + O3
NO2 + O2
Combustion processes account for 96 percent of the
anthropogenic sources of the nitrogen oxides.

Although nitrogen and oxygen co exist in our atmosphere
without reaction, their relationship is much less indifferent at
high temperatures and pressures.
At temperature in excess of 1,600 K they react
N2 + O2
2NO (heat)

Unlike the other pollutants, the photochemical oxidants
result entirely from atmospheric reactions and are not directly
attribute to either people or nature.
They are also known as secondary pollutants.
Formed through a series of reactions initiated by the
absorption of a photon by an atom, molecule, free radical, or
iron.
Ozone is the principal photochemical oxidant.
It formation is usually attributed to the nitrogen dioxide
photolytic cycle.
Hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and ozone react and interact
to produce more nitrogen dioxide and ozone.
Figure shows the cycle

Sulphur dioxides
Sulphur dioxide may be both primary and secondary
pollutants.
Power plants, industry, volcanoes, and the oceans emits SO2,
SO3 and SO42 Biological decay processes and some industrial sources emits
H2S which is oxidized to form the secondary pollutant SO2.
The most important oxidizing reaction for H2S appears to be
one involving ozone
H2S + O3
H2O + SO2
The combustion of fossil fuels containing sulphur yields
sulphur dioxide in direct proportion to the sulphur content of

the fuel.
S + O2
SO2

Particulates
Sea salt, soil dust, volcanic particles, and smoke from
forest account for 2.9 Pg of particulate emissions each
year.
Secondary sources of particulates include the conversion
of H2S, SO2, NOx, NH3 and hydrocarbons.
H2S and SO2 are converted to sulphates.
NOx and NH3 are converted to nitrates.
The hydrocarbons react to form products that condense
to form particles at atmospheric temperatures.
Micro and macro air pollution

Air pollution problem may occur on three scales
Micro, meso and macro
Micro scale problems range from those covering less than a
centimetre to those the size of a house or slightly larger.

Meso scale air problems are those of few hectares up to the size
of a city or county.
Macro scale problems extend from counties to states, nations
and in the broad sense globe.
Indoor air pollution
Carbon monoxide from improperly operating furnaces has long
been a serious concern.

Chronic low level of CO pollution have also been recognized.
Gas ranges, ovens, pilot lights, gas and kerosene space heaters and
cigarette smoke all contribute.

Acid rain
Unpolluted rain is naturally acidic because CO2 from the
atmosphere dissolves to a sufficient extent to form carbonic acid.
The equilibrium pH for pure rainwater is about 5.6.
The average pH range in rain weighted by the amount of
precipitation over the United States in 1997 is shown in the figure.
Chemical reactions in the atmosphere convert SO2, NOx, and the
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) to acidic compounds and
associated oxidants.
The primary conversion of SO2 is through aqueous phase reaction
with the hydrogen per oxide (H2O2) in clouds.
Nitric acid is formed by the reaction of NO2 with OH radicals
formed photo chemically.
Ozone is formed and then protected by a series of reactions
involving both NOx, and VOCs.

Acid rain
Concern about acid rain relates to potential effects of acidity on
aquatic life, damage to crops and forests and damage to building
materials.
Low pH values may effect fish directly by interfering with
productive cycles or by releasing otherwise insoluble aluminium,
which is toxic.
Ozone depletion
Without ozone every living thing on the earths surface will be
incinerated.
The presence of ozone in the upper atmosphere (20 to 40 km)
provides as barrier to ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
Too much UV will cause skin cancer.
Although oxygen also serves as a barrier to UV radiation, it absorbs
only over a narrow band cantered at a wavelength of 0.2 m.

Acid rain
The photochemistry of these reactions is shown in
figure.
Air pollution meteorology
The atmospheric engine
The atmosphere is somewhat like an engine.

It is continually expanding and compressing gases,
exchanging heat, and generally raising chaos.
Sun provides the required energy for all processes to occur.

Highs and lows
Since air has mass it exerts pressure on things under it.
The atmosphere exerts more pressure at the surface than
it does at higher elevations.
The highs and lows depicted on weather maps are
simply areas of greater and lower pressure.
The elliptical lines shown on more detailed weather
maps are lines of constant pressure, or isobars.
A two dimensional plot of pressure and distance
through a high or low pressure system would appear as
shown in the figure.

Highs and lows
The wind flows from the higher pressure areas to the lower pressure
areas.
On a no rotating planet the wind direction would be perpendicular
to the isobars.
Since the earth rotates, an angular thrust called the coriolis effect is
added to this motion.
Technical names given to these systems anti cyclones for highs and
cyclones for lows.
Anticyclones are associated with good weather.
Cyclones on the other hand are associated with foul weather.
Tornadoes and hurricanes are the foulest of the cyclones.
Wind speed is in part a function of the steepness of the pressure
surface.

Turbulence
Mechanical turbulence
In its simplest terms, we may consider turbulence to be the addition of
random fluctuations of wind velocity (that is, speed direction) to the
overall average wind velocity.
These fluctuations are caused, in part, by the fact that the atmosphere
is being sheared.
The shearing results from the fact that the wind speed is zero at the
ground surface and rises with elevation to near the speed imposed by
pressure gradient.
Shearing results in tumbling, tearing motion as the mass just above the
surface falls over the slower moving air at the surface.
The swirls thus formed are known as eddies feeding the larger ones.
Greater the mean wind speed, the greater the mechanical turbulence
which results in easier dispersion and spreading atmospheric
pollutants.

Thermal turbulence
Heating of the ground surface causes turbulence in the same fashion
that heating the bottom of a beaker full of water causes turbulence.
At some point below boiling density currents rises off the bottom.
If earths surface is heated strongly and in turn heats the air above it,
thermal turbulence will be generated.
Stability
Tendency of the atmosphere to resist or enhance vertical motion is
termed stability.
It is related to both wind speed and the change of air temperature with
height.
There are three stability categories
Unstable
Neutral
Stable

Neutral stability
The laps rate for a neutral atmosphere is defined by the rate of
temperature increase (or decrease) experienced by a parcel of
air that expands (or contracts) adiabatically (without the
addition or loss of heat).
This rate of temperature decrease is called the dry adiabatic
lapse rate designated by Greek letter gamma with a value of
approximately -1.00oC/100m .
Unstable atmosphere
If the temperature of the atmosphere falls at a rate greater
than gamma, the lapse rate is said to be super adiabatic and
the atmosphere is unstable.
Using figure we can see that this is so.
The actual lapse rate is shown by a solid line.

Unstable atmosphere
If we capture a balloon full of polluted air at elevation A and
adiabatically displace it 100 m to elevation B, the temperature
of the air inside the balloon will decrease from 21.15 to
20.15oC.
At a lapse rate of -1.25OC/10o m, the temperature of the air
outside the balloon will decrease from 21.15o to 19.9o.
The air inside the balloon will be warmer than the air outside,
this temperature difference gives the balloon buoyancy.
It will behave as a hot gas and continue to rise without any
mechanical support effort.
Thus mechanical turbulence is enhanced and the atmosphere
is unstable.

Unstable atmosphere
If we adiabatically displace the balloon downward to elevation
C, the temperature inside the balloon would rise at the rate of
the dry adiabat.
Thus in moving 100 m, the temperature will increase from
21.15 to 22.15oC.
The temperature outside the balloon will increase at the super
adiabatic lapse rate to 22.40oC.
The air in the balloon will be cooler than the ambient air and
the balloon will have a tendency to sink.
Again mechanical turbulence (displacement) is enhanced.

Stable atmosphere
If the temperature of the atmosphere falls at a rate less than,
it is called sub adiabatic, and the atmosphere is stable.
If we again capture a balloon ait at elevation A and
adiabatically displace it vertically to elevation B, the
temperature of the polluted air will decrease at a rate equal to
the dry adiabatic rate.
Thus in moving 100 m, the temperature will decrease from
21.15 to 20.15oC as before.
Since the ambient lapse rate is -0.5oC/100 m, the temperature
of the air outside the balloon will have dropped only 20.65oC.
Because the air inside the balloon is cooler than the air
outside the balloon, the balloon will have the tendency to
sink.

Stable atmosphere
Hence the mechanical displacement (turbulence) is
initiated.
In contrast if we displace the balloon adiabatically to
elevation C, the temperature inside the balloon would
increase to 22.15oC while the ambient temperature would
increase to 21.65oC.
In this case, the air inside the balloon be warmer than
the ambient air and the balloon would tend to rise.
Again the mechanical displacement would be inhibited.

Stable atmosphere
There are two special causes of sub adiabatic lapse rate.
When there is no change of temperature with elevation,
the lapse rat is called isothermal.
When the temperature increases with elevation, the
lapse rate is called an inversion.
The inversion is the most severe form of a stable
temperature profile.
Often associated with restricted air volumes that cause
air pollution episodes.

Plume types
The smoke trail or plume from a tall stack located on flat
terrain has been found to exhibit a characteristic shape
that is dependant in the stability of the atmosphere.
Figure shows six classical plumes along with the
temperature profiles.
In each case
is given as a broken line to allow
comparison with the actual lapse rate given as a solid
line.
In the bottom three cases, particular attention should be
given to the location of the inflection point with respect
to the top of the stack.

Terrain effects
Heat islands
A heat island results from mass of material, either natural or

anthropogenic, that absorbs and reradiates heat at a greater
rate than the surrounding area.
This causes moderate to strong vertical convection currents
above the heat island.
Large industrial complexes and small to large cities are
example of places that would have a heat island.
Because of the heat island effect, the atmospheric stability will
be less over a city than it is over the surrounding countryside

Land/sea breezes
Under a stagnating anticyclone, a strong local circulation
pattern may develop across the shore line of large water
bodies.
During the night, the land cools more rapidly than the water.
The relatively cooler air over the land flows towards the water.
Suring morning the land heats faster than the water.
The air over the land becomes relatively warm and begins to
rise. The rising air is replaced by air from over the water body.
The effect of the lake on stability is to impose a surface based
inversion on the temperature profile.
As the air moves from the water over the warm ground, it is
heated from below.

Values
When the general circulation imposes moderate to strong
winds, valleys that are oriented at an acute angle to the wind
direction channel the wind.
The valley effectively peels off the part of the wind and forces
it to allow the direction of the valley floor.
Under a stagnating anticyclone, the valley will setup its own
circulation.
Warming of the valley walls will cause the valley air to be
warmed.
It will become more buoyant and flow up the valley.
At night the cooling process will cause the wind to flow down
the valley.
Atmospheric dispersion
Factors affecting dispersion of air pollutants
The factors that affect the transport, dilution, and dispersion of air
pollutants can generally be categorized in terms of the emission
point characteristics, the nature of the pollutant, meteorological
conditions, and effects of terrain and anthropogenic structures.
Most industrial effluents are discharged vertically into the open air
through a stack or duct.
As the contaminated gas stream leaves the discharge point, the
plume tends to expand and mix with the ambient air.
Horizontal air movement will tend to bend the discharge plume
toward the down wind direction.
The effluent plume will level off between 300 and 3,000m
downwind.

While the effluent plume is rising, bending, and beginning to
move in a horizontal direction, the gaseous effluents are
being diluted by the ambient air surrounding the plume.
As the contaminated gases are diluted by larger and larger
volumes of ambient air, they are eventually dispersed toward
the ground.
The plume rise is affected by both the upward inertia of the
discharge gas stream and by its buoyancy.
The vertical inertia is related to the exit gas velocity and mass.
The plumes buoyancy is related to the exit gas mass relative
to the surrounding air mass.

Increasing the exit velocity or the exit gas temperature will generally
increase the plume rise.
The plume rise, together with the physical stack height, is called the
effective stack height.
Downward distance
The greater the distance between the point of discharge and a ground
level receptor downwind, the greater will be the volume of air available
for diluting the contaminant discharge before it reaches the receptor.
Wind speed and direction
The wind direction determines the direction in which the
contaminated gas stream will move across local terrain.
Wind speed affects the plume rise and the rate of mixing or dilution of
the contaminated gases as they leave the discharge point.
An increase in wind speed will decrease the plume rise by bending the
plume over more rapidly.

Stability
The turbulence of the atmosphere follows no other
factor in power of dilution.
The more instable the atmosphere, the greater the
diluting power.
Inversions that are not ground based, but begin at some
height above the stack exit act as a lid to restrict vertical
dilution.
Air pollution control of stationary

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Gaseous pollutants
Absorption
Control devices based on the principle of absorption attempt to transfer

the pollutant from a gas phase to a liquid phase.
This is a mass transfer process in which the gas dissolves in the liquid.
The dissolution may or may not be accompanied by a reaction with an
ingredient of the liquid.
Mass transfer is a diffusion process where in the pollutant gas moves
from points of higher concentration to points of lower concentrations.
Removal takes place in three steps
Diffusion of the pollutant gas to the surface of the liquid

Transfer across the gas/liquid interface (dissolution)
Diffusion of the dissolved gas away from the interface into the liquid.

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Absorption
Structures such as spray chambers and towers or columns are two
classes of devices employed to absorb pollutant gases.
In scrubbers which are a type of spray chambers, liquid droplets are
used to absorb the gas.
In towers a thin film of liquid is used as an absorption medium.
Regardless of the type of device, the solubility of the pollutant in
the liquid must be relatively high.
If water is the solute it generally limits the application to a few
inorganic gases such as NH3, Cl2 and SO2.
Scrubbers are relatively inefficient absorbers but have the advantage
of being able to simultaneously remove particulates.
Towers are much more efficient absorbers but they become plugged
by particulate matter.

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Absorption
The amount of absorption that can take place for a
nonreactive solution is governed by the partial pressure of the
pollutant.
For dilute solutions as we have in pollution control systems,
the relationship between partial pressure and the
concentration of the gas in solution is given by Henrys law
Pg = KHCequil
Where Pg = partial pressure of gas in equilibrium with liquid,
kPa
KH = henrys law constant, Kpa.m3/g
Cequil = concentration of pollutant gas in the liquid phase,
g/m3

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Absorption
The given equation implies that the partial pressure of the gas
must increase as the liquid accumulates more pollutant or
else it will come out of solution.
Since the liquid is removing pollutant from the gas phase, this
means the partial pressure is decreasing as the gas is cleaned.
This is just the reverse what we want to happen.
The easiest way to get around this problem is to run the gas
and liquid in opposite directions.
This is called counter current flow.
In this manner the high concentration gas is absorbed into a
liquid with a high pollution concentration.

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Absorption
The lower concentration gas is absorbed by liquid with
no pollutants in it.
A mass balance diagram of a counter current flow
absorption column is shown in the figure. The mass
balance equation is
Three variables of interest in the design of a packed
tower are the
Gas flow rate

Liquid flow rate
Height of the tower

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Adsorption
Mass transfer operation in which the gas is bonded to a solid.
It is a surface phenomenon.
The gas (the adsorb ate) penetrates into the pores of the solid
(the adsorbent) but not into the lattice itself.
The bond maybe physical or chemical.
Electrostatic forces hold the pollutant gas when physical
bonding is significant.
Chemical bonding is by reaction with the surface.
Pressure vessels having a fixed bed are used to hold the
adsorbent.

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Adsorption
Activate carbon (activated charcoal), molecular sieves, silica
gel, and activated alumina are the most common adsorbent.
Active carbon is manufactured from nut shells (coconuts are
great) or coal subjected to heat treatment in a reducing
atmosphere.
Molecular sieves are dehydrated zeolites (alkali metal
silicates).
Sodium silica is reacted with sulphuric acid to make silica gel .
Activated alumina is a porous hydrated aluminium oxide.

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Adsorption
the common property of these adsorbents is a large active
surface per unit volume after treatment.
They are very effective for hydrocarbon pollutants.
In addition they can capture H2S and SO2.
One special form of molecular sieve can also capture NO2.
With the exception of active carbons, adsorbents have the
drawback that they preferentially select water before any of
the pollutants.
Thus water must be removed from the gas before it is treated.

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Adsorption
All of the adsorbent are subjected to destruction at moderately high
temperatures (150oC for active carbon, 600oC for molecular sieves,
400oC for silica gel, and 500oC activated alumina).
They are very insufficient at high temperatures.
In fact their activity is regenerated at these temperatures!
The relation between the amount of pollutant adsorbed and the
equilibrium pressure at constant temperature is called adsorption
isotherm.
This relation can effectively be described by Langmuir
W = aCR*
1 + bCg*
Where W = amount of gas per unit mass of adsorbent, kg/kg
a,b = constants determined by experiment
Cg* = equilibrium concentration of gaseous pollutant, g/m3

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Combustion
When the contaminant in the gas stream is oxidizable to an
inert gas, combustion is a possible alternative method of
control.
Typically, CO and hydrocarbons falls in this category.
Both direct and flame combustion by afterburners and
catalytic combustion have been used in the commercial
applications.
Direct flame incineration is the method of choice if two
criteria are satisfied.
First the gas stream must have a net heating value (NHV)
greater than 3.7 MJ/m3. At this NHV, the gas flame will be
autogenously (self supporting after ignition).

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Combustion
Below this point supplementary fuel is required.
The second requirement is that none of the by products of
combustion be toxic.
In some cases the combustion by product may be more toxic
than the original pollutant gas.
For example combustion of trichloroethylene produces
phosgene, which was used as a poison gas in World War I.
Direct flame incineration has been successfully applied to
varnish cooking, meat smoke house, and paint bake-oven
emissions.

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Combustion
Some catalytic materials enable oxidation to be carried out in
gases that have an NHV of less than 3.7 MJ/m3.
Conventionally, the catalyst is placed in beds similar to
absorption beds. Frequently the active catalyst is a platinum
or palladium compound.
The supporting lattice is usually a ceramic.
Aside from expense, a major drawback of the catalysts is their
susceptibility to poising by sulphur and lead compounds in
trace amounts.
Catalytic combustion has successfully been applied to
printing-press, varnish-cooking, and asphalt-oxidation
emissions.

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Combustion
The fundamental problem is the design of a catalytic reactor is to
determine the volume and dimensions of the catalytic bed for a
given conversion and flow rate.
The catalyst increases the rate of reaction at lower temperatures
than are required in direct flame incineration.
The reaction is assumed to be first order reaction while the reaction
rate constant k may be estimated from the Arrhenius equation for
flame incineration, the reaction rate constant for catalytic
incineration is highly dependant on the catalyst.
Typical catalyst operating temperatures are in the range of 25o550oC.
The actual residence time is estimated from the total gas flow rate
(contaminated gas stream plus the combustion gases) at operating
temperature of the catalyst.

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Flue gas desulfurization (FGD)
Falls into two broad categories
Non regenerative
Regenerative
Non regenerative means that the reagent used to remove
the sulphur oxides from the gas stream is used and

discarded.
Regenerative means that the reagent is recovered and
reused.
In terms of the number and size of system installed,
non regenerative systems dominate

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There are nine commercial non regenerative systems.
All have reaction chemistries based on lime (CaO), caustic
soda (NaOH), soda ash (Na2CO3) or ammonia NH3.
The SO2 removed in a lime/limestone based FGD system is
converted to sulphite.
The overall reaction are generally represented as
Although the overall reactions are simple, the chemistry is
quite complex and well not defined.
The choice between the lime and the limestone, the type of
limestone and the method of calcining and slaking can
influence the gas-liquid-solid reactions taking place in the
absorber.

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The principal types of absorbers used in the wet scrubbing systems
include venturi scrubber/absorbers, static packed scrubbers,
moving bed absorbers, tray towers, and spray towers.
Spray dryer based FGD system consists of one or more spray dryers
and a particulate collector.
The reagent material is typically a slaked lime slurry or a slurry of
lime and recycled material.
Although lime is the most common reagent, soda ash has also been
used.
The reagent is injected in droplet form into the flue gas in the spray
dryer.
The reagent droplet absorbs SO2 while simultaneously being dried.

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Ideally the slurry or solution droplets are completely
dried before they impact the wall of the dryer vessel.
The flue gas stream becomes more humidified in the
process of evaporation of the reagent droplets, but it
does not become saturated with water vapour.
This is the single most significant difference between
spray dryer FGD and wet scrubber FGD.
The humidified gas stream and a significant portion of
the particulate matter are carried by the flue gas to the
particulate collector located downstream of the spray
dry vessel.

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Control technologies for nitrogen oxides
Almost all nitrogen oxide (NOx) air pollution results from
combustion processes.
They are produced from the oxidation of nitrogen bound in
fuel, from the reaction of molecular oxygen and nitrogen in
the combustion air at temperatures above 1,600 K and from
the reaction of nitrogen in the combustion air with
hydrocarbon radicals.
Control technologies for NOx are grouped into two categories
Those that prevent the formation of NOx during the combustion

Those that convert the NOx formed during combustion into nitrogen
and oxygen.

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Prevention
The processes in this category employ the fact that the reduction of
the peak flame temperature in the combustion zone reduces NOx
formation.
Nine alternatives have been developed to reduce flame
temperature.
Minimizing operating temperatures

Fuel switching
Low excess air
Flue gas recirculation
Lean combustion
Staged combustion
Low NOx burners
Secondary combustion
Water/steam injection

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Prevention
Routine burner tune-ups and operation with combustion zone
temperatures at minimum values reduce the fuel consumption and
NOx formation.
Converting to a fuel with a lower nitrogen content or one that burns
at a lower temperature will reduce NOx formation.
Low excess air and flue gas recirculation work on the principle that
reduced oxygen concentrations lowest he peak flame temperatures.
In contrast, in lean combustion, additional air is introduced to cool
the flame.
In staged combustion and low Nox burners, initial combustion
takes place in a fuel rich zone that is followed by the injection of air
downstream of the primary combustion zone.
The downstream combustion is completed under fuel lean
conditions at a lower temperature.

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Prevention
Staged combustion consists of injecting part of the fuel and
all of the combustion air into the primary combustion zone.
Thermal NOx production is limited by the low flame
temperatures that result from high excess air levels.
Water/steam injection reduces thermal NOx emissions by
lowering the flame temperature.
Post combustion
Three processes may be used to convert Nox to nitrogen gas :
Selective catalytic reduction

Non catalytic reduction
Non selective catalytic reduction

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Prevention
The SCR process uses a catalyst bed (usually vanadiumtitanium, or platinum-based and zeolite) and anhydrous
ammonia (NH3).
After the combustion process, ammonia is injected upstream
of the catalyst bed.
The Nox reacts with the ammonia in the catalyst bed to form
N2 and water.
In the SNCR process ammonia or urea is injected into the flue
gas at an appropriate temperature (870 to 1,090oC).
The urea is converted to ammonia which reacts to reduce the
Nox to N2 and water.

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Prevention
NSCR uses a three way catalyst similar to that used in
automotive applications.
In addition to Nox control, hydrocarbons and carbon
monoxide are converted to CO2 and water.
These systems require a reducing agent similar to CO and
hydrocarbons upstream of the catalyst.
Larger boilers have post combustion Nox controls are
generally equipped with SCR.
Typical reduction capabilities of the Nox techniques range
from 30 to 60 percent for the prevention methods, 30 to 50
percent for SNCR and 70 to 90 percent for the SCR systems.

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Cyclones
For particle size greater than about 10 micro meter in diameter, the
collector of the choice is cyclone (see figure)
This is and inertial collector with no moving parts.
The particulate laden is gas accelerated through spiral motion,
which imparts a centrifugal force to the particles.
The particles are hurled out of the spinning gas and impact on the
cylinder wall of the cyclone.
They then slide to the bottom of the cone.
Here they are removed through an airtight valving system.
The standard single barrel cyclone will have dimensions
proportioned as shown in the figure.

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The efficiency of collection of various particle sizes can be determined
from an empirical expression and graph developed by Lapple
The value may be determined approximately by the following
Where L1 and L2 are the length of the cylinder and cone, respectively.
As the diameter of the cyclone is reduced, the efficiency of collection is
increased.
However the pressure drop also increases.
This increases the power requirements for moving the gas through the
collector.
Since an efficiency increase will result, even if the tangential velocity
remains constant, the efficiency may be increased without increasing
the power consumption by using multiple cyclones in parallel
(multiclones)

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Filters
When high efficiency control of particles smaller than 5 micro meter is
desired, a filter may be selected as the control method.
Two types are
The deep bed filter

The baghouse
The deep bed filter resembles a furnace filter.

A packing of fibres is used to intercept particles in the gas stream.
For relatively clean gases and low volumes, such as air conditioning
systems, these are quite effective.

For dirty industrial gas with high volumes, the baghouse is preferable.
The fundamental mechanisms of collection include screening or
sieving (where the particles are larger than the opening between the
fibres), interception by the fibre themselves, and electrostatic
attraction(because of the difference in static charge on the particle and
fibre).

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Filters
Once a dust cake begins to from on the fabric, sieving is
probably the dominant mechanism.
A particulate matter collects on the bag, the collection
efficiency process increases.
The build up of the dust cake also increases the resistance to
gas flow.
at some point the pressure drop across the filter bags reduces
the gas flow rate to an unacceptable level and the filter bags
must be cleaned.
The three methods used to clean the bags are
Mechanical shaking
Reverse air flow
Pulse jet cleaning

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Filters
Mechanically cleaned baghouses operate by directing the dirty gas
into the inside of the bag.
The particulate matter is collected on the inside of the bag much in
the same manner as a vacuum cleaner bag.
The bags are hung on a frame that oscillates.
They are shaken at periodic intervals, ranging from 30 minutes to
more than 2 hours.
The bags are arranged in groups in separate compartments that are
taken off line during cleaning.
In reverse air flow cleaning, a compartment is isolated and a large
volume of gas flow is forced counter current to normal operation.
The dust cake is removed by collapsing or flexing the bag.
The reverse flow combined with the inward collapse of the bag
causes the collected dust cake to fall into the hopper below.

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Filters
Pulse jet baghouses are designed with frame structures, called cages, that
support the bags.
In contrast to the other two cleaning methods, the particulate matter is
collected on the outside of the bag instead of the inside of the bag.
The dust cake is removed by directing a pulsed jet of compressed air into the
bag.
This causes a sudden expansion of the bag.
Dust is removed primarily by inertial forces as the bag reaches maximum
expansion.
The pulse of cleaning air is at such high pressure drop and short duration that
cleaning is normally accomplished with the baghouse in line.
Cleaning occurs at 2 to 15 minute intervals.
Extra bags, which are normally provided to compensate for the bags that are
required in the other cleaning schemes, are not required pulse jet baghouses.

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Liquid scrubbing
When the particulate matter to be collected is wet, corrosive, or very
hot, the fabric filter may not work.
Liquid scrubbing might.
Typical scrubbing applications include control of emission of talc
dust, phosphoric acid mist, foundry cupola dust, and open hearth
steel furnace.
Liquid scrubbers vary in complexity.
Simple spray chambers are used for relatively coarse particle sizes.
Fro high efficiency removal of particles, the combination of a
venturi scrubber followed by a cyclone would be selected
The underlying principle of operation of the liquid scrubbers is that
a differential velocity between the droplets of collecting liquid and
the particulate pollutant allows the particle to impinge onto the
droplet.

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Liquid scrubbing
Since the droplet particle combination is still suspended
in the gas stream, an inertial collection device is placed
downstream to remove it.
Because the droplet enhances the size of the particle, the
collection efficiency of the inertial device is higher than
it would be for the original particle without the liquid
drop.
The most popular collection efficiency equation is that
proposed by Johnstone, Field and Tassler.

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Electrostatic precipitator
High efficiency, dry collection of particles from hot gas streams can be obtained
by electrostatic precipitation of the particles.
The ESP is usually constructed of alternating plates and wires.
A large direct current potential (30-75 KV) is established between the wire and
the plate, ions attach to the particles, giving them a negative charge.
The particles then migrate toward the positively charged plate where they stick.
The plates are rapped at frequent intervals and the agglomerated sheet falls to a
hopper.
Unlike baghouse, the gas flow between plates is not stopped during cleaning.
The gas velocity through the ESP is kept low (less than 1.5 m/s) to allow particle
migration.
Thus the terminal settling velocity of the sheet is sufficient to carry it to hopper
before it exits the precipitation.
The classic ESP efficiency equation is the one proposed by Deutsch

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One operational problem of ESPs is of particular note.
Fly ash is a generic term used to describe the particulate matter
carried in the effluent gases from furnaces burning fossil fuels.
ESPs are often used to collect fly ash.
The strongest force holding fly ash to the collection plate is
electrostatic and is caused by the flow of current through the fly
ash.
The fly ash acts as a resistor, hence, resists the flow of current.
This resistance to current flow is called the resistivity of the fly ash.
It is measured in units of ohm.cm.
If the resistivity is too low (less than 104 ohm.cm), not enough
charge will be retained to produce a strong face and the particles
will not stick to the plate.

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Conversely, and often more importantly, if the resistivity
is too high (greater than 1010 ohm.cm), there is an
insulating effect.
The layer of fly ash breaks down locally and a local
discharge of current (back corona) from the normally
passive collection electrode occurs.
This discharge lowers the spark over voltage and
produces positive ions that decrease particle charging
and hence, collection efficiency.

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The presence of SO2 in the gas stream reduces the
resistivity if the fly ash.
This makes particle collection relatively easy.
However, mandate to reduce SO2 emissions has
frequently been satisfied by switching the low sulphur
coal.
The result has been increased particulate emissions.
This problem can be resolved by adding conditioners
such as SO3 and NH3 to reduce the resistivity or by
building larger precipitators.

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Chapter 3

Ideal gas laws

Effects of air pollutants

Ideal gas law

Ideal gas law

Adiabatic expansion and compression

Ideal gas law

work done by or on the gas

Ideal gas law

an adiabatic process), the increase in thermal energy is

pollution data are micrograms per cubic meter (g/m3),

that at standard condition (0oC and 101.325 KPa), one mole of

Converting (g/m3) ppm

Effects of air pollutants

Solid particles of large enough size and travelling at high

enough speed can cause deterioration by abrasion.

Effects of air pollutants

direct chemical attack.

Effects of air pollutants

and then react with some component of the absorbent to

Effects of air pollutants

The cell wall

Cell is in younger plants is thick and gradually thickens with age.

Protoplast is the terms used to describe the protoplasm of one cell.

Effects of air pollutants

Effects of air pollutants

It is difficult at best to assess the effects of air pollution on human

Anatomy of respiratory system

Effects of air pollutants

Effects of air pollutants

Effects of air pollutants

Effects of air pollutants

Effects of air pollutants

acids, and the salts of their acids.

Origin and fate of air pollutants

Effects of air pollutants

photon of light energy (hv)

Effects of air pollutants

Effects of air pollutants

Effects of air pollutants

Combustion processes account for 96 percent of the

anthropogenic sources of the nitrogen oxides.

Effects of air pollutants

Effects of air pollutants

The combustion of fossil fuels containing sulphur yields

sulphur dioxide in direct proportion to the sulphur content of

Effects of air pollutants

Micro and macro air pollution

centimetre to those the size of a house or slightly larger.

been a serious concern.

Effects of air pollutants

Effects of air pollutants

Effects of air pollutants

The atmosphere is somewhat like an engine.

Effects of air pollutants

Effects of air pollutants

Effects of air pollutants

Effects of air pollutants

Effects of air pollutants

Effects of air pollutants

Effects of air pollutants

Effects of air pollutants