Conditioning Circuits

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Structure of Mechatronic Systems

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Signal Amplifiers
Designed to amplify input signals to a right
level to be noticeable for further uses.
Typical input signals are:
thermocouple, RTD, pressure, strain, flow, etc.

Typical outputs include:

high level dc voltages (0 to 5 or 0 to 10 volts),
process current (0 to 20 mA or 4 to 20 mA)

There are commercial signal conditioners with

computer interface ready.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Operational Amplifier (Op Amp)

An operational amplifier (Op
Amp) is an integrated circuit of
a complete amplifier circuit.
Vi1
Vi2

A
B

Vout = (Vi1 Vi 2 ) A

Vout

Op amps have an extremely

high gain (A=105 typically).
typically
Op amps also have a high
input impedance (R=4 M ,
typically)
typically and a low output
impedance (in order of 100 ,
typically)
typically .

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Characters of Operational Amplifiers

high open loop gain
high input impedance
Not used

Offset null

low output impedance

low input bias current

Offset null

wide bandwidth
large common mode
rejection ratio (CMRR)
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Input Impedance
Input

Circuit

Output
WHY HIGH?

Impedance between input

terminals = input
impedance

For an instrument the ZIN

should be very high (ideally
infinity) so it does not divert any
current from the input to itself
even if the input has very high
resistance.
e.g. an op-amp taking input
from a microelectrode.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Output Impedance
Impedance between output terminals =
output impedance

WHY LOW?
Input

Circuit

Output

For an instrument the ZOUT

should be very low (ideally
zero) so it can supply output
even to very low resistive loads
and not expend most of it on
itself.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Voltage Output from an Amplifier

Vout

A
Linear
region

NonNon-linear
region

Vin

The linear range of an

amplifier is finite, and limited
by the supply voltage and the
characteristics of the
amplifier.
If an amplifier is driven
beyond the linear range
(overdriven),
overdriven serious errors
can result if the gain is
treated as a constant.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Analysis of Op-Amp Circuits

Vi1
Vi2

A
B

The following rules can be applied

to almost all op-amp circuits with
external feedback:

Vout

Vout = AOG (V+ V )

No current can enter op amp

input terminals, because of
infinite input impedance
The +ve and ve (non-inverting
and inverting) inputs are forced
to be at the same potential.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

Voltage Follower
V+ = VIN.
By virtual ground, V- = V+
Thus Vout = V- = V+ = VIN !!!!
Due to the infinite input impedance of an op amp,
no current at all can be drawn from the circuit
before VIN. Thus this part is effectively isolated.
Very useful for interfacing to high impedance
sensors such as microelectrode, microphone

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

10

Inverting Amplifier
Point B is grounded, so
does point A (very small).

RF

R1
Vin

A
B

Voltage across R1 is Vin,

and across RF is Vout.

Vout

R3 =

R1 R F
R1 + R F

V out
RF
=
G =
V in
R1

The output node voltage

determined by Kirchhoff's
Current Law (KCL).
Circuit voltage gain
determined by the ratio of
R1 and RF.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

11

Analysis of Inverting Amplifier

RF
iF
R1
Vin
i1
R

Vi- A
i+
V+B

i1 = i + i F = i F

Vout

i1 =

V IN V
R1

and

iF =

V V out
RF

Ideal transfer characteristics: i + = 0 V + = 0 V = 0

i = i+ = 0
V = V+

V
V IN
= out
R1
RF

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

or

V out
R
= F
V in
R1

12

Noninverting Amplifier
Point VA equals to Vin .
RF

R1
A

Vin

Vout

Op-amp circuit is a voltage

divider.
R1
V A = V out
R1 + R F

Circuit voltage gain determined by the ratio of R1 and RF.

V out
RF
G =
=1+
V in
R1
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

13

Differential Amplifier
Point B is grounded, so
does point A (very small).

RF

R1
V1
V2

R2
B

R3

V out

RF
=
(V 2 V 1 )
R1

Vout

Voltage across R1 is V1,

and across R2 is V2.
Normally: R1 = R2, and RF
= R3.
Commonly used as a
single op-amp
instrumentation amplifier.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

14

Design an Instrumentation Amplifier

Design a single op-amp
instrumentation amplifier.
R1 = R2, RF = R3
Determine the instrumentation gain.

RF

R1
V1

R2
V2

R3

Vout

V V OUT
V1 V A
= A
iA
R1
RF

V2 VB
V
+ iB = B
R2
R3

i A = iB 0

VA VB

V out =

RF
(V 2 V1 )
R1

V V OUT
V1 V A
V
V VB
= A
B + 2
R1
RF
R3
R2

V OUT (V A V B
RF
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

) = (V 2

V 1 ) (V A V B
R1

)
15

Instrumentation Amplifier with

isolators
In order to avoid high current driving to the circuit, V1
and V2 input lines are connected straight to the inputs
of two voltage-follower op-amps, giving very high
impedance. The two op-amps on the left now handle
the driving of current through the resistors instead of
letting the input voltage sources (whatever they may
be) do it.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

16

Example 1:
A Sensor outputs a voltage range of 20 to
250 mV. The sensor output has to feed
computer based controller that work at
voltage range of 0 to 5 V. Design the
required conditioning circuit in order to
get the demand voltage range.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

17

Instrumentation Amplifier with Adjustable

Gain
Gain in the multiple stages: i.e.
High Gain so, you can
amplify small signals

Put
some
lowpass
and
high
pass
filters!

Differential
amplifier but
with very high
input
impedance
- So, you can
connect to
sensors

Inverting
amplifier

Differential amplifier ->

it rejects common-mode
interference -> so you
Dr. Ashraf Saleem
can reject noise

Non-inverting
amplifier
18

Instrumentation Amplifier: Stage 1

Recall virtual ground of opamps
I1 = (V1 V2)/R1
I1

I2
I3

Recall no current can enter

opamps and Kirchoffs current law
I2 = I3 = I1
Recall Kirchoffs voltage law
VOUT = (R1 + 2R2)(V1 V2)/R1
= (V1 V2)(1+2R2/R1)
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

19

Instrumentation Amplifier: Stage 2

Recall virtual ground of opamps
and voltage divider
V- = V+ = V2R4/(R3 + R4)
I1

I2
I3

Recall no current can enter

opamps
(V1 V-)/R3 = (V- VOUT)/R4
Solving,
VOUT = (V2 V1)R4/R3
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

20

Instrumentation Amplifier: Complete

VOUT = (V2 V1)(1 + 2R2/R1)(R4/R3)

Gain from Stage I and Stage II
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

21

Example 2:
Re-solve example 1 by using the
adjustable instrumentation amplifier.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

22

Example 3:
A sensor outputs a voltage ranging -2.4 to
-1.1 V. For interface to ADC, this needs
to be 0 to 2.5 V. Develop the required
signal conditioning.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

23

Example 4:
Temperature is to be measured in the range of
250oC to 450oC. The sensor resistance that
varies linearly from 280 to 1060 for the
temperature range. Power dissipated in the
sensor must be kept below 5mW. Develop
analog signal conditioning that provides a
voltage varying linearly from -5 to 5 V for the
temperature range. The load is high
impedance recorder.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

24

Sources of Amplifier Errors

z
z

z
z
z
z
z

Temperature drift: a drift in the output signal per unity

change in the temperature (e.g., v/ oC)
Offset current: present at the input leads due to bias
currents that are needed to operate the solid-state
circuitry.
Offset voltage that might be present at the output even
when the input leads are open.
Common mode output voltage
The inverting gain is not equal to the non-inverting gain.
Internal noise
Ground Loop Noise: which can enter the signal leads
because of the possible potential difference between the
two ground points.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

25

Outlines of Filters

input

Filter

output

Filtering:

Certain desirable features are retained

Other undesirable features are suppressed
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

26

Classification of Filters
Signal Filter
Analog Filter
Element Type

Active

Passive

Digital Filter

Frequency Band

Low-Pass

Band-Pass

High-Pass

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

All-Pass

Band-Reject

27

Classification of Filters
Filter classification according to
implementation
z Active filters include RC networks and op-amps
z
z

Passive filters consist of RCL networks

z

Suitable for low frequency, small signal

Active filters are preferred since avoid the bulk and non-linearity
of inductors. However, active filters require a power supply
Simple, more suitable for frequencies above audio range, where
active filters are limited by the op-amp bandwidth

Digital filters
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

28

Classification of Filters
Filter classification according to frequency response
z Low-pass filter
z High-pass filter
z Band-pass filter
z Band-stop (Notch) filter

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

29

State-variable filters
Also known as a Universal Active Filter
z Consists of one amplifier and two integrators
z High-pass, low-pass and band-pass in the same IC
z Example below: Burr Brown UAF42

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

30

Data Acquisition System

Mechatronic systems use digital data acquisition for a
variety of purposes such as:
z process condition monitoring and performance
evaluation,
z fault detection and diagnosis,
z product quality assessment,
z dynamic testing,
z system identification (i.e., experimental modeling), and
z feedback control.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

31

Data Acquisition System

Block Diagram

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

32

A/D Converter: Input Signal

z Analog

Signal is continuous
z Example: strain gage. Most transducers
produce analog signals
z

z Digital

Signal is either ON or OFF

z Example: light switch.
z

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

33

Digital-Analog Converter (DAC)

Weighted Resistor DAC

bn 2
b0 vref

+ ... + n 1
v = bn 1 +
2
2 2

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

34

Digital-Analog Converter (DAC)

Ladder DAC (2R-R)

bn 2
b0 vref

v = bn 1 +
+ ... + n 1
2
2 2

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

35

Example 1
What is the output voltage of a 10-bit
Ladder DAC with a 10 V reference
voltage if the input is 00101101012.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

36

Conversion Resolution
z

The conversion resolution is a function of the

reference voltage and the number of bits in the
word. The more bits, the smaller the change in
analog output for a 1-bit change in binary word.

Vout = VR 2

Where Vout = smallest output change

VR = reference voltage
n
= number of bits in the word

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

37

Example 2:
Determine how many bits a D/A converter
must have to provide output increments
of 0.04V or less. The reference is 10V

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

38

Example 3:
A control valve has a linear variation of opening as the
input voltage varies from 0 to 10V. A microcomputer
outputs an 8-bit word to control the valve opening
using an 8-bit DAC to generate the valve voltage.
a- Find the reference voltage required to obtain a full
open valve (10V).
b- Find the percentage of valve opening for a 1-bit
change in the input word.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

39

DAC Error Sources

z

Code Ambiguity. In many digital codes (e.g., in the straight

binary code), incrementing a number by an LSB will involve
more than one bit switching. If the speed of switching from 0-1
is different from that for 1-0, and if switching pulses are not
applied to the switching circuit simultaneously, the switching of
the bits will not take place simultaneously.
Settling Time. The circuit hardware in a DAC unit will have
some dynamics, with associated time constants and perhaps
oscillations (underdamped response). Hence, the output voltage
cannot instantaneously settle to its ideal value upon switching.
The time required for the analog output to settle within a certain
band (say :t2% of the final value or :t resolution), following the
application of the digital data, is termed settling time.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

40

DAC Error Sources

Parametric Errors. resistor elements in a DAC might not
be very precise, particularly when resistors within a wide
range of magnitudes are employed, as in the case of
weighted-resistor DAC. These errors appear at the
analog output. Furthermore, aging and environmental
changes (primarily, change in temperature) will change
the values of circuit parameters, resistance in partic-ular.
This also will result in DAC error.
z Reference Voltage Variation: Since the analog output of
a DAC is proportional to the reference voltage vref, any
variations in the voltage supply will directly appear as an
error. This problem can be overcome by using stabilized
voltage sources with sufficiently low output impedance.
z

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

41

Analog to Digital Converters (ADC)

The formulae of analog to digital conversion is as
following:
1

b1 2 + b2 2 + ......... + bn 2
Where

Vin
=
Vr

b1b2b3.bn = n-bit digital output

Vin = analog input voltage
Vr = analog reference voltage

The output uncertainty/resolution can be given by:

V=Vr2-n
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

42

Example 1:
Temperature is measured by a sensor with
an output of 0.02 V/oC. Determine the
required ADC reference and word size to
measure 0o to 100oC with 0.1oC
resolution

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

43

Example 2:
Find the digital word that results from a
3.127 V input to a 5-bit ADC with a 5V
reference?

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

44

Successive Approximation ADC

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

45

Example 3:
Find the successive approximation ADC
output for a 4-bit converter to a 3.217V
input if the reference is 5V.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

46

Dual-Slope ADC

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

47

Example 4:
A dual-slope ADC as shown previously
has R=100 k and C=0.01F. The
reference is 10V, and the fixed
integration time is 10 ms. Find the
conversion time for a 6.8V input.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

48

Bridge Circuits
z

Wheatstone Bridge: The primary application of this

bridge in signal conditioning is to convert variations of
resistance into variation of voltage

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

49

Wheatstone Bridge

VO will equal zero. In this situation, the bridge is said to be

BALANCED. Any change in any resistive element will result in an
UNBALANCED condition, hence VO will be non-zero.
Dr. Ashraf Saleem

50

Wheatstone Bridge
If we replace R3 with an active strain gauge, RG, which
will vary by R when pressure is applied (the arrow
through the resistor shows that it has a variable value),
then

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

51

Example 1:
The resistors in a bridge are given by
R1=R2=R3=120 and R4=121. If the
supply is 10V. Find the voltage offset?

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

52

AC Bridges
z

AC bridges are used mainly to detect changes

in inductance and/or capacitance

At balance condition

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

53

Example 2:
An ac bridge is in balance with the
following constants: arm AB, R = 200
in series with L = 15.9 mH ; arm BC, R =
300 in series with C = 0.265 F; arm
CD,unknown; arm DA, = 450 . The
oscillator frequency is 1 kHz. Find the
constants of arm CD.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

54

Comparison Bridge: Capacitance

Measure an unknown capacitance by comparing it with a
Known capacitance.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

55

Comparison Bridge: Inductance

Measure an unknown inductance by comparing it with a
Known inductance.

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

56

Maxwell Bridge
Measure an unknown inductance in terms of a
known capacitance

Dr. Ashraf Saleem

57