Economic Geology

Vol. 59, 1964, pp. 1551-1563

SPECIAL

BRECCIAS

ASSOCIATED

DEVELOPMENTS

IN

PAUL

WITH
THE

HYDROTHERMAL
ANDES

KENTS

ABSTRACT

To explain the mechanisminvolved in the formation of copper porphyries,a new conceptis brought forward basedon magmaticpulsations
providing the forces necessaryto drive hydrothermaland mineralizing
solutions,and also to producestructures. This mechanismappearsto be
applicableto all copperporphyries.
The basic type of breccia particular to hydrothermaldevelopments
is
rupture breccia,formed by hydraulic ramming of hydrothermalsolutions
into overlying rocks. This breccia when heaved up or subsidedby magmatic pulsations can be changed dependenton their direction, frequency,
and amplitude into subsidence,heave, kneadedor milled breccias. The
burst and late-magrnaticbrecciasare also causedthough more indirectly
by magmaticpulsations.
SPECIAL

BRECCIAS

COPPER
porphyriesare normally associatedwith at least somedegreeof fracturing and self-brecciation,
the causesof which have remaineddifficultto explain. The applicationof conventionaltectonic,volcanic,mineralizationstoping, or other mechanismshave worked in some cases, but none has been
entirely satisfactoryfor the brecciasas the whole. Such an unfortunatesituation was notedby H. E. McKinstry (7) in his review of fifty years progress
in the knowledgeof the structureof ore deposits:

"But so far no plausiblemechanismhasbeenproposedthat seemsto apply

satisfactorilyto all deposits. . . meanwhileuntil somegenerally applicable
mechanismis establishedwe may have to live with the rather unsatisfactory
compromise-conclusion
that mineralizingsolutionswere not choosyaboutthe
origin of the fracturesthat they utilized and that the causesof fracturingwere
different in different districts."

Fracturing and self-brecciation

obviouslyyounger than the thermal contraction joints in rocksformed during their original coolingare not limited to
copperporphyries,but foundalsoin a whole seriesof structurescalledhydrothermaldevelopments(6). These have beenformed by large scaleen masse
penetrationand percolationinto the rocksof a wave or wavesof hydrothermal
solutions. In the field, such structuresare manifestedby leachedoutcrops,
bleachedoutcrops,or altered zones. Besidescopper porphyriesand other
still unnamedstructures,hydrothermaldevelopments
also includetourmaline
breccia-pipes.
x Permission to publish granted by the U. N. Techn. Asst. Board, Santiago, Chile.
1551

1552

Pt UL KEN TS

It has been long recognizedthat most manifestationsof volcanicactivity

occurat regnlar interwtls,particularlythe raisingand sinkingof the level in
lawt lakes, thesedue to their direct connectionwith magma chambersbelow,
indicatethat lnagmaticpulsationsmust take place in their deepseatedreservoir (5). Suchpulsations
canalsocausealternatinginflowsand withdrawals

)e
terra
Verde
X'

roquepaa

--.

CerroVialetaeelefta

Eligre

eCRaur

eOuerao Bianca

.Cuquieamat

onto Blaneo

ntofagasta

Sierra

Overa

Potrerillos
elnca

e Oro

Los Pintoalas_ Los Azules

Monto

Verde

Coezo

de

Voco

eLO

eArolea
eDoe
Pedernales

Elqu?a

eAndoc1o

1 ouce
e AIcoparr

oso

LosPelambres

i )utodamRio
glanco

FIG. 1. Index map.

SPECIAL BRECCIAS

1553

Of someamountsof magmain their interconnected

batholiths. The swelling
phaseof suchpulsationsif strongenoughmay heaveup tile enclosingrocks
abovethe batholith,to subsideagaiu in tile ebbingphase. Suchvertical movementscan producetectonicdisturbaucesof local and relatively limited nature,
commonlypresentin the vicinitiesof batholithicintrusious.
Somehow,the conceptof magmaticpulsationshas not receivedthe attention it might perhapsdeserve,particularlyin relationto ore-formingand associated processes.It is quite possiblethat hydrothermalsolutionsseparatedfrom
the coolingmagmaduring the ebbingphaseof magmaticpulsations;because
of their lesserdensityand viscositythey may gather on top of a batholith,and
form there a wet cap of volatiles. Such accumulatedsolutionswill be at the

fore-frontof the next magmaticonrush,to becomerammedinto the enclosing

rocksabovethe batholith,which they may then permeateand percolatealong
original thermal contractionfractures. These solutionsin order to provide
spacefor themsieveswill force the fracturesopen, which once pried apart

Fc. 2. Rupturebreccia,La Paloma.

somehow
do not doseastight as before,thusgivingthemlater on an appearanceas if the fracturinghad becomesomewhataccentuated.The solutionsby
wedgingfracturesopen,divide or break up the enclosingrocksto fragments,
and envelopethem. The solutionslodgedin fractureshavea lubricatingeffect,
so that when the rocksare heavedor subsided,they no longer respondas a
compactunit, but as the resultantof individualbehaviorsof its component
fragments. The fragmentsmay shift, tumble,and becomeabraded,which resultsin the formationof different typesof breccias.
Another factor often little considered,althoughan essentialone to induce
self-brecciation,is the existenceof a tight cap above the hydrothermal development,to compelsolutionsto remain confinedin the development,and to
spreadtherelaterally. Remnantsof suchcompactcapsare the rhyolitesabove
the porphyrycopperorebodyat E1 Salvador,and bandedandesitecappings
above hydrothermaldevelopmentsat Elquina, Arboleda. Alcaparrosaand
Palmilia, againstwhichhydrothermalalterationceasesrather abruptly.

1554

P.4UL KENTS

In most casesa tight cap abovehydrothermaldevelopments

may also have
beensufficientlycompetentto form a natural arch over the subsidingportion
at the time someof the magma is withdrawn from 1)elow. The formation of
sncharchesseemstructurallyfeasilleenoughover the relatively small areas
involvedin mosthydrothermaldevelopmeuts.This is aml)ly demoustrated
at
Cananea,Mexico, whereV. D. Perry (8) hasdescribedthe upwardtermination of brecciapipesby dome-liketoppingsbeneaththe roofsof unbrecciated
rocks. Sucha naturalarch will supportthe load of overlyingrocks,thus permittingthe hydrothermallyaffectedrocksto subsideby their own weightalone.
This subsidenceresults in the gradual detachmentof rock fragmentsand
wideningthe spacesbetweenloosenedbrecciafragments.
Rupture Breccia.--Also known as stockwork, shatter breccia, fracture
breccia,and cracklebreccia. The rupture brecciais characterizedby multitudesof randomcriss-crossing
cracks,which by intersectingand joining one
anotherdivide the original rock into angularfragments(Fig. 2). The most
distinctivefeatureabout rupture brecciais that its individualfragmentshave
not becomedetached,dislodged,slipped,shifted,or rotated amongthemselves.
The significantphenomenonhas been fracturing,whereasbrecciationis thus
but consequential.Individual cracksin rupture brecciabegin at one fracture
and terminateat someother. Normally the cracksare more or lessstraight,
of different lengthsand magnitude,in which respectthere can be an order
amongstthem: the first order fracturesor fissuresare longestand strongest,
their length traceablefor meters; the secondorder fractures take off from
them, to the last order crackswhich are the shortestand weakest,barely a
few centimeterslong and extendonly from onefractureto the next. Dead-end
cracksthat start at one side of brecciafragment and end in the middle, do
occur, but seldom.

The fracturesthat have beenaffectedby early hydrothermalsolutionsonly,

may not always be discernibleas such,becausethese solutionsdid not leave
any vestigesbehind. On the other hand,later solutionsgenerallyleave some
alteration products in fractures, such as sericite or clay which make them
readily visible. More noticeableare the fractures that have been lined by
silicaenvelopes,whereasthe best visible onesare thosealong which sulfides
havebeendeposited,whichuponoxidationbecomestainedred.
Generallythere is no particularorientationamongfractures,however,in
somecasescertaintrendsmay predominate,alongwhich fracturesoccurmore
commonly;or, theremay be fewer fracturesbut strongerinstead,like thoseat
Chuquicamata.
The spacingof fracturesis more or lesseventhroughouthydrothermaldevelopment,indicatingthus an even distributionof stressesthat had caused
them; such an even distributionof stressescannotbe explainedby any conventionaltectonic,volcanicor mineralizationstopingmeans,rather, it appears
to have been formed by a combinedaction of hydrothermalsolutionsand
magmaticpulsations. Hydrothermalsolutionswhen rammedunder high pressure into enclosingrocks,pry existingfracturesopenand form new onesby

wedgingaction. The stresses

that causefracturingare the pressures
exerted
by advancingmagmafrom below,transmittedto the site of fracturingby hy-

555

drothermalsolutionsthemselves.The principleinvolvedis that of a hydraulic

press,and the processitself comparaldeto a techniqueappliediu oil-fieldsto
shattertighl producinghorizons.
The spacingof h-actures,which alsr determinesthe size f individual
fragmentsin rupture breccia,appearsto have beendependentat leastto some
extent on the characterof hydrothermalsolutionsinvolved. In early stages
of hydrothermaldevelopment
the solutionswere more pervasivehenceable

FIG. 3. Bottomingof rupture brecciaat Mocha. The two vertical feeder frac-

turesin lowerhalf spreadinto multitudesof smallfracturesin upperhalf; the two

feederfracturesare 2.8 m. apart.

to penetratethe enclosingrocksalongtheir thermalcontractionjoints without

much damageto them. In later stages,however,as solutionsbecamemore
siliceousthey also seemto becomemore viscous,which requiresgreater pressure to force them into the enclosingrocks. This is manifestedby more intensefracturing normally associatedwith sericiticand silica stagesof hydrothermal alteration. Fracturing is particularly intense in zoneswhere introducedsilicapredominates,
diminishingrather rapidly away from suchsilicified
bodies. Subsequently
the silicifiedfractureswere sealedtight so that later on

15 5 6

P.4 UL KEN Toe

weatheringdoesnot reopenthem. Such silicifiedfracturesexerciselittle control on how the lrecciabreaks. On the other hand argillizedfracturesyield
and the brecciatendsto break and crumbleeasily aloug them.
Auother factor affecting the fracturing of rnl)tnre 1)recciais the nature of
hostrocks:thosewhichhavebeenargillizedare more compactand tongherto
resistbrecciation;whereasthosewhich have beenonly chloritizedor sericitized
are more accommodating.The effectiveness
of suchdifferenceis well conspicuousat Mocha, where at several places,but particularly on the walls of
Paraicoyocanyon,actualbottomingof rupture brecciais exposed. The lower
two-thirdsof the canyonwalls are compact,smooth,and composedof a mineral
aggregateof secondaryquartz, sericite, and montmorillonite. This is in
markedcontrastwith the slightlyoverhangingupper portionsof the canyon
walls,which are roughand representa chloritizedand silicifiedalterationzone.
The compactlower portion is penetratedby a few vertical feeder fractures
whichuponreachingthe upper overhangingpor}ionof the canyonwalls, have
spread out there into a tight maze of fractures--a typical rupture breccia
(Fig. 3). Fracturesin the upper zone have been lined with silica envelopes,
whichis causingtheir increasedhardness,hencealso their overhang,whereas
in the montmorillonized
zonebelow,silicaenvelopesare absent. The bottoming of rupture brecciain Paraicoyocanyon--a very unusualphenomenonto be
seenexposed,is accomplished
within lessthan half a meter. It lies in a horizontalposition,and as similarbottomingis alsoencountered
a kilometerto the
southwestand approximatelyat sameelevation,would indicatethat the welldefinedbottomingof rupturebrecciais fairly flat over mostpart of the hydrothermaldevelopment
at Mocha.
Subsidence
Brecciamay be either a rupture brecciaor any other hydrothermally affected rock in which some detachmentof fragmentshas taken
place. This is indicatedby the looseningof rock massalongits originaljointing; or as in rupture breccia,by openingand wideningsomeof its fractures
(Fig. 4). Voids were formed into which have becomelodged smaller loose
fragmentsdetachedfrom nearby. Subsequently
the voidsmay be filled with
sulfides,oxides,or quartz and tourmaline.
To someextentthe looseningand fragmentationof subsidence
brecciamay
be assistedby hydrothermalsolutionslodged in fractures, which by enveloping individual fragmentseffectivelyseparatethem, thus requiring but
little effort to detachthem. On the other hand, the solutionsin fractures under high pressuresmay pry the fragmentslooseand detachthem, when the
pressuresfrom below are easing. Aside from minor crushing,no significant
milling takes place,and the dislodgedbrecciafragmentsretain their original
angularity.
The most distinctiveand significantfeature about subsidence
brecciais the
formationof voidsamongdislodgedfragments,and their remainingopen at
depthsof some4 km. This couldbe explainedby the sinkingof hydrothermallly affectedrocks,in responseto the withdrawingof somemagmafrom the
batholithbelow. The subsidence
of that nature appearsto be limited to the
hydrothermallyaffectedportionsonly,wherebythe overlyingunaffectedrocks
retaintheir originalfirmnessto form a naturalarch over the subsidingportion,

SPECIAL BRECCI,,tS

1557

wlfich holdsback the weight of the overlyingrocks. The loosening,detaching

and subsidingof rul)ture brecciais chieflyby action of gravity, and as it re-

mainsunaffected
by theweightof overlyingrocks.the voidsbetweendislodged
brecciafragmentscan remainol)en.
The characterof subsidence
brecciais heterogenous;
it cancoverthe whole

rangeof particlesizes. In respect

to dislocation,
it mayextendfromrelatively
undisturbed
rupturebrecciato a chaoticarray. The brecciamay be composedof largeblocksmeasured
in meters,with interveningfragmentsonlya

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Fro. 4. (Left) Subsidence

breccia,Manto Verde. Voids betweendetached
fragmentsfilledby hematiteand sulfides(seendark on photo).
Fro. 5. (Right) Heavebrecciaat Copaquire;notea conjunctionof severalminifaults.

few centimetersin size; or, it may be a chaoticaggregateof particlesof about

equal size, obviouslyderivedby detachinga rupture breccia. In a way, the
processof forminga subsidence
brecciais comparable
to the well-knownblock
cavingmethodin mining.
A good exampleof subsidence
brecciaat its beginningstate is Manto
Verde; a more advancedand derangedvariety is presentat Toquepala,Peru,
where it is known as "ore breccia." Elsewhere, a well-known subsidence

brecciais describedby V. D. Perry (8) at Cananea,Mexico.

1558

PAUL KENTS

Heave Brecciais an agglomerationof large blocksand slabsup to several

metersin size,which have beenshiftedamongthemselves.Consequently,
the
most cbar;tcteristic

features of lieave breccia in soft rcl<s are multitudes

of

mini-faults,smallshears,and slip planes,whereasin silicifiedand other liarder

rocks slickensidingpredominates. These nilnor structuresare of relatively
limited length,and appearto havebeenformedby a magmaticpushof moderate strengthfrom below, assistedto someextent by hydrothermalsolutions;
that is, solutions in fractures lubricated them so that when rocks are heaved

up they break and yield along fracturesthat turn into mini-faults, shearsand
slip planes. Individual blocksshift in differentdirectionsand amounts,result-

'>".:.'.:".
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/..C' '

Fro. 6.

'...* '-..

'.?

'**',:'.i' /e* IL.

..:

:.:.:',.:."

..

e ,,

'

. '.

' *.

Kneaded breccia at Pealerhales.

Fig. 7. Burst and boil breccia;tourmalinebreccia,Cabezade Vaca.

ing in breccia-likestructuresfor vhich no appropriatename has yet been

proposed. A heave breccia,when composedof blocksof rupture breccia,
possesses
a peculiaraspectof a brecciahavingbeenbrecciated.
During the course of heaving and shifting, some of the blocks became
caughtbetweenothers,and were shatteredto kneadedbrecciaresultingin isolated pocketsof intenselyfragmentedrockslodgedin lessfractured surroundings. The size of suchcrushedfragmentsrangesfrom 5 to 20 cm, and there
is a notablelack of any finer debris. This paucityof finer fragmentsmight
have beencausedby hydrothermalsolutionsthat permeatedthe host rock and
lubricatedits fractures, thus cushioningthe dislocatedfragmentsand preventingtheir further abrasion.

SPECIZIL BRECCIZIS

1559

Goodexamplesof heavebrecciaare at Los Pelambres,Copaquire(Fig. 5),

and Las Pintaalas,whereasslickensidinghas developedat Inca de Oro. Elsewhere, the innumerableminor shearspenetratingthe orebodyat Climax, Colorado,may havebeencausedby upheaving.
Kneaded Breccia is a disorderly array of detachedsubangularfragments
rangingin sizeup to cobblesor smallboulders,and mingledwith finer angular

debris(Fig. 6). The presence

of finer debrisandthe absence
of voidsin this
brecciadistinguishesit from the tumbledvariety of subsidence
breccia.
Kneaded breccia forms well defined pipe-like structures up to 100 m in
diameter. The brecciafragmentsin thesepipesare the sameas the wallrock,
no introductionof breccia particles seemsto have taken place. Individual
fragmentsin suchpipeshavenot movedfar from their placesof origin.
The kneadedbrecciamay be consideredas a somewhatadvancedstage
in the developmentof rupture breccia,describedabove,causedby magmatic
pulsationsin the batholith below. Such pulsationsmay not have been of
large magnitude,but insteadwere focusedinto parts of the rupture breccia,
and developedinto a brecciapipe. In physicalappearancethere is a marked
contrastbetweenthe mobileand the stationaryportions;the boundarybetween
them is well defined. The alternateheavingand sinkingof the brecciain the
pipe breaksit up and kneadsit.
As describedunder heavebreccias,a somewhatdifferentvariety of kneaded
brecciais formed by crushingof heave breccia,but this type is confinedto
isolatedsmallpocketsand doesnot form pipes.
A normal type of kneadedbrecciais presentat Quetena,also at Cerro
Violeta; whereasisolatedpocketsof crushedbrecciaare presentat Copaquire,
Perlemales, and E1 Sauce. Elsewhere, a kneaded breccia has been diagram-

maticallypresentedby Johnstonand Lowell (4) at CopperBasin, Arizona.

Milled Brecciahasthe appearanceof a conglomerate
composedof rounded
pebblesembeddedin a matrix of finer rock-meal. It has beenlucidly described
by Howell and Molloy (3) at E1 Tenientecopperporphyry,where its appearance is similar to freshly broken concrete. Milled brecciacould form when
kneadedbrecciais subjectedto further oscillatoryup-and-downmotion,which
would round out the fragments. A similar effect could be achievedif the
natural arch abovesubsidence
or kneadedbrecciacollapsedand subjectedthe
loosenedbrecciato the full weight of overlyingrocks. This would result in
crushingand abradingthe individual fragments,eliminatevoids and give a
tighter packingto the breccia. Such a mechanismappearsto have beeninvolvedat Toquepala,Peru, wherethe resultingbreccia(the "pebble-breccia")
is composed
of roundedpebblesonly a few centimetersin size,embeddedin
a matrix of finely shreddedsericiteand alunite. Elsewhere,pipesof milled
brecciahavebeendescribedby Gates (2) at Shoshone
Range,Nevada.
Late-magmaticBrecciamay form when any of the abovementionedbreccias is subjectedto somemodestdegreeof igneousintrusive activity. Norreally, the late-magmaticbrecciais composedof fragmentsof hydrothermally
altered rocks set in or cementedby quartz-aphanitepaste. Hydrothermal
developments
in the Andesare commonlyassociated
with quartz-aphanite
intrusionsin the form of dikesor smallstocksof light coloredjasperyrockcorn-

1560

PAUL

KENTS

posedof aphaniticquartz and feldspars. Quartz-aphanitemay be similar to

late hydrothermalsilica, henceif no definite igneouscriteria are present,a
distinctionmay not always be possiblebetweenigneousquartz-aphaniteand
hydrothermaljaspery silica. Quartz-aphanitesrepresentsiliciouslate magmaticliquorstrainedout from the slowlycoolingbatholithafter the exhaustion
of its supplyof hydrothermalsolutions. A small quartz-aphanitestockat
Cerro Violeta has fine flow bandingthat molds itself around earlier consolidatedportions,thus indicatingthat the aphaniteat the time of intrusionwas

alreadyin a viscousor semisolid

state. Fifteenkilometerseastwardis Cerro
Colorado,the core of whosesolitary bell-shapedhill is a brecciacomposedof

angularto subangularfragmentsof quartz-sericiterock set in an aphanitic

matrix of gray quartz. The igneousorigin of this aphaniteis indicatedby a
few vitreous smokyquartz phenocrysts,similar to those presentin quartz
porphyries. Structurallythe brecciais an intrusiveplug that piercesa preexistingquartz-sericite
alterationzone. The hydrothermally
alteredrockwas
dislodged
and pushedasideby the intrusive,and cemented
by siliceous
fluids,
forming the breccia.

At Toquepala,Peru late-magmatic
fluidsappearto havepenetrated
into
someportionsof milledbreccia,cemented
them and formedwhat is known
thereas "daciteagglomerate."

BurstBrecciais normallycomposed
of angularfragmentspackedsoloosely

thattheybarelytouchoneanother,
or theymayappearto be suspended
in a
matrix of finelygranularquartzand tourmaline(Fig. 7). This brecciais
confinedto well-definedcarrot-shaped
pipe-likestructures,commonlyknownas

tourmaline
breccia-pipes.
Exceptthe extraordinarily
largepipeat Disputada
suchpipesare generally
of modestsize,theirboundaries
are sharp,andthe
brecciafragments
apparently
were broughtup from below. No indigenous
igneous
rocksare present,hencethesepipesdo not reachan igneous
source.
Tourmalinebrecciapipesare commonly
presentin the vicinitiesof hydrothermaldevelopments.
They are particularlynumerous
in the Cabezade
Vaca areawhereaboutonehundredpipesare locatedwithin an area of about

two square
kilometers.Anotherswarmof abouttwentypipesis located
in
the Los Azulesarea. Many of thesepipesare only 10 to 20 m in diameter.
but mostof them are in the 30 to 50 m range; the largestis about200 m in
diameter. A numberof tourmalinebrecciapipesare alsopresentin the E1

Tigrearea,inwhichthebreccia
fragments
havebeenbrought
upfroma quartzserfcitealterationzonenot outcroppingin that area.

In manycases
the wall rocksof tourmaline
breccia
pipeshavenot been
hydrothernwlly
altered,
butsomepipesaresurrounded
by concentric
alteration halosof moderatewidth. Structurally,tourmalinebrecciapipesappear

to be associated
with the nppermost
portionsof hydrothermal
developments.
Thus,thepit)eswithalteration
halosaroundthemlie insidethelimitsof hydrothermal
development
suchasthatat AguadelMedio,whereas
those
without
alteration halos lie outside.

Burstlreccias
apparently
xvere
formed
1)yjetsor streams
of hydr(thermal
soluti()ns
thatforged
theirwayupward
towardthesurface.Astheyrose,they
encountered
decreasing
pressures,
andeventually
reached
a criticalstageat

SPECIAL BRECCI./15'

1561

which the super-heatedaqueoussolutionsturned into steam,which then blew

off the rocksaboveit with explosiveviolence. On the surfacethis became
expressedby steam-blasteruption such as Krakatau, Mr. Pelee, or Sakurajima. The suddenreleaseof pressurecausedthe vent to narrow downward
to depthswhere pressureequilibriumwas reestablished,
but in no casehas
reacheddeepenoughto tap directly its magmaticsource. A rapid flaring of
the tourmaline breccia pipe at Rio Blanco copper porphyry is well shovn.
Through the vent thus formed,hydrothermalsolutionsmadetheir escape.
Beyond the initial blast, the shapingof vent walls was accomplishedby
burstingand spalling,that is, hydrothermalsolutionsrammedearlier from the
conduitlaterally into the walls and expandedthere when the steamblast had
reducedthe pressurein the conduit. This expansionand bursting was directedtowardsthe axis of the vent. The size of spaliedfragmentsdo not vary
greatly, rather they lie within that of the normal range of rupture brecciawith
no large blocks. The fragmentstorn off from the walls were not blown out but
were boiled up by hydrothermalsolutions. As they were suspendedin
ascendingsolutionsthey had little opportunity to be abraded and mostly
preservedtheir original angularity. After the supply of boiling water was
exhausted,the looserock fragmentssettleddown into the vent and formed a
breccia. To a certain extent, the narrowness of the vent must have con-

tributedto the loosepackingof fragmentsin the pipe.

In its upper portionswhere the vent is wider, the brecciafragmentsare
morecloselypacked;there is alsoconsiderably
morefine debrispresentamong
the coarsercomponents,
and the brecciamay containfragmentsderivedfrom
elsewherethan the walls, that is, from above as well from below.
SUMMARY

This paper is an attemptto organizeand presentfield data on different

typesof brecciasas observedby this writer in aboutonehundredhydrothermal
developments
in the Andes. This study has disclosedan evidentgeneticrelationshipamongthe differenttypesof breccias,and their possibleassociation
with magmaticpulsationscausedby periodicadvancesand retreatsof magma
in its deepseatedreservoir. The involvedpressureswhen transmittedto the
top of batholithcould heave up the overlying rocks and causestructural
deformations.

Furthermore, besideshydrothermal developments,in many local structures suchas thosecommonlyassociatedwith mineral deposits,the application
of the conventionalstrain ellipsoiddoesnot satisfactorilyexplaintheir origin.
Consequently,
magmaticpulsationsmay haveplayedan importantrole in the
formationof mineral depositshy providingthe forcesnecessaryto causestructures, and to drive mineralizingsolutions. In copperporphyries,this mechanismappearsto be universallyapplicable.
The basic type of breccia particular to hydrothermal developmentsis
rupture breccia,and accordingto evidenceawtilableat Mocha (Fig. 3), its
origin could be explainedonly by hydraulicramming causedby magmatic

pulsations
providingthe pressures
necessary
to ram hydrothermal
solutions

1562

PAUL KENTS

intotheoverlying
rocks.Furthermore,
magmatic
pulsations
canheaveupthe
rocksor let themsubside,
andaccording
to thedirection,
frequency
andmagnitudeof suchoscillatorymovements,
the affectedrupturebrecciascan be
changedto heave,subsidence,
kneadedor milled breccias.

Rupturebrecciaformslargebodiesthat may measurehundredsof meters

in diameter.Suchbodies
donothavedefiniteoutlines,
butinstead
gradeinto
surrounding
unfractured
rocks. This is to beexpected
because
the strengthof
hydraulicrammingis boundto decrease
towardsthe fringesof hydrothermal
development,
and the fracturingalso diminishes.Like rupture breccia,its
lessdisturbedderivates,the subsidence
and heavebreccias,
alsoform large
undefined
bodies. Essentially,
however,theseare still rupturebreccias
that
havebeenaffectedby a singlemagmaticheaveor retreat.
On the other hand, kneaded and milled brecciasare confined to smaller

but well-definedpipe-likestructuresthat may form whenportionsof rupture

brecciaare subjectedto oscillatingup-and-downmovements. Burst breccias

alsoform well-definedpipes,but theseare apparentlycausedby spallingand

bursting. Late-magmatic
breccias,
dependent
on their modeof piercing,may
alsoformbrecciapipes. All thesepipe-likestructures
havebeenreferredto as
true breccia-pipes.

The magnitudeof magmaticpulsationsvaries, and dependenton the

pervasiveness
of rammedsolutionsand the tightnessof imperviouscap above
the hydrothermaldevelopment,
the affectedrocksmay responddifferentlyto
hydraulicramming. In casethe cap is tight, rupture brecciaresults; but,
without the cap, no additionalfracturing may ensueother than someaccentuation of original thermal contractionjoints, like those at Domeyko, Sierra
Overa; bothhydrothermaldevelopments
althoughvery large, showhardly any
brecciation.

It mustbe emphasized
that magmaticpulsations
and hydrothermalactivity
are two distinct phenomenathat can function independentlyof the other.
Consequently,self-brecciation
is also possibleby magmaticpulsationsalone,
without being associated
with any discerniblehydrothermalactivity. This
appearsto be normalin the hypogenemetallogenetic
copperprovinceassociated
with the Antofagastacoastalbatholith in northern Chile, where mineralization is confinedto small erratic brecciabodies. At the Mantos Blancosopenpit suchself-brecciation
is causingexcessiveamountsof over-sizebreakagein
blastingon the benches.
The type of brecciaencounteredmost commonlyin hydrothermaldevelopmentsis rupture breccia. It generallyocctlrsalone,rarely it gradesinto heave
or subsidencebreccias,though mostly it is accompaniedby pipes of other
breccias(kneaded, milled, burst, late-maglnatic). In the Andes, the hydrothermal developmentwith the widest range of hrecciasis Toquepalaporphyry
COl)per,
where, in ascendingorder of tectonicsinvolved,the followingbreccias
are present: rul)ture, subsidence,milled, late-magmatic,and burst.
SANTIAGO,
May 25, 1964
Present

address:

CANAmAN J^vm. LTD.,

OTTAWACANADA

SPECIAL BRECCIAS

1563

REFERENCES

1. Bryner, Leonid, 1961, Breccia and pebble columns associated with epigenetic ore deposits:
Ecoa. G}iOL., v. 56, p. 488-508.
2. Gates, Olcott, 1959, Breccia pipes in the Shoshone Range, Nevada: EcoN. GOL., v. 54,
p. 790--815.

3. Howell, I. V., and Molloy, J. S., 1960, Geology of the Braden Orebody, Chile, S.A.:
Ecoa. GOL., v. 55, p. 863-905.
4. Johnston, W. P., and Lowell, J. D., 1961, Geology and origin of mineralized breccia pipes
in Copper Basin, Arizona: Ecoa. GOL., v. 56, p. 916-940.
5. Kents, Paul, 1961, Brief outline of a possible origin of copper porphyry breccias: Ecoa.
GOL., v. 56, p. 1465-1471.
6. Kents, Paul, 1963, Hydrothermal developments in the Andes: Ecoa. GOL., v. 58, p. 11101118.

7. McKinstry, H. E., 1955, Structure of hydrothermal ore deposits: Ecoa. GoL., 50th Anniv.
Vol., pt. 1, p. 170-225.

8. Perry, V. D., 1961, The significanceof mineralized breccia pipes: Mining Engr., v. 13, no. 4,
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9. Richard, Kenyon, and Courtright, J. H., 1958, Geology of Toquepala, Peru: Mining Engr.,
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