Mechanics of Elastic Composites Modern Mechanics and Mathematics

MECHANICS OF
ELASTIC COMPOSITES
Nicolaie Dan Cristescu
Eduard-Marius Craciun
Eugen Sos
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MECHANICS OF ELASTIC COMPOSITES

by Nicolaie Dan Cristescu, Eduard-Marius Craciun, and Eugen Sos
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Cristescu, N.
Mechanics of elastic composites / Nicolaie Dan Cristescu, Eduard-Marius Craciun,
Eugen Sos.
p. cm. (Modern mechanics and mathematics ; 1)
Includes index.
ISBN 1-58488-442-8 (alk. paper)
1. Composite materialsMechanical properties. I. Craciun, Eduard-Marius. II. Sos, E.
(Eugen) III. Title. IV. Series.
TA418.9.C6C73 2003
620.11832dc22
2003047291
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MECHANICS OF ELASTIC COMPOSITES

Nicolaie Dan Cristescu
Eduard-Marius Craciun
Eugen Soos
Preface
The history of this book is quite complex, as it has been written over an
extended period of time, beginning as a book called Mechanics of Elastic Composites, published in Romania in 1983. It was originally written for a classical course
on elastic composites taken by students of mechanical engineering and materials
science. Over the past few years, the book has been further developed by Professor Soos and the other authors who have continued to add and delete material as
needed for a modern book on this topic.
One of the most outstanding features of this book is the inclusion of over 400
problems, half of which are solved completely at the end of the book in an answer
section. The remaining solutions are provided in an instructors manual available
to adopters of the text. All of the problems provided in the book are of varying
degrees of difficulty and play a useful role in the exposition of each chapter.
The current book contains eight chapters; the first two are introductory chapters, with tensor analysis and tensor algebra addressed in chapter one. In this
chapter, all the major formulas are provided for review followed by fifty practice
problems. The second chapter is devoted to the elements of linear elastostatics. Included in this chapter are the classical problems of symmetry and the main results
of elasticity as work and energy, minimum principles of elastostatics, the concentrated forces and Greens tensor and Eshelbys inclusion theorem and problem.
This chapter concludes with fifty-nine problems aimed at improving the students
understanding of these concepts.
Chapter three deals with composite laminates. The classical aspects such as
lamina, micromechanical and macromechanical constitutive equations and boundary conditions, variational and extreme principles, and rectangular laminates are
presented here, followed by fifty-three problems. Anyone wishing to learn the classical aspects of elastic composites should begin with this chapter.
Fundamental problems concerning the macroscopically homogeneous biphasic
linearly elastic composites are covered in chapter four. This chapter contains the
basic and classical part of the general theory of micromechanics of composite
materials and concludes with fifty-two problems.
Chapter five presents the three-dimensional linearized theory of elastic body
stability, as well as covering such topics as small deformation superposed on large
static deformation, stable and unstable equilibrium configuration, variational and
extreme principles, bifurcation analysis, dynamic criteria of stability, and homogeneous initial deformations. This chapter concludes with fifty-four problems.
The last three chapters of the book concern the buckling of fiber-reinforced
composite strips, stability analysis of composite laminates and brittle fracture
mechanics. The results and methods presented in these last chapters are from
research papers published in Eastern Europe and prior to this time unavailable in
the U.S., Canada and other western countries. These final chapters are described
below.
Chapter six addresses the buckling of fiber-reinforced composite strips and
bars, starting with internal and superficial stability of composite materials and continuing with the buckling of fiber-reinforced composite strips, showing the limits
of classical plate theory, and continuing again with the buckling of fiber-reinforced
composite bars, showing the limits of Eulers theory. The chapter ends with fortyeight problems aimed at improving this theory.
Chapter seven concerns the stability of composite laminates and covers the
influence of the initial applied bending moment on the behavior of composite
laminates. The chapter concludes with forty-seven problems.
The eighth and final chapter concerns the fracture mechanics of fiber-reinforced composites as well as the brittle fracture. Necessary elements of the complex function are provided as well as some incremental fields, the incremental state
of pre-stressed composites containing a crack, and the asymptotic behavior of the
incremental fields. Forty-nine problems are included at the end of this chapter.
Regrettably, Eugen Soos has passed on, but the remaining authors have endeavored to see this book published in the manner in which Dr. E. Soos had
originally envisioned it. With a book of this size, some mistakes are inevitable and
to be expected. If any errors are found please feel free to contact the authors or
the Publisher.
We would like to acknowledge all the individuals who have assisted us with
this book and thus, want to thank David Steigmann, University of California, and
Eveline Baesu, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, who reviewed portions of the draft
manuscript and contributed many helpful suggestions. We are also grateful to Bob
Stern at CRC Press for his continued support. For periodic advice, patience and
skill in the preparation of this manuscript, we would also like to thank Dr. Adrian
Rabaea, Ovidius University of Constanta.
The Authors
(E-mails: ndc@mae.ufl.edu
mcraciun@univ-ovidius.ro )
Contents
1 ELEMENTS OF TENSOR CALCULUS
1.1 Tensor Algebra
1.2 Tensor Analysis
1.3 Problems
2 ELEMENTS OF LINEAR ELASTOSTATICS
2.1 Displacement. Deformation. Stress
2.2 Symmetry transformations and groups
2.3 The fundamental system of field equations
2.4 Minimum principles of elastostatics
2.5 Greens tensor for an infinite medium
2.6 Piece-wise homogeneous bodies
2.7 Eshelbys inclusion problem
2.8 Problems
3 COMPOSITE LAMINATES
3.1 Macromechanical behavior of a lamina
3.2 Strength of materials approach
3.3 Global constitutive equations
3.4 Special classes of laminates
3.5 Equilibrium equations and boundary conditions
3.6 Variational and extreme principles
3.7 Rectangular laminates
3.8 Problems
4 MACROSCOPICALLY ELASTIC COMPOSITES
4.1 Macroscopically linearly elastic composites
4.2 Hills weak and strong assumptions
4.3 Macroscopically isotropic biphasic mixture
4.4 Hashin-Shtrikman principle
4.5 Budianskys and Hills self-consistent method
4.6 Overall mechanical properties
4.7
4.8
Hashins bounds for the overall moduli

Problems
5 THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL LINEARIZED THEORY

5.1 Elements of nonlinear elasticity
5.2 Lagrangean approach
5.3 Updated Lagrangean approach
5.4 Global and local uniqueness. Stability
5.5 Dynamic criteria of stability
5.6 Homogeneous initial deformations
5.7 Problems
6 BUCKLING OF COMPOSITE STRIPS AND BARS
6.1 Internal and superficial stability
6.2 Buckling of fiber-reinforced composite strips
6.3 Buckling of fiber-reinforced composite bars
6.4 Problems
7 STABILITY OF COMPOSITE LAMINATES
7.1 Constitutive equations for incremental fields
7.2 Equilibrium equations. Boundary conditions
7.3 Buckling of rectangular composite laminates
7.4 Buckling of antisymmetric cross-ply laminates
7.5 Problems
8 FRACTURE MECHANICS
8.1 Elements of complex function theory
8.2 Representation of the incremental fields
8.3 The opening, sliding and tearing modes
8.4 Asymptotic behavior of the incremental fields
8.5 Griffiths criterion and crack propagation
8.6 Problems
SOLUTIONS TO SOME PROBLEMS
List of Figures
1.1
1.2
Change of basis by a rotation about e3 .

Concerning the definition of the directional derivative.
2.1
2.2
The singular surface .

Biphasic piece-wise homogeneous mixture or composite formed by
a matrix and N inclusions.
An arbitrary regular subdomain Bx of B.
2.3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
3.15
3.16
3.17
3.18
3.19
Lamina with unidirectional fibers.

Exploded view of laminate structure.
Positive rotation of principal material axes 1, 2 from arbitrary axes
x, y.
Normalized moduli for glass/epoxy.
Representative volume element loaded in the 1-direction.
Representative volume element loaded in 2-direction.
Representative volume element loaded in 1-direction.
Representative volume element loaded in shear.
Shear deformation of a representative volume element.
Coordinate system for laminated plate.
Geometry of an N -layered laminate.
In-plane forces on a flat laminate.
Moments on a flat laminate.
Exploded (unbounded) view of a three-layered regular symmetric
cross-ply laminate.
Exploded (unbounded) view of a three-layered regular symmetric
angle-ply laminate.
Exploded (unbounded) view of a two-layered regular antisymmetric
cross-ply laminate.
Exploded (unbounded) view of a two-layered regular antisymmetric
angle-ply laminate.
Regular cross-ply laminate having N (even) layers.
The plane domain occupied by the middle surface of the laminate.
3.20 Simply supported laminated rectangular plate under distributed

normal load.
3.21 Maximum deflection of a rectangular regular antisymmetric cross
ply laminate under sinusoidal normal load.
3.22 Maximum deflection of a square regulate antisymmetric cross-ply
laminated plate under sinusoidal transverse load.
3.23 Exploded view of a [+45/45/45/+45] regular angle-ply laminate.
3.24 Exploded view of a [45/+45/45/+45] regular angle-ply laminate.
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
Scales of analysis: d << l << L.

Bounds for bulk modulus of WC-Co alloy.
Bounds for shear modulus of WC-Co alloy.
Bounds for Young modulus of WC-Co alloy.
5.1
5.2
The configuration B, B and Bt .

Example of traction boundary condition, showing possible deformed
configurations of a circular cylinder of uniform cross-section under
uniaxial nominal compression of magnitude : (a) uniform contraction; (b) buckled configuration.
Stable solution path (continuous case) bifurcates at the e-configuration
c into two branches (broken curves) with tangents W and W + U
at c , where U is an e-mode at c .
Continuous line: possible path in the complex frequency plane; interrupted lines: impossible paths in the complex frequency plane.
Cylindrical coordinates r, , z.
5.3
5.4
5.5
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
Superficial instability. Incremental plane states.

Composite strip acted upon by compressive forces.
Strip instability by necking (antisymmetric mode).
Strip instability by bending (symmetric mode).
Dependence of the correction factor p on thickness ratio b.
Fiber-reinforced composite cylindrical bar.
Buckled cylindrical bar.
Variation of correction factor p* vs. geometrical parameter . Transversally isotropic circular bar; E1 /E3 = 0.08.
6.9 Variation of correction factor p* vs. geometrical parameter . Transversally isotropic circular bar; E1 /E3 = 0.20.
6.10 Variation of correction factor p* vs. geometrical parameter . Transversally isotropic circular bar; E1 /E3 = 0.80.
6.11 Variation of correction factor p* vs. geometrical parameter . Transversally isotropic circular bar. Exact solution.
6.12 Variation of correction factor p* vs. geometrical parameter . Transversally isotropic circular bar. Exact and variational solution.
6.13 Variation of correction factor p* vs. geometrical parameter . Transversally orthotropic rectangular bar. Variational solution.
6.14 Correction factor p* vs. geometrical parameter . Transversally
isotropic rectangular bar. Variational solution.
6.15 Variation of correction p* vs. geometrical parameter . Long plate
behavior of rectangular bar.
7.1
Rectangular composite laminate under biaxial compression.
7.2
7.3
7.4
Variation of the critical load N c 11 with aspect ratio K = ab .

Rectangular composite laminate under uniaxial compression.
Compressive buckling coefficient. Simply supposed plies.
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
8.10
8.11
8.12
8.13
8.14
The definition of the logarithmic function.

Example of complex integration.
The definition of the function f (z) = z 2 a2

Limit values.
Cauchys principal value.
Plemelj-Sohockii theorem.
Plemelj-Sohockii theorem, in the lower half plane (y < 0).
The cut L and the closed curve .
Crack acted by symmetrical normal load.
Crack acted by antisymmetrical tangential load.
Asymptotic behavior.
Basic crack models and extensions.
Segment of crack opening.
Integral theorems.
S.1
S.2
S.3
S.4
S.5
S.6
S.7
S.8
S.9
S.10
S.11
The spherical coordinate system.

Normalized moduli for a boron/epoxy composite.
Variation of Q11 with .
Symmetric laminate; N = even number.
Symmetric laminate; N = odd number
Normal and tangential tractions on the deformed faces of a sheared
block.
S.12 Cauchys fundamental formula.
S.13 The function U + = U + (x1 ) ; 0 < m < n.
S.14 The function U = U (x1 ) ; 0 < m < n
Chapter 1
ELEMENTS OF TENSOR
CALCULUS
1.1
Tensor Algebra
The vector and tensor calculus represents the principal mathematical tool
used in mechanics of deformable bodies to express the mean ideas in this field, to
formulate and to solve the specific problems in this domain. The basic concepts,
results and techniques of vector and tensor calculus are presented for instance in
the monograph by Malvern [1.1] and by Gurtin [1.2], [1.3]. The elements of vector
and tensor calculus are presented here following Soos and Teodosiu [1.4].
We denote the three-dimensional Euclidean space by E and the three-dimensional vector space of free vectors by V associated to E. We assume that the
properties of these two spaces are known.
The concept of general vector space was obtained generalizing the properties
of the free vectors known in the elementary geometry.
We say that a set of V is a (real) vector space, and its elements u, v, w, ... are
vectors if the following conditions (axioms) are satisfied:
(v1) To any pair u, v V corresponds a vector u + v V, named the sum
of the vectors u and v, such that:
(v2) u + v = v + u (commutativity);
(v3) u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w (associativity);
(v4) an element 0 V, named null vector, exists, such that u + 0 = u for
any u V;
(v5) to any vector u V corresponds a vector u V, named the vector
opposed to u, such that u + (u) = 0;
(v6) to any vector u V, and to any real number R (the set of all
real numbers) corresponds a vector u = u V, named the product of the real
number and the vector u, such that:
CHAPTER 1. ELEMENTS OF TENSOR CALCULUS
(v7) 1u = u;
(v8) (u) = () u, , R (associativity);
(v9) ( + ) u = u+u (distributivity relative to number addition);
(v10) (u + v) = u+v (distributivity relative to vector addition);
It is easy to see that the usual operation with free vectors of the elementary
geometry satisfies the above 10 axioms.
We say that n vectors u1 , u2 , ..., un V are linearly independent if the
equation 1 u1 + ... + n un = 0, with 1 , ..., n R, can take place only if
1 = 2 = ... = n = 0. Otherwise, we say that the set of n vectors is linearly
dependent.
A vector space V is named n-dimensional and is denoted by Vn , if in Vn there
exists at least one set containing n linearly independent vectors u1 , ..., un , and if
any set u1 , ..., un , v formed with n + 1 vectors is linearly dependent.
In a n-dimensional vector space Vn , any set of n linearly independent vectors
is named a basis in Vn .
Let g1 , ..., gn be a basis in Vn and let u be a vector of Vn . According to the
above definition, the vectors g1 , ..., gn , u are linearly dependent. Hence, a set of
real numbers 1 , ..., n , , not all of them vanishing, exists such that u + 1 g1 +
... + n gn = 0. Obviously 6= 0, since g1 , ..., gn are linearly independent. Thus,
we can conclude that
u = u1 g1 + ... + un gn ,
with uk = k /, k = 1, .., n. We say that u is a linear combination of the vectors
g1 , ..., gn , forming a basis in Vn . The above result shows that in an n-dimensional
vector space Vn any vector can be expressed as a linear combination of the base
vectors g1 , ..., gn . In what follows, we shall use Einsteins summation convention,
and we shall write the above sum writing u in a more concentrated form as
u = u k gk .
Assuming that two linear combinations exist
u = u k gk = u k 0 gk ,
expressing the same vector u as linear combination of g1 , ..., gk we obtain
(uk u0k ) gk = 0.
Since g1 , ..., gn are linearly independent, from the above follows that uk = uk 0
for k = 1, ..., n. Thus, if a basis g1 , ..., gn is given, any vector u can be expressed
in an unique way as a linear combination of the base vectors g1 , ..., gn . The real
numbers u1 , ..., un are named the components of the vector u in the basis g1 , ..., gn .
Let V be a (real) vector space. An application associating with any pair
of vectors u, v V a real number denoted by u v is named (Euclidean) scalar
product if it satisfies the following conditions (axioms):
(S1) u v = v u (commutativity);
1.1. TENSOR ALGEBRA
(S2) (u) v = (u v) (associativity with respect to multiplication with

real numbers);
(S3) u (v + w) = u v + u w (distributivity with respect to vector addition);
(S4) u u 0;
(S5) u u = 0 if and only if u = 0.
The real number u v is named the (Euclidean) scalar product of the vectors
u and v.
It is easy to see that the usual scalar product of free vectors introduced
in elementary geometry satisfies the above five axioms. Actually, the abstract
definition of the (Euclidean) scalar product was obtained starting with the wellknown properties of the usual scalar product existing in V , the three-dimensional
vector space of free vectors.
The magnitude (intensity, norm) kuk of a vector u from V is defined by the
equation
(1.1.1)
kuk = u u.
A vector space V in which is introduced a scalar product is named an Euclidean vector space.
A basis e1 , ..., en in an n-dimensional Euclidean vector space Vn is named
an orthonormal basis if the elements of the basis are unit vectors and they are
reciprocally orthogonal; that is, if

1 if k = m
ek em = km =
(1.1.2)
0 if k 6= m
km being the Kroneckers symbol.
Using the orthogonalization procedure of Gram and Schmidt, it can be shown
that in any n-dimensional Euclidean vector space there exist at least one orthonormal basis.
In what follows, we shall use only orthonormal bases.
If e1 , ..., en is an orthonormal basis in Vn , according to (1.1.2) we have:
u = uk ek = (u ek )ek
and
uk = u ek .
Also if
u = u k ek
and
v = v k ek ,
than
u v = uk vk = u1 v1 + ... + un vn .
Let us assume now that e1 , ..., en = {ek } and e01 , ..., e0n = {e0r } , k, r = 1, ..., n,
are two orthonormal basis in Vn . Expressing all vectors of one of the basis as linear
combination of the vectors of the other basis, we get:
e0r = qkr ek
and
0
ek = qrk
e0r .
(1.1.3)
0
Obviously, the matrix Q0 = [qrk
] is the inverse Q1 of the matrix Q =
[qkr ]. Moreover, since both basis are orthonormal, according to (1.1.2) we have
ek em = km and e0r e0s = rs , k, m, r, s = 1, ..., n. Hence, we successively obtain

rs = e0r e0s = (qkr ek ) (qls el ) = qkr qls ek el = qkr qls kl = qkr qks .
Thus
qkr qks = q1r q1s + ... + qnr qns = rs .
The last relation shows that the transformation matrix Q and its transpose
QT satisfy the equation:
QT Q = U,
where
U =
1
0
..
.
0
1
..
.
0
0
..
.
is the n-order square unit matrix. The obtained result shows that the matrix Q,
describing the change of an orthonormal basis with a new orthonormal basis, is
always an orthogonal matrix . At the same time, we can conclude that
QT Q = U,
det Q = 1
and
Q1 = QT .
Consequently, the equations (1.1.3) describing the change of the basis, become:
e0r = qkr ek ,
ek = qkr e0r
with
qkr = ek e0r = cos (ek , e0r ) .
(1.1.4)
Using the considered orthonormal basis {ek } and {e0k }, we can express the
same vector u in two ways:
u = u k ek
and
u = u0r e0r .
Taking into account the equation (1.1.4), we get the relations expressing the
transformation of components of a vector, when the basis is changed. We obtain
u0r = qkr uk
and
uk = qkr u0r .
(1.1.5)
T
Introducing the matrixes u = [u1 , ..., un ] and u0 = [u01 , ..., u0n ] , the above
equations can be expressed in matrix form, which is very useful in many cases. We
have
u0 = QT u and u = Qu0 .
(1.1.6)
Particularly, let {e1 , e2 , e3 } be a (right) orthonormal basis in the usual threedimensional Euclidean vector space V , and let us introduce in V a new orthonormal
basis {e01 , e02 , e03 }, defined by the equations
e01 = e1 cos + e2 sin ,
with (0, 2).
e02 = e1 sin + e2 cos ,
e03 = e3
(1.1.7)
1.1. TENSOR ALGEBRA
From the equations (1.1.4), it follows that the transformation matrix Q =

[qkr ], its transpose QT and its inverse Q1 , have the following form:
cos sin 0
cos sin 0
cos 0 , QT = Q1 = sin cos 0 .
(1.1.8)
Q = sin
0
0
1
0
0
1
Accordingly, the transformation of the components of a vector u from V is

given by the following equations:
u01 = u1 cos + u2 sin , u02 = u1 sin + u2 cos , u03 = u3 ,
u1 = u01 cos u02 sin , u2 = u01 sin + u02 cos ,
u3 = u03 .
(1.1.9)
From a geometrical point of view, the new basis is obtained from the initial
one, rotating the vectors e1 and e2 with an angle around the vector e3 , as in
Figure 1.1.
'3
'2
O
2
e'1
Figure 1.1: Change of basis by a rotation about e3 .

As we shall see later on, the above elementary change of basis plays an important role in the theory of material symmetry and in the theory of composite
laminates.
In what follows, we shall introduce the concept of a second order tensor in
an intrinsic manner. The second order tensors play a fundamental role in the
mechanics of deformable bodies, since the deformation and the internal forces
characterizing the behavior of a deformable material, are described mathematically
by second order tensor fields such as Greens deformation tensor and Cauchys
stress tensor.
Let V be a (real) vector space. A linear function T defined on V and having
values in V is named a second order tensor. If the value of T corresponding to a
vector v is the vector u, we shall write
u = T (v) = Tv.
The linearity of the function T, involved in the definition of a second order

tensor, is expressed by the following equation
T(u + v) = Tu + Tv,
u, v V,
, R.
(1.1.10)
We denote by L the set of all second order tensors. In the following, speaking
about a second order tensor, we shall name it simply tensor.
We say that two tensors T and U are equal if
Tv = Uv,
v V.
The null tensor, denoted by 0, is defined by the equation

0v = 0,
v V.
The sum T + U of two tensors T and U is defined by the equation

(T + U)v = Tv + Uv,
v V.
The product T = T of a real number and a tensor T is defined by the

equation
(T) v = (Tv) , v V.
It it easy to see that 0, T + U and T are linear applications defined on V
and having values in V. That is, 0, T + U and T are (second order) tensors.
Also, it can be seen that the above defined operations satisfy the axioms
(V1)-(V10), if we take the null tensor 0 as neutral element (null vector) relative
to tensor addition and as opposite of the tensor T the tensor T = 1T.
Consequently L, endowed with the above introduced operation, is a (real)
vector space. In the following, we shall denote by L just this vector space.
We assume now that V is an Euclidean vector space.
In order to construct bases in the vector space L, we first introduce the
concept of tensor product of two vectors.
We name tensor product or diadic product of two vectors u, v V the function
u v = uv,defined on V and having values in V, given by the following rule:
(u v) (w) = uv (w) = u (v w) ,
w V.
(1.1.11)
Using this definition and the properties (S1)-(S5) of a scalar product, we

successively get
uv(1 w1 + 2 w2 ) = u(1 v w1 + 2 v w2 ) = 1 u(v w1 ) + 2 u(v w2 )
= 1 (uv)w1 + 2 (uv)w2 .
That is, the function uv satisfies the linearity property (1.1.10). Hence, the
tensor product uv of the vectors u and v is a second order tensor.
1.1. TENSOR ALGEBRA
In the following, we assume that the underlying vector space V is an ndimensional Euclidean vector space, and as before, by L we denote the vector
space of all second tensors, defined on Vn .
Let us assume now that {e1 , ..., en } = {ek } is an orthonormal basis in Vn and
let us consider the set {ek em } of all possible tensor products for k, m = 1, ..., n.
Assuming that there exist n2 real numbers km such that
km ek em = 0,
we get
0 = 0el = (km ek em ) el = (km ek ) (em el ) = km ek ml = kl ek for l = 1, .., n.
Hence, kl = 0, for k, l = 1, ..., n, since {ek } is a basis in Vn . Consequently,
{ek em } , k, m = 1, ..., n, is a linearly independent set of the vector space L.
Let us consider now an arbitrary tensor T L. Since Tem is a vector of Vn
it can be expressed as a linear combination of the vectors e1 , ..., en
Tem = Tkm ek .
Using the orthonormality of the basis {ek }, the properties of the tensor product and the above relation, for an arbitrary vector v = vs es , we successively get
(T Tkm ek em ) v
= (T Tkm ek em ) (vs es ) = vs Tes vs Tkm ek (em es )

= vs (Tks ek Tkm ek ms ) = vs (Tks ek Tks ek )
=
0,
v Vn .
Hence, T Tkm ek em = 0 (the second order null tensor). Accordingly,

T = Tkl ek el ,
T L.
(1.1.12)
Thus, any tensor T L can be expressed as a linear combination of the n2

linearly independent second order tensors ek em , k, m = 1, ..., n.
Consequently, if {ek } is an orthonormal basis in Vn , then {ek , em } , k, m =
1, ..., n is a basis in L. Since this set contains n2 elements, the dimension of the
vector space L is n2 .
The quantities Tkm in the equation (1.1.12) are named the components of
the tensor T in the basis {ek em }. From (1.1.12), it results that
Tkm = ek Tem ,
(1.1.13)
Recalling that we use Einsteins summation convention, the equation (1.1.12)

actually means:
T = Tkm ek em =
T11 e1 e1 + T12 e1 e2 + ... + T1n e1 en +

T21 e2 e1 + T22 e2 e2 + ... + T2n e2 en +
........................................................
Tn1 en e1 + Tn2 en e2 + ... + Tnn en en .
In many computations, it is useful to present the components Tkm of a tensor

T as an n-order square matrix T :
T11 T12 ... T1n

T21 T22 ... T2n
.
T = [Tkm ] =
...
...
... ...
Tn1 Tn2 ... Tnn
In what follows regarding the components Tkm of a tensor T, we mean its

components in a basis {ek em }, where {ek } is an orthonormal basis in Vn .
If u = Tv and u = uk ek , T = Tkl ek el , v = vm em , it is easy to see that
uk = Tkm vm
or
u = Tv.
Now let us assume that {ek } and {e0k } are two orthonormal basis in Vn , connected by the equations (1.1.4). Let us consider the corresponding basis {e k em },
0
and {e0r e0s } in L. Denoting by Tkm and Trs
the components of a tensor T in these
bases, we have
0 0 0
T = Tkm ek em = Trs
er es
and, according to (1.1.4) and (1.1.13), we successively get:
0
Trs
= e0r Te0s = (qkr ek ) T (qms em ) = qkr qms (ek Tem ) ,

Tkm = ek Tem = (qkr e0r ) T (qms e0s ) = qkr qms e0r Te0s .
Using again the relation (1.1.13), we can conclude that the relation characterizing the transformation of the components of a tensor, corresponding to a
changing of the basis in L, have the following form
0
= qkr qms Tkm
Trs
and
0
.
Tkm = qkr qms Trs
(1.1.14)
The above relation can be expressed also in matrix form:

T 0 = QT T Q
and
T = QT 0 QT .
(1.1.15)
In particular, if the orthogonal matrix Q is given by the equation (1.1.8), we

get:
0
T11
0
T22
0
T12
0
T21
0
T13
0
T31
= T11 cos2 + (T12 + T21 ) sin cos + T22 sin2 ,

= T11 sin2 (T12 + T21 ) sin cos + T22 cos2 ,
= (T22 T11 ) sin cos + T12 cos2 T21 sin2 ,
= (T22 T11 ) sin cos T12 sin2 + T21 cos2 ,
0
= T13 cos + T23 sin , T23
= T13 sin + T23 cos ,
0
= T31 sin + T32 cos ,
= T31 cos + T32 sin , T32
(1.1.16)
0
= T33 .
T33
In the following, we shall introduce the composition or the product of two

tensors and we shall speak also about some special tensors, playing important roles
in the mechanics of deformable bodies.
1.1. TENSOR ALGEBRA
The composition or product TU of two tensors T and U is defined using the

composition rule of two functions; i.e.
(TU) v = T (Uv)
for any
v V.
It is easy to see that TU is a linear function defined on V and having values

in V; that is, TU is a second order tensor.
Let us denote by Tkm , Ukm and Vkm the components of the tensors T, U
and V = TU in the basis {ek , em }, and let T , U , V be the matrixes of these
components. It is easy to see that
Vkm = Tkl Ulm
and
V = T U.
That is, the matrix of the components of the product V = TU is the product
of the matrixes of the components of T and U.
Generally, the product of two tensors, as the product of two matrixes, is not
commutative; i.e.
TU 6= UT.
The unit tensor , denoted by 1, is defined by the relation
1v = v
for any
v V.
Obviously, 1 is a linear function defined in V and having values in the same

space. Hence, 1 is a second order tensor. Denoting by 1km , its components in a
basis {ek en }, we get
1km = km .
Also, we have
1T = T1 = T
for any
T L.
Using the Euclidean scalar product introduced in the underlying Euclidean

vector space V, we can introduce the transpose tensor of a tensor from L.
The function TT defined in V and having values in V is named the transpose
tensor of the tensor T if it satisfies the equation

TT u v = u Tv for any u, v V.
The above rule defines in an unique way the function

TT . Indeed, assuming

T
T
u
v
=
u
Tv for any u, v V,
exists,
such
that
T
that a
second function
T
1
1
T
T
T
we get T u T1 u v = 0 for any v V. Hence, T u TT1 u = 0 for any u V.
Consequently, TT u = TT1 u for any u V. Hence, TT = TT1 .

At the same time, using the above definition, the linearity of T and the
properties of the scalar product in V, we can show that TT is a linear function,
hence, a second order tensor.
10
T
the components of T and TT , in a basis {ek em } ,
Denoting by Tkm and Tkm
according to the definition of the components of a tensor, we get
Tkm = ek Tem
and
T
= e k TT em .
Tkm
Since ek TT em = em Tek , we obtain

T
= Tmk .
Tkm
In other words, the matrix of the components of the transpose tensor TT is

the transposed matrix of the components of the tensor T.
Also, the following relation takes place
TT
and:
T
= T,
(TU) = UT TT
for any
u, v V.
(uv) = vu
for any
T, U L.
We say that a tensor T is symmetric if

TT = T,
and is antisymmetric if
TT = T.
If the tensor T is symmetric, the matrix of its components is also symmetric; if
the tensor T is antisymmetric, the matrix of its components is also antisymmetric.
Consequently, a symmetric tensor has n(n + 1)/2 independent components, and
an antisymmetric tensor has n (n 1) /2 independent components. In particular,
all diagonal components of an antisymmetric tensor are zero.
If T is an arbitrary tensor from L, and if we introduce the tensors
TS =
we get:

1
T + TT ,
2
TA =

1
T TT ,
2
T = TS + T A .
Obviously, TS is a symmetric tensor and TA is an antisymmetric tensor. The
last equation shows that any tensor T can be expressed in a unique form as the
sum of a symmetric and of an antisymmetric tensor. That is the reason why T S
and TA are named the symmetric and antisymmetric parts of T.
The symmetric second order tensors play an essential role in the mechanics of
deformable bodies. Particularly, the Greens deformation tensor and the Cauchys
stress tensor are symmetric tensors.
11
1.1. TENSOR ALGEBRA
Let us observe also, that if T is a symmetric tensor, the transformation

formulas (1.1.16) take a more simple form
0
T11
0
T22
0
T12
0
T13
= T11 cos2 + T12 sin 2 + T22 sin ,

= T11 sin2 T12 sin 2 + T22 cos ,
= 12 (T22 T11 ) sin 2 + T12 cos 2,
0
0
= T13 cos + T23 sin , T23
= T13 sin + T23 cos , T33
= T33 .
(1.1.17)
We shall introduce now two invariants of a second order tensor T, playing

important roles in the mechanics of deformable bodies.
The trace trT of the tensor T is a linear function defined on L, having values
in R, and satisfying the following equation
tr (uv) = u v
u, v V.
for any
Consequently, if {ek em } is a basis in L, we have

tr (ek em ) = ek em = km .
Hence, if T =Tkm ek em , since tr is a linear function, we successively get
trT = tr (Tkl ek em ) = Tkm tr (ek em ) = Tkm km .
The last equation shows that
trT = Tmm = T11 + T22 + ... + Tnn .
In other words, the value of trT is the sum of the diagonal components of T.
Let T be a tensor. The tensor TS defined by the equation
TS =
1
(trT) 1
3
is named the spherical part of T, and the tensor TD defined by the equation
TD = T T S = T
1
(trT) 1
3
is named the deviatoric part of T. Obviously, we have

T = T S + TD =
1
(trT) 1 + TD
3
and
trTD = 0.
The above results show that any second order tensor can be decomposed
in a unique way into a spherical part and a diagonal part. Only the diagonal
components of the spherical part are (generally) non-vanishing and the trace of
the deviatoric part is always zero. As we shall see later, the above decomposition
plays an essential role in the mechanics of composite materials, concerning the
determination of the overall properties of a composite.
12
Returning to the properties concerning the trace of a second order tensor, it

is easy to prove that
tr (TU) = Tkm Ukm ,
trTT = trT,
trTS = trT trTA = 0,
tr1 =n.
The determinant det T of a tensor T is the determinant det T of the matrix

T of the components of T in a basis {ek em }, where {ek } is an orthonormal basis
in Vn . More exactly, if T = Tkm ek em , then
det T = det T = det [Tkm ] .
Let us consider now a new basis {e0r e0s } in L, where {e0r } is a new orthogonal
basis in Vn , connected to the initial basis {ek } by an orthogonal matrix Q. We have
0 0 0
T =Trs
er es and T 0 = QT T Q. Thus, we get det T 0 = det T since QT = Q1 . It
follows that the value of det T does not depend on the basis used in its definition.
T rT and det T are intrinsic characteristics of the tensor T and depend on
this tensor only. This is the reason why trT and det T are also named invariants
of the tensor T.
We also observe that from the definition of det T, it follows that
det TT = det T,
det (TU) = (det T) (det U) .
We say that a tensor T is singular if det T = 0 and it is non-singular if

det T 6= 0.
Any non-singular tensor T has an unique inverse tensor denoted by T 1
which satisfies the equations
TT1 = T1 T = 1.
The above definition results that the matrix of the components of the inverse
tensor T1 is the inverse matrix T 1 of the matrix T of the components of the
non-singular tensor T1 .
Using the well known rules of the matrix calculus, it is easy to prove that if
T and U are non-singular tensors, TT , T1 and TU are also non-singular tensors
and
1
T
1
det T1 = 1/ (det T) , (TU) = U1 T1 ,
TT
= T1 = TT .
The non-singular tensors are important in the mechanics of deformable bodies

since the gradient of any deformation is always a non-singular tensor.
A tensor Q L is named orthogonal if it satisfies the equation
QT Q = 1.
It is obvious that a tensor Q is orthogonal if and only if the matrix Q of its

components is an orthogonal matrix. Also, using the above definition, it is easy
13
1.1. TENSOR ALGEBRA
to see that any orthogonal tensor Q is non-singular, and satisfies the following
equations
det Q = 1, QQT = 1, QT = Q1 .
Moreover, we have
Qu Qv = u QT Qv = u 1v = u v
u, v Vn .
The above property shows that any orthogonal tensor conserves the scalar
product of vectors from Vn . Hence, it conserves the magnitude of vectors and the
angle between two vectors. In particular, if {ek } is an orthonormal basis in Vn ,
the set {Qek } also forms an orthonormal basis in Vn , if Q is arbitrary orthogonal
tensor from L.
The orthogonal tensors are important in the mechanics of deformable bodies, since the rigid motions of the bodies are described by orthogonal tensors.
Moreover, as we shall see, the symmetry properties of a solid deformable body are
characterized by various orthogonal tensors or transformations.
Using the trace of a tensor, the transpose of a tensor and the product or
composition of two tensors, we can introduce an Euclidean scalar product in the
vectorial space L of the second order tensors.
If T and U are two tensors from L, their Euclidean scalar product, denoted
by T U is a real number given by the following rule:

(1.1.18)
T U = tr TUT .
It is easy to see that this operation defined on the Cartesian product L L
and having values in R, satisfies the axioms (S1)-(S5) of an Euclidean scalar product. Moreover, if Tkm and Ukm are the components of T and U in a basis {ek em },
their scalar product T U can be expressed in term of these components, by the
following equation
T U = Tkm Ukm .
The magnitude (intensity, norm) kTk of a tensor T is defined using the above
introduced scalar product; i.e.
p
1/2
(1.1.19)
kTk = (T T)
= Tkm Tkm .
get
From the definition of the scalar product, for any vectors u, v, a, b Vn , we

(ab) (uv) = (a u) (b v) .
Particularly, if {ek } is an orthonormal basis in Vn , we have

1, if i = k and j = m
(ei ej ) (ek em ) = (ei ek ) (ej em ) = ik jm =
0, otherwise.
Hence, {ek em } is an orthonormal basis in L.
14
In the mechanics of deformable bodies, an important role is played by the

proper values and proper vectors of various second order tensors, such as Greens
deformation tensor and Cauchys stress tensor. This is the reason why we shall
briefly present some aspects concerning proper values and proper vectors, stressing
some important properties concerning the special, but important case of symmetric
tensors.
A number is an eigenvalue of the tensor T L if a non-vanishing vector
u L exists, named eigenvector , such that
Tu =u.
(1.1.20)
The set of all vectors u Vn , satisfying the equation (1.1.20) forms a vectorial
subspace of Vn , and is named characteristic space of the tensor T, corresponding
to the eigenvalue .
A unit eigenvector of T is named a proper or principal direction of the tensor
T.
The vector equation (1.1.20) can be written in the equivalent form
(T1) u = 0.
(1.1.21)
Let us introduce now in Vn and L the orthonormal bases {ek } and {ek em } ,
respectively, and let {um } and {Tkm } be the components of u and T in these bases.
It is clear that the above vector equation is equivalent to the following linear and
homogeneous algebraic system, formed by n equations:
(Tkm km ) um = 0,
k = 1, ..., n
(1.1.22)
the unknown being u1 , ..., un and .

The above system has non-vanishing solutions if and only if satisfies the
following algebraic equation of degree n:

T11

T12
..
T1n

T21

T
...
T
22
2n

=0
det [Tkm km ] =
(1.1.23)

...
...
...
...

Tn1
Tn2
... Tnn
This relation is the characteristic equation.

In mechanical applications, it is very important the special case in which
the tensor T is symmetric. In this case, we can prove the following fundamental
theorems.
Theorem 1 If T L, is symmetric, the characteristic equation (1.1.23) has n

real roots (distinct or not).
To prove this property, we assume that a complex root = + i (i = 1)

of the characteristic equation (1.1.23) exists, and let um = vm + iwm be a nonvanishing solution of the system (1.1.22), corresponding to = + i. Since the
15
1.1. TENSOR ALGEBRA

real and imaginary parts of the system (1.1.22) must vanish, we get
Tkm vm vk + wk = 0,
Tkm wm wk vk = 0.
Multiplying the first equation by wk , the second by vk, summing with respect
to k, and making the difference of the obtained results, we get (vk vk + wk wk ) = 0,
since, according to the assumption made Tkm = Tmk . But vk vk + wk wk 6= 0, since
{u1 , u2 , ..., un } is a non-vanishing solution of the system (1.1.22). Therefore, = 0,
and thus R. On the other side, the algebraic equation (1.1.23) is of degree n,
hence it has n roots (distinct or not).
Theorem 2 The proper vectors of a symmetric tensor T L, corresponding to
two distinct eigenvalues, are reciprocally orthogonal.
Indeed, let 1 and 2 be two distinct eigenvalues of T, and let u1 and u2 be
two eigenvectors, corresponding to these eigenvalues we have
Tu1 = 1 u1 , Tu2 = 2 u2 .
From the above relation, it results that
(Tu1 ) u2 (Tu2 ) u1 = (1 2 ) u1 u2 .
The tensor T is symmetric and we get

(Tu1 ) u2 = TT u2 u1 = (Tu2 ) u1 ,
since TT = T. Consequently, we obtain
(1 2 ) u1 u2 = 0,
and thus we can conclude that u1 u2 = 0, since 1 6= 2 .
Theorem 3 (Theorem of spectral representation) If T is a symmetric tensor from
L, an orthonormal basis (n1 , n2 , n3 ) in V and three proper values (distinct or not)
1 , 2 , 3 of T exists, such that
Tnk = k nk , k = 1, 2, 3(no summation !)
(1.1.24)
T = 1 n1 n1 + 2 n2 n2 + 3 n3 n3 .
(1.1.25)
and
If 1 , 2 and 3 are distinct, the characteristic spaces of T are one-dimensional
vector subspaces of V, generated by the principal directions n1 , n2 and n3 of T.
If 1 6= 2 = 3 , T has only two distinct characteristic spaces, namely, the
line generated by n1 and the plane perpendicular to n1 . At the same time, the
relation (1.1.25) becomes
T =1 n1 n1 + 2 (1 n1 n1 ) .
(1.1.26)
16
If 1 = 2 = 3 , then T has a single characteristic space, represented by the

whole vectorial space V . At the same time, the equation (1.1.25) takes the form
T =1 1.
(1.1.27)
The relations (1.1.25)-(1.1.26) give the spectral decomposition of the tensor

T.
To prove the above theorem, we recall that according to Theorem 1, the tensor
T has three real eigenvalues (distinct or not), 1 , 2 , 3 , which are the roots of the
characteristic equation

T11
T12
T13

T12
T22
T23 = 0.
(1.1.28)

T13
T23
T33
We suppose now that the eigenvalues 1 , 2 , 3 are distinct. Let us denote by
n1 , n2 , n3 the corresponding principal or proper directions. We have
Tn1 = 1 n1 ,
Tn2 = 2 n2 ,
Tn3 = 3 n3 .
(1.1.29)
Also, since n1 , n2 , n3 are unit eigenvectors, the equations

kn1 k = kn2 k = kn3 k = 1,
(1.1.30)
are satisfied.
For instance, the components 1 , 1 , 1 of n1 can be determined using the
relations (1.1.29)1 and (1.1.30)1 , which have the following component form:
(T11 1 ) 1 + T12 1 + T13 1 = 0,
T12 1 + (T22 1 ) 1 + T23 1 = 0,
T13 1 + T23 1 + (T33 1 ) 1 = 0,
12 + 12 + 12 = 1.
According to Theorem 2, the unit vectors n1 , n2 , n3 are reciprocally orthogonal, hence {n1 , n2 , n3 } is an orthonormal basis in V .
On the other hand, multiplying (1.1.24) by nm and using (1.1.13), we can
conclude that the components Tkm of the tensor T in the basis {nk nm } are given
by the relation
Tkm = k km (no summation!).
If we introduce the above values in the general formula (1.1.12), we get the
relation (1.1.25).
Also, we can see that the matrix of the components of T in the basis {n k nm }
has a diagonal form; i.e.
1 0
0
T = 0 2 0 .
0
0 3
17
1.1. TENSOR ALGEBRA
We observe also that any vector v V , having the form v = n1 , R, satisfies the equation Tv =Tn1 = 1 v; hence, v is an element of the characteristic
space of T, corresponding to the eigenvalue 1 . Reciprocally, let us assume that
v =v1 n1 + v2 n2 + v3 n3 is a vector from V , satisfying the equation Tv =1 v.
Introducing in this relation the expression of v and using (1.1.29), we get
v2 (2 1 )n2 + v3 (3 1 )n3 = 0. From the last equation, we get v2 = v3 =
0, v = v1 n1 , since according to the assumption made 1 , 2 , 3 are distinct. In this
way, we can conclude that the characteristic space corresponding to 1 , is, indeed
the line generated by the principal direction n1 .
The proof for the other two cases can be obtained in a similar manner.
The theorem of spectral decomposition shows that a symmetric tensor is
completely determined by its eigenvalues and by the corresponding characteristic
spaces.
We recall now that the eigenvalues of a tensor were defined in an intrinsic
manner, using the vector equation (1.1.20). Hence, the eigenvalues of a tensor
do not depend on a basis {ek } used to write the characteristic equation (1.1.28).
Consequently, the coefficients of the algebraic equation (1.1.28) are also invariants
relative to a change of basis in V . It is easy to see that the characteristic equation
(1.1.28) can be written in the following equivalent form:
3 IT 2 IIT IIIT = 0
where:
IT
IIT
IIIT
T11 + T22 + T33 = trT,

T22 T23 T11 T13 T11 T12

=
T23 T33 T13 T33 T12 T22

1
1
2
T T (trT) ,
(Tkl Tkl Tkk Tll ) =
=
2
2

T11 T12 T13

= T12 T22 T23 = det T.
T13 T23 T33
The quantities IT , IIT , IIIT are called the first, second and third principal
invariants of the tensor T. According to Viètes relations, these invariants can be
expressed in terms of the eigenvalues 1 , 2 , 3 by the following equations:
IT
IIT
=
=
IIIT
trT = 1 + 2 + 3
(1 2 + 2 3 + 3 1 ),
det T = 1 2 3 .
Since Greens deformation tensor and Cauchys stress tensor are symmetric
tensors, the above results play an important role in the mechanics of deformable
bodies, and can be used to characterize the deformation and the stress state of a
continuous, deformable material.
18
In order to introduce tensors of superior order, in all what follows, we assume

that the underlying vector space is the usual three-dimensional vector space V of
the free vectors. The corresponding nine-dimensional vector space of the second
order tensors will be denoted by L or by L2 . We shall denote by LS the subset
of all symmetric tensors, and by LA the subset of all antisymmetric tensors. It
is easy to see that LS is a six-dimensional vector subspace of L, and LA is a
tree-dimensional vector subspace of L.
A linear function A defined on V and having values in L2 = L is named a
third-order tensor . If the value of A, corresponding to a vector v is the second
order tensor T; we shall write
T = A (v) = Av.
We denote by L3 the set of all third order tensors.
We say that two third order tensors A and B are equal if
v V.
Av = Bv,
The third order null tensor, designed by 03 , is defined by the equation

03 v =02 ,
v V,
where by 02 = 0, we have designed the second order null tensor.

The sum A + B of two third order tensor A and B, and the product A = A
of a third order tensor and the real number R are defined by the equations
(A + B) v = Av + Bv,
(A) v = (Av) ,
v V, R.
As for L = L2 , it is easy to see that L3 , in which the above concepts and

operation were introduced, is a vector space, denoted also by L3 . The neutral
element is the null tensor 03 , and the opposite to A is the tensor A = 1A.
To construct bases in L3 , we shall introduce the tensor product of three
vectors from V .
We name tensor product of three vectors u, v, w V , the function
u v w = uvw,
defined on V and having values in L = L2 , by the following rule:
(uvw) (a) = uv (w a)
for any
a V.
Using this definition and the properties of the tensor product uv L = L2 ,

it is easy to prove that uvw is a linear function, hence, a third order tensor.
Also, it can be proved that if {ek } , k = 1, 2, 3, is an orthonormal basis in V ,
the set of 27 tensor products {ek el em } , k, l, m = 1, 2, 3, forms a basis in the vector
space L3 . Hence, the dimension of the vector space L3 is 27.
19
1.1. TENSOR ALGEBRA
Any third order tensor A can be expressed in a unique way as a linear

combination of the 27 third order tensors ek el em , k, l, m = 1, 2, 3; i.e.
A = Aklm ek el em .
The numbers Aklm , k, l, m = 1, 2, 3, are the components of the A in the
considered basis.
If T = Av and T = Tkl ek el , v = vs es , we find
T = Tkl ek el = (Aklm ek el em )(vs es ) = Aklm vs ek el (em es ) = Aklm vs ek el ms
= Aklm vm ek el .
Hence, the components Tkm of the tensor T are expressed in terms of the
components Aklm and vs of A and v by the equation
Tkl = Aklm vm .
If {ek } and {e0r } are two orthonormal basis in V , connected by the relations
(1.1.4), the systems {ek el em } and {e0r e0s e0t } are basis in L3 . Hence, we have also:
A = A0rst e0r e0s e0t .
Using the properties of the tensor product of three vectors and the relations
(1.1.4), connecting the bases {ek } and {e0r }, we can conclude that the components
Aklm and A0rst of the same third order tensor A are connected by the equations
A0rst = qkr qls qmt Aklm ,
Aklm = qkr qls qmt A0rst ,
(1.1.31)
with k, l, m, r, s, t = 1, 2, 3.
The third order tensors play an important role in thermomechanics and electromechanics, since the material properties of deformable bodies which are also
heat conducting or electrically polarizable are expressed using tensors of second,
third and fourth order. In pure mechanical theories, the role of the third order
tensors is relatively reduced. However, in order to introduce the gradient of a second order tensor field, and to obtain in this way the divergence of a second order
tensor field, we must use third order tensor fields. In turn, the divergence of a
second tensor field is indispensable in the mechanics of deformable bodies, since
the equilibrium conditions of a deformable body are expressed just using the divergence of Cauchys stress tensor. Also, we use third order tensors to introduce
fourth order tensors.
As we shall see, the material properties of elastic solids can be expressed, in
an adequate way, using fourth order tensors. This is the reason we must introduce
these entities.
A linear function , defined in V and having values in L3 , is named a fourth
order tensor . If the value of , corresponding to a vector v from V , is the third
order A from L3 , we shall write
A = (v) = v.
20

We denote by L4 the set of all fourth order tensors.
We say that two fourth order tensors and are equal if
v = v,
v V.
The fourth order null tensor, designed by 04 , is defined by the equation

04 v = 0 3 ,
v V.
The sum + of two fourth order tensors and , and the product
= of a fourth order tensor with a real number , are defined by the
equations
( + )(v) = v + v,
()(v) = (v),
v V, R.
As for L2 and L3 , it is easy to see that L4 , endowed with the above concept
and operations is a vector space. Obviously, the neutral element is the null tensor
04 and the opposite of is = 1.
To find bases in L4 , we introduce the tensors product of four vectors.
We name tensor product of four vectors a,b,u,v V , the function
a b u v = abuv,
defined on V and having values in L3 , given by the following rule:
(abuv)(w) = abu(v w),
w V.
It can be proved that if {ek }, k = 1, 2, 3, is an orthonormal basis in V , the

set of 81 tensor products {ek el em en }, k, l, m, n = 1, 2, 3, form a basis in the vector
space L4 . Hence, the dimension of L4 is 81, and any fourth order tensor can
be expressed in an unique way as a linear combination of the fourth order tensors
ek el em en , , k, l, m, n = 1, 2, 3; i.e.
= klmn ek el em en .
(1.1.32)
The quantities klmn , k, l, m, n = 1, 2, 3 are the components of in the

considered basis.
If A = v and A = Aklm ek el em and v = vs es , we successively get
A = Aklm ek el em
= (klmn ek el em en )(vs es ) = klmn vs ek el em (en es )

= klmn vs ek el em ns = klmn vn ek el em .
Hence, the components Aklm of the third order tensor A are expressed in
terms of the components klmn and vs of and v, by the equations
Aklm = klmn vn .
21
1.1. TENSOR ALGEBRA
If {ek } and {e0r } are two orthonormal basis in V , connected by the equations
(1.1.4), the systems {ek el em en } and {e0r e0s e0t e0u } , k, l, m, n, r, s, t, u = 1, 2, 3, are
basis in L4 . Also, we have
= 0rstu e0r e0s e0t e0u .
(1.1.33)
It is easy to show that the equations connecting the components klmn and
0rstu of , in the two basis have the following form:
0rstu = qkr qls qmt qnu klmn ,
klmn = qkr qls qmt qnu 0rstu
(1.1.34)
with k, l, m, n, r, s, t, u = 1, 2, 3.
In concluding this part concerning tensor algebra, we shall introduce some
contracted products, which will be used in later considerations. The definitions
will be given using some bases, but it will be shown that the defined entities are
independent on the bases used.
For a given vector v =vk ek , a second order tensor T =Tkm ek em and a third
order tensor A =Aklm ek el em , we define the left and right dot product of v and T
and of v and A, respectively, by the following equations:
v T = vk Tkl el ,
v A = vk Aklm el em ,
T v = Tkl vl ek ,
A v = Aklm vm ek el .
(1.1.35)
(1.1.36)
Obviously,
v T = TT v,
T v = Tv,
A v = Av.
Hence, v T, T v and A v are independent on the bases used.

Also, taking into account the equation (1.1.4) converting two orthonormal
bases {ek } and {e0r }, denoting by vr0 and A0rst the components of v and A in
the bases {e0r } and {e0r e0s e0t }, and using the transformation rules (1.1.5), (1.1.31),
together with the orthogonality conditions satisfied by {qkr }, we can see that
v A = vk Aklm el em = vr0 Arst e0s e0t .
Thus the definition used to introduce v A is actually independent on the
bases, and v A is a second order tensor which depend only on the vector v and
on the third order tensor A.
In a similar way, we shall introduce the contracted product of a fourth order
tensor = klmn ek el em en and a second order tensor T = Tmn em en , by using
the following rule:
T = klmn Tmn ek el .
(1.1.37)
It is easy to see that T does not depend on the bases used.
0 0 0
That is, if = 0rstu e0r e0s e0t e0u and T = Ttu
et eu , we have
0 0 0
er es .
T = klmn Tmn ek el = 0rstu Ttu
22
Consequently, U = T = Ukl ek el is a second order tensor and its components Ukl in the basis {ek el } are given by the equation
Ukl = klmn Tmn .
The contracted product of a fourth order tensor and a second order tensor
play a fundamental role in the theory of anisotropic linearly elastic materials, since
in this theory the Cauchys stress tensor is the contracted product of the fourth
order elasticity tensor (or Hookes tensor) and the infinitesimal second order strain
tensor.
We also observe that if U = T, according to the definition of the scalar
product of two second order tensors U and V = Vkl ek el , we have
V U = Vkl klmn Umn
(1.1.38)
U U = U U = Ukl klmn Umn .
(1.1.39)
and
The above relations are essential in the theory of linearly elastic solids. The
double of the specific elastic energy is expressed as the scalar product of the infinitesimal strain tensor and stress tensor, and the latter is the contracted product
of the elasticity tensor and the infinitesimal strain tensor.
Examining the equation (1.1.37), defining the contracted product of a fourth
order tensor and a second order tensor, we can conclude that a fourth order tensor
can be considered as being a linear function defined on the vector space L = L 2
of the second order tensors and having values in the same space.
Taking into account this new point of view, we can introduce the product or
composition of two fourth order tensors, using the usual rule of composition of two
functions.
If and are two fourth order tensors from L4 , their product (or composition) is defined by the equation:
() (T) = (T)
for any T from L2 = L.
It is easy to see that is a linear function on L2 , having values in the same

space. In other words, is a fourth order tensor.
Also it is easy to see that if = klmn ek el em en , = klmn ek el em en and
= = klmn ek el em en , then
klmn = klrs rsmn .
(1.1.40)
The tensor I L4 , defined by the equation

I = km ln ek el em en = ek el ek el ,
(1.1.41)
is named the fourth order unit tensor. It is easy to see that the components of this
tensor are km ln in any basis and I has the following properties:
IT = T,
T L2 ,
I = I = ,
L4 .
23
1.1. TENSOR ALGEBRA
The fourth order tensor 1 , if it exists, is named the inverse of the fourth
order tensor , if
1 = 1 = T.
The function T defined on L2 and having values in L2 , is named the transpose of the fourth order tensor , if it satisfies the condition
T T U = U T,
T, U L2 .
(1.1.42)
It can be shown that the above condition uniquely defines the transpose T
and the components Tklmn of T are expressed in terms of the components klmn
of by the relation
Tklmn = mnkl .
(1.1.43)
A fourth order tensor is symmetric if
T = .
(1.1.44)
From (1.1.43), it follows that if is symmetric, its components satisfy the

relations
klmn = mnkl , k, l, m, n = 1, 2, 3.
(1.1.45)
Consequently, a symmetric fourth order tensor has only 45 independent components. As we shall see, tensors of this type play a fundamental role in the linearized, three dimensional theory of elastic bodies, since the incremental constitutive equations, containing the instantaneous elasticities, are expressed just by
fourth order tensors having the symmetry property described above.
We shall denote by LS4 the set of all symmetric fourth order tensors. As it is
easy to see, LS4 is a vector subspace of L4 , and its dimension is 45.
In the theory of linearity elastic solids, an important role is played by those
symmetric fourth order tensors from LS4 , which also satisfy the following additional
condition:

(1.1.46)
TT = T, T L2 .
Denoting by klmn the components of LS4 , the above condition shows

that these components must also satisfy the following additional restriction:
klmn = klnm , k, l, m, n = 1, 2, 3.
Since is symmetric, we can conclude that its components satisfy the following
symmetry relations:
klmn = lkmn = klnm = mnkl .
Hence, has only 21 independent components.
Also, from (1.1.46) it results that
T
(T) = T,
T = TS ,
T L2
(1.1.47)
24
and
= 0,
LA
2.
The last equation shows that a symmetric fourth order tensor , having
additional property (1.1.46), cannot be an injective application from L2 in L2 .
However, considering any symmetric with the property (1.1.46) as a function defined on the set LS2 of the symmetric second order tensors, and having
values in the same vector space, we can ask ourselves if this new function has an
inverse.
b 4 the vector space of all symmetric fourth order tensors
Let us denote by L
having the property (1.1.46), and which are considered as functions on the vector
space LS2 and having values in the same space.
We now observe that the fourth order tensor bI with components
bIklmn = 1 (km ln + kn lm )
2
(1.1.48)
b4 .
is symmetric and satisfies the property (1.1.46). Hence, bI is an element of L
Moreover
bI = bI = , L
b4 .
b4 .
Taking into account the last equation, we call bI the unit tensor in L
1
b
A fourth order tensor L4 , if it exists, will be named the inverse of the
b 4 , if
fourth order tensor L
1 = 1 = bI.
b 4 is non-singular, if its
Also, we shall say that the fourth order tensor L
1
inverse exists.
b 4 will be named positive definite if:
A fourth order tensor L
T T 0,
T LS2
and
T T = 0
if and only if
T = 0.
b 4 is positive definite, it is also

It is easy to see that if the tensor L
non-singular, its inverse 1 exists and is also positive definite.
b 4 plays an essential role the linear elasticity, since the
The vector space L
elasticity tensor of any hyperelastic material is an element of this space. Moreover,
all elasticity tensors are positive definite, and consequently their inverse also exists
and are positive definite.
1.2. TENSOR ANALYSIS
1.2
25
Tensor Analysis
Let us denote by D a simply connected bounded open set of the threedimensional Euclidean space E. We assume that the boundary D of D is a closed
regular surface. We denote by (O, e1 , e2 , e3 ) a rectangular Cartesian coordinate
system in E, defined by a point O from E and by three orthonormal vectors
e1 , e2 , e3 from V . The position vector OP of a point P E will be denoted by

x =xk ek , x1 , x2 , x3 being the Cartesian coordinates of P in the selected coordinate
system (O, ek ) .
Various scalar, vector and tensor valued functions defined on D, are named
fields. More precisely, any function : D R is named a scalar field , any function
u : D V represents a vector field, any function T : D L = L2 is a second
order tensor field , any function A : D L3 is named a third order tensor field and
any function : DL4 represents a fourth order tensor field . We assume that the
definition concerning the continuity and differentiability of various scalar, vector
and tensor fields are known. We recall that a vector or a tensor field is continuous
in D if and only if their components are continuous real valued functions in D.
Similarly, a vector or a tensor field is differentiable in D, if and only if their
components are differentiable real valued functions in D. We say that a vector
or a tensor field is of class C 0 in D if it is continuous in D, and it is of class
C 1 in D or smooth in D, if their components are functions of class C 1 in D; i.e.
are differentiable in D and their partial derivatives of first order are continuous
functions in D. In a similar manner, is defined a vector or a tensor field of class
C k on D, for k = 2, 3, .... Let as observe that the above regularity properties do
not depend on their basis used to introduce vector or tensor components.
In the following, we shall introduce the most important differential operators,
playing essential roles in the mechanics of deformable bodies. For this purpose, we
shall use various coordinate systems in order to introduce new vector and tensor
fields. In such situations, we shall prove that the new fields introduced in this
way, are actually independent on the coordinate systems used and these have
an intrinsic character. To accomplish this task, we shall use the concept of the
directional derivative, having obviously an intrinsic nature.
Let : D R be a scalar field and let P be a fixed point in D. Let us
consider a variable point P 0 D situated on the right line passing through P and
having the direction fixed by a given unit vector s = sk ek as it is shown in Figure
1.2.
Let us denote by x = xk ek and x0 = x0k ek = x+s, the position vectors of
P and P 0 , respectively.
If the following limit
(x + s) (x)
(P 0 ) (P )
= lim
(P ) = lim
0
0
0
P P
s
k PP k
(1.2.1)
exists and is bounded, we say that the scalar field is differentiable in the direction
26
P'
P
s
x' = x + as, aR, a>0
O
Figure 1.2: Concerning the definition of the directional derivative.
s at the point P . The real number

s (P ) is named the derivative of in the
direction s at the point P .
It can be shown that if is of class C 1 in D,
s (P ) exists in any direction
s, in any point P D, and can be calculated by using the relations
(P ) = sk ,k (P ).
(P ) = sk
xk
s
(1.2.2)
In order to evaluate the right part of the above equation, we assume that
the field is given as a function of the coordinates x1 , x2 , x3 , i.e. = (P ) =
(x1 , x2 , x3 ). As used in the equation (1.2.1), the partial derivative of a real valued
function with respect to the coordinate xk will be denoted in the following by
= ,k .
,k ; i.e. x
k
Let : D R be a scalar field of class C 1 in D. The vector field grad ,
defined on D by the equation
grad (P ) = ek
(P ) = ek ,k (P ),
xk
P D,
(1.2.3)
is named the gradient of the scalar field in D.

The above equation and the relation (1.2.2) show that the directional derivative
s (P ) can be expressed as the scalar product of the two vectors, in the
following form
(P ) = s grad (P ).
(1.2.4)
s
The right hand side of the last equation is independent on any coordinate
system; the same property has the unit vector s. Consequently, grad (P ) has
also an intrinsic nature. It is independent on any coordinate system in E and on
any basis in V , used initially in the equation (1.2.3) by which grad (P ) was
27
introduced. Hence, grad is really a vector field, depending only on the scalar
field . In other words, if (O, e0r ) is a new coordinate system in E, {e0r } being an
orthonormal basis in V , we have = (P ) = 0 (x01 , x02 , x03 ) , and
grad (P ) = e0k
0
(P ) = e0k 0,k (P )
x0k
P D.
Similar considerations and results will be obtained when we introduce the

gradient of a vector or of a tensor field, using the directional derivatives of the
involved fields and some arbitrarily selected coordinate systems in E. The newly
introduced entities will always have an intrinsic character, and depending on the
involved vector or tensor fields, they are independent on the coordinate systems
and bases used to define the corresponding gradients.
Returning to the equation (1.2.1), we note that formally this equation can
be written in the following equivalent form:
grad = (ek
).
xk
(1.2.5)
The linear differential operator

= ek
+e3
+ e2
= e1
x
x2
x1
xk
3
(1.2.6)
can be considered as a (formal) vector, which multiplied by gives grad . This

(formal) vector is named Hamiltons operator or the nabla operator. Using this
differential operator, we can express the equations (1.2.3) and (1.2.4) in a more
concentrated form as:
grad = ,
= (s ),
s
s = sk
.
xk
(1.2.7)
Hamiltons (nabla) will be used to introduce various important differential

operators.
Let v : D V be a vector field and let P be a fixed point in D.
v(x + s) v(x)
v(P 0 ) v(P )
v
= lim
(P ) = lim
0
0
P 0 P
s
kP P k
(1.2.8)
exists and is bounded, we say that the vector field v is differentiable in the direction
s at the point P . The vector v
s (P ) is named the derivative of v in the direction
s at the point P .
It can be shown that v is of class C 1 in D, v
s (P ) exists in any direction s,
in any point P D and can be calculated using the relations
vm
v
(P )em = sk vm,k (P )em
(P ) = sk
xk
s
(1.2.9)
28
where v(P ) = vm (P )em .

Let v : D V be a vector field of class C 1 in D. The second order tensor
field grad v defined on D by the equation
grad v(P ) = v(P ) = ek
v
(P )
xk
(1.2.10)
is named the gradient of the vector field v in D.

From the above equation, we get
grad v(P ) =
vm
(P )ek em = vm,k (P )ek em .
xk
(1.2.11)
On the other hand, using the left dot product of a vector and a second order
tensor, from (1.2.9) and (1.2.11), we obtain
v
(P ) = s grad v(P ) = (grad v(P ))T s.
s
(1.2.12)
We stress here that by introducing the gradient of a vector field or of a

tensor field we use the left formalism, as it can be seen from equations (1.2.10)
and (1.2.11). This formalism is very useful if we wish to define and express various
differential operators in curvilinear coordinate systems, in which case the base
vectors are variable entities depending on the place in which they are determined.
It is easy to see that grad is a linear differential operator ; i.e.
grad(u+v) = gradu + gradv,
for any u, v V and , R.
By the divergence of a vector field v : D V , of class C 1 in D, we mean the
scalar field div v : D R, defined by the following equivalent relations
div v = v = ek
vk
v
= vk,k = v1,1 + v2,2 + v3,3 .
=
xk
xk
(1.2.13)
Using the trace of a second order tensor, we can express also div v by the
equivalent equations
div v = tr(v) = tr(gradv).
(1.2.14)
Since tr and grad are linear operators, div is also linear ; i.e.
div(u + v) = div u + div v,
u, v V, , R.
Finally, let T : D L = L2 be a second order tensor field in D.

T(x + s) T(x)
T(P 0 ) T(P )
T
= lim =
(P ) = lim
0
0
P P
s
k PP0 k
(1.2.15)
29
exists and is bounded, we say that the tensor field T is differentiable in the direction
s at the point P . The second order tensor T
s (P ) is named the derivative of T, in
the direction s at the point P .
It can be shown that if T is of class C 1 in D, T
s (P ) exists in any direction
s, at any point P D, and can be calculated using the relations
Tlm
T
(P )el em = sk Tlm,k (P )el em ,
(P ) = sk
xk
s
(1.2.16)
where T(P ) = Tlm (P )el em . Let T : D L2 = L be a second order tensor field of

class C 1 on D. The third order tensor field grad T defined by the equations
grad T(P ) = T(P ) = ek
T
(P ),
xk
(1.2.17)
is named the gradient of the second order tensor field T on D.

From the equation (1.2.16) and (1.2.17), we get
grad T(P ) =
Tlm
(P )ek el em = Tlm,k (P )ek el em .
xk
(1.2.18)
At the same time, using the relations (1.2.16) and (1.2.18) and the left dot
product of a vector with a third order tensor, we obtain
T
(P ) = s grad T.
s
(1.2.19)
Again, it is easy to see that grad is a linear differential operator; i.e.

grad(T + U) = grad T + grad U,
for any T, U L2 = L and any , R. By the divergence of a second order
tensor field T : D L2 = L, we mean the vector field div T : D V , defined by
the following relations:
div T = T = (ek
Tkm
em = Tkm,k em ,
) (Tlm el em ) =
xk
xk
(1.2.20)
where we have used the left dot product of Hamiltons vector with the second
order tensor T.
It is easy to see that div is a linear differential operator; i.e.
div(T+U) = div T + div U,
for any T,U L2 = L and , R.
We stress again the fact that in introducing grad T and div T, we have used
the left formalism.
30

According to the above definition, the components (div T)m of div T are
(div T)1 =
T31
T21
T11
Tk1
+
+
= Tk1,k =
x3
x2
x1
xk
(div T)2 =
T32
T22
T12
Tk2
+
+
= Tk2,k =
x3
x2
x1
xk
(div T)3 =
T33
T23
T13
Tk3
.
+
+
= Tk3,k =
x3
x2
x1
xk
(1.2.21)
If T is a symmetric second order tensor field, the left and the right formalism
lead to the same divergence of T and we have
div T =
Tkm
ek = Tkm,m ek
xm
if TT = T.
(1.2.22)
In a developed form, we get

(div T)1 =
T13
T12
T11
,
+
+
x3
x2
x1
(div T)2 =
T23
T22
T21
,
+
+
x3
x2
x1
(div T)3 =
T33
T32
T31
,
+
+
x3
x2
x1
(1.2.23)
if Tkm = Tmk .
In the last part of this Section, we shall present those integral theorems which
play an important role in the mechanics of deformable bodies, particularly in the
theory of elastic composites.
We assume that the scalar vector and tensor fields , u and T are of class C 2
= D D of D. We shall denote by n the
on D and of class C 1 on the closure D
unit outward normal to the closed regular boundary D of D. With the assumed
regularity condition, the following equations hold:
Z
Z
Z
grad dv =
dv =
n da,
(1.2.24)
D
grad u dv =
D
div u dv =
D
div T dv =
D
divT dv =
u dv =
D
u dv =
T dv =
T dv =
n u da,
n T da =
n u da =
Tn da,
D
nu da,
(1.2.25)
(1.2.26)
Z
if
TT n da,
(1.2.27)
TT = T.
(1.2.28)
31

Z
u div T dv =
u div T dv =
u T n da
u Tn da
u T da,
T E(u) dv,
(1.2.29)
if
TT = T,
(1.2.30)
b is the symmetric gradient of the vector field u defined by the

where E(u) = u
equation
b = 1 (u + uT ).
(1.2.31)
E(u) =u
2
The formulas (1.2.24)-(1.2.26) concerning the scalar and vector fields and
u are classical, and can be proved using the Gauss-Ostrogradskys theorem.
To establish the equation (1.2.27), we use the component from (1.2.22) of
divT, the Gauss-Ostrogradsky theorem, and take into account that ek , k = 1, 2, 3,
are constant vectors. In this way, we successively get
Z
Z
Z
Z
n T da.
nk Tkm em da =
Tkm,k ek dv =
div T dv =
D
Equation (1.2.29), in the same way can be proved. We get

Z
Z
Z
u div T dv =
um (divT)m dv =
um Tkm,k dv
D
ZD
Z D
=
(um Tkm ),k dv
um,k Tkm dv
ZD
ZD
=
nk um Tkm da
(u)km Tkm dv
D
ZD
Z
=
um (n T)m da
u Tdv
ZD
Z D
T
=
u (T n)da
u Tdv.
D
The equation (1.2.28) plays a fundamental role in the mechanics of deformable bodies in formulating the balance law of momentum, the involved symmetric second order tensor being the Cauchys stress tensor. As we shall see, equation (1.2.27) plays an essential role in stability theorems, the involved second order
tensor being the non-symmetric incremental stress tensor. Equations (1.2.31) and
(1.2.30) are used in order to express the fundamental energetical relations of the
classical linear elasticity and of the linearized three-dimensional theory of elastic
bodies, respectively.
As we shall see, in the mechanics of composite materials, we encounter piecewise homogeneous structures; that is, bodies which are formed by two or more
different homogeneous elastic materials. In such cases, various vectors and tensor
fields, describing the behavior of the multi-phasic mixture can have finite jumps
across the common boundaries of the component phases. The validity of the above
32
given integral formulas must be analyzed accordingly. The results of this analysis
will be proved in the Section devoted to the piece-wise homogeneous linearly elastic
solids.
1.3
Problems
P1.1 Show that the null vector 0 is unique. Show that for any vector, u
corresponds exactly one vector u, such that u+ (u) = 0.
P1.2 Show that 0u = 0, 0 = 0 for any u V and for any R.
P1.3 Show that any system of p vectors, containing the null vector, is linearity
dependent.
P1.4 Show that in the usual three-dimensional vector space V of the free
vectors, any three vectors, which are not situated in the same plane, form a basis.
P1.5 Let Pn+1 be the set of all polynomials having at most the degree n.
Show that Pn+1 is a vector space and the system 1, x1 , x2 , ..., xn is a basis in
Pn+1 . Find the dimension of Pn+1 .
P1.6 Show that the magnitude kuk of a vector u satisfies the following properties:
(N1) kuk 0 u V and u = 0 if and only if u = 0;
(N2) kuk = || kuk u V, R;
(N3) ku + vk kuk + kvk u, v V.
Rb
P1.7 Show that the operation hP, Qi = P (x) Q (x) dx, a, b R, defined for
a
any P, Q Pn+1 , is a scalar product in Pn+1 .

P1.8 Show that 0 u = 0 for any u V and |u v| kuk kvk for any u,v V .
The last inequality determined by Schwarz, Cauchy and Buniakowsky, shows that
1
uv
1.
kuk kvk
In this way, we can introduce the angle [0, 2) between the vectors u and
v, using the equation:
uv
.
= arccos
kuk kvk
P1.9 Let V be an Euclidean vector space and let u and w be two vectors
from V. Show that if u v = w v for any v V, then u = w.
P1.10 Show that the second order null tensor 0 is a linear function.
P1.11 Show that the tensor product of two vectors has the following properties:
(u)v = u(v) = (uv), u, v V, R;
(u + v)w = uw + vw,
u(v + w) = uv + uw,
u, v, w V.
We have used frequently the above properties in our considerations.
33
1.3. PROBLEMS
P1.12 Show that all components of the null tensor 0 are vanishing.
P1.13 Show that the components of T + U and T are Tkm +Ukm and Tkm ,
Tkm and Ukm being the components of T and U, respectively.
P1.14 Let u and v be two vectors from Ln , and let {uk } and {vk } be their
components in an orthonormal basis {ek } of Vn . Show that in the basis {ek em }
of L, the components (uv)km of the tensor product uv, are given by the relations
(uv)km = uk vm
k, m = 1, 2, ..., n.
P1.15 Show, using an example, that generally the tensor product uv of two
vectors is not commutative; i.e.
uv 6= vu.
P1.16 Let T and U be two tensors from L, and let TU be their product.
Show that TU is a linear function, that is, it is a second order tensor.
P1.17 Show that the product of two tensors has the following properties:
(TU)V = T(UV), (associativity)
T(U + V) = TU + TV, (T + U)V = TV + UV, (distributivity with respect to tensor addition),
1T = T1 = T
where T, U, V are arbitrary second order tensors, and 1 is the (second order) unit
tensor.
P1.18 Using an example, show that generally, the product of two tensors is
not commutative; i.e.
TU 6= UT.
P1.19 Show that TT is a linear function, that it is a second order tensor.
P1.20 Show that:
(uv)T = vu, u, v V.
P1.21 Show that:
(Tu)(Uv) = T(uv)UT ,
u, v Vn , T, U L.
P1.22 Show that:

(ab)(uv) = (b u)av,
a, b, u, v V.
P1.23 Show that the scalar product T U of two second order tensors T and
U satisfies the axioms (S1)-(S5) of an Euclidean scalar product.
P1.24 Show that:
(ab) (uv) = (a u) (b v)
a, b, u, v Vn .
P1.25 Let {ek } , k = 1, 2, 3 be an orthonormal basis in V , and let T L be a

second order tensor defined by the equations
Te1 = e1 + e2 ,
Te2 = e2 + e3 ,
Te3 = e3 + e1 .
34
(a) Express the tensor T in the basis {ek em } , k, m = 1, 2, 3 of L;

(b) Find the vector u = Tv if v = e1 + e2 + e3 ;
T
(c) Show that T2 = TT = 2TS and find TA ;
(d) Find IT = trT, IIT = det T and kTk ;
(e) Show that T is non-singular and find T1 .
P1.26 Show that the tensor T L is non-singular if and only if from Tv = 0
if follows v = 0.
P1.27 Show that if S is a symmetric tensor and A is an antisymmetric tensor,
then S A = 0.
P1.28 Let {ek } be an orthonormal basis in V . Show that the six second order
tensors
e1 e1 , e2 e2 , e3 e3 , (e1 e2 + e2 e1 ) / 2, (e2 e3 +e3 e2 ) / 2, (e3 e1 +e1 e3 ) / 2
form an orthonormal basis in LS , the vector space of the symmetric second order
tensors. Show that the three second order tensors
(e1 e2 e2 e1 ) / 2, (e2 e3 e3 e2 ) / 2, (e3 e1 e1 e3 ) / 2
form an orthonormal basis in LA , the vector space of the antisymmetric second

order tensors.
P1.29 Prove the following relation:
(Tu) v = T (uv)
(Tu) (Sv) = T (uv) ST ,
where u, v are arbitrary vectors from Vn and T, S are arbitrary tensors from L.
P1.30 Show that the set of all vectors u Vn which satisfies the equation
Tu =u for T L and R fixed, form a vectorial subspace of Vn .
P1.31 Let LA be an antisymmetric tensor, the matrix of its components
being given by the equation
0 3
2
0 1 ,
= [km ] = 3
2
1
0
1 , 2 , 3 being arbitrary real numbers. Find the eigenvalues of .

P1.32 Let us consider the tensor T defined in P1.24 and let TS be the symmetric part of T.
(a) Find the eigenvalues and the eigenvectors of TS ;
(b) Give the spectral representation of TS .
P1.33 Prove the theorem of spectral representation if 1 6= 2 = 3 and if
1 = 2 = 3 .
P1.34 Show that one of the eigenvalues of any orthogonal tensor Q is +1 or
1. Show that generally the other two eigenvalues of Q are complex, conjugate
number.
35
1.3. PROBLEMS
P1.35 Let {ek } , k = 1, 2, 3 be an orthonormal basis in V . Show that the 27

tensor products {ek el em } , k, l, m = 1, 2, 3 form a basis in L3 , the vector space of
third order tensors.
P1.36 Show that the tensor product of three vectors satisfies the following
properties, frequently used in our considerations
(1 u1 + 2 u2 ) vw = 1 u1 vw + 2 u2 vw,
u(1 v1 + 2 v2 )w = 1 uv1 w + 2 uv2 w,
uv(1 w1 + 2 w2 ) = 1 uvw1 + 2 uvw2,
for any u, u1 , u2 , v, v1 , v2 , w, w1 , w2 from V, for any 1 , 2 from R.
P1.37 Find and prove the linearity properties of the tensor product of four
vectors, using the results given in P1.33.
P1.38 Show that the components Iklmn of the fourth order unit tensor I in
any basis {ek el em en } are given by the equations
Iklmn = km ln .
P1.39 Show that if = with , L4 then
klmn = klrs rsmn. .
P1.40 Show that the transpose T of a fourth order tensor is unique.
b 4 is positive definite, it is non-singular
P1.41 Show that if the tensor L
1
and its inverse is also positive definitive.
P1.42 Let c be a fourth order tensor having the following components:
cklmn = kl mn + (km ln + kn lm ) , , R, (3 + 2) 6= 0.
b4 .
(a) Show that c L
(b) Show that the fourth order tensor k, having the components
kklmn =
(km ln + kn lm )
kl mn +
4
2 (3 + 2)
b 4 ; i.e. k = c1 and kc = ck = bI.

is the inverse of c in L
(c) In which conditions c is positive definite?
P1.43 Let and be two scalar fields. Prove that:
grad () = grad + grad .
P1.44 Let and v be a scalar and a vector field, respectively. Prove that:
div (v) = vgrad + div v.
36

P1.45 Let and T be a scalar and a tensor field, respectively. Prove that:
grad (T) = (grad ) T + grad T,
div (T) = (grad ) T + div T.
P1.46 Let v and T be a vector and a tensor field, respectively. Prove that:
div (Tv) = v div T + T grad v.
P1.47 Let u and v be two vector fields. Prove that:
div (uv) = v div u + u grad v.
P1.48 Let us consider the vector field v = x. Find grad x, div x and x
s .
P1.49 Let us consider the tensor field T = xx. Find grad xx, div xx and
xx
s .
P1.50 Let P be a fixed point in the domain D. Let be a closed regular

surface, bounding a sub-domain B of D, such that P B. Let us denote by v the
volume of B. Let v and T be a vector and a tensor field, of class C 1 on D. Show
that:
Z
1
v n da,
div v(P ) = lim
v0,P B v
div T(P ) =
lim
v0,P B
1
v
v T da,
where n is the unit outward to .

The above results show again that div v (P ) and div T (P ) have an intrinsic
character, depending only on the involved fields, and being independent on any
coordinate system.
Bibliography
[1.1] Malvern, L.E., Introduction to the mechanics of continuous medium, PrenticeHall, Inc., London, 1969.
[1.2] Gurtin, M.E., The linear theory of elasticity, Handbuch der Physics, VIa/2,
Ed. C.Truesdell, Springer, Berlin, 1972.
[1.3] Gurtin, M.E., An introduction to continuous mechanics, Academic Press, San
Diego, 1981.
[1.4] Soos, E., Teodosiu, C., Tensor calculus with applications in solid mechanics,
Ed. Stiintifica si Enciclopedica, Bucuresti, 1983 (in Romanian).
Chapter 2
ELEMENTS OF LINEAR
ELASTOSTATICS
2.1
Displacement. Deformation. Stress
We consider a body identified by the domain B which occupies a fixed configuration. A deformation of B is a smooth homeomorphism of B into a domain
(B) in the three-dimensional Euclidean space E with det > 0. The point
(x) is the place occupied by the material point x in the deformation , while
u (x) = (x) x,
(2.1.1)
is the displacement of x. The tensor fields

F = and H = u,
(2.1.2)
are called, the deformation gradient and the displacement gradient, respectively.
From (2.1.1) and (2.1.2), it results:
H = u = F 1,
(2.1.3)
1 being the unit tensor.

Many different measures of strain exist. The most useful is the finite strain
tensor or Greens tensor

1 T
F F1 .
(2.1.4)
G=
2
In the linear theory of importance is the infinitesimal strain tensor

=

1
1
u + uT .
H + HT =
2
2
(2.1.5)
38
CHAPTER 2. ELEMENTS OF LINEAR ELASTOSTATICS

From (2.1.4) and (2.1.5), it results
1
G = + uT u.
2
(2.1.6)
The linear or infinitesimal theory models are those cases when the displacement gradient H = u is small. An infinitesimal rigid displacement is defined by
the equation:
u (x) = u0 + 0 x,
(2.1.7)
where u0 and 0 are constant vectors.
It is easy to see that the infinitesimal strain field corresponding to an infinitesimal rigid displacement field is zero on B. Also we have:
Kirchhoff s theorem. If two displacement fields, u and u0 correspond to
the same infinitesimal strain field, then
u = u0 + ,
(2.1.8)
where is an infinitesimal rigid displacement field.

A homogeneous displacement field is a displacement field of the form
u (x) = u0 +Ax,
(2.1.9)
where u0 is a constant vector and A is a non-singular constant tensor. The infinitesimal strain field corresponding to a homogeneous displacement field is a
constant symmetric tensor

1
A + AT .
(2.1.10)
(x) =
2
If u0 = 0 and A = E is symmetric; i.e. if
u (x) = Ex and ET = E,
(2.1.11)
then u is called a pure strain, and obviously

(x) = E,
(2.1.12)
is a constant tensor field.

Given a continuous strain field on B, we call the symmetric tensor
Z
1
dv,
(2.1.13)
E=
V B
the mean strain. In the above relation, V is the volume of the domain B occupied
by the body in its reference configuration.
The following theorem holds:
Mean strain theorem. Let u be a displacement field, and let = (u) be
the corresponding strain field, and let us assume that u and are continuous on
39
2.1. DISPLACEMENT. DEFORMATION. STRESS
B. Then the mean strain E depends on the boundary values of u only, and is given
by:
Z
1
(un + nu) da,
(2.1.14)
E=
2V B
where B is the boundary of B.

Indeed, by the divergence theorem (1.2.25)
Z
Z
Z

dv.
u + uT dv = 2
(un + nu) da =
B
Let = (x) be the Cauchys stress tensor, and let b = b (x) be the body
force field. These fields must satisfy in B the Cauchys equilibrium equation; i.e.
div + b = 0.
(2.1.15)
Also, is a symmetric tensor field; i.e.

T = .
(2.1.16)
For the latter use, we introduce the following two definitions:

A vector field u is an admissible displacement field if u is of class C 2 in
B, and u and u are continuous on B.
A symmetric tensor field is an admissible stress field if is of class C 1
on B and and div are continuous on B.
The associated surface force field is the vector field sn defined in each
regular point x B by
sn (x) = (x) n (x) ,
(2.1.17)
where n (x) is the outward unit normal to B at x.

The following lemma is useful in many problems of linear elastostatics:
Lemma. Let be an admissible stress field, let u be an admissible displacement field, and let (u) be the infinitesimal strain field corresponding to u. Then
Z
Z
Z
sn uda =
u divdv +
(u) dv,
(2.1.18)
B
sn being the surface force field associated to .

In order to prove the relation (2.1.18), we must use the integral theorem
(1.2.30) and the equations (2.1.5) and (2.1.17).
If satisfies the equilibrium equation (2.1.15), we have div = b, and the
given lemma has the following important consequence:
Theorem of work expended. Let be an admissible stress field, u an admissible displacement field, (u) the corresponding strain field, and let us assume
that satisfies the equilibrium equation. Then
Z
Z
Z
sn uda +
b udv =
(u) dv.
(2.1.19)
B
40
According to this theorem, the work done by the surface force sn = n

associated to and by the body force b over the displacement field u is equal to
the work done by the stress field over the strain field (u) corresponding to u.
Given an admissible stress field , we call the symmetric tensor
Z
1
dv,
(2.1.20)
=
V B
the mean stress. We have the following:

Mean stress theorem. The mean stress corresponding to an admissible
stress field that satisfies the equation of equilibrium depends on the associated surface force (or traction) and body force fields only, and is given by

Z
Z
1
(xb + bx) dv .
(2.1.21)
(xsn + sn x) da +
=
2V
B
B
In order to prove the above equation, we use the component form of this
relation. Taking into account the relation (2.1.17) and the Gauss-Ostrogradski
divergence theorem, we successively get
Z
Z
(xk lm nm + xl km nm ) da
(xk snl + snk xl ) da =
B
B
Z n
o
(xk lm ),m + (xl km ),m dv.
=
B
Since xk,m = km , xl,m = lm and lm,m + bl = 0, km,m + bk = 0, it results

Z
Z
Z
(xk snl + snk xl ) da =
(km lm xk bl ) dv +
(lm km xl bk ) dv.
B
Thus, we get
Z
Z
2
kl dv =
B
(xk snl + snk xl ) da +

B
(xk bl + xl bk ) dv.
B
Taking into account now the definition (2.1.20) of the mean stress, we obtain
the equation (2.1.21) in its component form and the proof is complete.
As we shall see later, the two main value theorems play a fundamental role
in the theory of macroscopically homogeneous composite materials.
In the mechanics of deformable bodies, a specific material is defined by a
constitutive relation or by a material law. Here we will be concerned exclusively
with linearly elastic materials. For such materials, the stress at any time and
point is a linear function of the (infinitesimal) deformation at the same time and
any point. This function may depend on the point under consideration, but it is
independent on time.
2.1. DISPLACEMENT. DEFORMATION. STRESS
41
Therefore, we say that the body is linearly elastic if for each x B a linear
transformation or a fourth order tensor c (x) from the space of all symmetric
tensors to the same space exists such that
(x) = c (x) (x) .
(2.1.22)
We call c (x) the elasticity tensor or Hookes tensor for x, and the function
c defined on B, with values c (x) , is called the elasticity field.
If the mass density of the body and its elasticity field c are independent of x,
we say that the body is homogeneous. If the mass density and the elasticity field
depend on x, the body will be called non-homogeneous or heterogeneous.
Since the space of all symmetric tensors has the dimension 6, the matrix of
the components cijkl (x) of c (x), relative to any bases, is 6 6.
If ij , kl and cijkl are the components of , and c in the corresponding
bases of the involved tensor spaces, the relation (2.1.22) takes the form
ij (x) = cijkl (x) kl (x) , i, j, k, l = 1, 2, 3,
(2.1.23)
and the following symmetric relations take place:

cijkl (x) = cjikl (x) = cijlk (x) .
(2.1.24)
We call the 36 independent quantities cijkl (x) elasticities at x.

If the elasticity tensor c (x) is invertible, then its inverse
k (x) = c1 (x) ,
(2.1.25)
is called the compliance tensor and we have

(x) = k(x)(x).
(2.1.26)
According to the general definition, we say that the elasticity field c is symmetric if
A c (x) B = B c (x) A,
(2.1.27)
for every point x B and for every pair of symmetric tensors A and B.
As we already know, c is symmetric if, and only if, its components cijkl (x)
satisfies the restrictions
cijkl (x) = cklij (x) .
(2.1.28)
We say that a linearly elastic material is hyperelastic if its elasticity tensor
c is symmetric. The elasticity tensor c of a hyperelastic material is an element of
b 4 and has only 21 independent components.
the tensor space L
b 4 of
According to the general definition, we say that the elasticity field c L
a hyperelastic materials is positive definite if
A c (x) A > 0,
(2.1.29)
42
for every point x B and for every non-zero symmetric tensor A.

If c is positive defined, it is non-singular, its inverse k = c1 exists and is
also positive defined.
In what follows, we shall consider only hyperelastic materials characterized
by positive definite elasticity fields c.
According to (2.1.23) and (2.1.28), the components of c, in any bases and in
any point x, satisfy the following symmetry relations:
cijkl (x) = cjikl (x) = cijlk (x) = cklij (x) .
2.2
(2.1.30)
Symmetry transformations and groups
In order to specify the symmetry properties of the material, we introduce the

concept of the symmetry transformation.
Let us consider a fixed point x of the linearly elastic body B and let c = c (x)
be the elasticity tensor for x.
An orthogonal tensor Q is called symmetry transformation at x, if for every
symmetric tensor , the following relation:

(2.2.1)
Q (c) QT = c QQT ,
is satisfied. Obviously, the above equation represents a restriction on the elasticity

field c.
The mechanical meaning of the given definition can be rigourously clarified
and justified only in the most general frame-work of the non-linear mechanics.
We have also the following:
Group property of the symmetry transformations. If Q is a symmetry
transformation Q1 = QT is also a symmetry transformation, and if Q and P are
two symmetry transformations, Q P is also a symmetry transformation.
In order to prove these properties, we observe that the equation (2.2.1) can
be written in the following equivalent form:

c = QT c QQT Q.
(2.2.2)
If Q is a symmetry transformation, since QQT = 1, the relation (2.2.2)
applied to the symmetric tensor QT Q yields

c QT Q = QT c Q QT Q QT Q = QT c () Q.
Consequently, we can conclude from (2.2.2) that QT = Q1 is a symmetry

transformation. Next, if Q and P are two symmetry transformations, then applying
(2.2.2) twice yields
h
i

T
c () = PT c PPT P = PT QT c (QP) (QP) QP;
43
2.2. SYMMETRY TRANSFORMATIONS AND GROUPS
thus QP is a symmetry transformation.

Since the unit transformation 1 is obviously a symmetry transformation, the
proved property shows that the set of all symmetry transformation form a group.
We shall denote by Sx the set of all orthogonal transformations Q that satisfy
(2.2.1) and shall call Sx the symmetry group of the material at x.
We say that the material at x is isotropic if the symmetry group Sx is the
orthogonal group, and it is anisotropic if Sx is a proper subgroup of the orthogonal
group.
Obviously, Sx always contains the two-element group {1, 1} as a subgroup.
In fact, it can be proved that Sx is the direct product of this two element group and
a group Sx+ which consists only of proper orthogonal transformations for which
det Q = 1. Hence, the symmetry group of the material is completely characterized by the group Sx+ . In particular, the material at x is isotropic or anisotropic
according to either Sx+ equals, or is a proper subgroup of the proper orthogonal
group. Even if an infinite number of subgroups of the proper orthogonal group
exists, twelve of them seems to exhaust the kind of symmetries occurring in the
theories proposed up to now and which are appropriate to describe the behavior
of real anisotropic elastic materials.
The first eleven of these subgroups of the proper orthogonal group correspond
to the thirty-two crystal classes. The last type of anisotropy, called transverse
isotropy (with respect to a unit direction e) is characterized by the symmetry
group consisting of 1 and all the rotations by the angle (0, 2) about an axis
in the direction e.
We denote by R(e, ) a right-handed rotation by the angle , 0 < < ,
about an axis oriented in the direction of the unit vector e. According to its
definition, the matrix of the components of R(e, ), in the tensorial basis e i ej ,
generated by the orthonormal basis (e1 , e2 , e3 = e) , has the following form:
cos sin 0
(2.2.3)
[Rij (e,)] = sin cos 0 .
0
0
1
The transformation R (e) = R (e,) is called reflection in the plane P (e)
having as normal the unit vector e. If e = e3 , that is if P (e3 ) is spanned by the
unit vectors e1 and e2 , the matrix of the components of the reflection R (e3 ) has
the following form:
1 0 0
(2.2.4)
[Rij (e3 )] = 0 1 0 .
0 0 1
A unit vector e is called an axis of symmetry (for the material at x) if
Qe = e,
for some Q Sx , with Q 6= 1.
(2.2.5)
44
It is easy to see that e is an axis of symmetry if and only if one of the

symmetry transformations is a rotation about the axis spanned by e; i.e. if and
only if
R (e,) Sx , for some (0, ) .
A plane P (e1 , e2 ), spanned by two mutually orthogonal unit vectors e1 , e2 ,
is called a plane of symmetry (for the material at x) if
Qe1 = e1 and Qe2 = e2 ,
(2.2.6)
for some Q Sx ,with Q 6= 1.

It is easy to see that P (e1 ,e2 )is a plane of symmetry if and only if one of the
symmetry transformation is a reflection on the plane P (e1 ,e2 ); i.e. if and only if
R (e3 ) Sx , e1 , e2 , e3 are three mutually orthogonal unit vectors.
A material is called triclinic if its symmetry group Sx for any x B is
minimal; i.e. Sx is the two element group (1, 1) . As we already know, a triclinic
linearly hyperelastic material has 21 independent elasticities.
A material is called monoclinic if for any x B its symmetry group Sx for
any x B is formed by the transformations
+1, R (e, ) .
Consequently, if the material is monoclinic, the plane P (e) , perpendicular
to the unit vector e, is a plane of symmetry for the material at any x B. Or,
equivalently, a monoclinic material has a plane of symmetry, the same for any
points of the body.
A material is called orthotropic if its symmetry group Sx for any x B
consists of the transformations
1, R (e1 , ) , R (e2 , ) , R (e3 , ) ,
(2.2.7)
where e1 , e2 , e3 are three mutually orthogonal unit vectors.

Consequently, if the material is orthotropic its symmetry group contains reflections with respect to three mutually perpendicular planes P (e1 ) , P (e2 ) , P (e3 )
which are the planes of symmetry of the material at any x B. Or, equivalently,
an orthotropic material has three mutually orthogonal symmetry planes, the same
for any point of the body.
A material is called transversally isotropic with respect to the direction e,
if its symmetry group Sx , for any x B, consists of the transformations 1 and
R (e, ) with (0, ) .
That is, Sx contains all the rotations through the angle (0, 2) about the
axis generated by e and the reflection R (e) with respect to the plane P (e) .
Obviously, e is an axis of symmetry and P (e) is a plane of symmetry of the
material.
45
In order to express the restrictions due to various material symmetries, we

shall use the Voigts convention, by which the tensorial indices are replaced by
matrix indices, according to the following rule:
tensorial indices
matrix indices
11
1
22
2
33
3
23 and 32
4
31 and 13
5
12 and 21
6
.
Accordingly, the tensor components ij and ij of the stress and strain ,

are denoted in the following way:
11 = 1 , 22 = 2 , 33 = 3 , 23 = 4 , 31 = 5 , 12 = 6 ,
(2.2.8)
11 = 1 , 22 = 2 , 33 = 3 , 223 = 4 , 231 = 5 , 212 = 6 .
(2.2.9)
The tensorial components cijkl , i, j, k, l = 1, 2, 3 of the elasticity tensor c will

be replaced by matrix components Cij , i, j = 1, 2, ..., 6, according to the Voigts
convention. For instance, we shall have:
c1111
c1122
c1123
c1223
= C11 ,
= c2211 = C12 = C21 ,
= c1132 = c2311 = c3211 = C14 = C41 ,
= c1232 = c2123 = c2132 = c2312 = c3212 = c2321 = c3221 = C64 = C46 .
(2.2.10)
We recall that the tensorial indices take the values 1, 2, 3, whereas the matrix
indices take the values 1, 2, ..., 6.
Since the material is hyperelastic, we have
Cij = Cji , i, j = 1, 2, ..., 6.
(2.2.11)
Now, it is easy to see that the stress-strain relation = c or ij = cijkl kl ,

i, j, k, l = 1, 2, 3, can be written in the following equivalent forms:
i = Cij j , i, j = 1, 2, ..., 6,
1
2
3
4
5
6
C11
C21
C31
C41
C51
C61
C12
C22
C32
C42
C52
C62
C13
C23
C33
C43
C53
C63
C14
C24
C34
C44
C54
C64
C15
C25
C35
C45
C55
C65
[] = [C] [] .
C16
C26
C36
C46
C56
C66
(2.2.12)
1
2
3
4
5
6
(2.2.13)
(2.2.14)
The symmetric 6 6 matrix [C] is called the stiffness matrix.

Let us establish now the restrictions imposed on the elasticities by the symmetry properties of the body, in the case of monoclinic, orthotropic, transversally
isotropic and isotropic materials.
46
Monoclinic materials. Let us assume that P (e3 ) is a plane of symmetry of

the material. In this case R (e3 ) = R (e3 , ) Sx for any x B. Consequently,
the relation (2.2.2) must be satisfied for Q = R (e3 ). That is, in an orthonormal
basis (e1 , e2 , e3 ) the restrictions:
cijkl = Qim Qjn Qkp Qlq cmnpq ,
(2.2.15)
must be satisfied, where, according to (2.2.4),

Q11 = Q22 = 1, Q33 = 1 and Qij = 0 if, i 6= j.
(2.2.16)
For instance, we must have

c1123 = C14 = Q1m Q1n Q2p Q3q cmnpq .
Using (2.2.16), it is easy to see that the above condition reduces to
c1123 = C14 = c1123 = C14 .
Accordingly, we must have
C14 = 0.
In a similar elementary way, it results that the restriction (2.2.15) can be
satisfied if and only if
C14 = C24 = C34 = C64 = C15 = C25 = C35 = C65 = 0.
(2.2.17)
Consequently, the constitutive equation of a monoclinic material can be written in the following matrix form:
1
C11 C12 C13
0
0
C16
1
2 C12 C22 C23
0
0
C26

2
3 C13 C23 C33
0
0
C
36 3

(2.2.18)
4 = 0
.
0
0
C
C
0
44
45

4
5 0
0
0
C45 C55
0 5
6
C16 C26 C36
0
0
C66
6
According to the above result, a monoclinic material has 13 independent

elasticities.
Orthotropic materials. Let us assume that P (e1 ) , P (e2 ) , P (e3 ) are three
mutually perpendicular symmetry planes of the material. Since P (e3 ) is a plane
of symmetry, the restrictions (2.2.17) must be satisfied. Since P (e2 ) is also a
plane of symmetry, it results that the following supplementary restrictions must
be satisfied:
C14 = C24 = C34 = C54 = C16 = C26 = C36 = C56 = 0.
(2.2.19)
47
Finally, we take into account that P (e1 ) is also a symmetry plane. Direct
examination shows that this fact does not impose supplementary restrictions on
the elasticities.
In other words, if the material has two mutually perpendicular symmetry
planes, the plane perpendicular to them is also a plane of symmetry.
From (2.2.17) and (2.2.19), we can conclude that the constitutive equation
of an orthotropic material can be written in the following matrix form:

1
1
C11 C12 C13
0
0
0
2 C12 C22 C23
0
0
0
2

3 C13 C23 C33
3
0
0
0
4 = 0
0
0
C44
0
0
4

5 0
0
0
0
C55
0 5
0
0
0
0
0
C66
6
6
Accordingly, an orthotropic material has 9 independent elasticities.

We stress the fact that the constitutive equation of a monoclinic or orthotropic material can be expressed in the simple forms given by the above and
(2.2.18) matrix relations, only if the elasticities cijkl correspond to the tensor basis
ei ej ek el generated by that orthonormal basis e1 , e2 , e3 which correspond to the
symmetry planes P (e1 ) , P (e2 ) , P (e3 ) . Generally, the elasticities corresponding
to a tensor basis e0i e0j e0k e0l generated by an arbitrary orthonormal basis e01 , e02 , e03 ,
are all non-vanishing.
Transversally isotropic materials. Let us assume now that the symmetry
group of the material consists by 1 and R (e3 , ) for any (0, 2) . In the
tensor basis ei ej generated by the orthonormal basis (e1 , e2 , e3 ) , the components
of R (e3 , ) are given by the relation (2.2.3).
Long, but elementary algebra shows that in the case of transversally isotropic
materials the restrictions (2.2.2) take the following form:
C11 = m4 C11 + 2m2 n2 C12 + n4 C22 4m3 nC16 4mn3 C26 + 4m2 n2 C66 , (2.2.20)
C22 = n4 C11 + 2n2 m2 C12 + m4 C22 + 4n3 mC16 + 4nm3 C26 + 4n2 m2 C66 , (2.2.21)
C12 = m2 n2 C11 + (m4 + n4 )C12 + m2 n2 C22 + 2mn(m2 n2 )(C16 C26 )
4m2 n2 C66 ,
(2.2.22)

C66 = m2 n2 C11 2m2 n2 C12 + m2 n2 C22 + 2mn m2 n2 (C16 C26 )
2
(2.2.23)
+ m2 n2 C66 ,

C16 = m3 nC11 mn m2 n2 C12 mn3 C22 + m2 m2 n2 C16

(2.2.24)
+n2 3m2 n2 C26 2mn m2 n2 C66 ,
48

C26 = n3 mC11 + nm m2 n2 C12 m3 nC22

+n2 3m2 n2 C16 + m2 m2 n2 C26 ,
(2.2.25)
C13 = m2 C13 + n2 C23 3mnC36 ,
(2.2.26)
C23 = n C13 + m C23 + 3mnC36 ,

C36 = mn (C13 C23 ) + m2 n2 C36 ,
(2.2.27)
(2.2.28)
C44 = m2 C44 + n2 C55 + 2mnC45 ,
(2.2.29)
C55 = n2 C44 + m2 C55 2nmC45 ,

C45 = mn (C55 C44 ) + m2 n2 C45 ,
(2.2.30)
(2.2.31)
C34 = mC34 + nC35 ,
(2.2.32)
C35 = nC34 + mC35 ,
(2.2.33)
C14 = m3 C14 + m2 nC15 + mn2 C24 + n3 C25 2m2 nC46 2mn2 C56 ,
(2.2.34)
C24 = mn2 C14 + n3 C15 + m3 C24 + m2 nC25 + 2m2 nC46 + 2mn2 C56 ,
(2.2.36)
C15 = m2 nC14 + m3 C15 n3 C24 + mn2 C25 + 2mn2 C46 2m2 nC56 , (2.2.35)
C25 = m3 C14 + mn2 C15 m2 nC24 + m3 C25 2mn2 C46 + 2m2 nC56 , (2.2.37)

C46 = m2 nC14 + mn2 C15 m2 nC24 mn2 C25 + n2 m2 (mC46 nC56 ) ,
(2.2.38)

C56 = mn2 C14 + m2 nC15 + mn2 C24 m2 nC25 + n2 m2 (nC46 mC56 ) .
(2.2.39)
In these relations, we use the notation
m = cos , n = sin .
(2.2.40)
Adding (2.2.24) and (2.2.25), and subtracting (2.2.20) from (2.2.31), we get

C16 + C26 = (C11 C22 ) sin cos + (C16 + C26 ) cos4 sin4 ,

C11 C22 = (C11 C22 ) cos4 sin4 4 (C16 + C26 ) sin cos .
From these equations, it results
(C11 C22 ) sin2 = 0,

(C16 + C26 ) sin2 = 0.
Since for (0, 2) , and generally sin 6= 0, the above restrictions can be
satisfied for any (0, 2) if and only if
C11 = C22 , C16 = C26 .
(2.2.41)
49

Introducing (2.2.4) in any of the relations (2.2.20)-(2.2.22), we obtain

(C11 C12 2C66 ) sin2 cos2 + 2C16 sin cos cos2 sin2 = 0.
Introducing (2.2.4) in any of the relations (2.2.24), (2.2.25), we get

8C16 sin2 cos2 + (C11 C12 2C66 ) sin cos cos2 sin2 = 0.
It is easy to see that the last two restrictions can be satisfied for any
(0, 2) if and only if
1
(2.2.42)
C66 = (C11 C22 ) , C16 = 0.
2
A simple examination shows that the restrictions (2.2.26)-(2.2.28) can be
satisfied for any (0, 2) if and only if
C13 = C23 , C36 = 0.
(2.2.43)
Analogously, the restrictions (2.2.29)-(2.2.31) can be satisfied for any

(0, 2) if and only if
C44 = C55 , C45 = 0.
(2.2.44)
The restrictions (2.2.32) and (2.2.33) will be satisfied for any (0, 2) if
and only if
C34 = C35 = 0.
(2.2.45)
Adding (2.2.34), (2.2.36) and (2.2.35), (2.2.37), respectively, we obtain
C14 + C24 = (C14 + C24 ) cos + (C15 + C25 ) sin ,
C15 + C25 = (C14 + C24 ) sin + (C15 + C25 ) cos .
These restrictions will be satisfied for any (0, 2) if and only if
C14 + C24 = 0, C15 + C25 = 0.
(2.2.46)
Using these restrictions, from (2.2.24), (2.2.39) and (2.2.35), (2.2.37), we get
C14 C56 = (C14 C56 ) cos (C15 + C46 ) sin ,
C15 + C46 = (C14 C56 ) sin + (C15 + C46 ) cos .
These restrictions can be satisfied for any (0, 2) if and only if
C14 = C56 , C15 = C46 .
(2.2.47)
Taking into account the restrictions (2.2.46) and (2.2.47), from (2.2.38) and
(2.2.39), we obtain the conditions

C46 1 cos3 + 3 sin2 cos C56 3 cos2 sin sin3 = 0,
50

C46 3 cos2 sin sin3 + C56 1 cos3 + 3 sin2 cos = 0.
The above relations can be satisfied for any (0, 2) if and only if
C46 = C56 = 0.
(2.2.48)
Examining the conditions (2.2.41)-(2.2.48), we can conclude that if the material is transversally isotropic, the elasticities must satisfy the following restrictions:
C16 = C26 = C36 = C46 = C56 = C45 = C14 = C24 = C15 = C25 = C34 = C35 = 0,
1
(C11 C12 ) .
(2.2.49)
2
Consequently, by direct examination it can be seen that if the restrictions
(2.2.49) are satisfied, the relations (2.2.20)-(2.2.39) hold for any (0, 2) .
According to (2.2.49), the constitutive equation of a transversally isotropic
material can be written in the following matrix form:

C11 C12 C13
0
0
0
1
1
2
2 C12 C11 C13
0
0
0

3
3 C13 C13 C33
0
0
0
=
(2.2.50)
4 .
4 0
0
0
C44
0
0

5
5 0
0
0
0
C44
0
(C11 C12 )
6
6
0
0
0
0
0
2
C11 = C22 , C13 = C23 , C44 = C55 , C66 =
Thus, a transversally isotropic material has 5 independent elasticities.

Isotropic materials. In this case, the symmetry group Sx for any x B is
the full orthogonal group. Particularly, for any (0, 2) , R (e3 , ) and R (e2 , )
are elements of the symmetry group. The restrictions imposed by R (e3 , ) were
just established. Taking into account that R (e2 , ) Sx , in a similar way we get
the following additional restrictions:
C11 = C33 , C12 = C13 , C44 =
1
(C11 C12 ) .
2
(2.2.51)
Consequently, the constitutive equation of an isotropic material can be written in the following matrix form:

C11 C12 C12
0
0
0
1
1
C
C11 C12
0
0
0
2
2
12
C
C
C
0
0
0
3
12
12
11
3
.
=
(C
C
)
11
12
4
0
0
0
0
0
4
2
(C11 C12 )
5
0
0
0
0
5
0
2
(C11 C12 )
6
6
0
0
0
0
0
2
(2.2.52)
Accordingly, an isotropic material has 2 independent elasticities.
51
In the theory of linearly elastic isotropic materials, the following notations

are used:
C11 = + 2, C12 = ,
(2.2.53)
and being the Lames coefficients; is called also shear modulus and frequently
is denoted by G.
It is easy to see that the stress-strain relation for isotropic materials can be
written in the following tensorial form:
= c = (tr) 1+2.
(2.2.54)
In the case of a homogeneous isotropic material, and are constant quantities. If the material is heterogeneous, and depend on x B.
We denote by
1
1
e = (tr) 1 and s = (tr) 1,
3
3
(2.2.55)
the deviatoric part of the strain and of the stress , respectively. From (2.2.54),
we get
tr = 3ktr, k = + 2/3, s = 2e.
(2.2.56)
Since tr characterizes the volumetric changes of an elastic solid, the coefficient k is called bulk modulus.
If 6= 0 and 3 + 2 6= 0, the stress-strain relation (2.2.54) can be inverted,
and

1
(tr) 1 .
(2.2.57)
= k =
3 + 2
2
The Youngs modulus E and the Poissons ratio are defined by

E=
(3 + 2)
,
, =
2 ( + )
+
(2.2.58)
assuming ( + ) 6= 0. Thus, the strain-stress relation (2.2.58) becomes

=
1+
(tr) 1.
E
E
(2.2.59)
From (2.2.59), we can see that E is determined in a tensile test, by dividing

the axial stress by the corresponding axial strain, and is the ratio of the lateral
contraction towards the axial strain of the bar subjected to traction.
Since an elastic bar should increase its length when pulled, and should contract in the direction perpendicular to its axis, and since an isotropic elastic body
should decreases its volume when acted upon by a hydrostatic pressure, we have
E > 0, > 0, k > 0.
(2.2.60)
52

If 1 2 6= 0, the relation (2.2.58) can be inverted, and we get
=
E
E
.
, =G=
2(1 + )
(1 + ) (1 2)
(2.2.61)
In this way from (2.2.56), we obtain the bulk modulus k expressed in terms
of the Youngs modulus E and the Poissons ratio
k=
E
.
3(1 2)
(2.2.62)
Now, from(2.2.60)(2.2.62), we can conclude that

> 0, > 0, <
1
.
2
(2.2.63)
Also, taking into account the isotropic constitutive equation (2.2.54) and the
decompositions (2.2.56), (2.2.57), we obtain
c = k(tr)2 + 2e e.
(2.2.64)
Since according to the experimental evidence, the bulk modulus k and the
shear modulus of an isotropic material are always positive, from the equation
(2.2.64) we can conclude, that the elasticity field c of an isotropic material is
positive definite.
Generalizing this fact, we have assumed that the elasticity field c of any
elastic material is positive definite.
Starting with this assumption, from (2.2.64) we can conclude that the elasticity field of an isotropic material is positive definite if and only if
> 0 and k > 0.
(2.2.65)
Since c is positive definite, the stress-strain relation can be invented and

k = c1 is also positive definite and we have
= k.
(2.2.66)
c = [][C][],
(2.2.67)
Obviously, since
the stiffness matrix [C] is also a positive definite, invertible, and symmetric 6 6
matrix. Consequently, the inverse matrix
[S] = [C]
(2.2.68)
named the compliance matrix exists, is positive definite and symmetric. Thus, we
can inverse the matrix form (2.2.13) of the constitutive equation getting
[] = [S][].
(2.2.69)
tain
form
Particulary, taking into account

S11 S12 S13

1
2 S12 S22 S23

3 S13 S23 S33

4 = 0
0
0

5 0
0
0
0
0
0
6
53
(2.2.19), for an orthotropic material, we ob
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
2
3
0
0
0
.
(2.2.70)
S44 0
0
4
0
S55 0 5
6
0
0
S66
Usually, the compliance matrix [S] is expressed in the following, more useful
1
0
0
E212 E313 0
E1
1
12
0
0
E323 0
E1 E2
13 23
1
0
0
0
E1
E3
E2
(2.2.71)
[S] =
.
1
0
0
0
0
0
G23
1
0
0
0
0
0
G31
1
0
0
0
0
0
G12
Here E1 , E2 and E3 are Youngs moduli in 1, 2, 3 directions, respectively;

ij are Poissons ratio for the transverse strain in the j-direction when stressed in
the i-direction, that is
ij = j /i for i = and all other stresses are zero.
(2.2.72)
Finally, G23 , G31 and G12 are shear moduli in the 2-3, 3-1 and 1-2 planes,
respectively.
Since the compliance matrix is symmetric, i.e Sij = Sji , the engineering or
technical constants must satisfy the supplementary conditions:
ji
ij
, i, j = 1, 2, 3.
=
Ej
Ei
(2.2.73)
Since the compliance matrix is positive definite, according to the Sylvesters

criterion, its components must satisfy the following restrictions:
E1 , E2 , E3 , G23 , G31 , G12 > 0,
(2.2.74)
12 21 < 1, 23 32 < 1, 13 31 < 1,
(2.2.75)
e = 1 12 21 23 32 31 13 12 23 31 21 13 32 > 0.
(2.2.76)
Using the symmetry relation (2.2.73), we can express the restrictions (2.2.75)
in the following equivalent forms:
p
p
p
(2.2.77)
|12 | < E1 /E2 , |23 | < E2 /E3 , |31 | < E3 /E1 ,
or
|21 | <
E2 /E1 , |32 | <
E3 /E2 , |13 | <
E1 /E3 .
(2.2.78)
54

Similarly, (2.2.76) can be expressed as

1
2 E3
2 E2
2 E1
,
13
32
1 21
21 13 32 <
E1
E3
E2
2
(2.2.79)
From the above restriction, we can conclude that

21 13 32 < 1/2.
(2.2.80)
The Sylvesters criterion tells us that if the restrictions (2.2.74)(2.2.76) are

satisfied, k and [S], and consequently c and [C] are positive definite, and the
converse is also true. Other, independent restriction of the engineering constants
cannot be obtained using the assumed positive definiteness of the elasticity field c
of an orthotropic material.
The obtained restrictions are used to examine experimental data, to see if
they are physically consistent within the framework of the usual linearly elastic
model based on positive definite elasticity. For example, in testing boron/epoxy
composite materials, Dickerson and Di Martino reported Poissons ratio as high as
1.97 in the 2 direction due to loading in the 1 -direction (12 ). The reported values
for thep
Youngs moduli for the two direction are Ep
1 = 1.72kP a, E2 = 0.19kP a.
Thus, E1 /E2 = 2.99 and the restriction |12 | < E1 /E2 is satisfied. Accordingly, 12 = 1.97 is a reasonable value, even if our intuition based on isotropic
materials (0 < < 1/2) rejects such large number. Also, the converse Poissons ratio 21 was reported as 0.22. This value satisfies the symmetry condition or
reciprocal relation (2.2.73).
Should the measured material properties satisfy the constraints, we can proceed with confidence to design structures with that material. Otherwise, we have
a reason to doubt either the material model or the experimental data or both.
As we have seen, even if we assume that the elasticity c of an orthotropic
material is positive definite, we cannot deduce that Poissons ratios ij are positive. However, by assuming that the traction tensile stress acting in the direction
of the axis of symmetry of an orthotropic material, produces elongation in that
direction but contraction in the directions of corresponding to the other two axis
of symmetry, we can conclude that
ij > 0, i, j = 1, 2, 3, i 6= j.
(2.2.81)
If, in addition, we assume that in the above mentioned experiment the volume
of the body increases, that is
1 + 2 + 3 =
1
(1 12 13 ) 1 > 0 if only 1 > 0 is non-vanishing,
E1
1
(1 21 23 ) 2 > 0 if only 2 > 0 is non-vanishing, (2.2.82)
E2
1
(1 32 31 ) 3 > 0 if only 3 > 0 is non-vanishing,
1 + 2 + 3 =
E3
1 + 2 + 3 =
55
we can conclude that Poissons ratios satisfy the following additional restrictions:
12 + 13 < 1, 21 + 23 < 1, 32 + 31 < 1.
(2.2.83)
In this case, from (2.2.81) and (2.2.83), it results

0 < ij < 1, i, j = 1, 2, 3, i 6= j.
(2.2.84)
As the data reported by Dickerson and Di Martino show, the last restrictions
are not generally fulfilled for an orthotropic composite material. Consequently,
(2.2.82) generally do not take place and the volume of an orthotropic material
may decrease during the experiment above considered! Obviously such situation
can occur if the differences between Youngs moduli, corresponding to the three
symmetry directions, are relatively large. In the case of fiber-reinforced composite
materials, this is just the case!
By elementary computations, from (2.2.71) we obtain the expressions of
the non-vanishing independents components of the stiffness matrix [C] of an orthotropic material, as function of its engineering constants
C11 =
12+ 32 13
21+ 31 23
1 23 32
,
=
, C12 =
E1 E3
E2 E3
E2 E3
C13 =
13+ 12 23
31+ 21 32
,
=
E1 E2
E2 E3
C22 =
+ 21 13
32+ 12 31
1 13 31
,
= 23
, C23 =
E1 E2
E1 E3
E1 E3
C33 =
1 12 21
,
E1 E2
(2.2.85)
C44 = G23 , C55 = G13 , C66 = G12 ,

where
=
e
1 12 21 23 32 31 13 21 32 13 12 23 31
. (2.2.86)
=
E1 E2 E3
E1 E2 E3
If the material is transversally isotropic, the stiffness matrix has the form
given by the relation (2.2.50). Consequently, the compliance matrix of the material
has the same structure, and using the engineering or technical coefficients, we get
1
0
0
E121 E131 0
E1
1
12
0
0
E131 0
E1 E1
1
13 13
0
0
0
E1
E3
E1
(2.2.87)
[S] =
.
1
0
0
0
0
0
G13
1
0
0
0
0
0
G13
2(1+12 )
0
0
0
0
0
E1
56

The independent and non-vanishing components of the stiffness matrix be-
came
C11 =
1 2
13 (1 + 12 )
12 + 13 31
1 13 31
, C33 = 2 12 ,
, C13 =
, C12 =
2
2
E1
E1
E1
E1 E3
C44 = G13 , C55 = G13 , C66 =
where
=
1 12 213 31
,
2E1 E3
(1 + 12 )(1 12 213 31 )
.
E3 E12
(2.2.88)
(2.2.89)
Finally, if the material is isotropic, we have

S11 = S22 = S33 =
1
, S12 = S23 = S31 = ,
E
E
S44 = S55 = S66 =
2(1 + )
1
1
,
=
=
E
G
(2.2.90)
and
E
(1 )E
,
, C12 = C23 = C31 =
(1 + )(1 2)
(1 + )(1 2)
C11 = C22 = C33 =
C44 = C55 = C66 = = G =
E
.
2(1 + )
(2.2.91)
In concluding this Section, we observe that if the material is isotropic its

Youngs modules E and its shear modulus G has the same order of magnitude
since 0 < < 1/2. On the contrary, the order of magnitude of Youngs moduli
and of shear module of an orthotropic material can be quite different. In the case
of fiber-reinforced materials this is just the case, and as we shall see, this fact will
have important consequences concerning the behavior of such kind of structured
composite bodies.
2.3
The fundamental system of field equations
The fundamental system of the field equations for the time independent behavior of a linear elastic body consists of the strain-displacement relation
=
1
1
(u + uT ) or ij = (ui,j + uj,i ),
2
2
(2.3.1)
the stress-strain relation

= c or ij = cijkl kl ,
(2.3.2)
2.3. THE FUNDAMENTAL SYSTEM OF FIELD EQUATIONS
57
the equation of equilibrium

div +b = 0 or ij,j + bi = 0.
(2.3.3)
Here u, , and b are the displacement, strain, stress and body force, respectively, while c is the symmetric positive definite elasticity field, assumed to be
continuous on B.
Since = c = cu, when the displacement field is sufficiently smooth, the
above relation imply the displacement equation of equilibrium
div cu + b = 0 or (cijkl uk,l ),j +bi = 0.
(2.3.4)
Conversely, if u satisfies the displacement equation of equilibrium, and if

and are defined by the strain-displacement and stress strain relations, respectively, then the stress equation of equilibrium is satisfied.
We define the strain-energy U = U () corresponding to a continuous strainfield or B
Z
Z
1
1
ij cijkl kl dv.
(2.3.5)
cdv =
U () =
2 B
2 B
The quantity
1
1
(2.3.6)
u = u() = c = ij cijkl kl
2
2
will be named specific strain energy.
Since the elasticity field c is positive definite, the specific strain energy u =
u() is a positive definite quadratic form. Also, we have the following:
Lemma. Let and e
be continuous symmetric tensor fields on B. Then
Z
U (+e
) = U () + U (e
) +
ce
dv.
(2.3.7)
B
Indeed, since c is symmetric ce

=e
c. Thus
(+e
) c (+e
) = c + e
ce
+ 2 ce
,
which implies the relation (2.3.7).

In what follows by an admissible state, we mean an ordered array s = [u, , ]
having the following properties: u is an admissible displacement field, is a continuous symmetric tensor field on B and is an admissible stress field.
We observe that the fields u, , and need not to be related.
We say that s = [u, , ] is an elastic state on B, corresponding to the body
force field b, is an admissible state, and

1
u+uT , = c, div + b = 0.
2
(2.3.8)
The corresponding surface traction sn is defined in any regular point x of

B by
sn (x) = (x) n (x) ,
(2.3.9)
58
n (x) being the outward unit normal to the boundary B at x.

The pair [b, sn ] will be called external force system for s.
The linearity of the fundamental field equations implies the validity of the :
e
Principle of superpositions for elastic states. If [u, , ] and h[e
u, e
,
i]
e
are elastic states corresponding to the external force systems [b, s n ] and b, e
sn ,
ei ]
respectively, and if and
e are arbitrary real numbers, then [u, , ]+
e [e
,
hu, e
e e
is an elastic state corresponding to the external force system [b, s n ] +
e b,
sn .
Here
i
h
e = [u+e
e, e
e , +
e] ,
, b
u
ee
, +
e
[u, , ] +
e u
h
i h
i
e e
e sn +
[b, sn ] +
e b,
sn = b+e
b,
ee
sn .
The direct consequence of the theorem of work expended,that is of the equation (2.1.19), is the
Theorem of work and energy. Let [u, , ]be an elastic state corresponding
to the external force system [b, sn ] .
Then
Z
Z
sn udv +
b udv = 2U ().
(2.3.10)
B
The quantity on the left-hand side of this equation is the work done by the
external forces; our theorem states that this work is equal to twice the strain
energy.
The positive definiteness of the elasticity field c implies the validity of the:
Theorem of positive work. For any elastic state s = [u,, ], corresponding to the external force system [b, sn ], the work done by [b, sn ] is non-negative
and vanishes only when the displacement field u is rigid.
Indeed, since c is positive definite, U () 0, and according to (2.3.10), the
work done by the external forces is non-negative. If U () = 0, since c
0, c must vanish on B, since it is a continuous function; i.e. c = 0 on
B. Using again the positive definiteness of c, we can conclude that must vanish
on B; i.e. = 0 on B. Consequently, according to Kirchhoffs theorem u must
be an infinitesimal rigid displacement. Conversely, if u is a rigid displacement,
the strain corresponding to u is vanishing on B. Consequently the corresponding
strain energy is also vanishing. Hence, according to equation (2.3.10), the work
done by the external force system is zero.
A direct consequence of the above theorem is the following:
Lemma. Let [u, , ] be an elastic state corresponding to vanishing body
force. We also suppose that the surface traction is also vanishing.
Then = = 0 and u is a rigid displacement field.
The following theorem expresses the fact that the fundamental system of field
equations of the linear elastostatics is self-adjoint.
2.3. THE FUNDAMENTAL SYSTEM OF FIELD EQUATIONS
59
e ] be elastic states
Bettis reciprocal theorem. Let [u, , ] and h[e
u, e
,i
e
corresponding to the external force systems [b, sn ] and b, e
sn , respectively. Then
Z
e da +
sn u
be
udv
e
sn uda +
e
dv = 2
e udv
b
e dv.
(2.3.11)
Indeed, since c is symmetric, from the stress-strain relation, we can conclude

that
e .
e
=e
c = ce
=
From the theorem of work expected it follows that

Z
Z
Z
e dv =
e da +
e
dv,
b u
sn u
Z
and
(2.3.12)
e
sn uda +
e udv =
b
e dv,
and the proof is complete.

Bettis theorem asserts that given two elastic states, the work done by the
external forces of the first state over the displacements of the second, equals the
work done by the external forces of the second over the displacement of the first.
We suppose now that it is given an elastic field c on B, a body force field b
b on S1 and surface forces b
on B, surface displacements u
s on S2 , where S1 and S2
are complementary regular subsurface of B.
Given the above data, the mixed problem of the elasto-statics is to find an
elastic state [u, , ] that corresponds to b and satisfies the displacement condition
and the traction condition
b on S1 ,
u=u
(2.3.13)
sn = n = b
s on S2 .
(2.3.14)
b on B,
u=u
(2.3.15)
sn = n = b
s on B,
(2.3.16)
We call such an elastic state a solution of the mixed problem.

When S2 is empty, the above boundary condition reduces to
and the associated problem is called the displacement problem or the first boundary
value problem.
If S1 is empty, the boundary conditions becomes
60
and the corresponding problem is called the traction problem or the second boundary value problem.
For the moment, we assume that c is of class C 1 on B, b is continuous on
b is continuous on S1 and b
B, u
s is piece-wise regular on S2 .
By a displacement field corresponding to a solution of the mixed problem,
we mean a vector field u with the property that there exist fields , such that
[u, , ] is a solution of the mixed problems.
Within the assumed regularity conditions, we have the following:
Characterization of the mixed problem in terms of displacements.
Let u be an admissible displacement field. Then u corresponds to a solution of the
mixed problems if and only if
b on S1 , (cu)n = b
div cu + b = 0 on B, u = u
s on S2 .
(2.3.17)
The above relations are necessary and it follows from the equilibrium equation
(2.3.3) satisfied by the stress , from the stress-strain relation = c and from
T
. To prove sufficiency, we assume
the strain-displacement relation = u+u
2
that u satisfies the relation (2.3.17). We define through the strain-displacement
relation and through the stress-strain relation. Then, since u is admissible,
is continuous on B, and is continuous on B and smooth, or of class C 1 on B.
In addition, div + b = 0 on B and sn = n = b
s on S2 . From the equilibrium
equation, it results that div is continuous on B. That is, is an admissible stress
field. Therefore, [u,, ] meets all requirements of a solution of mixed problems.
In order to discuss the uniqueness questions appropriate to the fundamental
boundary value problems of elasto-statics, we shall say that two solutions [u,, ]
e ] of the mixed problem are equal modulo a rigid displacement if
and [e
u,e
,
e ],
[u,, ] = [e
u + w,e
,
where w is a rigid displacement field. We have:

Kirchhoff s uniqueness theorem for the mixed problem. Any two
solution of the mixed problem are equal modulo a rigid displacement. If S 1 is nonempty, the mixed problem has at the most one solution.
e ] be two solution of the mixed problem,
Indeed, let s = [u,, ] and se = [e
u, e
,
and let as take
e ].
[u0 , 0 , 0 ] = [u,, ] [e
u, e
,
Then, by the principle of superposition s0 = [u0 , 0 , 0 ] is an elastic state

corresponding to vanishing body force, and let u0 = 0 on S1 , sn 0 = 0n = 0 on S2 .
Thus, since S1 and S2 are complementary subsets of B, we have sn 0 u0 = 0 on
B. Now from the theorem of work and energy and from the theorem of positive
work, we can conclude that u0 is a rigid displacement. Consequently 0 = 0 = 0,
and the two solutions s and se are equal modulo a rigid displacement.
S1 being a regular surface, if it is non-empty, it must contain at least three
non-collinear points. Consequently, since the rigid displacement u0 = 0 on S1 , u0
vanishes identically. That is, s = se and the proof is complete.
2.4. MINIMUM PRINCIPLES OF ELASTOSTATICS
2.4
61
Minimum principles of elastostatics
The principle of minimum potential energy and the principle of minimum

complementary energy completely characterize the solution of the mixed problem
presented previously.
b and b
We suppose that c, b, u
s have the regularity properties assumed in the
Section 2.3.
Let and be continuous symmetric tensor fields on B. For convenience,
we denote by Uc (), rather than U () for the strain energy; i.e.
Z
1
cdv.
(2.4.1)
Uc () =
2
We define the strain-energy Uk () by

Z
1
kdv,
Uk () =
2
where k = c1 is the compliance tensor.

If = c, we have
Uk () = Uc ().
(2.4.2)
(2.4.3)
By a kinematically admissible state, we mean an admissible state that satisfies

T
, the stress-strain relation = c
the strain-displacement relation = u+u
2
b on S1 .
and the displacement boundary condition u = u
We have the following:
Principle of minimum potential energy. Let A be the set of all kinematically admissible states, and let be the functional on A defined by
Z
Z
b
s uda,
(2.4.4)
b udv
(s) = Uc ()
S2
for every s = [u, , ] A. Further, let s be a solution of the mixed problem. Then
(s) (e
s),
(2.4.5)
for every se A, and the equality holds only if se = s modulo a rigid displacement.
In order to prove this theorem, we consider s, se A and define s0 = se s.
Then s0 = [u0 , 0 , 0 ] is an admissible state and
0 =
1
(u0 + u0T ), 0 = c0 and u0 = 0 on S1 .
2
Moreover, = c since s A. Hence, the equation (2.3.7) and the above

relation imply
Z
0
Uc (e
) Uc () = Uc ( ) +
0 dv.
B
62

Since u0 = 0 on S1 , using the integral theorem (1.2.30), we get
Z
Z
Z
0
0
dv =
sn u da
u0 div dv, sn = n.
B
S2
Thus, from (2.4.4), it results

Z
Z
(sn b
s) u0 da.
(e
s) (s) = Uc (0 ) (div + b) u0 dv +
B
S2
Since s = [u, , ] is a solution, the last relation implies

(e
s) (s) = Uc (0 ).
Thus, since c is positive definite, Uc (0 ) 0, and we get

(s) (e
s) on A.
Also, for the same reason (s) = (e
s) if and only if 0 = e
= 0. Hence,
according to Kirchhoffs theorem s = se modulo a rigid displacement.
In words, the principle of minimum potential energy asserts that the difference between the strain energy and the work done by the prescribed body forces
and surface forces, take a smaller value for the solution of the mixed problem,
than for any other kinematically admissible state.
By a kinematically admissible displacement field, we mean an admissible displacement field that satisfies the displacement boundary condition, and for which
T
div cu is continuous on B. The corresponding strain field = (u) = u+u
2
is then called a kinematically admissible strain field.
Obviously, if [u, , ] is a kinematically admissible, then u is a kinematically
admissible displacement field. Conversely, the latter assumption implies the former,
provided that and are defined through the strain-displacement and stress-strain
relation. In view of these relations, (s) can be considered to be a functional (u)
of u
Z
Z
Z
1
b
s uda.
(2.4.6)
b udv
u cudv
(u) =
2 B
S2
B
Therefore, we have the following new form for the principle of minimum
potential energy:
Principle of minimum potential energy (displacement formulation).
Let u corresponds to a solution of the mixed problem. Then
(u) (e
u) ,
(2.4.7)
e.
for any kinematically admissible displacement field u
The functional , defined by the equation (2.4.4) or by the relation (2.4.6)
represents the potential energy of the elastic body, corresponding to the given
external forces b and b
s.
63
By a statically admissible stress field, we mean an admissible stress field

that satisfies the equation of equilibrium and the traction boundary condition. The
following holds:
Principle of minimum complementary energy. Let B denote the set of
all statically admissible stress fields, and let be the functional on B defined by
Z
b da, sn = n,
sn u
(2.4.8)
() = Uk ()
S1
for every B. Let be the stress field corresponding to the solution of the
mixed problem. Then
() (e
) ,
(2.4.9)
e B, and the equality holds only if =
e.
for every
To prove the theorem, let us denote by [u, , ] a solution of the mixed
e B be a statically admissible stress field, and let us define
problem. Let
e .
0 =
Then 0 satisfies
div 0 = 0 on B and s0n = 0 n = 0 on S2 .

Since = k, an obvious analog of (2.3.7) implies
Z
Uk (e
) Uk () = Uk ( 0 ) +
0 dv.
B
Taking into account the homogeneous equilibrium equation satisfied by 0

and the homogeneous boundary condition satisfied by the same field on S 2 , and
using again the integral theorem (1.2.30), we get
Z
Z
s0n uda.
0 dv =
B
S1
Then, since u = u on S1 , finally we obtain

(e
) () = Uk ( 0 ) .
e ) and (e
Therefore, since k is positive definite, () (
) = () if and
e = 0.
only if 0 =
The principle of minimum complementary energy asserts that from all statically admissible stress fields, the one corresponding to a solution of the mixed
problem makes a minimum difference between the stress energy and the work
done against the prescribed displacement.
The functional , defined by the equation (2.4.8) represents the complementary energy of the elastic body, corresponding to the given surface displacement
b.
u
64
By using the following minimum principles, we can establish the:

Upper and lower bounds for the strain energy. Let U be the strain
energy association with a solution of the displacement problem. Assume that the
body force vanishes. Then
Z
b da Uk ( ) U Uc (e
sn u
),
(2.4.10)
B
where e
is a kinematically admissible strain field, is a statically admissible stress
field and sn = n is the corresponding surface traction.
On the other hand, let U be the strain energy corresponding to a solution of
the traction problem. Then
Z
Z
e dv +
b
e da Uc (e
bu
su
) U Uk ( ),
(2.4.11)
B
e is a kinematically admissible displacement field, e

where u
is the corresponding
strain field and is a statically admissible stress field.
To prove the inequalities (2.4.10), let as denote by s = [u, , ] a solution of
the displacement problem with b = 0. Let U be the associated strain energy
U = Uc () = Uk ().
Then, since S2 = , we conclude from the principle of minimum potential
energy that
U = Uc () Uc (e
).
On the other hand, since S1 = B, it follows from the principle of work and
energy that the last term in the expression of () in (2.4.8) is equal to 2U .
Thus
() = U,
and (2.4.9) implies
U
b da Uk ( ).
sn u
Next, since S2 = B, we conclude from the principle of work and energy that
the last terms is the expression (2.4.4) are equals to 2U . Thus
(s) = U,
and (2.4.5) implies
U
be
udv +
B
b
e da Uc (e
su
),
65
By a statically admissible state, we mean an admissible state [u, , ] with

a statically admissible field. For convenience, we now define on the set of all
statically admissible states s = [u, , ] by writing (s) = ().
Clearly, an admissible state s is a solution of the mixed problem if and only
if s is both kinematically and statically admissible. We use this fact in establishing
the following results.
Theorem 4 : Let s be a solution of the mixed problem. Then
(s) + (s) = 0.
(2.4.12)
Indeed, in view of the definitions (2.4.4) and (2.4.8) of and

Z
Z
Z
b
b da
s uda
(s) + (s) = Uc () + Uk ()
sn u
b udv
B
S2
S1
Z
Z
sn uda,
b udv
2Uc ()
B
and the given results follows from the principle of work and energy.
Assuming that the mixed problem has a solution, the second theorem is a
consequence of the preceding results.
Theorem 5 : Let se and s be admissible states with se kinematically admissible and
s statically admissible. Then
(s) + (s ) 0.
(2.4.13)
Indeed, let s be a solution of the mixed problem. Then the principles of

minimum potential energy and complementary energy imply that
(e
s) (s), (s ) (s).
Thus, according to (2.4.12)
(e
s) + (s ) (s) + (s) = 0.
We shall now use the established results in order to prove the:
Converse to the principle of minimum potential energy. Let s be a
kinematically admissible state, and let us suppose that
(s) (e
s)
(2.4.14)
for every kinematically admissible state se. Then s is a solution of the mixed problem.
In order to prove this important result, we consider an arbitrary vector field
u0 , of class C on B, and let us suppose that u0 vanishes near S1 , that part of the
66
boundary B, on which the displacement is given. Let us consider s0 = [u0 , 0 , 0 ],

where

1
u0 +u0T , 0 = c0 .
0 =
2
Obviously, se = s + s0 is a kinematically admissible state, and it is not difficult
to verify that the equation
Z
Z
0
0
(sn b
s) u0 da
(2.4.15)
(e
s) (s) = Uc ( )
(div + b) u da +
B
S2
holds in the present circumstances. Thus, since (s) (e

s),
Z
Z
(sn b
s) u0 da.
0 Uc (0 )
(div + b) u0 dv +
B
S2
It is obvious that this relation must hold with u0 replaced by u0 and 0 by

0
; hence
Z
Z
0
2
0
(sn b
s) u0 da
0 < Uc ( ) (div + b) u dv +
B
for every real number which implies

Z
Z
0
(div + b) u dv +
B
S2
S2
(sn b
s) u0 da = 0,
(2.4.16)
for every C vector field u0 that vanishes near S1 . If, in addition, u0 vanishes near
B, from (2.4.16) we get
Z
(div + b) u0 dv = 0,
B
for every C vector field u that vanishes near B. In these circumstances, using
the fundamental lemma of variation calculus, we can conclude that
div + b = 0 on B.
Accordingly, from (2.4.16) it results
Z
(sn b
s) u0 da = 0,
S2
for every C field u vanishing near S1 . Hence, again using the fundamental
lemma, we get
sn = n = b
s on S2 .
Thus, s is a kinematically admissible state, that satisfies the equilibrium

equation and the boundary condition in traction. Hence, s is a solution of the
mixed problem and the proof of the converse theorem is ended.
The principle of minimum potential energy and its converse characterize completely the solution of the mixed problem.
Concerning the principle of minimum complementary energy and its converse,
a similar property is true.
67
2.5. GREENS TENSOR FOR AN INFINITE MEDIUM
2.5
Greens tensor for an infinite medium
We consider an idealized situation assuming a homogeneous elastic body which

occupies the entire three-dimensional Euclidean space E. We say that B is an
infinite body or an infinite elastic medium. As usual by (O, xk ), k = 1, 2, 3, we
denote a rectangular Cartesian coordinate system in E.
We call fundamental (singular) solution or Greens tensor function of the infinite elastic medium a second order tensor field G(x) having the following properties:
(i) For any point of E with the position vector x 6= 0 and for each p = 1, 2, 3,
(p)
the displacement field uk (x) = Gkp (x) defines a regular elastic state corresponding to zero body force. In particular, are satisfied the equilibrium equations expressed in terms of displacements
cijkl Gkp,lj (x) = 0 for i, p = 1, 2, 3 and x 6= 0.
(2.5.1)
(ii) G(x) is a homogeneous function of degree 1 in xk .

In particular, we have
G(x) = O(r 1 ), (p) (x) = O(r 2 ) as r 0 and
(2.5.2)
(p)
also as r , where r = kxk = (x21 + x22 + x23 )1/2 and ij = cijkl Gkp,l are the
components of the stress tensor (p) corresponding to the displacement u(p) with
(p)
components uk = Gkp .
(iii) For all > 0 and p = 1, 2, 3
Z
Z
(p)
(2.5.3)
(p) nda = ep or
ij nj da = ip , i, p = 1, 2, 3,
where is the sphere with radius centered at the origin O, n is the inward
unit normal to and (e1 , e2 , e3 ) is the orthonormal basis, corresponding to the
coordinate system (O, x1 , x2 , x3 ).
It can be shown that the properties (i)-(iii) uniquely characterize G(x).
Equation (2.5.3)1 shows that the resultant of the stress vector or traction
(p)
sn = (p) n corresponding to the displacement u(p) and acting on any sphere
(p)
centered at the origin equals the unit vector ep . This is the reason why uk (x) =
Gkp (x) is called the component in the direction of the xk -axis of the displacement
produced by a unit concentrated force acting at origin O and directed along the
xp -axis.
Since the elastic medium is homogeneous and occupies the entire space, a unit
concentrated force acting at an arbitrary point with position vector x0 and directed
(p)
along the unit (base) vector ep , produces a displacement field uk = Gkp (x x0 ).
In this way, it results that an arbitrary concentrated force P acting at x 0
produces the displacement field
0
u(x) = G(x x )P or uk (x) = Gkp (x x0 )Pp .
(2.5.4)
68
Let us assume now that the elastic medium is subjected to the action of a
body force b(x) of class C 2 in E which satisfies the condition
b(x) = O(r 3 ) as r .
(2.5.5)
The displacement field u(x) produced by this body force field is given by the
relation
Z
0
0
0
u(x) = G(x x )b(x )dv(x ),
E
or
uk (x) =
Gkp (x x0 )bp (x0 )dv(x0 ).
(2.5.6)
The convergence of the above improper integrals is guaranteed by the conditions (2.5.2)1 and (2.5.5).
Also, it is easy to see that
lim ku(x)k = 0.
(2.5.7)
It can be shown that u(x) given by (2.5.6) is the unique solution of the
equilibrium equation expressed in displacement
div cu + b = 0 in E,
(2.5.8)
which satisfies the boundary condition (2.5.7) at large distances.

Let us consider now a finite, regular, closed surface given in E. Let us
assume that on the infinite elastic body acts an external force distributed over
this surface and characterized by the surface force density f (x), assumed to be
a continuous function on . Then the displacement field u(x) produced by this
system of external forces is given by the equation
Z
0
0
u(x) = G(x x )f (x )da(x0 ).
(2.5.9)
It can be shown that:

(i)
(ii)
u is continuous across the surface ;

div cu = 0 in E ;
u(x) = O(r 1 ) and u(x) = O(r 2 ) as r ;

[n] + f = 0 on ,
(iii)
(iv)
T
(2.5.10)
)
, = c and [n] represents the jump of n across .
where = (u+u
2
The equation (2.5.9) and the properties (i)-(iv) play the fundamental role in
Eshelbys inclusion problem, as we shall see a little later on.
69
Up to this moment, we have considered concentrated forces, acting at a point

or on a surface, in an infinite elastic medium, and we have analyzed the singular
elastic states produced by such kind of external actions.
We consider now the concepts concerning concentrated forces and Greens
tensor function in the case of a finite elastic body B, bounded by the surface B.
Let P be a vector valued function whose domain of definition D is a finite
set of points of B. Interpreting P as a system of concentrated loads, acting in B,
we say that [u, , ] is a singular elastic state corresponding to the external force
system [b, sn , P] if:
(i) [u, , ] is a regular elastic state in B D corresponding to the external
force system [b, sn ];
(ii) for each x0 D, we have
u(x) = O(r 1 ), (x) = O(r 2 ) as r = kx x0 k 0;

(iii) for each x0 D
lim
0
B (x0 )
nda = P(x ),
(2.5.11)
(2.5.12)
where (x0 ) is the sphere of radius > 0 and centered at x0 , and n is the inward
unit normal to (x0 ).
From the above general definition, it follows that
0
u(x) = G(x x )P,

given by equation (2.5.4), represents a singular elastic state in an infinite elastic
medium, that corresponds to a concentrated force P applied at x0 and to zero
body forces.
In the case of singular states, we have the following:
Balance of forces and moments for singular states. Let P be a system
of concentrated loads, and let s = [u, , ] be a singular elastic state corresponding
to the external force system [b, sn , P] with b continuous on B. Then
Z
Z
X
sn da + bdv +
P(x) = 0,
(2.5.13)
B
x sn da +
xD
x bdv +
xD
x P(x) = 0,
In order to prove this theorem, we introduce the set

[
B = B
(x),
xD
(2.5.14)
70
and take sufficiently small, such that the balls (x), x D and the boundary
B be mutually disjoint. This is possible, since the places x D are points in B,
which is an open set.
According to the general definition, s = [u, , ] is a regular elastic states on
B, hence (see problem P2.21)
Z
Z
sn da + bdv = 0.
B
Since b is continuous on B
lim
0
B
bdv =
bdv.
Further, we have
Z
sn da =
B
XZ
sn da +
B
xD
sn da.
(x)
Combining the last three relations and letting 0, with the aid of property
(iii), we conclude that the relation (2.5.13) of the theorem holds.
The second relation (2.5.14) is derived exactly in the same manner starting
with the equation
Z
Z
x sn da +
x bdv = 0,
B
which is true, since s = [u, , ] is a regular elastic state on B .

For singular elastic states, the following generalization of Bettis theorem
holds:
be systems
Reciprocal theorem for singular elastic states. Let P and P
of concentrated loads with disjoint domains D and D. If [u, , ] and [

u, ,
]
are
singular
elastic
states
corresponding
to
the
external
force
systems
[b,
s
,
P]
and
n
h
i

respectively, then
b,
sn , P
Z
dv
dv
=
=
sn u
da +
sn uda +
bu
dv +
udv +
b
x0 D
x 0 D
P(x ) u
(x ),
0 ) u(x0 ).
P(x
The proof of this theorem is based on Bettis reciprocal theorem for regular
elastic states combined with the definition of the singular elastic states and with
the procedure used in order to prove the generalized balance theorem.
In order to introduce the Greens tensor function concerning boundary value
problems for finite elastic bodies, we need the following:
71
Lemma. Let f and m be two vectors. Then there exists a unique rigid displacement field w that satisfies the following system of equations:
Z
Z
wda = f ,
(x ) wda = m,
B
where is the position vector of the centroid of B. This solution is given by

w(x) = u0 + 0 (x ), u0 =
1
f , 0 = J1 m,
a
(2.5.15)
where a is the area of B and J is the centroidal inertia tensor, whose components
are the moments of inertia of B with respect to the principal axes of B passing
through its centroid.
For the proof of this lemma, see P2.43.
We say that an integrable vector field u on B is normalized if
Z
Z
uda = 0,
(x ) uda = 0.
(2.5.16)
B
Let us observe that given a solution u of the traction problem (S1 = , S2 =

B), the field u + w, with w a rigid displacement field, is also a solution. According
to the lemma, there exists a unique rigid displacement field w such that u + w
is normalized. Thus, we may always assume, without loss of generality, that the
solutions of the traction problem are normalized.
0
kp (x, x0 ) is called
A second order tensor field G(x,

x ), with components G
Greens tensor function of the body B, provided that:
(i) The elastic displacement u(p) (x, x0 ) with components
(p)
kp (x, x0 ) k, p = 1, 2, 3,
u
k (x, x0 ) = G
(2.5.17)
and the corresponding stress tensor (p) (x, x0 ) with components
(p)
kp,l (x, x0 ) = cijkl Gkp (x, x0 ),
ij (x, x0 ) = cijkl G
xl
(2.5.18)
represents a singular elastic state corresponding to vanishing body forces and to a

unit concentrated load ep acting at x0 .
(ii) If S1 is not empty (mixed or displacement boundary value problem),
u
(p) = 0 on S1 and
(p) n = 0 on S2 ;
(2.5.19)
if S1 is empty (traction boundary value problem),
(p) n = w on S2 = B,
(2.5.20)
where w is given by (2.5.15) with

0
f = ep and m = (x ) ep .
(2.5.21)
72
The boundary condition (2.5.20), (2.5.21) ensure that the balance of forces
and moments are satisfied in the traction problem (S1 = , S2 = B). Indeed,
R
substituting (2.5.20) into B
(p) nda and taking into account the given lemma,
according to (2.5.15) and (2.5.21), we get
Z
(p) nda + ep = 0.
(2.5.22)
B
Analogous, it results
Z
(p)
(x )
nda + (x0 ) ep = 0.
(2.5.23)
Note that Greens tensor function defined above depends not only on the
material, as in the case of an infinite elastic medium, but also on the domain B
occupied by the elastic body, as well as on the boundary conditions.
0
The Greens tensor function G(x,

x ) admits the decomposition
(p)
kp (x, x0 ) = Gkp (x x0 )+u (x, x0 ),

G
k
(2.5.24)
where G(x x) is Greens tensor function of the infinite elastic medium, and
(p)
u (x, x0 ) is the regular displacement field corresponding to vanishing body

0
forces and concentrated forces and such that G(x,

x ) satisfies the boundary conditions (2.5.19) and (2.5.20).
The following fundamental theorem gives an integral representation to the
boundary value problems of linear elastostatics in terms of Greens tensor function
0
G(x,
x ):
Integral representation theorem. Let u(x) be the solution of one of the
boundary value problems corresponding to the external force system [b, s n , P] and
let us assume that u is normalized in the traction problem. Then for any x 0 BD
Z
Z
(p)
0
b da +
u
(p) b
sda
nu
up (x ) =
S2
S1
Z
X
u
(p) bdv +
u
(p) (x, x0 ) P(x),
(2.5.25)
+
B
xD
where u
(p) and
(p) are given by (2.5.17) and (2.5.18), respectively.
In order to prove the equation (2.5.25), we first assume that S1 is not empty
(mixed or displacement problem). Since P = ep , by using the reciprocal theorem
(2.5.18) and taking into account (2.5.20), (2.5.21), we get
Z
Z
Z
X
(p)
0
b
(p) n uda + up (x0 ) =
P(x) u
(x, x ),
bu
(p) dv +
su
(p) da +
S1
and the theorem is proved.
S2
xD
73
On the other hand, in the traction problem, from (2.5.20), (2.5.21) and
(2.5.15) and the normalization condition, we find that
Z
Z
Z
(p)
(x ) uda = 0,
uda + 0
n uda = u0
B
and the reciprocal theorem leads again to (2.5.25).
The advantage of using Greens tensor function G(x,

x0 ) is that, after solving
(p)
the particular boundary value problem whose solution is u (x, x0 ), the general
solution corresponding to any other boundary value problem may be obtained by
quadratures, provided that the subboundaries S1 and S2 remain unchanged.
Let us assume now that [u, , ] is the regular solution of the displacement
problem, in the absence of body forces and concentrated loads. According to (2.5.25)
the displacement field u(x) is given by the equation
Z
0
0
b (x0 )
u
(p) (x , x)n(x )da(x0 ).
(2.5.26)
up (x) =
B
b (x0 ) is a continuous function on

We suppose that the given displacement u
B. In this case, one can deduce an integral representation for the displacement
gradient u(x), and hence for the strain and stress fields (x) and (x), by
differentiating the relation (2.5.26) under the integral sign. The fact that this
operation is possible, can be proved in a manner analogous to that used in the
classical theory of Newtonian potentials.
In particular, for the strain fields (x), we get
)
( (p)
Z
(q)
km
km (x0 , x)
1
0
nm (x0 )da(x0 ).
(2.5.27)
+
u
bk (x )
pq (x) =
xp
xq
2 B
Now, let us assume that we have homogeneous boundary condition; i.e.

b (x) = Ex,
u
E = ET = const. on B.
In this particular situation, from (2.5.27), we obtain

Z
pqkl (x0 , x)da(x0 ) Ekl ,
pq (x) =
B
with
1
pqkl (x0 , x) =
4
!
(q)
(p)
km (x0 , x)
km (x0 , x)
x0l
+
xp
xq
! )
(q)
(p)
lm (x0 , x)
lm (x0 , x)
x0k nm (x0 ),
+
xp
xq
(2.5.28)
74
with x B and x0 B.
Finally, denoting
Apqkl (x) =
pqkl (x0 , x)da(x0 ),

B
we get
pq (x) = Apqkl (x)Ekl or (x) = A(x)E,
(2.5.29)
Apqkl (x) = Aqpkl (x) = Apqlk (x) .
(2.5.30)
with
The fourth order tensor field A = A(x) is called the influence function corresponding to the homogeneous displacement problem.
It can be proved (see P2.44) that there also exists a fourth order tensor
field B = B(x), named the influence function corresponding to the homogeneous
traction problem. This influence function has the following characteristic property:
If we assume homogeneous traction boundary condition; i.e. if
b
s = n, = T = const. on B
(2.5.31)
Bpqkl (x) = Bqpkl (x) = Bpqlk (x) .
(2.5.33)
and if [u, , ] is the regular solution of homogeneous traction boundary value problem, then
pq(x) = Bpqkl (x) kl or (x) = B(x),
(2.5.32)
with
As we shall see later, the influence tensor fields A(x) and B(x) play an
important role in the theory of macroscopically homogeneous composite materials.
The above results show that these influence functions there exists, and just their
existence is essential in studying the properties of the overall elastic moduli of the
macroscopically homogeneous composites.
Let us assume now an infinite, homogeneous, linearly elastic and isotropic
medium. It can be shown that in this case Greens tensor function G(x) has the
following components:
Gjp (x) =
r
r
1
},
{2(1 )jp
xj xp
xm xm
16 (1 )
(2.5.34)
with r = (x21 + x22 + x23 )1/2 .

From (2.5.34), we can deduce the following equivalent form of the components:
xj xp
1
1
(2.5.35)
{(3 4) jp + 3 }.
Gjp (x) =
r
r
16 (1 )
The tensor form of the above relation is:

G(x) =
xx
1
1
{(3 4) 1+ 3 }.
r
r
16 (1 )
(2.5.36)
2.6. PIECE-WISE HOMOGENEOUS BODIES
75
In consequence, according to the general relation (2.5.4), the displacement

field u(x) produced in an infinite homogeneous and isotropic elastic medium, by
a concentrated force P applied in the origin of the coordinate system, has the
expression
1
1
1
(2.5.37)
{(3 4) P+ 3 (P x)x}.
u(x) =
r
r
16 (1 )
Accordingly, the corresponding stress field (x) is

(x) =
1
3
1 2 1
(P x) xx}. (2.5.38)
{ (P x) 1 + Px + xP +
1 2 r2
8(1 ) r3
The associated traction sn = n is given by the relation
1
3
1 2 1
(P x) (x n)x}.
{ (P x) n + P(x n) + x(P n)+
1 2 r2
8(1 ) r3
(2.5.39)
In particular, if P = ep , we have
sn =
xp
3
1
1 2
2 xx},
3 {xp 1 + ep x + xep +
1 2 r
8(1 ) r
(2.5.40)
1
3
1 2 1
xp xi xj }.
{ij xp + pi xj + pj xi +
1 2 r2
8(1 ) r3
(2.5.41)
(p) (x) =
or
(p)
ij (x) =
(p)
The traction sn = (p) n, associated to (p) is

s(p) =
2.6
1
3
1 2 1
xp (x n)x}. (2.5.42)
{xp n + ep (x n) + xnp +
1 2 r2
8(1 ) r3
Piece-wise homogeneous bodies
In order to describe the laws governing the behavior of the piece-wise homogeneous elastic bodies, we begin by introducing some necessary mathematical
concepts.
Let B be an open set in the three-dimensional Euclidean space E, its boundary B being the union of a finite number of non-intersecting closed regular surfaces. Note that B may have corners and edges.
A partition for B is a finite collection B1 , ...., BN mutually disjoint regular
subregions of B such that
N
[
B.
(2.6.1)
B=
=1
A scalar, vector or tensor field f is piece-wise constant on B if there exists a

partition B1 , ..., BN such that for each B the restriction of f to B has constant
76
value; f is piece-wise continuous on B if the restriction of f to B is bounded and

continuous on B ; f is piece-wise smooth on B if f exists almost everywhere
on B and is piece-wise continuous on B; and f is piece-wise of class C 2 on B if
(f ) exists almost everywhere on B and is piece-wise continuous on B.
We define now a singular surface. Roughly speaking, this is a surface across
which some kinematic or dynamic quantity suffers a jump discontinuity.
Let us consider a partition B1 , B2 of B and let us denote by the common
boundary as shown in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1: The singular surface .

Let f be a scalar, vector or tensor field given on B1 B2 . We call a singular
surface of order zero with respect to f , if f (x) is continuous for x B and
f (x) approaches definite and distinct values f (1) (x0 ) and f (2) (x0 ) as x approaches
a point x0 on while remaining in B1 , or in B2 , respectively; i.e.
f (1) (x0 ) = lim f (x) with x B1 ,
xx0
(2)
(x0 ) = lim f (x) with x B2 .

xx0
(2.6.2)
The jump of f across is then a function [f ] on defined by

[f ] (x0 ) = f (1) (x0 ) f (2) (x0 ) with x0 .
(2.6.3)
Let n 1 be a fixed integer.We call a singular surface of order n with

respect to if f is of class C n1 on B, of class C n on B , and the derivatives of
order n of f suffer jump discontinuities across .
Let u be a vector field given on B , of class C 1 in B1 and B2 , and let
be a singular surface of order 0 with respect to u.
77
Using Figure 2.1 and taking into account the divergence theorem for B1 and
B2 , respectively, we get
Z
Z
Z
div u dv =
u nda + u(1) nda,
B
Z
Z B1
(2)
div u dv = u nda.
B2
Adding these relations leads to

Z
Z
Z
div u dv =
u nda + [u n] da, B = B1 B2 .
B
(2.6.4)
In particular, if
[u n] = 0 on ,
then
div u dv =
B
u nda.
(2.6.5)
(2.6.6)
Hence, if the jump [u n] of the normal component of the vector field u is

vanishing across the singular surface , the divergence theorem rests true in its
usual form, even if u has a non-vanishing jump across .
Let be a symmetric second order tensor field given on B , of class C 1
in B1 and in B2 , and let be a singular surface of order 0 with respect to .
Following the above procedure, it is easy to obtain the relation
Z
Z
Z
nda + [n] da, B = B1 B2 .
div dv =
B
In particular,
if [n] = 0 on ,
then
div dv =
B
n da.
(2.6.7)
(2.6.8)
Hence, if the jump [n] is vanishing across the singular surface , the divergence theorem rests true in its usual form, even if has a non-vanishing jump
across .
(u+uT )
.
Let us denote now by the symmetric gradient of u; i.e. =
2
Using the integral theorem (1.2.30), it is easy to see that, if u and have the
properties assumed above, then
Z
Z
Z
Z
dv =
u n da udiv dv+ [u n] da, B = B1 B2 . (2.6.9)
B
In particular, if
[u] = 0 and [n] = 0 on ,
(2.6.10)
78
then

Z
dv =
B
u nda
u div dv.
(2.6.11)
Hence, if the jumps [u] and [n] are vanishing across the singular surface ,
the classical integral theorem (1.2.30) rests true in its usual form, even if has a
non-vanishing jump but u is continuous across .
The relations (2.6.7), (2.6.8) and (2.6.10), (2.6.11) play essential roles in the
theory of piece-wise homogeneous bodies, and particularly, in the theory of composite materials formed by a homogeneous matrix in which a great number of
homogeneous inclusions are firmly imbedded.
The generalization of the above given results to a case in which a finite
number of mutually disjoint singular surface are present, is obvious. It is essential
to note that if the null-jump conditions, as (2.6.7) and (2.6.10) are satisfied on
these singular surfaces, various integral theorems, such as (2.6.8) and (2.6.11), as
well as various consequences of such theorems, rest true in their usual forms.
Let us consider now a body B formed by two different homogeneous linearly
elastic materials, firmly bounded together. We assume that one of the material
occupies the domain B1 and the other the domain B2 , B1 and B2 corresponding
to a partition of B as shown in Figure 2.1. We say that B is a piece-wise homogeneous body or a mixture or a composite. The two materials forming the body are
named phases of the biphasic mixture. The elasticity c = c(x) of this mixture (or
composite) is a piece-wise constant function on B (see Figure 2.1)

c1 = const. if x B1
c(x) =
and c1 6= c2 .
(2.6.12)
c2 = const. if x B2
The stress-strain relation, for this biphasic mixture or composite is

c1 (x) if x B1
(x) =
.
(2.6.13)
c2 (x) if x B2
We assume that c1 and c2 are symmetric, positive definite tensors.
We say that a vector field u is an admissible displacement field for the mixture
B if u is continuous on B, piecewise smooth on B, relative to the partition B 1 , B2 ,
and the restrictions of u to B1 and B2 are of class C 2 on B1 and B2 . Accordingly,
u satisfies the following null-jump condition
[u] = 0 on ,
(2.6.14)
expressing the fact, that the two phases of the composite are firmly bound together.
T
)
However, u can have a finite jump across . We call = (u) = (u+u
2
defined on B , an admissible strain field for the mixture B, corresponding to
the admissible displacement field u. Generally, (u) has non-vanishing jump across
, the common boundary of the phases.
79
We say that a symmetric tensor field is an admissible stress field for the
mixture B, if and div are piece-wise smooth on B, relative to the partition
B1 , B2 , the restrictions of to B1 and B2 are of class C 1 on B1 and B2 , and
the jump of [n] across is vanishing; i.e. satisfies the following null-jump
condition:
[n] = 0 on ,
(2.6.15)
expressing the principle of action and reaction in equilibrium problems of continuous deformable bodies.
Taking into account the null-jump condition (2.6.14) and (2.6.15), we can
conclude that the integral theorems (2.6.6), (2.6.8) and (2.6.12) are true if u is
an admissible displacement field, is an admissible stress field and = (u) =
(u+uT )
is an admissible strain field corresponding to the admissible displace2
ment field u.
Consequently, the theorem of work expended (2.1.19) is true, if u is an admissible displacement field, = (u) is the corresponding strain field, and is
an admissible stress field, which satisfies the equilibrium equation on B 1 and B2 ;
that is if
div +b = 0 on B , = 1, 2.
(2.6.16)
In the same way, we can see that the mean strain theorem (2.1.14) is true for
a mixture with two homogeneous phases if u is an admissible displacement field
and = (u) is the corresponding strain.
Also, the mean stress theorem, (2.1.21) for a mixture holds, if is an admissible stress field, satisfying the equilibrium equation on B1 and B2 .
In what follows by an admissible state for a two phasic mixture, we mean
an ordered array s = [u, , ], having the following properties: u is an admissible
displacement field for the mixture, is a piece-wise continuous symmetric tensor
field, corresponding to the partition B1 , B2 of B and is an admissible stress field
for the mixture.
Analogously, we say that s = [u, , ] is an elastic state of the two phasic
mixture, corresponding to the body force field b, if s is an admissible state for the
mixture and
1
(2.6.17)
= (u) = (u + uT ), on B ,
2
= c on B ,
(2.6.18)
div + b = 0 on B , for = 1, 2, 3.
(2.6.19)
The corresponding surface traction sn is defined in any regular point of B

as previously; i.e. sn = n on B.
As before, the pair [b, sn ] represents the external force system, corresponding
to s.
It is easy to see that the principle of superposition rests valid for the mixture
B.
80
Taking into account the null-jump conditions (2.6.14) and (2.6.15) satisfied
by the displacement u and by the stress , one can prove without difficulty that
the theorem of work and energy (2.3.10) is true for a piece-wise continuous body,
if s = [u, , ] is an elastic state of the mixture, corresponding to the external
force system [b, sn ], and the strain energy U () is defined in the usual way
Z
Z
Z
1
1
1
c2 dv.
(2.6.20)
c1 dv +
cdv =
U () =
2 B2
2 B1
2 B
Also, the theorem of positive work is true, since the constant elasticities c 1
and c2 are positive definite.
We stress the fact that the above presented properties are satisfied for the
considered heterogeneous, piece-wise homogeneous body, since the null-jump conditions (2.6.14) and (2.6.15) are satisfied by any admissible displacement and stress
field.
We note that generally a theorem which is true for a homogeneous body does
not rest true for a piece-wise homogeneous body. For instance, the second mean
stress theorem (see P2.17) and the second mean strain theorem (see P2.18) are
not true if the body is heterogeneous.
In exchange, Bettis reciprocal theorem is true for a mixture, if s = [u, , ]
and s = [
u, ,
] are two helastici states of the mixture, corresponding to external

force systems [b, sn ] and b,
sn , respectively.
Again the null-jump condition play a central role, in proving the validity of
Bettis theorem (2.3.11).
We can now formulate the boundary value problem of elastostatics for a biphasic piece-wise continuous mixture B.
We assume that a constant elasticity c1 on B1 is given, and also is given
a constant elasticity c2 on B2 . We suppose also that is given a body force field
b on S1 , and a
b on B. Also, we assume that are given a surface displacement u
surface force b
s on S2 , S1 and S2 being complementary regular subsurfaces of B.
b is continuous on S1 and b
We suppose that b is continuous on B, u
s is continuous
on S2 .
Given the above data, the mixed problem of elastostatics, for the biphasic
piece-wise homogeneous mixture B is to find an elastic state [u, , ] of the mixture
that corresponds to b and satisfies the displacement condition on S1 and the
traction condition on S2 ; i.e.
b on S1 and sn = n = b
u=u
s on S2 .
(2.6.21)
We call such an elastic state a solution of the mixed problem for the piece-wise
homogenous biphasic mixture or composite B.
When S2 is empty so that S1 = B, the above boundary condition reduces
to
b on B
u=u
(2.6.22)
81

and the associated problem is called the displacement problem.
If S2 = B, the boundary condition becomes
sn = n = b
s on B,
(2.6.23)
and we refer to the resulting problem as the traction problem.

Summing up, we recall the conditions which must be satisfied by an admissible state s = [u, , ] to be a solution of the mixed problem for a piece-wise
homogeneous biphasic elastic mixture or composite
=
1
(u + uT ), = c , div +b = 0 on B , = 1, 2,
2
(2.6.24)
and
[u] = 0, [n] = 0 on = B1 B2 .
(2.6.25)
In the theory of composite materials, in many cases, the subject under consideration is a mixture formed by two linearly elastic homogeneous phases firmly
bound together. The mixture is of a kind such that one phase can be regarded as
representing inclusions in the other one, the matrix. The number of inclusions is
very large, and generally no restrictions are placed on the shapes of the inclusions,
which may be for example spherical, plate-like or fibrous.
To be more exact, we assume that B0 , B1 , ..., BN is a partition of B. The
subregion B0 is occupied by the matrix having constant elasticity c1 . The subregions B1 , ..., BN are occupied by the inclusions having constant elasticity c2 , as in
Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2: Biphasic piece-wise homogeneous mixture or composite formed by a

matrix and N inclusions.
The elasticity c(x) of the mixture or composite considered here, is a piecewise constant function having only two distinct values. For brevity, we write
B1 = B 0 , B 2 =
N
[
=1
B , =
N
[
=1
B ,
82
and for simplicity, we suppose that B = . Obviously, is the common

boundary of the matrix and of the inclusions, and we have

c1 for x B1
c(x) =
and c1 6= c2 .
c2 for x B2
We suppose that c1 and c2 are symmetric and positive definite fourth order
constant tensors.
The appropriate definitions for an admissible displacement, stress and strain,
as well for an admissible state and elastic state, corresponding to the considered
biphasic composite or mixture, can be obtained, by generalizing in an obvious way
the definitions given for the piece-wise homogeneous body analyzed in the first
part of this Section.
We stress only the fact that if u and represent an admissible, displacement
and stress field, respectively, the following null-jump conditions must be satisfied
on the common boundary of the matrix and inclusion
[u] = 0 and [n] = 0 on =
N
[
B .
=1
Since these conditions are fulfilled, the general theorems, analyzed in the first
part of this Section, rest true for our composite composed by a matrix and a large
number of inclusions.
We now give the conditions which must be satisfied by an ordered array
[u, , ], in order to be a solution of the mixed boundary problem for the considered
composite material
1
(u + uT ), = c , div +b = 0 on B , = 1, 2,
2
N
[
[u] = 0, [n] = 0 on =
B ,
(2.6.26)
=1
b on S1 , sn = n = b
u=u
s on S2 .
Moreover, u, and must have the regularity properties, imposed by the

definitions of the admissible displacement, strain and stress fields.
When S2 is empty, the above boundary condition on B reduces to
b on B,
u=u
(2.6.27)
sn = n = b
s on B,
(2.6.28)
and, as usual, the associated problem is called displacement problem.

When S1 is empty, the boundary condition on B reduces to
and the resulting problem is called the traction problem.
83
Further by a displacement field corresponding to a solution of the mixed problem, we mean a vector field u having the property that there exist the fields ,
such that [u, , ] is a solution of the mixed problem for the composite.
As in the classical case, we have the following characterization of the mixed
problem for a composite in terms of displacement.
Let u be an admissible displacement field for a composite. Then u corresponds
to a solution of the mixed problem if and only if
div c1 u + b = 0 on B1 , div c2 u + b = 0 on B2 ,
[u] = 0, [(cu)n] = 0 on ,
(2.6.29)
b on S2 , (c1 u)n = 0 on S2 .
u=u
That the above relations are necessary, follow from the strain-displacement
relation, from the assumed stress-strain relation, from the equilibrium equation,
from the assumed null-jump condition and from the boundary condition given
on B. To establish sufficiencies, let us assume that the admissible displacement
field u satisfies the equations (2.6.29). We define on B1 and B2 by the straindisplacement relation and by the assumed piece-wise homogeneous stress-strain
relation. Then since u is admissible, will be piece-wise continuous on B, piecewise continuous and piece-wise smooth on B. In addition div + b = 0 on B 1 B2 ,
[n] = 0 on and n = b
s on S2 . Thus, is an admissible stress field. Therefore,
[u, , ] meets all requirements of a solution of the mixed boundary value problem
for a piece-wise homogeneous biphasic composite.
Also, taking into account the assumed regularity properties, the supposed
null-jump condition, the symmetry and positive definiteness of the elasticities c 1
and c2 , it is easy to see that Kirchhoff s uniqueness theorem for the mixed problem
concerning the considered composite rests true.
Also, it can be shown that a necessary condition for the existence of a solution
for the traction problem concerning a composite, is that the external forces be in
equilibrium, as in the classical case (see P2.21).
In order to analyze the status of the minimum principles for a composite, we
observe that the strain energy Uc () is defined in the usual way
Z
Z
Z
1
1
1
c2 dv,
(2.6.30)
c1 dv +
cdv =
Uc () =
2 B2
2 B1
2 B
where B1 is the domain occupied by the matrix, and B2 is the reunions of the
domains occupied by the inclusions.
Denoting by
1
k1 = c1
1 and k2 = c2
the constant compliance tensors, corresponding to c1 and c2 , respectively, we define

the stress-energy, Uk () as usually by
Z
Z
Z
1
1
1
k2 dv.
(2.6.31)
k1 dv +
kdv =
Uk () =
2 B2
2 B1
2 B
84

Obviously,
Uk () = Uc (),
provided that = c1 on B1 and = c2 on B2 .

By a kinematically admissible state for a composite material B, we mean an
admissible state for the composite, that satisfies the strain-displacement relation on
B1 and B2 , the stress-strain relation on B1 and B2 , and the displacement boundary
b on S1 .
condition u = u
By a kinematically admissible displacement field for a composite material B
we mean an admissible displacement field u for the composite, that satisfies the
displacement boundary condition and for which div cu is piece-wise continuous
on B, relative to the partition B0, B1 , ..., BN . The corresponding strain field =
T
)
, defined on B0, B1,..., BN is called a kinematically admissible
(u) = (u+u
2
strain field for the composite.
Obviously, if [u, , ] is a kinematically admissible state for a composite, then
u is a kinematically admissible displacement field for the composite. Conversely,
the later assumption implies the former provided that and are defined by
the strain-displacement relation and by the supposed stress-strain relation, on the
domains B0, B1 , ..., BN .
By a statically admissible stress field for a composite material B, we mean
an admissible stress field for the composite, that satisfies the equilibrium equation
div +b = 0, on B0 , B1,..., BN .
Once the above notions are adequately extended to a composite material, it
is easy to prove the validity of the minimum principles and we get the following
results.
Principle of minimum potential energy for a composite. Let A be the
set of all kinematically admissible states for a composite, and let be a functional
on A defined by
Z
Z
b
s uda,
(2.6.32)
b udv
(s) = Uc ()
S2
for every s = [u, , ] A. Further, let s be a solution of the mixed problem for
the composite.Then
(s) (
s)
(2.6.33)
for every s A, and equality holds only if s = s modulo a rigid displacement.

For a kinematically admissible displacement field u, (s) can be considered
as a functional (u) of u
Z
Z
Z
1
b
s uda
b udv
u cudv
(u) =
2 B
S2
B
Z
Z
Z
Z
1
1
s uda, (2.6.34)
u c2 udv
b udv b
u c1 udv +
=
2 B2
2 B1
B
S2
and we have the following:
85
Property : Let u corresponds to a solution of the mixed problem for a composite. Then
(u) (
u)
(2.6.35)
for every kinematically admissible displacement field u

.
Also, the following is true.
Principle of minimum complementary energy for a composite. Let
B denote the set of all statistically admissible stress field for a composite, and let
be a functional on B defined by
Z
b da,
sn u
(2.6.36)
() = Uk ()
S1
for every B. Let be the stress field corresponding to the solution of the
mixed problem. Then
() (
),
(2.6.37)
for every
B, and equality holds only if = .
Let us observe also that in the case of the composite material the properties
giving the upper and lower bounds for the strain energy, proved in the classical
case for an elastic body formed by a single phase, are also true.
By a statistically admissible state for a composite material, we mean an admissible state for the composite s = [u, , ] with a statistically admissible stress
field for the composite.
As before, we define on the set of all statistically admissible states s by
writing (s) = ().
An admissible state s for a composite is a solution of the mixed problem for
the composite, if and only if s is both kinematically and statically admissible for
the composite. Using this property, it is easy to see that for a biphasic piece-wise
homogeneous material the following classical results are true.
If s is a solution of the mixed problem, then
(s) + (s) = 0,
and if s and s are admissible states for the composite, s being kinematically
admissible and s being statically admissible, then
(
s) + (s ) 0.
We end this Section, by analyzing some particular cases, which play an important role in the theory of macroscopically homogeneous composite materials.
We assume that the body force is vanishing; i.e.
b = 0.
An admissible stress field which satisfies the equilibrium equation div =

0 on B , = 0, 1, ..., N, corresponding to zero body force, is called a self-equilibrated
stress field.
86
Let us first consider the displacement problem for a composite. In this

case, S2 = and S1 = B and the principle of minimum potential energy takes
the following simplified form:
Principle of minimum potential energy for the displacement problem for a composite with null body forces. Let A denote the set of all
kinematically admissible states for the composite, and let be a functional on A
defined by
Z
Z
1
1
c2 dv
(2.6.38)
c1 dv +
(s) = Uc () =
2 B2
2 B1
for every s = [u, , ] A. Further, let s be a solution of the displacement problem

for the composite. Then
(s) (
s)
or equivalently
Uc () Uc (
)
(2.6.39)
for every s = [
u, ,
] A and the equality holds only if s = s.
Analogously we have the
Principle of minimum complementary energy for the displacement
problem for a composite with null body forces. Let B denote the set of all
statistically admissible stress fields for the composite and let be the functional
on B defined by
Z
() = Uk ()
b da
su
(2.6.40)
for every s B. Let be the stress field corresponding to a solution of the displacement problem for the composite. Then
() (
)
(2.6.41)
for every
B, the equality holds if = .
Note that in this case,
must not satisfy any restriction on the boundary
B of the body, in order to be an admissible stress state for the composite.
Next, we consider the traction problem for a composite. In this case,
S1 = and S2 = B and the principle of minimum potential energy takes the
following simplified form.
Principle of minimum potential energy for the traction problem for
a composite with null body forces. Let A denote the set of all kinematically
admissible states for the composite, and let be the functional on A defined by
Z
s uda,
(2.6.42)
(s) = Uc ()
B
for every s = [u, , ] A. Further, let s be a solution of the traction problem for
the composite. Then
(s) (
s)
(2.6.43)
87
for every s A and the equality holds only if s = s,modulo a rigid displacement.
Note that in this case, u
must not satisfy any restriction on the boundary
B of the body, in order to be an admissible displacement field for the composite!
Analogously, we have the
Principle of minimum complementary energy for the traction problem for a composite with null body forces. Let B denote the set of all statistically admissible stress fields for the composite and let be the functional on
B defined by
Z
Z
1
1
k2 dv,
(2.6.44)
k1 dv +
() = Uk () =
2 B2
2 B1
for every B. Let be the stress field corresponding to a solution of the traction
problem for the composite. Then
() (
),
or equivalently
Uk () Uk (
),
(2.6.45)
for every
B, and the equality holds only if =
.
The notions and results which will be presented in this last part of the Section
are essential in the mechanics of macroscopically homogeneous composites.
Let E be a symmetric constant tensor. We say that is a kinematically
admissible strain field corresponding to E if
T
(u + u )
on B , = 0, 1, ..., N,
2
and if u is a kinematically admissible displacement field which satisfies the homogeneous boundary condition
u = Ex on B.
(2.6.46)
Let be a symmetric constant tensor. We say that is a statically admissible
stress field corresponding to if is a statistically admissible stress field which
satisfies the homogeneous boundary condition
sn = n = n on B.
(2.6.47)
Let us consider now an integrable scalar, vector or tensor field f given on B.

The mean value of f , denoted by f, is defined by the equation
Z
1
f dv,
(2.6.48)
f=
v B
where v is the volume of the domain B.
88
Taking into account the mean strain theorem for composites and the particular form of the homogeneous boundary condition (2.6.46) for the displacement, it
is easy to see that the following is true:
Mean value theorem for admissible strain. Let be a kinematically
admissible strain field corresponding to E. Then, the mean value of is just E
Z
1
dv = E.
(2.6.49)
=
v B
Similarly, taking into account the mean stress theorem for composites and the
particular form of the homogeneous boundary condition (2.6.47) for the traction,
it is easy to prove the following:
Mean value theorem for admissible stress. Let be a statistically
admissible stress field corresponding to . Then the mean value
of is just ;
i.e.
Z
1
dv = .
(2.6.50)
=
v B
Note that the above given properties are valid due to the particular homogeneous form of the corresponding boundary conditions and are true for any
materials.
Moreover, in the same conditions, the following two Hill and Mandel lemmas
can be proved.
The first Hill-Mandel lemma. If is a kinematically admissible strain
field corresponding to E and is an admissible self-equilibrated stress field; i.e.
div = 0 on B , = 0, 1, ..., N , then the mean value of the product is
i.e.
equal to the products
of the mean values
and = E;
=
=
E.
(2.6.51)
T
)
on B , =
The second Hill-Mandel lemma. If = (u+u
2
0, 1, ..., N is an admissible strain field corresponding to the admissible displacement
field u and is a statically admissible self-equilibrated stress field corresponding

to , then the mean value of the product is equal to the product
of the mean values
= and ; i.e.
=
= .
The reader is left to prove the above lemmas!
Generally since the mean value of a product is not equal to the product of
mean values, the two lemmas are not true, if the boundary conditions are not homogeneous. In exchange, if this requirement of homogeneity is fulfilled, the lemmas
are valid for any material. In this sense, the above given properties do not reflect
any material property, since they are true for both homogeneous, as well as for
heterogeneous or piecewise homogeneous bodies.
89
Let us now consider a point x of the composite material B and let us denote
by Bx an arbitrary regular subdomain of B, containing x in its interior. The
volume of Bx will be denoted by vx . If f is an integrable field given on B, its mean
value on Bx , denoted by hf ; Bx i, is defined as follows (see Figure 2.3):
Figure 2.3: An arbitrary regular subdomain Bx of B.
hf ; Bx i =
1
vx
f (x + )dv(),
(2.6.52)
Bx
Generally, the mean value of f corresponding to x and Bx , depends on x as

well as on Bx .
Let us suppose that the body B is homogeneous, characterized by its constant
elasticity tensor c.
In this case, the unique solution corresponding to the homogeneous displacement boundary condition (2.6.46) is
u(x) = Ex,
(x) = E,
(x) = c(x) = cE on B,
(2.6.53)
That is, the strain and the stress are constant fields on B.
Consequently, for any point x and for any subdomain Bx , containing x, we
have
h;Bx i = E = const.,
h;Bx i = cE = const.,
h ;Bx i = h;Bx i h;Bx i = E cE = const.
(2.6.54)
90
Similarly, the unique solution corresponding to the homogeneous traction

boundary condition (2.6.47) is
u(x) = kx + w(x),
(x) = k,
(x) = on B,
(2.6.55)
where w(x) is an arbitrary rigid displacement.

Again, the stress and strain are constant fields on B, and for any point x
and for any subdomain Bx , we get
h; Bx i = k = const.,
h; Bx i = = const.,
h ;Bx i = h;Bx i h;Bx i = k = const..
(2.6.56)
There are two reasons for which the mean value properties (2.6.54) and
(2.6.56) are true
(i) the corresponding boundary conditions are homogeneous,
(ii) the body itself is homogeneous.
In this sense, the obtained mean value properties reflects the material properties of the body, assumed to be linearly elastic and homogeneous.
As we shall see later on, a macroscopically homogeneous elastic composite is
a heterogeneous elastic body, characterized by a representative volume element,
for which the mean value properties (2.6.53) and (2.6.56), are true, at least approximately, for any x B, if the assumed boundary conditions are homogeneous.
In Chapter 4, we shall analyze in detail the way in which a macroscopically homogeneous composite material can be replaced by an equivalent homogeneous body.
At the end part of this Section, we present a theorem by Eshelby, which is
very useful in the mechanics of composite materials.
Eshelbys energetical theorem. Let us assume a homogeneous body occupying the domain B and having the elasticity c . Let us also assume that the
subdomain D of B is replaced by an inclusion having constant elasticity c 1 . The
inclusion and the body are firmly connected together along their common boundary
. Let us denote by [u , , ] and by [u, , ] the elastic states in the homogeneous and heterogeneous body, respectively.
First, we assume that on the boundary B of the two bodies the same displacement condition is given; i.e.
b and u = u
b on B.
u = u
(2.6.57)
91
Let [u , , ] and [u, , ] be the solutions of these boundary value problems

and let us denote by U = U ( ) and U = U (), the strain energies in the
homogeneous and in the piece-wise homogeneous body, respectively.Then
Z
1

( )dv
U () = U ( )+
2 D
Z
1
(n u n u)dv.
(2.6.58)
= U ( )+
2
Next, we assume that on the boundary B of the two bodies, the same traction
condition is given; i.e.
s and sn = n = b
s on B.
sn = n = b
(2.6.59)
Let [u , , ] and [u, , ] be the solutions of the boundary value problem,

and let us denote by U = U () and U = U () the strain energies in the
homogeneous and in the piece-wise homogeneous body, respectively. Then
Z
1

( )dv
U () = U ( ) +
2 D
Z
1

( n u n u )da.
(2.6.60)
= U ( )+
2
First, we analyze the displacement problem. Since and are self-equilibrated; i.e. div = div = 0 in B , satisfy null-jump condition; i.e.
[ n] = [n] = 0 on , and since u and u satisfy also null-jump conditions; i.e.
[u ] = [u] = 0 on , we can apply the integral theorem (2.6.11). In this way, taking
into account the boundary conditions (2.6.57), we get
Z
Z
( )dv =
(u u ) nda = 0,
B
B
Z
Z
( )dv =
(u u ) nda = 0.
B
Hence,
Z
Z
Z
Z
dv.
dv =
dv and
dv =
B
We recall now that
= c in B and = c =
c
c1
in
in
BD
D.
Consequently, from (2.6.61), it results

Z
Z
1
1
dv
dv
U () U ( ) =
2 B
2 B
Z
Z
1
1
dv.
dv
=
2 B
2 B
(2.6.61)
(2.6.62)
92

Now, according to (2.6.62), we get
Z
Z
Z
dv =
dv +
dv
B
BD
D
Z
Z
=
c dv +
dv,
BD
and
Z
dv
=
=
BD
dv +
BD
c dv +
dv
dv.
Using the above relations and taking into account the symmetry of c , we
successively get
Z
Z
1
1
(n u n u)da.
( )dv =
U ()U ( ) =
2
2 D
In order to obtain the last equality, we have used for the domain D the integral
theorem (2.6.11) and the fact that the stress fields and are self-equilibrated.
The obtained results show that the equation (2.6.58) is true.
Now, we analyze the traction problem. In the assumed conditions, we can
again use the integral theorem (2.6.11). In this way, taking into account the boundary condition (2.6.59), we obtain
Z
Z
( ) dv =
(n n) uda = 0
B
and
Z
Hence,
Z
( ) dv =
dv =
dv and
(n n) u da = 0.
dv =
dv.
Thus, from (2.6.63), we obtain

U ()U ( )
Z
Z
1
1
dv
dv
2 B
2 B
Z
Z
1
1
dv.
dv
2 B
2 B
(2.6.63)
93
2.7. ESHELBYS INCLUSION PROBLEM

Also, from (2.6.63), it results
Z
Z
Z
dv =
dv +
dv
B
BD
D
Z
Z
=
c dv +
dv,
BD
and
Z
dv
=
=
BD
dv +
BD
c dv +
dv
D
dv.
Now the symmetry of c implies

U ()U ( )
Z
1
( )dv
2 D
Z
1
(u n u n)da,
2
and the equation is proved.

Eshelbys energetic theorem shows that if the solution of one of the boundary
value problems for the homogeneous body is known, in order to obtain the strain
energy stored in the heterogeneous, piece-wise homogeneous body, it is sufficient to
know the strain and stress only in the inclusion. Moreover, it is sufficient to know
only the displacement u and traction sn = n on the boundary of the inclusion.
This fact is very useful in the theory of macroscopically homogeneous composite
materials and is used to evaluate the overall elastic module of the material, taking
into account various simplified models of the composite.
2.7
Eshelbys inclusion problem
Eshelbys inclusion problem or transformation problem is one of the most

wonderful problems encountered in linear elastostatics. The results obtained by
Eshelby are beautiful and have unexpected applications in the theory of macroscopically homogeneous composites, as well as in the theory of dislocations.
Further, we present the inclusion or transformation problem.
A regular region, the inclusion, in an infinite homogeneous elastic medium,
the matrix, undergoes a change of shape and size which in the absence of its
surrounding, the matrix, would be an arbitrary homogeneous strain. What is the
elastic state of the inclusion and of the matrix?
Eshelby has obtained the answer with the help of a set of imaginary cutting,
straining and welding operations.
94
We denote by D the domain occupied by the inclusion and let = D be

the boundary of D.
First, we cut out the region D which is to be transformed and remove it
from the matrix. Next, we allow the unconstrained homogeneous transformation
or deformation of D to take place. Afterward, we apply on the boundary of D
the surface tractions chosen so as to restore the domain occupied by the inclusion
to its original form. Then, we put the matrix back into the hole and rejoin the material across the cut. At this moment, the stress is vanishing in the matrix and has
a constant value in the inclusion. The applied surface tractions were introduced as
a layer of body force, applied over the interface between matrix and inclusion.
Finally, to obtain the elastic state, that is the solution, this layer will be removed
by applying on an equal and opposite layer of body force. The additional elastic
field obtained in this way will be found by using the displacement field corresponding to the applied layer of body force distributed on and described by a surface
force density.
In the following, we shall name stress-free strain the uniform (constant) transformation or deformation t to which the inclusion would undergo in the absence
of the matrix. The main problem is to find the constrained strain c in the inclusion and in the matrix, when the inclusion transforms while it is embedded in the
matrix.
Following Eshelby, we carry out the steps outlined above:
(i) We remove the inclusion and allow it to undergo the stress-free strain t .
Let

(2.7.1)
t = trt 1+2t
be the (constant stress) corresponding to t , according to the elastic constitutive

equation. Not that at this stage the stress in the matrix is vanishing.
(ii) We apply now the surface traction stn = t n on the boundary of the
transformed inclusion. This brings it back to the shape and size it had before the
transformation.
(iii) We put back the stressed inclusion in the matrix and we reweld across
. At this moment, the applied surface traction has become a layer of body forces
spread over and completely characterized by the surface density f = t n on , n
representing the unit outward normal to the boundary of the inclusion.
(iv) Finally, we relax the above body forces, or, what represents the same
thing, we apply an additional surface distribution f = t n on the boundary . At
the moment, this whole body is free of external forces, but in a state of self-stress,
produced by the transformation t of the inclusion.
According to the relation (2.5.9), the displacement field uc (x) imposed on
the material in the final stage (iv) is
Z
c
G (x x0 ) f (x0 ) da (x0 ) with f (x0 ) = t n (x0 ) on .
(2.7.2)
u (x) =
According to (2.5.34) and (2.5.35), the components of Greens tensor function
95

G (x x0 ) are
2 kx x0 k
1
2 kx x0 k
1
(2.7.3)
ij
16 (1 ) xi xj
xm xm
8
(
)
(xi x0i ) xj x0j
1
1
0
.
(3 4v) ij +
Gij (x x ) =
2
16 (1 ) kx x0 k
kx x0 k
(2.7.4)
Hence, from (2.7.2) and (2.7.3) it results
Gij (x x0 ) =
uci (x) =
1
4
Z
ij
2 kx x0 k
1
2 kx x0 k
4 (1 ) xi xj
xm xm
t
n0k da0 .
jk
(2.7.5)
It is convenable to take the configuration of the material at the end of the

stage (ii) as reference configuration; i.e. as the state of zero displacement. Indeed,
at this point, the stress and strain in the matrix are zero, and the inclusion,
though not stress free, has just the geometrical form which it had before the
transformation occurred. If this convention was made, uc (x) given by (2.7.5) is
the actual displacement in the matrix and in the inclusion. Consequently, the
strain c in the matrix and in the inclusion is given by

1
T
(2.7.6)
uc + (uc ) .
c =
2
According to the elastic law, the stress c in the matrix will be

c = (trc ) 1+2c .
(2.7.7)
On the other hand, the inclusion had a stress state t even before the stage
(iv) . Consequently, the stress i in the inclusion will ultimately be

(2.7.8)
i = c t = tr c t 1 + 2 c t ,
where c is the stress derived according to the elastic law from the strain c in
the inclusion.
Now, by using Gauss-Ostrogradski theorem and the equivalence of /x i and
/x0i when acting on kx x0 k, after some simple computations from (2.7.5), we
get
1 t
1
t
,k
(2.7.9)
ij
,ijk
uci (x) =
4 ik
16 (1 )
where
(x) =
dv 0
and (x) =
kx x0 k
kx x0 k dv 0
(2.7.10)
are the well known Newtonian potential and the biharmonic potential of attractive
matter of unit mass density filling the domain D bounded by .
96

It is easy to see that
= 2
and
=
4 inside D
0 outside D
, =
(2.7.11)
8 inside D
0 outside D
(2.7.12)
From (2.7.6) and (2.7.9) for the strain c , we get

cil =

1
1
t
t
t
,ki .
,kl + lk
ik
,ijkl
jk
8
16 (1 )
(2.7.13)
Taking into account the stress-strain relation (2.7.1), we can express c

through t as
cil =
1
1 t
t ,ijkl . (2.7.14)
( ,kl + tlk ,ki ) +
t ,il
8 (1 ) jk
4 ik
4 (1 ) mm
As an interesting result, we show now that we can find the strain and hence
the stress, just outside the inclusion, from their values at an adjacent point just
inside, without having to solve the exterior problem at all. To prove this result,
we recall a property due to H. Poincare (1899) from the theory of Newtonian
potential.
The second derivatives of a potential function U satisfying
U = 4,
(2.7.15)
[U,ij ] = 4 [] ni uj
(2.7.16)
undergo a jump
on crossing a singular surface (as ) across which the density has a jump [] . In
(2.7.16), n is the outward unit normal to (in our inclusion problem).
From this general result and from the equation (2.7.12) satisfied by , we
find for the jump of ,ij across
[,ij ] = 4ni uj ,
(2.7.17)
since [] = 1 on , as this can be seen, examining the equation (2.7.12).

We observe now, according to (2.7.11)

1
,ij = 2,ij = 4 ,ij .
2

1
,ij . Thus,
Accordingly, ,ij is the Newtonian potential for the density 2
the Poincare formula (2.7.16) states that

1
[,ijkl ] = 4 ,ij nk nl on .
2
97
Hence, from (2.7.17), we obtain the following equation giving the jumps of
the fourth order derivatives of the biharmonic potential
[,ijkl ] = 8ni nj nk nl on .
(2.7.18)
Now, from (2.7.14), (2.7.17) and (2.7.18), we can deduce the jump of the
strain c across the inclusion boundary
[cil ] =
1 t
ni nj nk nl .
tmm ni nl tik nk nl tlk nk ni +
1 jk
(1 )
(2.7.19)
This equation proves the result mentioned above.

In order to get the jump of the stress c across , we use the relation (2.7.14)
and the constitutive equation (2.7.7) to get
ilc =

1
t
t
t
ik
,kl + lk
,ki
jk
,jk il
4
4 (1 )
+
1
t ,ijkl .
8 (1 ) jk
(2.7.20)
Now, with (2.7.17) and (2.7.18), it results

[ilc ] =

1
t
t
t
t ni nj nk nl on .
jk
nj nk il ik
nk nl+ lk
nk ni +
1 jk
(1 )
Using the surface force density f = t n, the above relation becomes

[ilc ] =
fj nj ni nl on .
fk nk il + (fi nl + fl ni ) +
1
1
Now, after simple computations, we find that across the singular surface
the traction scn = c n satisfies the following jump condition:
[ c n] + f = 0 or [ c n] + t n = 0 on .
(2.7.21)
In this way, we have proven for our particular problem, the main property
(iv) of the displacement field defined by the equation (2.5.9) from the Section 2.5.
Using the second expression (2.7.4) of Greens tensor, Eshelby was able to
obtain a new, useful expression for the displacement field uc . Inserting (2.7.4) in
(2.7.2) and using the Gauss-Ostrogradski theorem to convert to a volume integral,
we find
Z
1
1
t
c
fijk (l) dv
ui (x) =
16 (1 ) jk D r2
Z
1
1
gijk (l) dv,
(2.7.22)
t
=
8 (1 ) jk D r2
98
where r = kx x0 k and l = (l1 , l2 , l3 ) are the length and the direction of the line
drawn from the volume element dv at x0 towards the point of observation x, and
fijk = (1 2) (ij lk + ik lj ) jk li + 3li lj lk ,
(2.7.23)
gijk = (1 2) (ij lk + ik lj ki li ) + 3li lj lk .
(2.7.24)
Following Eshelby, we shall analyze in detail the case of an ellipsoidal

inclusion.
To discuss the elastic field inside the inclusion, it is convenient to redefine l i
in (2.7.23) and (2.7.24) to be the direction cosines of a line drawn from the point
of observation x towards the volume element dv. Obviously this involves changing
the sign of the integrals in (2.7.22). To evaluate the integrals in (2.7.22), we use
spherical coordinates centered at the point of observation x. In this way, from
(2.7.22), we get
Z
8(1 )uci (x) = tjk
r(l)dw(l)gijk (l),
(2.7.25)
where is the unit sphere centered at x, r (l) is the distance from x to the boundary of the inclusion, in the direction l, and d (l) is the surface element of
in the same direction. For instance, we have l1 = sin cos , l2 = sin sin ,
l3 = cos , d (l) = sin dd with [0, ] and [0, 2] .
For an ellipsoidal inclusion, having semiaxis a1 , a2 , a3 , r (l) is the positive
root of the equation:
2
2
(x3 + rl3 )
(x2 + rl2 )
(x1 + rl1 )
= 1,
+
+
a23
a22
a21
where {x1 , x2 , x3 } are the Cartesian coordinates of the point of observation x, in

a system of coordinates determined by the center and by the symmetry axes of
the ellipsoid.
From the above equation, we get:
s
e
f2
f
(2.7.26)
+ ,
r (l) = +
g
g2
g
where
l2
l2
l12
+ 22 + 32 ,
2
a3
a2
a1
l3 x 3
l2 x 2
l1 x 1
+ 2 + 2 ,
a3
a2
a21
2
2
x2
x
x
1 21 22 23 .
a3
a2
a1
(2.7.27)
99
The sign of the square root is correct, sinceqe > 0 if x is within the ellipsoid.
2
We observe now that we can omit the term fg2 + ge when (2.7.26) is inserted
in (2.7.25), since it is even in l, while gijk (l) is odd. Thus (2.7.25) becomes
Z
m gijk
dw (l) ,
(2.7.28)
8 (1 ) uci (x) = xm etjk
g
where
1 =
l3
l2
l1
, 2 = 2 , 3 = 2 .
2
a3
a2
a1
(2.7.29)
Since the integral in (2.7.28) does not depend on x, the displacement field
uc (x) is a linear function on x. Consequently, the corresponding strain c (x) is
constant in the inclusion and depends only on the shape of the ellipsoid, that is
on its semi-axes a1 , a2 , and a3 .
This homogeneity or uniformity of the strain field in an ellipsoidal inclusion
is one of the most important result discovered by Eshelby in the transformed inclusion problem. Later, we shall see some implications of this result in the mechanics
of macroscopically homogeneous body.
Returning to (2.7.28), we obtain the components of the strain c (x) in the
ellipsoid
Z
i gljk + l gijk
1
d (l) .
(2.7.30)
tjk
cil (x) =
g
16 (1 )
For later use, it is convenient to write the relations (2.7.30) between the
constrained and stress-free strains in the inclusion in the form
cil = Silmn tmn .
(2.7.31)
From symmetry considerations, it results that the coefficients coupling an

extension and shear (S1112 , S1123 , S2311 , ...) or one shear to another one (S1223 , ...)
are zero.
By simple examination, from (2.7.30) and (2.7.31), we find
S1111
S1122
=
=
S1212
where
Q=
and
I a1 =
Qa21 Ia1 a1 + RIa1 ,

Qa22 Ia1 a2 RIa1 ,

1
1
Q a21 + a22 Ia1 a2 + R (Ia1 + Ia2 ) ,
2
2
1
1
1 2
3
,
, Q+R=
, R=
4
8 (1 ) 3
8 (1 )
l12 d (l)
, I a1 a1 =
a21 g
l14 d (l)
, I a1 a2 =
a41 g
l12 l22 d (l)

.
a21 a22 g
(2.7.32)
(2.7.33)
(2.7.34)
100
The remaining coefficients are found by simultaneous interchange of (1, 2, 3),

(a1 , a2 , a3 ) and (l1 , l2 , l3 ) .
Generally, the integrals Ia1 , Ia1 a1 , Ia1 a2 , ... cannot be calculated by elementary
methods. Their values can be expressed only using elliptic integrals of the first and
second kinds.
However, when we use the expression (2.7.27) of g and the relation l12 +l22 +l32 =
1, it is easy to see that the following equations are true:
Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia3 = 4,
I a1 a1 + I a1 a2 + I a1 a3 =
4
,
3a21
(2.7.35)
a21 Ia1 a1 + a22 Ia1 a2 + a23 Ia1 a3 = Ia .

There exist three particular situations in which all integrals Ia1 , Ia1 a1 , ...
can be expressed in an elementary way: this can be done for an oblate spheroid
(a1 = a2 > a3 ), a prolate spheroid (a2 = a3 < a1 ) and a sphere (a1 = a2 = a3 ) .
The results obtained in these cases can be used to evaluate the overall elastic
moduli of various reinforced macroscopically homogeneous composite materials.
Many essential results of this type are presented and analyzed in Christensens
fundamental monograph. In Section 4.5, we shall study only the case of spherical
inclusions.
If the inclusion in Eshelbys problem is a sphere of radius a, according to
the obvious symmetry, from (2.7.35), we get
I a1 = I a2 = I a3 =
4
.
3
(2.7.36)
Also, since
(2.7.37)
I a1 a2 = I a1 a3
the relation (2.7.35)2 gives
Ia1 a1 + 2Ia1 a2 =
4
.
3a2
(2.7.38)
Obviously, according to the equation (2.7.27) now

g=
1
.
a2
Consequently, from (2.7.34), we get

Z
1
l2 d (l) .
I a1 a1 = 2
a 1
(2.7.39)
(2.7.40)
101

This integral can be evaluated in an elementary way and we obtain
I a1 a1 = I a2 a2 = I a3 a3 =
4
.
5a2
(2.7.41)
4
.
15a2
(2.7.42)
Now, from (2.7.38), we get

I a1 a2 = I a2 a3 = I a3 a1 =
Now, returning to the relations (2.7.32) and (2.7.33), we can express Eshelbys
coefficients Sijkl for a spherical inclusion; we get
7 5
,
15(1 )
S1111
S2222 = S3333 =
S1122
S1133 = S2211 = S3311 = S2233 = S3322 =
S1212
S2112 = S2121 = S2112 = ... =
4 5
.
15(1 )
1 + 5
, (2.7.43)
15(1 )
In this way, from (2.7.31) and (2.7.43), for the constrained strain c inside the
transformed sphere, we get the following expressions in terms of the stress-free
strain t :
c = t and ec = et
(2.7.44)
where
=
and
2 4 5
11+
,
, =
15 1
31
(2.7.45)
t = trt , c = trc ,
et and ec being the deviatoric parts of t and c , respectively; i.e.
1
et = t t 1,
3
1
ec = c c 1.
3
We recall Eshelbys mean result: the strain and the stress in the transformed
ellipsoidal inclusion are uniform.
Using this result, Eshelby has succeeded in solving the following inhomogeneity problem playing an important role in the mechanics of macroscopically
homogeneous composite materials.
An ellipsoidal region in an infinite homogeneous elastic medium has elastic
constants differing from those of the remainder. How is an applied stress, which is
uniform at large distances, disturbed by this inhomogeneity?
102
This inhomogeneity problem was solved by Eshelby in the way outlined at

the beginning of this Section.
On the elastic field c due to an ellipsoidal inclusion with arbitrary t , we
superpose a uniform strain a . Now the deformation of the boundary of the inclusion is characterized by the strain c + a . Since the part t of this strain is not
associated with any stress (see Equation (2.7.8)), the uniform strain in the inclusion is given by the stress-strain relation not for c +a but rather for c +a t .
Hence, the strain in the inclusion is
= c +a ,
(2.7.46)
but the stress in it is
or equivalently

= tr c +a t 1 + 2 c +a t ,
where

= k c + a t , s = 2 ec + ea et
=
(2.7.47)
(2.7.48)
1
tr, a = tra ,
3
and
1
s = 1, ea = a a 1,
3
are the deviatoric parts of the stress and of the strain a , respectively, and
k = + 2
3 is the bulk modulus.
Now we take an ellipsoid of the same shape and size as the untransformed
ellipsoid, but made of an isotropic material with elastic constants 1 , 1 , k1 = 1 +
21
3 different from those of the matrix and inclusion. We subject this ellipsoid to
the uniform strain (2.7.41). If this treatment develops the uniform stress (2.7.46),
it may be used to replace the initial (transformed) inclusion with continuity of
displacement and surface traction across the interface . Since the stress and
strain are constant in the initial (transformed) ellipsoidal inclusion, we can always
ensure that the needed stress is developed by choosing suitable 1 and 1 . For this
purpose, it is only necessary that they should satisfy the conditions

k1 (c + a ) = k c + a t ,

(2.7.49)
1 (ec + ea ) = 1 ec + ea et .
Actually, it is the uniform applied strain a and the elastic constants 1 , 1 , k1

of the ellipsoidal inhomogeneity which are prescribed. Hence, the relations (2.7.49)
represent the equations which have to be solved for t in terms of a , 1 , 1 , ,
after eliminating c with the help of Eshelbys relations (2.7.31).
We observe that the system (2.7.49) is not as simple as it appears to be, since
each of the c , ec depend simultaneously on t and et .
103
However, for the shear components the solution is immediate, since as we

already know, the coefficients Sijkl do not couple different shears. We get
et12 =
1
ea , ... .
2 (1 ) S1212 + 12
(2.7.50)
In order to obtain the components t11 , t22 and t33 , we first observe that
(2.7.49) can be written in the following equivalent form:

1 1tr (c + a ) + 21 (c + a ) = 1tr c +a t + 2 c +a t ,
or
(1 ) 1trc + 2 (1 ) c + 1trt + 2t = (1 ) 1tra + 2 (1 ) a .

Now, taking into account Eshelbys relations (2.7.31) and the symmetry properties of the coefficients Sijkl , we obtain the following three simultaneous equations
which must be solved in order to get t11 , t22 and t33
(1 ) Smmpq tpq + 2 (1 ) Sijpq tpq + tmm + 2tij
(2.7.51)
= (1 ) amm + 2 (1 ) tij , for i, j, = 11, 22, 33.

Only t11 , t22 and t33 appear in the pq summation since there does not exist
a coupling between an extension and a shear.
In this way, Eshelbys ellipsoidal inhomogeneity problem is solved.
From the derivation, it results that t found in the above way is a stressfree strain of certain transformed inclusion which, with the given applied strain
a , could replace the inhomogeneity without altering the stress or displacement
anywhere. Eshelby calls this imaginary transformed inclusion the equivalent inclusion.
Outside the inclusion, the elastic state of the matrix, that is [u, , ] is the
sum of the applied field [ua , a , a ] and the field [uc , c , c ] of the equivalent
inclusion. Actually, this field is due to the assumed ellipsoidal inhomogeneity, and
the field [uc , c , c ] measures the perturbation of the applied field [ua , a , a ] by
the inhomogeneity and may be found from t , using the method presented in the
first part of this Section.
In the simplest case of the spherical inhomogeneity with elastic constants
k1 , 1 , in an applied field a , according to (2.7.44) and (2.7.47), the equivalent
strain t is given by the equations
t = A a , e = Bea
with
A=
(1 )
k1 k
,
,B =
( 1 )
(k k1 ) k
(2.7.52)
(2.7.53)
104
the coefficients and having the expressions (2.7.45).

Finally, using (2.7.44) and (2.7.52), for = c + a and e = ec +ea , that is for
the strain = c + a in the spherical inclusion, we get the following expressions,
in terms of the applied strain a = a 1 + ea
=
2.8
k
ea .
a , e =
(1 ) +
(k1 k) + k
(2.7.54)
Problems
P2.1 Show that the infinitesimal strain field (x) corresponding to a rigid
displacement field u (x) = u0 + 0 x, u0 = const., 0 = const., vanishes on B.
P2.2 Show that if the infinitesimal strain field (x) , corresponding to a displacement field u (x) is identically zero on B, then u (x) is an infinitesimal rigid
displacement field.
P2.3 Using P2.2, prove Kirchhoffs theorem given at the beginning of the
Section 2.1.
P2.4 Prove Piolas theorem: Let b be an integrable vector field on B and let
b
s be an integrable vector field on B. Then
Z
Z
b
s wda +
b wdv = 0,
B
for any rigid displacement field w on B, if and only if

Z
Z
Z
Z
b
sda +
bdv = 0 and
xb
sda +
x bdv = 0.
B
P2.5 Let w (x) = u0 + 0 x be a rigid displacement on B and let x1 , x2 , x3

three non-collinear points of B. Assuming that w (x1 ) = w (x2 ) = w (x3 ) = 0,
show that w (x) vanishes identically on B.
P2.6 Prove that the elasticity tensor or Hookes tensor c is symmetric if and
only if its components satisfy the relation
cijkl = cklij , i, j, k, l = 1, 2, 3.
b 4 is positive definite, it is nonP2.7 Prove that if the elasticity tensor c L
singular.
b 4 is positive definite, its inverse
P2.8 Prove that if the elasticity tensor c L
1
k = c there exists, is symmetric and positive definite.
P2.9 Using the relation (2.2.1) defining a symmetry transformation Q, show
that if Q is a symmetry transformation, it satisfies the equation (2.2.3). Conversely,
show that if this equation is satisfied for every symmetric tensor, then Q is a
symmetry transformation.
105
2.8. PROBLEMS
P2.10 Let c be the elasticity tensor of an elastic body and let k = c1 be the
corresponding compliance tensor. Show that

Q (k) QT = k QQT ,
for every Q Sx and for every symmetric tensor .

P2.11 Prove that e is an axis of symmetry at x B if and only if R (e, ) Sx
for some (0, 2) ; i.e. one of the symmetry transformation of the material is a
rotation about the axis spanned by e.
P2.12 Prove that P (e1 , e2 ) is a plane of symmetry if and only if R (e3 , )
Sx .
P2.13 Prove that P (e1 , e2 ) is a plane of symmetry if and only if one of the
symmetry transformation of the material is a reflection on the plane P (e1 , e2 ) .
P2.14 Prove that the set of transformations 1, R (e1 , ) , R (e2 , ) ,
R (e3 , ) forms a proper subgroup of the orthogonal group.
P2.15 Show that if 1, R (e2 , ) , R (e3 , ) Sx than R (e1 , ) Sx .
P2.16 Show that if an elastic material at any x B has two mutually orthogonal symmetry planes P (e2 , e3 ) and P (e3 , e1 ), it is orthotropic.
P2.17 Prove the following second mean stress theorem: If the body B is
homogeneous, the mean stress corresponding to the elastic state [u, , ] depends
only on the boundary values of u and is given by

Z
1
unda .
= c
v
B
P2.18 Prove the following second main strain theorem: If the body B is
homogeneous, and [u, , ] is an elastic state corresponding to the external force
system [b, sn ] , then the corresponding mean strain E depends only on the external
force system and is given by
Z

Z
1
xsn da +
xbdv .
E= k
v
B
B
P2.19 Prove the principle of superposition for elastic states.

P2.20 Prove the following generalized reciprocal theorem: Let [u, , ]
e ] be elastic states corresponding to external force systems [b, sn ] and
ui, e
,
hand [e
e
e ] to
u, e
,
b, e
sn respectively, and let [u, , ] correspond to the elasticity field c, [e
the elasticity field e
c = cT . Then
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
e udv =
e dv,
e
e dv =
e da +
e
dv =
sn uda +
b
bu
sn u
B
where
e =e
= c and
ce
.
106
P2.21 Show that for the traction problem a necessary condition for the existence of a solution is that the given external forces [b,b
s] be in equilibrium; i.e.
that
Z
Z
Z
Z
b
sda +
bdv = 0 and
xb
sda +
x bdv = 0.
B
P2.22 Let us consider an isotropic material characterized by the constitutive

equation (2.2.54).
(a) Show that the strain and the stress have the same eigen directions.
(b) Let us denote by 1 , 2 , 3 the eigenvalues of the strain , corresponding
to its eigen directions n1 , n2 , n3 . And let 1 , 2 , 3 be the eigen values of the stress
, corresponding to n1 , n2 , n3 , respectively. Express 1 , 2 , 3 , called the principal
stresses in terms of Lames coefficients , and of 1 , 2 , 3 called the principal
strains.
P2.23 The Youngs modulus E and Poissons ratio of a stainless steel are
given by the values
E = 206GP a, = 0, 3.
Find the values of , and k.
P2.24 Prove that if the elasticity c of a material is a positive definite fourth
order tensor, then the rigidity matrix [C] of the material is a positive definite 6 6
matrix. Is the converse true?
P2.25 Prove that if [C] is the rigidity matrix of an orthotropic material, the
1
structure of the compliance matrix [S] = [C] has the form given in the relation
(2.2.70).
P2.26 Find the compliance matrix [S] for a material having a plane of symmetry.
P2.27 Give the mechanical meaning of the inequalities (2.2.74) obtained by
us assuming that the elasticity c of an orthotropic material is positive definite.
P2.28 Show that the technical or engineering constants of an orthotropic
relation satisfy the relations
12 23 31 = 21 32 13 ,
12 #
12
"

E2
E1
2 E3
2 E2
> 0,
+ 32 13
21
1 13
1 32
E1
E
E
E1
2
1
(
12 12 )
12

E2
E2
2 E3
2 E2
< 21 <
1 13
+ 1 32
32 13
E1
E1
E3
E1
(
12 12 )
12

E2
E
E
E2
3
2
2
2
.
1 13
1 32
< 32 13
E1
E1
E3
E1
P2.29 Show that the determinant inequality (2.2.76) for orthotropic materials
reduces to < 1/2 for isotropic materials if 1 + 6= 0.
107
2.8. PROBLEMS
P2.30 Show that the inequalities given in P2.28 reduce to the known bounds
0 < < 1/2 for an isotropic material.
P2.31 Verify the equations (2.2.85).
P2.32 Assuming c positive definite, find the restrictions which must be satisfied by the engineering coefficients of a transversally isotropic material. What
kind of assumptions lead to the positiveness of Poissons ratios of a transversally
isotropic material?
P2.33 Let us consider an isotropic material. Show that the components c ijkl
of the elasticity field c and the components kijkl of the compliance field k = c1 ,
in any basis ei ej ek el are given by the following relations:
cijkl = ij kl + (ik jl + il jk ) ,
1+
(ik jl + il jk ) .
ij kl +
2E
E
P2.34 Show that the specific strain energy u () of an isotropic material has
the expression
kijkl =
u () =
k 2
+ e e,
2
where
1
= tr and e = 1.
3
Using the above results, show that

u () > 0 for any 6= 0,
if and only if
k > 0 and > 0.
P2.35 Formulate and prove the principle of minimum potential energy corresponding to the displacement problem and the traction problem, respectively.
P2.36 Formulate and prove the principle of minimum complementary energy
corresponding to the traction problem and the displacement problem, respectively.
P2.37 Using the theorem of work expended, show that the inequalities (2.4.16)
and (2.4.11) from the upper and lower bounds theorems can be written in the
following equivalent forms:

Z
1
) ,
k dv U < Uc (e
e
2
B

Z
1
e
dv U < Uk ( ) .
ce
2
B
P2.38 Using the principle of minimum potential energy, prove Kirchhoffs

uniqueness theorem for the mixed problem.
P2.39 Let us consider the displacement field u (x) defined by the equation
(2.5.4) in terms of Greens tensor function G (x x0 ) and of the constant vector
P. Let (x) = cu (x) be the stress field corresponding to u (x) .
(a) Show that div (x) = 0 for any x 6= 0 from the three-dimensional
Euclidean space E.
108

(b) Show that u (x) = O r1 and (x) = O r2 for r = kxk 0 and for
r .
R
(c) Show that nda = P for any spherical surface centrad in x = 0
and having the radius > 0. What is the meaning of this result?
P2.40 The displacement field u (x) produced in an infinite, homogeneous,
isotropic elastic medium, by a concentrated force P applied at the point x = 0 is
given by the equation (2.5.37).
(a) Show that the corresponding strain field (x) has the expression

3
1
(P x) 1 (1 2) (xP + Px) 2 (P x) xx .
(x) =
r
16 (1 ) r 3
(b) Show that the corresponding stress field (x) has the expression given
by the equation (2.5.38).
(c) Prove that this stress field satisfies Cauchys homogeneous equilibrium
equation
div (x) = for any x 6= 0.
(d) Prove that this stress field satisfies the relation
Z
nda = P,
where is an arbitrary spherical surface centrad at x = 0 and having a radius

> 0, and n is the inward unit normal to .
P2.41 Prove the reciprocal theorem for singular states. That is, prove the
validity of the equations (2.5.13).
P2.42 Show that the reciprocal theorem for singular elastic states is still valid
in the case of an infinite media with finite boundary, provided that

e (x) = O r2 and
e (x) = O r1 , (x) ,
u (x) , u
e (x) = O r3
b (x) , b
as r = kxk .
P2.43 Prove the lemma concerning the existence of a unique rigid displacement field w (x), given in Section 2.5.
e (x, x0 ) for a body, and the integral repP2.44 Using Greens tensor function G
resentation theorem corresponding to the traction boundary value problem prove
the existence of the influence function B = B (x) having the properties given in the
equations (2.5.32), (2.5.33) and corresponding to homogeneous traction problems.
P2.45 Starting from the equation (2.7.13), prove the relations (2.7.14).
P2.46 Using the relations (2.7.13) and the constitutive equation for an isotropic
body, show that the relations (2.7.20) are true.
P2.47 By direct calculations, show the validity of the equations (2.7.22).
109
2.8. PROBLEMS
P2.48 Starting with the relations (2.7.22), show that for points x which are
far from the inclusion, the displacements uci (x) in the matrix can be expressed
approximately by the relations
uci (x)
1 t
fijk (l) ,
16 (1 ) r2 jk
where r and l are the distance and the direction from the inclusion of x, and v is
the volume of the domain D occupied by the inclusion.
P2.49 Show that Eshelbys coefficients S1112 and S1123 , introduced by the
equation (2.7.31), which are coupling an extension (11 ) and a shearing (12 or 21 ),
are zero. Show also that Eshelbys coefficient S1223 coupling two shearings (12 or
23 ) is vanishing.
P2.50 Prove Eshelbys relations (2.7.32) by direct computations.
P2.51 Show that the equations (2.7.36) and (2.7.42) giving Ia1 , ..., Ia1 a1 , ...,
in the case of a spherical inclusion are true.
P2.52 Show that the components Sijkl of Eshelbys tensor S can be expressed
in the form
1
1
Sijkl = ( ) ij kl + (ik jl + il jk ) ,
2
3
if the transformed inclusion is spherical and the infinite elastic medium is isotropic.
In the above relations, and are the coefficients given by the equations (2.7.45).
P2.53 Show that Eshelbys coefficients and can be expressed in term of
the shear modulus and of the bulk modulus k in the form
= 3 5 =
k
.
k + 43
P2.54 Show that Eshelbys solution for the transformed inclusion problem
satisfies the necessary null-jump conditions across the interface separating the
transformed inclusion and the matrix.
P2.55 Show that Eshelbys solution for the inhomogeneity problem satisfies
the necessary null-jump conditions across the interface separating the inclusion
and the matrix.
P2.56 Let u be an admissible displacement field for a biphasic piece-wise
continuous composite material B. Let = (u) be the admissible strain field corresponding to u. Let be an admissible stress field for the composite. Let and
be the mean values of and on B, respectively. Prove that
= () (),
where the superposed bar denotes the corresponding mean values on B.

P2.57 Let u be an admissible displacement field for the above composite,
and let = (u) be the corresponding strain field. Let be an admissible stress
110
field which is self-equilibrated; i.e. satisfies the equilibrium equations div = 0

on B , = 0, 1, ..., N, corresponding to zero body forces. Show that
Z
1
(ux) (nn) da
=
v B
Z
Z
1
1
u (nn) da,
(ux) nda =
=
v B
v B
where v is the volume of the domain B.

P2.58 Using the above result, show that = if:
(i) is a kinematically admissible strain field corresponding to E and is a
self-equilibrated stress field;
(ii) is a statically admissible self-equilibrated stress field, corresponding to
and is an admissible strain field.
P2.59 Show that
if (i) of P2.58 takes place, then = E and = E, and
if (ii) of P2.58 is true, then = and = .
Bibliography
[2.1] Solomon, L., Elasticit

e lineaire, Mason, Paris, 1968.
[2.2] Malvern, L.E., Introduction to the mechanics of continuous medium, PrenticeHall, Inc., London, 1969.
[2.3] Gurtin, M.E., The linear theory of elasticity, Handbuck der Physik VI a/2,
Ed. C. Truesdell, Springer, Berlin, 1972.
[2.4] Gurtin, M.E., An introduction to continuum mechanics, Academic Press,
San Diego, 1981.
[2.5] Teodosiu, C., Elastic models of crystal defects, Ed. Academiei, Bucuresti,
Springer, Berlin, 1982.
[2.6] Hill, R., Elastic properties of reinforced solids-some theoretical principles, J.
Mech. Phys. Solids, 11, 357-372, 1963.
[2.7] Mandell, J., Plasticite clasique et viscoplasticite, Int. Centre Math. Sci.,
Courses and Lectures No 97, Udine 1971, Springer, Wien, New York, 1972.
[2.8] Eshelby, J.D., The determination of the elastic field of an ellipsoidal inclusion, and selected problems, Proc. Roy. Soc. A 241, 376-396, 1957.
[2.9] Eshelby, J.D., The elastic field outside an ellipsoidal inclusion, Proc. Roy.
Soc. A 252, 561-569, 1959.
[2.10] Jones, R.M., Mechanics of composite materials, Hemisphere Publishing Co.,
New York, 1975.
Chapter 3
COMPOSITE LAMINATES
3.1
Macromechanical behavior of lamina
In this chapter, we discuss some fundamental problems concerning fiberreinforced composite laminates; i.e. the classical part of the general theory of
composite materials.
The basic results existing in this field can be found, for instance, in the
monographies due to Ashton and Whitney [3.1], Jones [3.2], Christensen [3.3],
Tsai and Hahn [3.4], Cristescu [3.5], Whitney [3.6] and Gibson [3.7].
The fiber-reinforced composite laminates are made of fiber-reinforced laminae. The fibers considered here are long and continuous. A lamina is a plane
arrangement of unidirectional fibers strongly bounded in a matrix. In Figure 3.1
is shown a typical lamina together with its material symmetry axis, named also
principal material axes or directions.
Figure 3.1: Lamina with unidirectional fibers.
112
CHAPTER 3. COMPOSITE LAMINATES
Axis 1 is parallel to the fibers, axis 2 is perpendicular to the fibers in the

plane of the lamina and axis 3 is perpendicular to the plane of lamina. The fibers
or filaments are the main reinforcing or load-carrying elements. They are generally
strong and stiff. The matrix can be organic, ceramic, or metallic. The function of
the matrix is to support and protect fibers and to provide a means of distributing
and transmitting load among fibers. The fibers generally exhibit linear elastic
behavior. Fiber-reinforced composites, such as boron-epoxy and graphite-epoxy are
usually considered to be linear elastic materials since the fibers provide most of
the stiffness.
A laminate is a stack of laminae with various orientations of the principal
material directions with respect to the laminae as shown in Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2: Exploded view of laminate structure.

Generally the fiber orientation of the layers cannot be symmetric about the
middle surface of the laminate. The layers of a laminate are usually firmly bounded
together by the same matrix material that is used in laminae. Laminates can be
composed of plates of different materials, or layers of fiber-reinforced laminae, as
shown in Figure 3.2. Also, various laminae can have various thicknesses.
A major purpose of lamination is to determine the directional dependence
of stiffness of a material in accordance with the given loading environment of the
structural element. Laminates are suited to this objective since the principal material directions of each layer can be oriented according to the need. For example, six
layers of a ten-layer laminate could be oriented in one direction and the other four
at 90 with respect to that direction. The resulting laminate has an extensional
stiffness roughly 50 percent higher in one direction than in the other one.
The fiber-reinforced lamina is the basic building block in a laminated fiberreinforced composite or laminate. Thus, the knowledge of the mechanical behavior
of a laminae is essential to the understanding of laminated fiber-reinforced structures. Analyzing the macro and micromechanical behavior of a laminae, we assume
that the matrix, the fibers and the lamina itself have linear elastic behavior. Also
3.1. MACROMECHANICAL BEHAVIOR OF A LAMINA
113
we suppose that the fibers and the matrix are firmly bounded together. The same
assumption will be made concerning the laminae forming a laminate.
At the macro-mechanical level, the fiber-reinforced lamina will be assumed
to be an orthotropic linearly elastic material. The symmetry axis are parallel and
perpendicular to the fibers direction as shown in Figure 3.2. The most advantageous description of the stress-strain relation involves the (macro-mechanical or
effective or equivalent or overall ) technical or engineering constants of the lamina, considered as a homogeneous body. These constants are particulary helpful in
describing material behavior since they are determined by obvious and relatively
simple mechanical tests.
In the following, our attention will be focused on stress-strain relation for
orthotropic materials in a plane stress state, the most common condition satisfied
by a loaded composite lamina. The constitutive relations, initially formulated using
the material symmetry axes, will be expressed later by using coordinate systems
that are not aligned along the principal material directions. Such a change is
necessary in order to describe the global behavior of various laminates, composed
of laminae with various orientations of the reinforcing fibers.
Let us consider now a lamina in the 1-2 plane as shown in Figure 3.1. Here
the axes 1, 2, 3 are the principal material directions of the laminae, assumed to
be (macroscopically) orthotropic.
As usual, we say that the lamina is in a plane stress state relative to its
symmetry plane 1-2 if the components of the stress tensor satisfy the following
relations:
31 = 32 = 33 = 0.
(3.1.1)
Since the material is orthotropic, according to the constitutive equation
(2.2.70), from the above relation, it follows that the components of the strain
tensor satisfy the equations
31 = 32 = 0 , 33 = S13 11 + S23 22 ,
and, thus, the stress-strain relation (2.2.70) reduces to

1
1
S11 S12 0
2 = S12 S22 0 2 .
0
0
S66
6
6
(3.1.2)
We recall that in the above matrix form of the remaining constitutive equation,
we have used the Voigts convention; i.e.
1 = 11 , 2 = 22 , 6 = 212 , 1 = 11 , 2 = 22 , 6 = 12 .
Also, we note again that the axis 1, 2, 3 are the principal material directions
of the lamina, axis 1 being parallel to the fibers, axis 2 being perpendicular to the
fibers and situated in the plane of the lamina and axis 3 being perpendicular to
this plane.
114
The general relation (2.2.71) shows that the involved components S11 , S12 , S22
and S66 of the compliance matrix [S] can be expressed in terms of the technical
constants of the orthotropic lamina by the following equations:
S11 =
12
21
1
,
=
, S12 =
E2
E1
E1
1
1
.
, S66 =
S22 =
G12
E2
(3.1.3)
Since the matrix [S] is positive definite, the relation (3.1.2) can be inverted
to obtain the inverse stress-strain relations
1
Q11 Q12 0
1
1
2 = Q12 Q22 0
2 = [Q] 2 .
(3.1.4)
6
0
0
Q66
6
6
The quantities Q11 , Q12 , Q22 and Q66 are named reduced stiffnesses. They
have the following expressions:
Q11 =
S11
S12
S22
2
,
, Q66 = G12 , S = S11 S22 S12
, Q22 =
, Q12 =
S
S
S
(3.1.5)
or, in terms of the engineering constants
E2
21 E1
12 E2
E1
, Q66 = G12 .
, Q22 =
=
, Q12 =
1 12 21
1 12 21
1 12 21
1 12 21
(3.1.6)
The reduced constitutive equations (3.1.4) represent the basis for the analysis
of the behavior of an individual lamina subjected to forces acting in its own plane.
For such special loading, the orthotropic lamina is indeed in a plane stress state.
We stress again that E1 is Youngs modulus in the fibers direction, E2 is
Youngs modulus in the direction perpendicular to the fibers and situated in the
lamina plane, 12 and 21 are Poissons ratios in the same plane, and G12 is the
shear modulus in the lamina plane.
We now present some numerical values of the involved material parameters for
laminae frequently used in applications. The values are taken from the monograph
[3.4] by Tsai and Hahn (see pp. 19 and 20). The material constants having physical
dimensions (such as E1 , E2 , G12 , S11 , ..., S66 , Q11 , ..., Q66 ) are expressed in GP a =
109 N m2 . Obviously, if E1 , E2 , 12 and G12 are known from experimental data
S11 , ..., S66 and Q11 , ..., Q66 can be calculated using the relation (3.1.3) and (3.1.6).
The data given in Tables 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3 show that for fiber-reinforced laminae, generally
E2 << E1 and G12 << E1
Q11 =
and
Q22 << Q11
and
Q66 << Q11 .
115
Type
T300/5208
B(4)/5505
AS/3501
Material
Graphite/Epoxy
Boron/Epoxy
Graphite/Epoxy
E1
181
204
138
E2
10.3
18.5
8.96
12
0.28
0.23
0.30
G12
7.17
5.59
7.1
Table 3.1: Engineering constants of typical fiber-reinforced laminae.
Type
T300/5208
B(4)/5505
AS/3501
S11
5.525
4.902
7.246
S22
97.09
54.05
111.6
S12
-1.547
-1.128
-2.174
S66
139.5
172.7
140.8
Table 3.2: Compliance components of typical fiber-reinforced laminae.
Type
T300/5208
B(4)/5505
AS/3501
Q11
181.8
205.0
138.8
Q22
10.34
18.58
9.013
Q12
2.897
4.275
2.704
Q66
7.17
5.75
7.1
Table 3.3: Reduced stiffnesses of typical fiber-reinforced laminae.
We shall see in the Section 5, that the above large differences between the
magnitudes of the different rigidity moduli of a fiber-reinforced composite material have essential implications on the stability behavior of these bodies, having
obviously an internal structure.
We recall that the reduced constitutive relations (3.1.4) are expressed using
the stress and strain components corresponding to the material symmetry direction
of the lamina. These special directions often do not coincide with the coordinate
direction which are geometrically related to a given problem. Hence, we must
be able to express the reduced stress-strain relations using arbitrary systems of
coordinates x1 = x, x2 = y, x3 = z. For our needs, we assume that the principal
material direction 3 and the direction of the axis x3 = z coincide. Also, we
suppose that the planes x, y and 1, 2 coincide, and the principal directions 1, 2 are
obtained by rotating the axes x, y with an angle about the axis z, as shown in
Figure 3.3.
In the above mentioned case, the orthogonal matrix [qkr ], present in the
general lows (1.1.14) characterizing the connections between the components of a
tensor in the old and new axes have, according to the relations (1.1.8), the following
116
Figure 3.3: Positive rotation of principal material axes 1, 2 from arbitrary axes
x, y.
form:
cos
[qkr ] = sin
0
sin
cos
0
0
0
1
(3.1.7)
For simplicity, we shall denote by x , y , xy the components 11 , 22 , 12 of

the stress tensor in the coordinate system (x, y, z), and by x , y , xy = xy /2
the components 11 , 22 , 12 of the strain in the same coordinate system (x, y, z).
Taking into account (3.1.7) and the general transformation law (1.1.14) or
its special form (1.1.16), we get
1
x
1
x
2 = [T ()] y , 2
= [T ()] y ,
(3.1.8)
6
xy
6 /2
xy
where the 3 3 square matrix [T ()]
cos2
[T ()] = sin2
sin cos
1
is given by the equation

sin2
cos2
sin cos
2 sin cos
2 sin cos .
cos2 sin2
Denoting by [T ()] the inverse matrix of [T ()] from
x
1
x
y = [T ()]1 2 , y = [T ()]1
xy
6
xy
(3.1.9)
(3.1.8), we get
2
(3.1.10)
6 /2
Taking into account the geometrical significance of the transformation matrix

[T ()] , or by direct computations, it is easy to see that
cos2
sin2
2 sin cos
1
, (3.1.11)
[T ()] = [T ()] = sin2
cos2
2 sin cos
2
2
sin cos sin cos cos sin
117
Consequently, (3.1.10) can be expressed in the following equivalent form:
x
1
y = [T ()] 2 ,
xy
6
Introducing the Reuters
1 0
[R] = 0 1
0 0
we have
1
1
2 = [R] 2
,
6
6 /2
x
1
y = [T ()] 2
.
xy
6 /2
matrices
0
0 ,
2
[R]
1
= 0
0
0
1
0
0
1/2
x
x
y = [R]1 y , since
xy
xy
(3.1.12)
(3.1.13)
xy = xy /2.
Now, returning to the primary stress-strain relation (3.1.4) and using the
above equations, we successively get
x
1
1
1
y = [T ()] 2 = [T ()] [Q] 2 = [T ()] [Q] [R] 2
xy
6
6
6 /2
x
x
1
= [T ()] [Q] [R] [T ()] y = [T ()] [Q] [R] [T ()] [R] y .
xy
xy
Using (3.1.9), (3.1.11) and (3.1.13), it is easy to see that
sin cos
= [T ()]T .
[R] [T ()] [R]
sin cos
cos2 sin2
(3.1.14)
Consequently, the needed stress-strain relation becomes
1
cos2
= sin2
2 sin cos
sin2
cos2
2 sin cos
Q11
x
x

y = Q() y = Q12
xy
xy
Q16
with
Q12
Q22
Q26
Q16
x
Q26 y ,
xy
Q66

T
Q() = [T ()] [Q] [T ()]
(3.1.15)
(3.1.16)
Finally, using the relations (3.1.11), (3.1.14) and the last equation, after long,

but elementary computations, we get for the components of the matrix Q() the
118
following expressions:
Q11 () = Q11 cos4 + 2(Q12 + 2Q66 ) sin2 cos2 + Q22 sin4 ,
Q12 () = (Q11 + Q22 4Q66 ) sin2 cos2 + Q12 (sin4 + cos4 ),
Q22 () = Q11 sin4 + 2(Q12 + 2Q66 ) sin2 cos2 + Q22 cos4 ,
Q16 () = (Q11 Q12 2Q66 ) sin cos3 + (Q12 Q22 + 2Q66 ) sin3 cos ,
Q26 () = (Q11 Q12 2Q66 ) sin3 cos + (Q12 Q22 + 2Q66 ) sin cos3 ,
Q66 () = (Q11 + Q22 2Q12 2Q66 ) sin2 cos2 + Q66 (sin4 + cos4 ).
(3.1.17)

The matrix Q() is named the transformed reduced stiffness matrix, and its
components Q11 (), ..., Q66 () are the transformed reduced stiffness of the fiberreinforced lamina.
Note that the transformed reduced stiffness matrix has non-vanishing coefficients in all nine positions in contrast to the zeros existing in the primary
reduced stiffness matrix [Q]. However, there are still only four independent material constants since the lamina is orthotropic and it is in a plane stress state. The
stress-strain relation (3.1.15) shows that in general, with arbitrary x, y axis, there
is coupling between normal stresses and shear strains and between shear stresses
and normal strains. Thus, in the coordinates x, y, named in the following body
coordinates, even an orthotropic lamina behaves as would a general anisotropic.
That is the reason why such a lamina is called general orthotropic lamina, even if
it is actually orthotropic.
We observe now that, as an alternative to the foregoing procedure, we can
express in the body coordinates the strains in terms of stresses, by inverting the
relation (3.1.15) and by using the property
[Q]
S11
[S] = S12
0
S12
S22
0
0
0 .
S66
Thus, by using also (3.1.16) and the equation [T ()] = [T ()]
S 11
x
x

y = S() y = S 12
xy
xy
S 16
with
S 12
S 22
S 26
S 16
x
S 26 y ,
xy
S 66

T
S() = [T ()] [S] [T ()] .
(3.1.18)
, we obtain
(3.1.19)
(3.1.20)
119
Now, using (3.1.19), (3.1.18) and the last equation, we obtain
S 11 () = S11 cos4 + (2S12 + S66 ) sin2 cos2 + S22 sin4 ,
S 12 () = S11 (sin4 + cos4 ) + (S11 + S22 S66 ) sin2 cos2 ,
S 22 () = S11 sin4 + (2S12 + S66 ) sin2 cos2 + S22 cos4 ,
S 16 () = (2S11 2S12 S66 ) sin cos3 (2S22 2S12 S66 ) sin3 cos ,
S 26 () = (2S11 2S12 S66 ) sin3 cos (2S22 2S12 S66 ) sin cos3 ,
S 66 () = 2(2S11 + 2S22 4S12 S66 ) sin2 cos2 + S66 (sin4 + cos4 ).

(3.1.21)
Note that because of the presence of Q16 , Q26 in (3.1.15), and of S 16 , S 26
in (3.1.19), there is no difference between the behavior of the general orthotropic
lamina and the actually anisotropic lamina in plane stress-state. As for anisotropic
lamina, the coefficients S 11 , .., S 66 of the generally orthotropic lamina can be expressed in terms of the apparent technical or engineering coefficients, introduced
in the following way (see for instance Jones [3.2] Chapter 2 or Lekhnitski [3.8]
Chapter 2):
1
1
yx
xy
1
,
, S 66 =
, S 22 =
=
, S 12 =
Gxy
Ey
Ey
Ex
Ex
xy,y
x,xy
y,xy
xy,x
, S 26 =
=
=
=
.
(3.1.22)
Gxy
Ex
Ey
Gxy
S 11 =
S 16
The mechanical significance of the apparent Young moduli Ex , Ey , the Poisson ratios xy , yx and the shear modulus Gxy is the same as in the case of an
orthotropic material. Obviously, their usual significance must be related to the
coordinate axes x and y.
As can be seen, we have also introduced new engineering coefficients xy,x ,
x,xy , xy,y and y,xy . These material constants are named by Lekhnitski coefficients of mutual influence and are defined as:
i,ij = coefficient of mutual influence of the first kind which characterizes
the stretching in the idirection caused by shear in the ij plane, that is i,ij =
ii /2ij , for ij = , all other stresses being zero, and i 6= j;
ij,i = coefficient of mutual influence of the second kind which characterizes
the shearing in the ij plane caused by a normal stress in the idirection, that
is ij,i = ij /i , for ii = , all other stresses being zero, and i 6= j.
Obviously, the apparent technical moduli depend on the angle by which the
principal mutual directions were rotated.
Using the relation (3.1.22) and the equations (3.1.21), the apparent moduli
can be expressed in terms of the primary engineering moduli of the lamina and
120
the angle . Elementary computations give

212
1
1
1
4
sin2 cos2 +
cos
+
=
E1
G12
E1
Ex
xy = Ex
1
Ey
1
Gxy
1
E1
=2

sin4 + cos4 E11 +
12
E1
sin4 +
2
E1
xy,x = Ex
xy,y = Ey
n
n
2
E2
1
G12
212
E1
412
E1
212
E1
1
G12
2
E1
212
E1
1
G12
sin2 cos2 +
1
G12
2
E1
1
E2
1
E2
1
G12
1
E2
sin2 cos2 +
sin cos3
sin3 cos
sin4 ,
o
sin2 cos2 ,
cos4 ,
1
G12

sin4 + cos4 ,
2
E2
212
E1
1
G12
2
E2
212
E1
1
G12
o
sin3 cos ,
o
sin cos3 .
(3.1.23)
An important consequence of the presence of the coefficients xy,x and xy,y
is that traction tests in non principal material directions result, not only in axial
extensions and lateral contractions, but also in shear deformations.
Following Jones (see [3.2], Chapter 2), values typical for a glass/epoxy composite (E1 = 3E2 , E2 = 8.27GP a, G12 = 0.5E2 , 12 = 0.25) are plotted in Figure
3.4. In Figure 3.4, Ex is divided by E2 and Gxy by G12 . This normalization permits
an easier analysis of the behavior of the apparent technical moduli as a function
of .
3,0
3,0
2,5
E1
=3
E2
G12
=0.5
E
EX
E2
EX
E2
2,0
xy
=0.25
1,5
2,0
12
xy
Gxy
G12
xy,x
2,5
1,5
G xy
G12
1,0
1,0
0,5
0,5
xy,x
0
15
30
45
60
75
0
90
Figure 3.4: Normalized moduli for glass/epoxy.

The figure shows that xy,x is vanishing at = 00 and = 900 , as is to
121
be expected, since the laminae actually is orthotropic. Also it can be seen that
at intermediate angles, this coefficient of mutual influence achieves large values as
compared to the apparent Poisson ratio xy . Also, as the first two equations (3.1.23)
show, the transverse axial modulus Ey behaves essentially like the longitudinal one
Ex , with the exception that Ey is small for near 00 and large when is near 900 .
Similar comments can be made for yx and xy,y .
We observe that the behavior presented in the Figure 3.4 is not always typical for all composites, fiber-reinforced laminae. For the considered glass/epoxy
composite, the maximal value of Ex is just E1 . There exist cases where Ex can
actually exceed both E1 and E2 , or can be smaller than both E1 and E2 , for some
orthotropic laminae and some intermediate values of the angle (see P.3.8).
The reduced stiffnesses given in relation (3.1.17) are relatively complicated
functions of the four primary material characteristics E1 , E2 , 12 , G12 , as well as of
the angle of rotation . There exists an ingenious recasting of the stiffness transformations equations that enables a more clear understanding of the consequences of
rotating a lamina in a laminate (see Jones [3.2], Chapter 2). By using elementary
trigonometric identities, the transformed reduced stiffnesses can be expressed in
the following way:
Q11 = U1 + U2 cos 2 + U3 cos 4,

Q12 = U4 U3 cos 4,
Q22 = U1 U2 cos 2 + U3 cos 4,
1
Q16 = U2 sin 2 U3 sin 4,
2
1
Q26 = U2 sin 2 + U3 sin 4,
2
Q66 = U5 U3 cos 4,
(3.1.24)
where
U1 =
U2 =
U3 =
U4 =
U5 =
1
(3Q11 + 3Q22 + 2Q12 + 4Q66 ) ,
8
1
(Q11 Q22 ) ,
2
1
(Q11 + Q22 2Q12 4Q66 ) ,
8
1
(Q11 + Q22 + 6Q12 4Q66 ) ,
8
1
(Q11 + Q22 2Q12 + 4Q66 ) .
8
(3.1.25)
The advantage of writing the expressions of the reduced stiffnesses in the

above form is that these relations show just those parts of Q11 , .., Q66 which rest
invariant under rotation of the lamina. This concept of invariance is useful when
examining the prospect of orienting a lamina at various angles to achieve a certain
122
stiffness property. For example, the first equation (3.1.24) shows that the value
of Q11 is determined by a fixed constant, U1 , plus a quantity of low frequency
variation with , U2 cos 2, plus a third quantity, U3 cos 4, of higher frequency
variation with . Hence, U1 is an effective measure of lamina stiffness in a design
application, and it is not being affected by the orientation of the lamina.
3.2
Strength of materials approach
In the Section 3.1, our approach was macromechanical or macroscopic considering the overall properties of a lamina. That is, a large enough piece of the
lamina has been considered as being (macroscopically) homogeneous. The fact
that the lamina is piece-wise homogeneous, being made of two constituent materials (the matrix and the fibers) was neglected. In this sense, we were able to
say that a boron/epoxy composite lamina with unidirectional boron fibers has
certain elasticities and stiffnesses which were experimentally determined. In this
homogenized situation, the following question cannot be asked and cannot be
answered: how can the (effective, equivalent, overall) stiffness of the composite be
varied by changing the amount of boron fibers in the lamina? Because there must
be some rationales (reasons) for selecting a particular stiffness for a particular design application, there must also exist a rationale for determining how to find the
best procedure to achieve that stiffness for a fiber-reinforced lamina. That is, how
can the percentage or the concentration or the volume fraction of the constituent
materials be varied so as to arrive at the desired (overall, macroscopic, equivalent)
stiffness?
There are two methods to answer the above questions which can be characterized as being either micromechanical or macromechanical. In micromechanics,
the composite material behavior is studied taking into account the interaction
of the constituent materials, that is the composite is analyzed as being a (piecewise) heterogeneous body. In macromechanics, the composite material behavior
is analyzed assuming the body as being homogeneous, and the effects of the actual non-homogeneities are taken into account only as averaged apparent, overall,
equivalent properties of the composite.
When using micromechanical methods, the properties of a lamina can be
mathematically derived on the basis of the properties of the constituent materials.
When using macromechanical methods, the properties of a lamina can be experimentally determined is the as mate state. That is, we can predict the lamina
properties by the procedures of micromechanics and we can measure the lamina
properties by mechanical experiments and use the properties obtained by one of
the above methods in a macroscopic analysis of the structure.
Knowledge of how to predict properties is essential in order to construct
composites that must have certain apparent, overall, equivalent or macroscopical
properties. Consequently, micromechanics is a natural approach beside macromechanics when viewed from a design rather than an analysis point of view. Obvi-
3.2. STRENGTH OF MATERIALS APPROACH
123
ously, the real design efficiency is evidenced when the micromechanical predictions
of the properties of the composite agree with the measured properties. Unfortunately, the micromechanical approach has inherent limitation. For example, a
perfect bound between fibers and matrix is a usual analysis restriction that might
not be satisfied by some composites. Thus, the micromechanical predictions must
be validated by careful experimental work.
Nowadays there exist two basic approaches in the micromechanics of composite materials: (i) mechanics (strength) of materials; (ii) elasticity.
The mechanics of materials approach contains simplifying assumptions concerning the hypothesized behavior of the mechanical system.
The elasticity approach is actually: (i) bounding principles; (ii) exact solutions; (iii) approximate solutions. Some of these approaches will be discussed in
detail, for some important cases, in Section 4 devoted to macroscopically homogeneous composites. We shall present bounds for the overall moduli, obtained by Hill,
Hashin and Shtrikman for macroscopically isotropic and transversally isotropic
composites. Exact solutions will also be presented due to Hill and one, derived by
Budiansky and Hill. Also we shall discuss briefly some results obtained by taking
into account various geometrical models of different composite materials.
The final objective of all micromechanical approaches is to determine the
overall (equivalent, macroscopic, effective) elastic moduli or stiffness of a composite material in terms of the elastic moduli and concentrations of the constituent
bij of
materials or phases. For example, the overall elastic moduli, designed by C
a fiber-reinforced composite lamina must be expressed in terms of the fibers and
matrix moduli and their concentrations
bij = C
bij (Em , m , Ef , f , cm , cf ) ,
C
where Em , m and Ef , f are Youngs moduli and Poissons ratios of the matrix
and of the fibers, respectively, and
cm = vm /v , cf = vf /v
represent the concentration or volume fractions of the matrix and of the fibers,
respectively, v, vm , vf being the volumes occupied by the lamina, the matrix and
the fibers, respectively.
As we shall see, the above problem generally cannot be solved without introducing unrealistic assumptions, used in the strengths of materials. The overall
properties obtained in this way, generally do not agree with the measured ones.
This is the main reason why the much powerful approach formulated on the base of
elasticity and on the theory of macroscopically homogeneous composite materials
must be involved. In this way, generally, we can derive lower and upper bounds
for the overall moduli, and if these bounds are close, the obtained results can be
used in the design.
According to the micromechanical approach used, we must impose some basic restrictions on the composite material that can be treated, using the methods
124
of strength of materials or those of elasticity theory. For instance, in the case of

a fiber-reinforced lamina we assume that: (i) the matrix is linearly elastic, homogeneous and isotropic or transversally isotropic; (ii) the fibers are linearly elastic, homogeneous and isotropic or transversally isotropic, and perfectly aligned;
(iii) the lamina is macroscopically linearly elastic, homogeneous and transversally
isotropic or orthotropic. We suppose also that no voids can exist in the fibers or
in the matrix or between them, and the fibers and matrix are firmly bounded
together.
Basic in the discussion of micro and macromechanics of a macroscopically homogeneous composite is its representative volume element (RVE). Roughly speaking the RVE is the smallest region or piece of composite material over which
the stresses and strains are macroscopically uniform. However, it is obvious, that
microscopically the stresses and strains are nonuniform in the RVE, due to the
heterogeneity of the composite material. Thus, the scale of the RVE is very important. Other concepts concerning the characteristics of the RVE, if they exist,
will be presented and discussed in Chapter 4 concerning the elasticity approach
for macroscopically homogeneous composites.
Here we shall present and discuss briefly only the mechanics of material approach to the micromechanics for the overall material stiffnesses. In this way, we
shall obtain very simple, but generally unrealistic approximations, to the effective
engineering constants of the fiber-reinforced lamina, assumed to be macroscopically orthotropic. For simplicity, the matrix and the fibers are supposed to be
homogeneous and isotropic. In this Section, the mechanical and geometrical characteristics of the matrix will be designed by m, and those of the fibers by f .
As we already know, the key feature of the mechanics of material approach is
that certain simplifying assumption are made regarding the mechanical behavior of
a composite material. Using this procedure we can derive the mechanics of material
expression for the overall orthotropic moduli of the unidirectionally reinforced
fibrous composite material.
It is assumed that the RVE contains only one fiber.
b1
Determination of E
The first overall modulus to be determined is that of the composite in the
fiber direction. We suppose that the axial strain 1 in the fiber direction is the
same in the matrix and in the fiber. Such a hypothesis was first made by Voigt in
1910. From the Figure 3.5, we get
1 =
4L
,
L
where 1 is the axial strains for both the fibers and the matrix, according to the
basic Voigt type assumption. Then, the axial stresses m and f in the matrix and
in the fiber are
m = E m 1 , f = E f 1 .
125
Figure 3.5: Representative volume element loaded in the 1-direction.
The average axial stress 1 acts on the cross sectional area S, m acts on the cross
sectional area Sm of the matrix, and f acts on the cross sectional area Sf of the
fiber. Thus, the resultant axial force F on the RVE is
F = 1 S = m Sm + f Sf .
Using the obtained results and taking into account that according to the
b1 , we have
definition of the overall axial moduli E
we get
b1 1 ,
1 = E
b1 = Sm Em + Sf Ef .
E
S
S
But the concentrations or volume fractions cm = vm /v and cf = vf /v of the
matrix and of the fibers can be expressed as
cm =
Sf
Sm
,
, cf =
S
S
where v, vm and vf are the volumes occupied by the RVE, by the matrix and by
the fiber, respectively. In this way, finally we get
b1 = cm Em + cf Ef .
E
(3.2.1)
This expression for the overall (apparent, equivalent, macroscopical) Young modulus in direction of the fibers is known as the rule of mixture or as the Voigt type
estimate. This rule leads to a simple linear variation of the overall Young modulus
b1 from Em to Ef as the fibers concentration cf varies from 0 to 1.
E
We stress the fact that, according to its definition, the overall axial modulus
b1 connects the mean stress and the mean strain, evaluated on the RVE of the
E
126
composite material. In the elasticity approach of the problem, the overall moduli
will be introduced in the same way!
b2
Determination of E
b2 , in the direction transverse
We now consider the overall Young modulus E
to the fibers. In the mechanics of the material approach, the same transverse stress
2 is assumed to be applied to both the matrix and the fiber, as shown in Figure
3.6. Such kind of hypotheses was first made by Reuss in 1929.
Figure 3.6: Representative volume element loaded in 2-direction.

The transverse strains m and f , in the matrix and in the fiber, respectively,
are therefore
2
2
.
, f =
m =
Ef
Em
The transverse direction over which on the average m acts is approximately cm W ,

whereas f acts on cf W . Thus, the total transverse deformation is
2 W = c m W m + c f W f ;
Hence, the mean transverse deformation 2 becomes
2 = c m m + c f f .
Introducing here the stress-strains relations, we get
2 = c m
2
2
.
+ cf
Ef
Em
b2 must satisfy
Recognizing that according to its definition the overall moduli E
the material law
1
,
2 =
b2 2
E
127
finally we get
1
1
1
.
+ cf
= cm
b
E
E
f
m
E2
(3.2.2)
b2 in the transverse direction

This expression for the overall Young modulus E
of fibers is known as the Reuss type estimate.
Obviously, we have
cm + cf = 1.
Hence if cm = 1, that is cf = 0, according to the above rule, the overall
modulus predicted is that of the matrix; if cf = 1, hence cm = 0, the modulus
predicted is that of the fibers. However, now the rule does not represent a linear
b2 as cf goes from 0 to 1. Let us observe
variation of the overall Young modulus E
also that according to the Reuss type estimate, more than 50 percent by volume of
b2 to twice the matrix modulus,
fibers is required to raise the transverse modulus E
even if Ef = 10Em . That is, if 2 is a tensile test, the fibers cannot contribute
much to the overall transverse modulus unless their percentage is very high, and,
obviously the bound between the fibers and the matrix is perfect. In exchange, no
such bound is needed if 2 is a compression test!
Obviously, the assumptions involved in the foregoing derivation are not entirely consistent, since the transverse stresses in the matrix and in the fibers are
not the same. Indeed, if the Poisson ratios of the matrix and the fibers are not
the same, then longitudinal stresses are introduced in the matrix and fiber, with
accompanying shear stresses at the matrix-fiber boundary. Such shearing stresses
lead to a stress state much more complicated than that assumed in our derivation.
The consequence of such inconsistent assumptions can be measured only by comparison with experimental results.
Determination of b12
The overall Poisson ratio b12 can be determined using the assumption made
b1 ; that is, supposing that the axial strains in the matrix and the fiber
to obtain E
are the same, 1 . Denoting by 2 the (mean) transverse strain of the RVE, b12 is
defined by
2
b12 = ,
1
for the stress state 1 6= 0 and all over stresses are zero.
According to the Figure 3.7, the transverse deformation 2 is
2 =
W
= b
12 1 .
W
We also have
W = Wm + Wf ,
128
Figure 3.7: Representative volume element loaded in 1-direction.
Wm and Wf being the transverse displacements of the matrix and of the fiber,
respectively. Consequently
Wf
Wm
= b12 1 .
+
W
W
Following the same procedure as in analysis for the overall transverse Young
b2 , we assume that the transverse displacements Wm and Wf are
modulus E
approximately
Wm = W cm m 1 , Wf = W cf f 1 ,
m 1 and f 1 being the average transverse deformations of the matrix and

of the fiber, respectively. Combining the last equations, we get
b12 = cm m + cf f .
(3.2.3)
The strength of materials rule leads to the mixture rule or to the Voigt type
estimate of the overall Poisson ratio b12 .
b 12
Determination of G
b 12 of a lamina is estimated in the meThe overall in-plane shear modulus G
chanics of materials approach by assuming a Reuss type hypothesis. It is supposed
that the same shear stress acts in the matrix and in the fiber. Denoting by m
and f , the shear strains in the matrix and fiber, respectively, we get
m =
1
1
.
, f =
f
m
The loading is shown in Figure 3.8 and the deformations on microscopic scale in
Figure 3.9. The total (mean) shear deformation is
=
,
W
129
Figure 3.8: Representative volume element loaded in shear.

FIBER
MATRIX
m /2
f
MATRIX
Figure 3.9: Shear deformation of a representative volume element.

and we have
= m + f ,
m and f being the horizontal displacements of the matrix and of the fiber,
respectively. Denoting by m and f the shear strains in the matrix and fiber,
respectively, we approximately get
m = c m W m f = c f W f .
Hence,
= c m m + c f f .
b 12 , connecting the mean strain and
The overall in-plane shear modulus G
the mean stress , is defined by
=
1
.
b 12
G
Thus, using the above formulas, we obtain
1
1
1
+ cf .
= cm
b 12
f
m
G
(3.2.4)
130
Material
Ef
f
Em
m
cf
Methods
Experimental
Mixture rules
Material
Ef
f
Em
m
cf
Methods
Experimental
Mixture rules
b1
E
49.40
47.16
Glass/Epoxy
70
0.17
2.85
0.33
0.66
b2
b 12 b12
E
G
18.00
7.77
7.80
2.95
Boron/Epoxy
413
0.2
4.10
0.35
0.70
b 12
b2
b1
G
E
E
237.8
290
13.3
26.7
5.5
12.2
0.22
0.224
b1
E
Carbon/Epoxy
234
0.2
3.8
0.33
0.6
b2 G
b 12 b12
E
151
141.8
9.3
9.2
6.2
3.5
0.32
0.25
b12
0.245
Table 3.4: Experimental and calculated values of the overall elastic coefficients.
The strength of materials approach leads to a Reuss type estimation for the
b 12 .
overall in-plane shear modulus G
b2 , only for a fiber volume greater than 50 percent of the
As in the case of E
b 12 rise to above twice m even if f = 10m .
total volume does G
Using the data given by Barran and Loroze [3.9], we present in Table 3.4 the
mechanical characteristics of three fiber-reinforced composite materials, giving also
the fiber concentrations. We also give the overall elastic coefficients experimentally
determined and the values of the overall moduli calculated using the mixture rules
b1 and
obtained by the strength of materials approach. The axial Young modulus E
the transverse Poisson ratio b12 are evaluated taking into account the Voigt type
b2 and the inmixture rules (3.2.1), (3.2.2), and the transverse Young modulus E
b
plane transverse shear modulus G12 are obtained using the Reuss type mixture
rules (2.3.3), (3.2.4). The axial and transverse Young moduli, as well as the shear
modulus are expressed in GP a = 109 P a.
Examining the above data, we can see that the calculated values of the overall
b1 and those of the overall transverse Poisson ratio b12 are
axial Young modulus E
acceptable as first approximations. However, the calculated values of the overall
b2 and those of the overall transverse shear modulus
transverse Young modulus E
b
G12 are not acceptable, and cannot be used as a first approximation. Generally,
we can say that much more powerful methods are necessary to evaluate and/or
to bound the overall moduli as those obtained with the strength of materials
approach.
3.3. GLOBAL CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS
131
The above estimations are only examples of the type of mechanics of materials
approaches that can be used to obtain approximate expression for the overall
moduli. Other assumptions of mechanical behavior lead to different estimations
for the overall elastic moduli of the lamina.
The true significance of the Voigt and Reuss type estimates can be clarified
only by using the elasticity approach to get the overall stiffnesses. As we shall
see in Section 4.1, the Voigt and Reuss type estimations give universal-bounds for
the overall moduli. Generally, these estimates are the worst bounds that can be
derived by the elastic approach.
We end this Section with some words concerning the approach named netting
analysis (see Jones [3.2], Chapter 3, Section 3.3.1). The basic assumption in netting
analysis is that the fibers provide all the longitudinal stiffness and the matrix
provide all the transverse and shear stiffness as well as the Poisson effect. Even
on the base of the above results furnished by the mechanics of material, we can
see that the assumptions made by the netting analysis must generally be rejected.
In turn, the results due to the strength of materials approach must be carefully
analyzed in light of the elasticity approach. Some important results of this analysis
will be presented in Chapter 4.
3.3
Global constitutive equations
As we have seen, a laminate is composed of two or more laminae bounded

together to act as a structural element. The constituent laminae are oriented to
produce a structural element capable of resisting load in several directions. The
stiffness of such a composite body results from the properties of the constituent
laminae, as well as from their relative orientations. In the following, we present the
basic formulation of the classical lamination theory. The major difference between
this theory and the classical theory of homogeneous isotropic plates is in the form
of the stress strain relationships of the lamina. Other elements of the theory such as
the deformation hypothesis, the equilibrium equation and the strain displacement
relationships are the same as those used in the classical plate theory.
Although the laminate is made up of multiple laminae, it is assumed, that
the individual laminae are perfectly bounded together so as to behave as a unitary,
nonhomogeneous, anisotropic plate. Interfacial slip is not allowed and the interfacial bounds are not allowed to deform in shear, which mean that the displacement
across laminae interfaces are assumed to be continuous. The assumptions imply
that deformation hypothesis from the classical homogeneous plate theory can be
used for the laminated composite plate.
Figure 3.10 shows the coordinate system to be used in developing the laminated plate analysis. The x1 , x2 , x3 coordinate system is assumed to have its origin
on the middle surface of the plate, so that the x1 x2 planes lie in the middle plane.
The components of the displacement u are u1 , u2 , u3 and they depend on x1 , x2 , x3 .
Frequently, x1 , x2 , x3 are denoted by x, y, z and u1 , u2 , u3 by u, v, w.
132
Figure 3.10: Coordinate system for laminated plate.
The basic assumptions made in the frame-work of the classical composite

laminate theory are the following:
(1) The plate consists of orthotropic laminae bounded together, with the
principal material axes of the orthotropic laminae oriented at arbitrary direction
with respect to the x1 , x2 axes.
(2) The thickness h of the plate is much smaller than the length along the
plate edges a and b.
(3) The displacements u1 , u2 , u3 are small compared with the plate thickness
h.
(4) The in-plane strains 11 , 22 , 12 are small compared with unity.
(5) Transverse shear strains 13 and 23 are negligible.
(6) The transverse normal strain 33 is negligible.
(7) The normal stress 33 is small in comparison with the other stress components.
(8) The transverse shear stresses 13 and 23 vanish on the plate surfaces
x3 = h2 .
(9) Each lamina obeys the reduced stress-strain relation corresponding to
plane stress state.
The assumption (2) stresses the fact that we develop here the classical thin
lamination theory. The assumptions (3) and (4) show that the theory refers to
small deformations, that is it is geometrically linear. The assumptions (5) and (6)
express the classical Love-Kirchhoff hypothesis, known also as the hypothesis of
plane sections: any normal to the middle surface remains straight and normal to
the deformed middle surface, and at the same time, its magnitude rests constant
during the deformation. The assumptions (7), (8) and (9) express the fact the
stresses 13 , 23 and 33 are assumed to be small in comparison with the stresses
11 , 22 and 12 . That is, as is stated in the assumption (9), the stresses 11 , 22 and
12 and the strains 11 , 22 and 12 can be related using the reduced stress-strain
relatives corresponding to the plane stress state of the laminae. Since the assumed
hypotheses are similar to those used in the classical Love-Kirckhhoff theory of homogeneous isotropic thin plate, the classical lamination theory of composite laminates inherits all internal contradictions and inconsistencies of the Love-Kirckhhoff
133
theory. This observation concerns all of the internal contradiction existing between
the assumptions (7), (8) and (9): though 13 , 23 and 33 are not vanishing, we
use the reduced stress-strain relations corresponding to vanishing 13 , 23 and 33 .
Obviously, the seriousness and consequences of these inconveniences can be established only by studying the implication of the theory based on the assumptions
(1)-(9). For this purpose, we must first develop the classical lamination theory,
using the supposed hypothesis.
From assumption (6), we obtain
33 (x1 , x2 , x3 ) =
u3
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = 0.
x3
Consequently, the normal displacement u3 (x1 , x2 , x3 ) depends only on x1 and x2 ;

i.e.
u3 = U3 (x1 , x2 ).
(3.3.1)
From the assumption (5), we get
213 (x1 , x2 , x3 ) =
u3
u1
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = 0,
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) +
x1
x3
223 (x1 , x2 , x3 ) =
u3
u2
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = 0.
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) +
x2
x3
From here, according to (3.3.1), the displacements u1 (x1 , x2 , x3 ) and

u2 (x1 , x2 , x3 ) depend linearly on x3 ; i.e.
u1 = U1 (x1 , x2 ) x3
U3 (x1 , x2 )
U3 (x1 , x2 )
.
, u2 = U2 (x1 , x2 ) x3
x2
x1
(3.3.2)
In the above relations, U3 (x1 , x2 ) is the normal displacement of the middle surface,
and U1 (x1 , x2 ), U2 (x1 , x2 ) characterize the tangential displacement of the same
surface.
From (3.3.2), we obtain the following expressions for the non-vanishing strain
components 11 , 22 , 33 :
= e + x3 k , , = 1, 2,
where
e = e (x1 , x2 ) =
1
U
1 U
) = (U, + U, )
+
(
2
x
2 x
(3.3.3)
(3.3.4)
describe the deformation of the middle surface x3 = 0, and

k (x1 , x2 ) = k (x1 , x2 ) =
are the curvatures of the same surface.
U3
= U3,
x x
(3.3.5)
134

In the following, the Greek indices take the values 1 and 2.
For later use, we introduce the following matrix notations:
x
11
x
11
[] = y = 22 , [] = y = 22 ,
xy
12
xy
212
e11
[e] = e22 ,
2e12
Thus from (3.3.3) we get
k11
[k] = k22
2k12
[] = [e] + x3 [k] .
(3.3.6)
(3.3.7)
In Figure 3.11, we present the geometry of an N-layered laminate, clarifying in

this way the relations which will be used in what follows. Occasionally, to simplify
some formulas, we shall use the notation x3 = z.
Figure 3.11: Geometry of an N -layered laminate.

The k-th lamina occupies the domain defined by
zk1 < z < zk , k = 1, ..., N with x3 = z.
Obviously, z0 = h2 and zN = h2 .
We return now to assumption (9). According to this hypothesis, in each
lamina the reduced and transformed stress-strain relation (3.1.15) is valid. Hence,
we have

Q11 Q12 Q16

x
x
y = Q12 Q22 Q26 y for k = 1, .., N.
(3.3.8)
xy k
Q16 Q26 Q66 k
xy
k
Using the simplified matrix notation (3.3.6), we get

[]k = Q k [k ] for zk1 < x3 = z < zk and k = 1, .., N.
(3.3.9)
135
Since according to (3.3.7), e and k depend on x1, x2 only, the last equation becomes

[]k = Q k [e] + x3 Q k [k] for zk1 < x3 = z < zk and k = 1, .., N. (3.3.10)
The last equation expresses the plane stress 11 , 22 , 12 in the k-th layer, in
terms of the laminate middle surface strains and curvatures.
Expanded, the equation (3.3.10) becomes

k11
Q11 Q12 Q16
e11
Q11 Q12 Q16
11
22 = Q12 Q22 Q26 e22 +x3 Q12 Q22 Q26 k22
12 k
Q16 Q26 Q66 k 2k12
Q16 Q26 Q66 k 2e12
(3.3.11)
for zk1 < x3 = z < zk and k = 1, .., N.
In the above equations, k denotes the k-th lamina, ( )k , , = 1, 2 are the
stress in the k-th lamina, (Qij )k , i, j = 1, 2, 6 are the transformed reduced stiffness
of the k-th lamina, zk1 and zk are the distances from the middle surface to the
inner and to the outer surfaces of the k-th lamina, respectively, and N is the total
number of the laminae.
We recall that the reduced stiffness Qij , i, j = 1, 2, 6 depend on , the angle
made by the fibers with axis Ox1 , and we have
(Qij )k = Qij (k ) for zk1 < x3 = z < zk and k = 1, ...N,
(3.3.12)
k representing the angle made by the fibers in the k-th lamina and the body axis
x1 .
Since (Qij )k can be different for each lamina of the laminate, the stress
variation through the thickness is not necessarily linear, even though the strain
variation is linear, as can be seen by examining equation (3.3.3).
In the laminated plate analysis, it is convenient to use the forces N and
the moments M per unit length, defined by the following relations:
N = N =
h
2
h
2
dx3 , M = M =
h
2
h
2
x3 dx3 , , = 1, 2. (3.3.13)
Let us observe that usually N11 , N12 = N21 , N22 are denoted by Nxx , Nxy =
Nyx and Nyy , respectively, and also M11 , M12 = M21 , M22 are denoted by Mxx , Mxy
= Myx , Myy , respectively.
According the relation (3.3.13)1 N11 , N12 , N22 are forces per unit length of
the cross-section. The mechanical meaning of these force resultants are shown in
the Figure 3.12.
Similarly, equation (3.3.13)2 shows that M11 , M12 , M22 are moments per unit
length of the cross-section. In Figure 3.13 is shown the mechanical meaning of
these moment resultants.
136
Figure 3.12: In-plane forces on a flat laminate.
Figure 3.13: Moments on a flat laminate.
The relations (3.3.13) show that these force and moments resultants do not
depend on x3 , but are functions of x1 and x2 , the in the plane coordinates of the
laminate middle surface.
In more detail, the defining equations (3.3.13) can be written as
N Z zk
N11
11
X
22 dz;
[N ] = N22 =
z
k1
N12
12 k
k=1
Z
N
M11
11
zk
X
[M ] = M22 =
z 22 dz.
z
k1
M12
12 k
k=1
(3.3.14)
The integrations indicated in these equations can be rearranged to take advantage of the fact that the stiffness matrix for a lamina is constant within each
lamina. Thus, substituting the stress-strain relations (3.3.11) and taking into ac-
137

count the fact that e and k do not depend on x3 = z, we get
)
)
(N
(N
Z zk
Z zk
X
X
zdz [k],
dz [e] +
[Q]k
[N ] =
[Q]k
[M ] =
zk1
k=1
N
X
[Q]k
k=1
zk
zdz
zk1
[e] +
zk1
k=1
N
X
k=1
[Q]k
zk
z dz
zk1
Finally, these equations can be written as

N11
A11 A12 A16
e11
B11
[N ] = N22 = A21 A22 A26 e22 + B21
N12
A61 A62 A66
2e12
B61

M11
B11
[M ] = M22 = B21
M12
B61
B12
B22
B62
B12
B22
B62

B16
e11
D11
B26 e22 + D21
B66
2e12
D61
D12
D22
D62
[k].
B16
k11
B26 k22 ,
B66
2k12
D16
k11
D26 k22 ,
D66
2k12
(3.3.15)
where the coefficients Aij , Bij , Dij , i, j = 1, 2, 6 are defined by

N
P
(Qij )k (zk zk1 ),

k=1
N
P
2
),
(Qij )k (zk2 zk1
Bij = Bji = 12
k=1
N
P
3
).
(Qij )k (zk3 zk1
Dij = Dji = 13
k=1
Aij = Aji =
Introducing the symmetric 3 3 matrices
A11 A12 A16

B11 B12 B16
D11
[A] = A12 A22 A26 , [B] = B12 B22 B26 , [D] = D12
A61 A26 A66
B61 B26 B66
D61
(3.3.16)
D12
D22
D26
D16
D26
D66
(3.3.17)
the equations (3.1.15) can be expressed in a concentrated matrix form

[N ] = [A][e] + [B][k], [M ] = [B][e] + [D][k]
(3.3.18)
the 3 1 matrixes [e] and [k] being defined by equation (3.3.6)3,4 .

Also, the system (3.3.18) can be replaced by the following matrix equation:
N11
A11 A12 A16 B11 B12 B16
e11
N22 A21 A22 A26 B21 B22 B26 e22
N12 A61 A62 A66 B61 B62 B66 2e12
M11 B11 B12 B16 D11 D12 D16 k11 . (3.3.19)
M22 B21 B22 B26 D21 D22 D26 k22

M12
B61 B62 B66 D61 D62 D66
2k12
138
This equation describing the global behavior of the laminate, can be expressed
in the concentrated form

e
e
A B
N
.
(3.3.20)
= [E]
=
k
k
B D
M
The 6 6 symmetric matrix [E] is the global laminate stiffness matrix.
The coefficients Aij are called extensional stiffnesses, the coefficients Bij describe the coupling stiffness, and the coefficients Dij are called bending stiffnesses.
The presence of the coefficients Bij implies coupling between bending and extension
of a laminate. That is, it is impossible to pull on a laminate that has non-vanishing
Bij terms, without at the same time bending and/or twisting the laminate. Thus,
an extensional force results not only in extensional deformation of the middle surface, but also in twisting and/or bending of the laminate. Also, such a laminate
cannot be subjected to a moment without at the same time being subjected to
an extension of the middle surface. The experiments made with laminates confirm
these theoretical predictions. In spite of this fact, in the stability analysis of laminates, this coupling is generally neglected and we shall discuss this question in
Chapter 7.
It is easy to see that the matrix equation (3.3.19) can be written in the
following tensorial or component form, very useful in many problems
N = A e + B k ,
M = B e + D k , , , , = 1, 2.
(3.3.21)
The coefficients of these equations can be expressed simply and obviously by

using the quantities A11 , ..., D66 . For instance, we have
A1111 = A11 , A1122 = A2211 = A12 ,
A1112 = A1121 = A1211 = A2111 = A16 ,
A1212 = A1221 = A2112 = A2121 = A66 , ...,
B1111 = B11 , B1122 = B2211 = B12 ,
B1112 = B1121 = B1211 = B2111 = B16 ,
B1212 = B1221 = B2112 = B2121 = B66 , ...,
D1111 = D11 , D1122 = D2211 = D12 ,
D1112 = D1121 = D1211 = D2111 = D16 ,
D1212 = D1221 = D2112 = D2121 = D66 , ....
(3.3.22)
It is also clear that the following symmetry relations take place

A = A = A = A ,
B = B = B = B ,
D = D = D = D .
(3.3.23)
139
We stress the fact that the constitutive coefficients A , B , D

have the same symmetries as the elasticities of a linearly elastic material. As we
shall see later, this property will have important consequences.
We assume now that the global constitutive equation (3.3.20) is invertible. In
Chapter 7, we shall see that this property is always true if the initial configuration
of the laminate is (locally) stable.
In order to express [e] and [k] in terms of [N ] and [M ], we rewrite (3.3.20) as
[N ] = [A][e] + [B][k], [M ] = [B][e] + [D][k].
(3.3.24)
From the first equation we get

[e] = [A]1 [N ] [A]1 [B][k].
(3.3.25)
Substitution of (3.3.25) in (3.3.24)2 gives

[M ] = [B][A]1 [N ] [B][A]1 [B][k] + [D][k].
(3.3.26)
Equation (3.3.25) and (3.3.26) give a partially inverted form of the equation
(3.3.20)

e
A B
N
=
,
(3.3.27)
M
C D
k
with
[A ] = [A]
, [B ] = [A]
[B] , [C ] = [B][A]1 , [D ] = [D] [B][A]1 [B].

(3.3.28)
Now, using (3.3.27) for [k], we get
[k] = [D ]1 [M ] [D ]1 [C ][N ].
Introducing (3.3.29) in (3.3.25), we obtain

[e] = [A ] [B ][D ]1 [C ] [N ] + [B ][D ]1 [M ].
(3.3.29)
(3.3.30)
Finally, (3.3.29) and (3.3.30) lead to the following inverted global constitutive
equation.

0

e
A B0
N
N
1
=
=
[E]
,
(3.3.31)
k
C 0 D0
M
M
where
[A0 ] = [A ] [B ][D ]1 [C ],
[B 0 ] = [B ][D ]1 ,
[C 0 ] = [D ]1 [C ] = [B 0 ]| = [B 0 ],
[D0 ] = [D ]1 .
(3.3.32)
The last results show that the 6 6 global compliance matrix [E]1 is symmetric. This is an obvious result, since if the global stiffness matrix [E] being
symmetric, its inverse, if it exists, must also be symmetric.
140
3.4
Special classes of laminates
This Section considers special classes of laminates for which the stiffnesses
can easily be calculated. The special classes will be presented in increasing order
of complexity.
1. Single - layered configurations
For a single isotropic layer with material properties E, and thickness h,
equations (3.3.16) give
A11 = A22 =
1
Eh
A , Bij = 0 ,
A, A12 = A , A16 = A26 = 0 , A66 =
2
2
1
1
Eh3
D.
D , D12 = D , D16 = D26 = 0 , D66 =
2
2
12(1 )
(3.4.1)
In order to obtain the above relations, we must use the equations (3.1.6),
supposing an isotropic material.
From (3.4.1), we can conclude that the resultant forces depend only on the
in-plane strains of the laminate middle surface, and the resultant moments depend
only on the curvatures of the middle surface. There is no coupling. The constitutive
equations become

A A
0
e11
N11
e22 ,
N22 = A A
0
2e12
N12
0
0 (1 ) A2
(3.4.2)

D D
0
k11
M11
k22 .
M22 = D D
0
D
2k12
M12
0
0 (1 ) 2
D11 = D22 =
In particular, we have
h2
A.
(3.4.3)
12
For a simple specially orthotropic layer of thickness h the lamina stiffnesses
are given by equation (3.1.6). Hence, according to (3.3.10), the laminate stiffnesses
are
D=
A11 = hQ11 , A12 = hQ12 , A22 = hQ22 , A16 = A26 = 0 , A66 = hQ66 ,
Bij = 0,
D11 =
h3
h3
h3
h3
Q66 .
Q22 , D16 = D26 = 0 , D66 =
Q12 , D22 =
Q11 , D12 =
12
12
12
12
(3.4.4)
3.4. SPECIAL CLASSES OF LAMINATES
141
Again, the resultant forces depend only on the in-plane strains, and the resultant moments depend only on the curvatures. There is no coupling. The constitutive equation becomes

e11
N11
A11 A12
0
N22 = A12 A22
0 e22 ,
0
0
A66
2e12
N12
(3.4.5)
M11
D11 D12
0
k11
M22 = D12 D22
0 k22 .
0
0
D66
M12
2k12
2. Symmetric laminate
For laminates that are symmetric in both geometry and material properties
about the middle surface, the general stiffness equations (3.3.16) simplify considerably. Because of the symmetry of the transformed stiffnesses (Qij )k and of the
thicknesses hk , it can be shown that all coupling stiffness Bij of the laminate are
zero. There is no coupling. Obviously such laminates are much easier to analyze
than laminates with coupling. Consequently, symmetric laminates are commonly
used unless special circumstances require an unsymmetrical laminate possessing
the coupling property.
The constitutive equations for a symmetric laminate are
N11
A11 A12 A16
e11
N22 = A12 A22 A26 e22 ,
N12
A16 A26 A66
2e12
(3.4.6)
M11
D11 D12 D16
k11
M22 = D12 D22 D26 k22 .
M12
D16 D26 D66
2k12
In the following, we shall present some special cases of symmetric laminates,

determining the stiffness Aij and Dij in each case.
For symmetric laminates with multiple isotropic layers, multiple isotropic
laminae of various thicknesses are arranged symmetrically about the middle surface
from both a geometric and a material property standpoint. The resulting laminate
does not exhibit coupling between extension and bending. The extensional and
bending stiffnesses are calculated from the equations (3.3.16), where, according to
(3.1.6), and assuming an isotropic material, for the k-th layer, we get
Ek
, (Q16 )k = (Q26 )k = 0 ,
1 k2
Ek
k Ek
.
, (Q66 )k =
(Q12 )k =
2(1 + k2 )
1 k2
(Q11 )k = (Q22 )k =
(3.4.7)
142
In these equations, Ek and k are the Youngs modulus and the Poissons
ratio for the k-th lamina.
A11 = A22 , A16 = A26 = 0 , D11 = D22 , D16 = D26 = 0.
Hence, the constitutive equations become
N11
A11 A12
0
e11
N22 = A12 A11
0 e22 ,
0
0
A66
N12
2e12

D11
M11
M22 = D12
0
M12
D12
D11
0
k11
0
0 k22 .
2k12
D66
(3.4.8)
(3.4.9)
A symmetric laminate with multiple specially orthotropic layers is made of

orthotropic layers that have their principal material directions aligned with the
laminate axes, and the layers (laminae) having various thicknesses, are arranged
symmetrically about the middle surface both from a geometric and a material
property standpoint. The stiffnesses of the laminate are calculated from the general
equations (3.3.16), whereas, according to (3.1.6) for the k-th lamina
(Q11 )k =
k
E2k
21
E1k
E1k
,
, (Q22 )k =
, (Q12 )k =
k k
k
k
k
k
1 12
1 12 21
1 12 21
21
(Q66 )k = Gk12 , (Q16 )k = (Q26 )k = 0 ,
(3.4.10)
k
k
E1k , E2k , 12
, 21
and Gk12 being the engineering material constants of the k-th specially orthotropic lamina.
Because (Q16 )k and (Q26 )k are zero, it is easy to see that A16 , A26 , D16 and
D26 vanish; i.e.
A16 = A26 = 0 , D16 = D26 = 0.
(3.4.11)
Also, because of symmetry, the coupling stiffnesses Bij are all zero; i.e.
Bij = 0.
(3.4.12)
Hence, the constitutive equation for the laminate takes the form
N11
A11 A12
0
e11
N22 = A12 A22
0 e22 ,
N12
0
0
A66
2e12

M11
D11
M22 = D12
0
M12
D12
D22
0
k11
0
0 k22 .
D66
2k12
(3.4.13)
143
Taking into account the above equations, this type of laminate could be called
specially orthotropic laminate in analogy to a special orthotopic lamina.
A regular symmetric cross-ply laminate represents a very common special case
of symmetric laminates with multiple specially orthotropic laminae (layers). The
regular symmetric cross-ply laminate occurs when the laminae are all of the same
thickness and material properties, and their major principal material direction
(that is, the fiber directions) alternate at 00 or 900 with respect to the laminate
(body) axes, for examples (00 /900 /00 ) as in Figure 3.14.
Figure 3.14: Exploded (unbounded) view of a three-layered regular symmetric

cross-ply laminate.
The regular symmetric cross-ply laminate must have an odd number of layers
if we wish to satisfy the symmetric requirement by which coupling between bending
and extension is eliminated. Cross-ply laminates with an even number of layers
are not symmetric and will be discussed a little later on.
Before analyzing other special classes of laminates, let us say a few words
about the logic to establish various stiffnesses.
For simplicity, we denote x3 by z; i.e. x3 = z.
Let us consider the extensional stiffnesess
Aij =
N
X
k=1
Qij
(zk zk1 ) ,
given by equation (3.3.16)1 .

Since zk zk1 > 0 for k = 1, ..., N , the above
equation shows that the only

way to have an Aij zero is either for all Qij k to be zero, or for some of the

Qij k to be a negative and some positive, so that the sum of their products with
their respective thicknesses be zero. From equation (3.1.17) giving the transformed
reduced stiffnesses Qij , follows that Q11 , Q12 , Q22 and Q66 are positive, since all
144
trigonometrical functions are involved with even powers and Q11 , Q12 , Q22 , Q66
are positive. Thus, A11 , A12 , A22 and A66 are all positive since the thicknesses
of the laminae are obviously positive. However, (Q16 )k and (Q26 )k are zero for
lamina orientation of 00 or 900 to the laminate axes. Thus, A16 and A26 are zero
for laminates made of orthotropic laminae oriented at either 00 or 900 to the
laminate axes.
Next, we consider the coupling stiffnesses
N
Bij =

1X
2
,
(Qij )k zk2 zk1
2
k=1

It is easy to see that if the cross-ply laminate is symmetric about the middle
surface, then all the Bij vanish.
Finally, we consider the bending stiffnesses
N
Dij =

1X
3
,
(Qij )k zk3 zk1
3
k=1

3
Since zk3 zk1
> 0 and Q11 k , Q12 k , Q22 k , Q66 k > 0, it results that

D11 , D12 , D22 and D66 are positive. Also Q16 k and Q26 k are zero for laminae
having principal material property orientation of 00 or 900 with respect to the
laminate coordinates. Thus, D16 and D26 also vanish.
Summing up, we can say that the status of the extensional and bending
stiffnesses is the same.
As we have seen, a laminate of multiple generally orthotropic layers that are
symmetrically disposed about the middle surface exhibits no coupling between
bending and extension; that is the Bij are zero. Therefore, the force and moments
resultants are given by equation (3.4.6) There, all the Aij and Dij are required
because of forces and shearing strains, shearing force and normal strains, normal
moments and twist, and twisting moment and normal curvatures coupling between
normal forces N11 , N12 and shearing strains e12 , shearing force N12 and normal
strains e11 , e22 , normal moments M11 , M22 and twist k12 and twisting moment M12
and normal curvatures k11 , k22 . Such coupling is evidenced by the A16 , A26 , D16
and D26 stiffnesses.
A special subclass of this class of symmetric laminates is the regular symmetric angle-ply laminate. Such laminates have orthotropic laminae of equal thicknesses. The adjacent laminae have opposite signs of angle of orientation of the
principal material properties with respect to the laminates axes, for example
+/ / + as in Figure 3.15.
For symmetry, there must be an odd number of layers.
The aforementioned coupling that involves A16 , A26 , D16 and D26 takes a
special form for symmetric angle-ply laminates. Those stiffnesses can be shown to
145
Figure 3.15: Exploded (unbounded) view of a three-layered regular symmetric

angle-ply laminate.
be largest when N = 3 (the lowest N for which this class of laminates exists) and
decrease in proportion to 1/N as N increases
A16 =
N
X
k=1
(Q16 )k (zk zk1 ) and D16 =

1X
3
,
(Q16 )k zk3 zk1
3
k=1
obviously, A16 and D16 are sums of terms of alternating signs since
(Q16 )+ = (Q16 ) .
(3.4.14)
Consequently, for many layered symmetric angle-ply laminates, the values of A 16 ,

A26 , D16 and D26 can be quite small when compared to the other Aij and Dij ,
respectively.
3. Antisymmetric laminates
As we have seen, symmetry of a laminate about a middle surface is generally
desired to avoid coupling between bending and extension. However, many engineering applications of laminated composite require antisymmetric laminates to
achieve design requirements.
The general class of antisymmetric laminates has an even numbers of layers
if adjacent laminae have alternating signs of the principal material directions with
respect to the laminate axes. In addition, each pair of laminae must have the same
thickness.
It can be shown that in the case of an antisymmetric laminate
A16 = A26 = D16 = D26
(3.4.15)
(Q16 ) = (Q16 ) , (Q26 ) = (Q26 ) ,
(3.4.16)
since
146
where the above symbols represent the corresponding transformed reduced stiffnesses in the laminae with the orientation and of the fibers.
For general antisymmetric laminates, all coupling stiffnesses are non-vanishing.
Hence, the constitutive equation (3.3.15) become
N11
A11 A12
0
e11
B11 B12 B16
k11
N22 = A12 A22
0 e22 + B12 B22 B26 k22 ,
N12
0
0
A66
2e12
B16 B26 B66
2k12

M11
B11
M22 = B12
M12
B16
k11
0
0 k22 .
D66
2k12
(3.4.17)
We discuss now two important subclasses of antisymmetric laminates.
An antisymmetric cross-ply laminate consists of an even number of orthotropic
laminae laid down on each other with principal material directions alternating at
00 and 900 to the laminate axes, as in the example given in Figure 3.16.
B12
B22
B26

B16
e11
D11
B26 e22 + D12
0
B66
2e12
D12
D22
0
Figure 3.16: Exploded (unbounded) view of a two-layered regular antisymmetric

cross-ply laminate.
The antisymmetric cross-ply laminates do not have non-zero A16 , A26 , D16 ,
D26 , but do have coupling between extension and bending. More precisely
A16 = A26 = 0 , D16 = D26 = 0 , B11 = B22 , B12 = B16 = B26 = B66 = 0.
(3.4.18)
Hence, the constitutive equations of the antisymmetric cross-ply laminates become

k11
e11
B11 0
0
N11
A11 A12
0
N22 = A12 A22
B11 0 k22 ,
0 e22 + 0
0
0
0
0
0
A66
2k12
2e12
N12

M11
B11
M22 = 0
M12
0
0
B11
0

0
e11
D11
0 e22 + D12
0
2e12
0
D12
D22
0
0
k11
0 k22 .
D66
2k12
(3.4.19)
147
A regular antisymmetric cross-ply laminate is a special case, which has laminae of equal thickness. This type of laminate is common because of simplicity of
fabrication.
It can be shown that the coupling stiffness B11 of an antisymmetric cross-ply
laminate approaches zero as the number of layers increases, for a fixed laminate
thickness.
An antisymmetric angle-ply laminate has laminae oriented at + degrees to
the laminate coordinate axes on one side of the middle surface and the corresponding equal thickness laminae on the other side is oriented at degrees. A simple
example is given in Figure 3.17.
y = x2
x = x1
Figure 3.17: Exploded (unbounded) view of a two-layered regular antisymmetric

angle-ply laminate.
A regular antisymmetric angle-ply laminate has all laminae of the same thicknesses.
It can be shown that for an antisymmetric angle-ply laminate, the following
stiffnesses are vanishing:
A16 = A26 = 0 , B11 = B12 = B22 = 0 , D16 = D26 = 0.
(3.4.20)
Consequently, the global constitutive equations become
N11
A11 A12
0
e11
0
0
B16
k11
N22 = A12 A22
0 e22 + 0
0
B26 k22 ,
0
0
A66
N12
2e12
B16 B26 0
2k12

M11
0
M22 = 0
M12
B16

B16
e11
D11
B26 e22 + D12
0
2e12
0
0
k11
0 k22 .
D66
2k12
(3.4.21)
It can be shown for a fixed laminate thickness that the coupling stiffnesses
B16 and B26 tend towards zero as the number of layers in the laminate increases.
Summing up the presented results, concerning some special classes of fiberreinforced composite laminates, we can say the following:
0
0
B26
D12
D22
0
148
(1) Simple layer laminates with a reference surface, at the middle surface do
not exhibit coupling between extension and bending.
(2) Multilayered laminates, in general, develop coupling between extension
and bending.
(3) The coupling is influenced by the geometrical as well as by the material
properties of the laminae.
(4) There exist combinations of the material properties and geometrical characteristics for which there is no coupling between extension and bending.
(5) The elastic symmetry of the laminae (transversally isotropy, orthotropy)
is not necessarily conserved in the laminate.
(6) Moreover, the symmetries can be increased, decreased or remain the same.
(7) The symmetry properties of the three stiffness matrices [A], [B] and [D]
need not be the same, and are generally different.
We stress the fact that the fundamental concept of coupling between extension and bending must be well understood, because there exists many applications
of the composite laminates where the neglect of the coupling can be catastrophic.
Considering coupling is the key to the correct analysis of eccentrically stiffened
plates.
The procedure to describe a laminate by use of individual layer thicknesses,
principal material property orientations, and overall sequence can be quite involved. However, all pertinent parameters can be represented in a simple way if
one uses the following stacking sequence terminology.
For regular (equal thickness layers) laminates, a listing of layers and their orientation suffices, for example, [00 /900 /450 ]. Let us observe that only the principal
material direction orientations need to be given.
For irregular (when the layers do not have the same thickness) laminates, a
notation of layers thickness must be added to the previous notation, for example,
[00 /h1 /900 /h2 /450 /h3 ].
For symmetric laminates, the simplest representation of the laminate [0 0 /900 /
0
45 /450 /900 /00 ] is [00 /900 /450 ] sym.
We shall discuss now in greater details the relation by which the cross-ply
laminate stiffnesses can be expressed.
We recall that a cross-ply laminate has N unidirectionally reinforced orthotropic layers with the principal material directions alternatingly oriented at
00 and 900 with respect to the laminate coordinate axes. The fiber direction of
the odd -numbered layers is the x1 direction of the laminate. The fiber direction
of the even-numbered layers is the x2 direction of the laminate. We assume that
all odd-numbered layers have the same thickness, all even-numbered layers have
also equal thicknesses but the odd and even numbered layers do not necessarily
have the same thickness. For this special but important case for applications, two
geometrical parameters are important:
(1) N, the total number of layers,
and
149
(2) m, the ratio of the total thicknesses of odd numbered layers to the total
thickness of the even-numbered layers, called cross-ply ratio. Hence,
m=
hk
k=odd
hk
(3.4.22)
k=even
For instance, for a five-layered cross-ply laminate, which has a lamination or stacking sequence [00 /h1 /900 /2h1 /00 /2h1 /900 /2h1 /00 /h1 ], we get
m=
h1 + h 1 + h 1
= 3/4.
2h1 + 2h1
Let us observe that the cross-ply ratio m has a specific meaning only when
the laminae (layers) have alternating 00 and 900 orientation!
Tsai (see Jones [3.2], Chapter 4) has shown that the laminate stiffnesses
Aij , Bij and Dij for cross-ply laminates with odd or even numbers of layers, can
be expressed in terms of m and N . In addition, Tsai uses the stiffness ratio
f = Q22 /Q11 = E1 /E2 6 1
(3.4.23)
of principal lamina stiffnesses.

Tsai has obtained the following expressions for the stiffnesses:
Symmetric cross-ply laminates (N odd ).
1 + mf
1 + mf
m+f
A11 ,
hQ11 =
hQ11 , A12 = hQ12 , A22 =
m+f
1+m
1+m
A16 = A26 = 0 , A66 = hQ66 , Bij = 0,
h3
h2
1+m
(f 1)p + 1 3
Q12 ,
{(f 1)p + 1} A11 , D12 =
h Q11 =
D11 =
12
12
m+f
12
h2
1+m
(1 f )p + f 3
{(1 f )p + f } A11 ,
h Q11 =
D22 =
12
m+f
12
h3
Q66 ,
(3.4.24)
D16 = D26 = 0 , D66 =
12
A11 =
where
p=
m(N 3){m(N 1) + 2(N + 1)]

1
.
+
(N 2 1)(1 + m)3
(1 + m)3
150

Antisymmetric cross-ply laminates (N even)
1 + mf
1 + mf
m+f
A11 ,
hQ11 =
hQ11 , A12 = hQ12 , A22 =
m+f
1+m
1+m
A16 = A26 = 0, A66 = hQ66 ,
m(f 1)
m(f 1) 2
hA11 , B22 = B11 ,
h Q11 =
B11 =
N (1 + m)(f + m)
N (1 + m)2
B12 = B16 = B26 = B66 = 0,
h3
h2
1+m
(f 1)r + 1 3
Q12 ,
{(f 1)r + 1} A11 , D12 =
h Q11 =
D11 =
12
12
m+f
12
h2
1+m
(1 f )r + f 3
{(1 f )r + f } A11 ,
h Q11 =
D22 =
12
m+f
12
3
h
Q66 ,
(3.4.25)
D16 = D26 = 0 , D66 =
12
A11 =
where
r=
8m(m 1)
1
.
+
1 + m N 2 (1 + m)3
Concerning the above formulas, we can make the following observations:

(1) For both symmetric and antisymmetric cross-ply laminates, the extensional stiffnesses Aij are independent of N , the number of layers.
(2) However, the stiffness ratios A11 and A22 depend on the cross-ply ratio
m, as well as on the stiffness ratio f .
(3) The stiffnesses A12 and A66 are independent on m and f .
(4) The remaining stiffnesses A16 and A26 are zero for all cross-ply laminates.
(5) All coupling stiffnesses Bij are zero for the symmetric cross-ply laminates.
(6) For the antisymmetric cross-ply laminates only, the bending stiffnesses
B11 and B22 are not vanishing.
(7) The values of B11 and B22 decrease as N , number of laminae, increases,
the thickness h of the laminate being fixed. Since N must be even to get any coupling, N = 2 corresponds to the largest coupling between extension and bending.
(8) The bending stiffnesses D11 and D22 are involved functions on the numbers of layers, N , the cross-ply ratio, m, and the stiffness ratio, f .
(9) The value of D11 approaches A11 h2 /12 and D22 approaches A22 h2 /12 as
N gets large or as m gets large, or as f approaches 1.
Regular antisymmetric cross-ply laminates (N even) In this case, all layers
have the same thickness h/N , hence, the cross-ply ratio m is one; i.e. m = 1.
151
Consequently, Tsais formulas (3.4.25) are considerably simplified and we get:

1+f
hQ11 , A12 = hQ12 , A16 = A26 = 0 , A66 = hQ66 ,
2
1 f 1
f 1 2
hA11 , B12 = B16 = B26 = B66 = 0,
h Q11 =
B11 = B22 =
2N f + 1
4N
h3
h2
f +1 3
Q12 ,
A11 , D12 =
h Q11 =
D11 = D22 =
12
12
24
h3
Q66 .
(3.4.26)
D16 = D26 = 0 , D66 =
12
A11 = A22 =
Since E2 6 E1 , we have f 6 1; thus,

B11 < 0
and
B22 > 0.
(3.4.27)
In the following, we shall indicate the way in which Tsais formulas (3.4.26)
for a regular antisymmetric cross-ply laminate can be obtained. Such a laminate
is shown in the Figure 3.18.
Figure 3.18: Regular cross-ply laminate having N (even) layers.

Since all laminae have the same thickness h/N , we have
h
h
for k = 0, 1, ..., N.
(3.4.28)
+k
N
2
According to the definition of a regular antisymmetric cross-ply laminate, we have
also
k = 00 if k is odd and k = 900 if k is even .
(3.4.29)
zk =
152
Conceptually, from the general equations (3.1.17), giving the transformed

reduced stiffnesses Qij , we get
(Q11 )k = Q11 if k is odd and (Q11 )k = Q22 if k is even,
(Q12 )k = Q12 for any k,
(Q66 )k = Q66 for any k,
(Q16 )k = (Q26 )k = 0 for any k.
In order to prove Tsais relations (3.4.26), the above properties must be used.
We begin with A11 , which, according to (3.3.16)1 , is given by the equation
(x3 = z!)
N
X
A11 =
(Q11 )k (zk zk1 ).
k=1
Since all layers have the same thickness h/N , we obviously have
zk zk1 = h/N for any k.
(3.4.30)
Hence,
N
h X
(Q11 )k .
N
A11 =
k=1
According to the above results, the reduced transformed thickness (Q11 )k

takes N/2-times the value Q11 and N/2-times the value Q22 . Hence,
A11 =
h
(Q11 + Q22 ).
2
Using the stiffness ratio f = Q22 /Q11 , we get:

A11 =
1+f
hQ11 .
2
Hence, we get the first Tsai formula (3.4.26), giving the extensional stiffness A 11 .
In the same way all Tsai formulas can be deduced concerning the extensional
stiffnesses Aij .
Let us analyze now the coupling stiffnesses. According to (3.3.16)2 , we have
(x3 = z)
N
1X
2
).
(Qij )k (zk2 zk1
Bij =
2
k=1
At the same time from (3.4.28) and (3.4.30), we get

2
zk2 zk1
=
h2
{(1 + N ) + 2k}.
N2
153

Hence, the formula giving B11 becomes
B11 =
k=1
k=1
X
X
h2
k(Q11 )k }.
(Q11 )k + 2
{(1 + N )
2N
We recall again that (Q11 )k = Q11 if k is odd, and (Q11 )k = Q22 if k is even.
Thus we obtain
B11 =
X
X
N (1 + N )
h2
(Q11 + Q22 ) + 2(Q11
k + Q22
k)}.
{
2
2N
k=odd
k=even
Now let us use the well known relation

n
X
l=
l=0
n(n + 1)
.
2
(3.4.31)
Thus, after some elementary computations, we get

X
k=
N (N + 2)
N2 X
.
,
k=
4
4
(3.4.32)
k=even
k=odd
Introducing these values in the last expression of B11 , after some algebra, it results
B11 =
h2
(Q11 + Q22 ).
4N
But Q22 = f Q11 , and the above equation becomes

B11 =
f 1 2
h Q11 .
4N
Therefore, we have obtained the first Tsai formula (3.4.26), giving the coupling
stiffness B11 .
In the same way, all Tsai formulas can be deduced (3.4.26) giving the coupling
stiffness Bij.
According to (3.3.16)3 , for the bending stiffness D11 , we have (x3 = z)
N
D11 =
1X
3
).
(Q11 )k (zk3 zk1
3
k=1
Furthermore, from (3.4.28) and (3.4.30), it results

3
=
zk3 zk1
h3
N3

3N 2 + 6N + 4
3(N + 1)k + 3k 2 .
4
154
Also, we know that (Q11 )k takes N/2 times the value Q11 , if k is odd, and
N/2-times the value Q22 , if k is even. Hence, the equation giving D11 becomes
D11 =
X
X
h3 3N 2 + 6N + 4 N
(Q
+
Q
)
3(N
+
1)(Q
k
+
Q
k)
{
11
22
11
22
2
N
3N 3
k=odd
+3(Q11
k 2 + Q22
k=odd
k=even
k 2 )}.
k=even
We use again the relation (3.4.31) and the well known formula
n
X
l2 =
l=o
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
.
6
(3.4.33)
Thus, after some algebra, from (3.4.31) and (3.4.33), we get

X
k=odd
k2 =
N (N + 1)(N + 2)
N (N 2 1) X 2
.
,
k =
6
6
(3.4.34)
k=even
Introducing (3.4.32) and (3.4.34) in the last expression of D11 , elementary computations leads to
D11 =
1+f 3
h2
h Q11 ,
(Q11 + Q22 ) =
24
24
since Q22 = f Q11 , according to the definition of the rigidity ratio f.

In this way we have derived the Tsai formula (3.4.26) giving the bending
stiffness D11 .
In the same way can be deduced all Tsai formulas concerning the bending
stiffnesses Dij .
3.5
Equilibrium equations and boundary

conditions
In the theory of thin plate, the Cauchys equilibrium equations are replaced
by global equilibrium conditions satisfied by the force resultants N , moment
resultants M and by the resultant shear forces Q defined by the relations
Q =
h/2
3 dx3 , = 1, 2.
(3.5.1)
h/2
To get these equations, we start with the Cauchys (local) equilibrium conditions, assuming absence of body forces
, + 3,3 = 0 , 3, + 33,3 = 0, , = 1, 2.
(3.5.2)
3.5. EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
155
We integrate these equations with respect to x3 from h/2 to h/2. At the

same time, we take into account that integration with respect to x3 , and differentiation with respect to x1 and x2 are invertible. Thus, from (3.5.2), and using
equations (3.3.13)1 and (3.5.1), which are defining N and Q , respectively, we
get
N + 3 (h/2) 3 (h/2) = 0 , Q, + 33 (h/2) 33 (h/2) = 0 , , = 1, 2.
We recall now the assumption (8) made at the beginning of Section 3.3. According
to the made assumption, 3 are vanishing on the faces x3 = h/2 of the laminate.
Hence,
3 (h/2) = 0.
Also, we interpret the function
q(x1 , x2 ) = 33 (x1 , x2 , h/2) 33 (x1 , x2 , h/2)
as representing a given external surface force distribution, acting normal to the
face x3 = h/2 of the laminate.
Taking into account the above observations, we obtain the first three (global)
equilibrium equation that must be satisfied by the resultants in-plane forces N
and by the resultant shear forces Q , in the plane domain D occupied by the
middle surface of the laminate
N, = 0 , Q, + q = 0 in D, , = 1, 2.
(3.5.3)
In order to obtain the (global) equilibrium equations satisfied by the moment

resultants M , we multiply the first two Cauchy equations (3.5.2) by x3 and
integrate the obtained results with respect to x3 from h/2 to h/2. In this way,
using equation (3.3.13)2 defining M , and the invertibility of differentiation with
respect to x1 ,x2 and of integration with respect to x3 , we get
M, +
h/2
x3 3,3 dx3 = 0.
h/2
We have
x3 3,3 = (x3 3,3 ) 3 .
Consequently,
Z
h/2
x3 3,3 dx3 =
h/2
h
h
3 (h/2) 3 (h/2)
2
2
h/2
3 dx3 .
h/2
We recall that 3 (h/2) = 0 and we will use the definition (3.5.1) of the resultant
shear forces Q .
156
Thus, we finally get the equilibrium condition which must be satisfied by the
shear forces resultants Q and moment resultants M , in the plane domain D
occupied by the middle surface of the laminate
M, Q = 0 in D, , = 1, 2.
(3.5.4)
From (3.5.3)2 and (3.5.4), we can now see that the resultant moments M
must satisfy the following second order (global) equilibrium equation
M, + q = 0 in D , = 1, 2.
(3.5.5)
It remains to formulate the boundary conditions which can be prescribed and

must be satisfied by the displacement U , U3 , by the force resultants N and by
the moments resultants M on the boundary D of the domain D occupied by
the middle surface of the laminate in the x1 , x2 plane.
In order to obtain the possible boundary condition (assuming uniqueness of
the solution), we recall the geometrical equations (3.3.4) and (3.3.5) expressing the
plane strains e and the curvatures k in terms of the displacements U , U3 , the
constitutive relations in tensorial form (3.3.21) expressing the force and moments
resultants N , M in terms of e , k , and the just established equilibrium
conditions (3.5.3), (3.5.4) and (3.5.5). We have
Geometrical equations:
e =
1
(U, + U, ), k = U3, ;
2
(3.5.6)
Constitutive equations:
N = A e + B k , M = B e + D k ;
(3.5.7)
Equilibrium equations:
N, = 0 , Q, + q = 0 , M, Q = 0 , M, + q = 0.
(3.5.8)
We recall also that according to (3.3.23), the constitutive coefficients have the
following symmetry properties :
A = A = A = A ,
B = B = B = B ,
(3.5.9)
D = D = D = D .
Obviously the Greek indices take the values 1, 2 and the Einsteins summation
convention applies.
157
In the following we shall prove a theorem of work and energy, appropriate

to the Love-Kirchhoff type of plate theory developed above.
As before, we denote by D the plane domain occupied by the middle surface
of the plate, D will be the boundary curve of D. Let n be the unit outward
normal to D, and let be the unit tangent vector to D, as shown in Figure
3.19.
Figure 3.19: The plane domain occupied by the middle surface of the laminate.
Denoting by n and the (plane) components of n and , we get
n1 = 2 , n2 = 1 .
(3.5.10)
We introduce now the two-dimensional vectors N n and M n defined on D,

by the following equations, giving their components Nn and Mn :
Nn = N n , Mn = M n .
(3.5.11)
Obviously, Nn and Mn are corresponding to the Cauchys stress vector, and

represent the resultant force vector and the resultant moment vector, respectively,
acting on the boundary D of the laminate middle surface.
The normal and tangential components Nnn , Nn and Mnn , Mn of these
vectors have the following expression:
Nnn = n Nn , Nn = Nn , Mnn = n Mn , Mn = Mn .
(3.5.12)
In the same way, the normal and tangential components Un and U of the
in-plane displacement on the boundary D can be obtained using the equations
Un = n U , U = U .
(3.5.13)
Also, for a later use, we introduce on the boundary D the normal and
tangential derivatives U3,n and U3, of the normal displacement U3 . According to
158
the general definition of the directional derivative of a scalar field, given in the
Section 1.2, we have
U3,n = n U3, , U3, = U3, .
(3.5.14)
Using these equations, we can express the partial derivatives U3, through
the normal and tangential derivatives U3,n , U3, . From (3.5.10) and (3.5.14), we
get
U3,1 = 2 U3,n + 1 U3, , U3,2 = 1 U3,n + 2 U3, .
(3.5.15)
These equations will be used a little later on.

Multiplying the equilibrium equation (3.5.8)1 by U , integrating the obtained
result on D, using Greens theorem, the symmetry of N , the geometrical equations (3.5.6)1 and the Cauchys type relations (3.5.11)1 , we obtain
Z
Z
N e da =
U Nn ds.
(3.5.16)
D
The two-dimensional scalar product U Nn of the two-dimensional vectors (U1 , U2 )

and (Nn1 , Nn2 ) can be expressed in an equivalent form using the normal and tangential components of the involved vectors; i.e.
U Nn = Un Nnn + U Nn .
Thus, equation (3.5.16) becomes
Z
Z
N e da =
D
(Un Nnn + U Nn )ds.
(3.5.17)
(3.5.18)
We multiply now the second equilibrium equation (3.5.8)2 by U3 and integrate

the obtained result on D. In this way, Greens theorem leads to the following
relation:
Z
Z
Z
Q U3, da.
(3.5.19)
U3 Q n ds =
qU3 da +
D
In order to transform the right hand side term of this equation, we now use
the equilibrium condition (3.5.8)3 . We get
Z
Z
Q U3, da =
U3, M, da.
(3.5.20)
D
Using again the Greens theorem, the geometrical equations (3.5.6)2 and the
Cauchys type relations (3.5.11), from (3.5.20) we obtain
Z
Z
Z
Q U3, da =
U3, Mn ds +
M k da.
(3.5.21)
D
Consequently, from (3.5.19) and (3.5.21), it results

Z
Z
Z
Z
qU3 da +
U3 Qn ds =
U3, Mn ds +
M k da,
D
(3.5.22)
159
where
Qn = Q n
(3.5.23)
is the normal component of the resultant shear forces (Q1 , Q2 ).

In order to obtain the final results, we still have to express in an adequate
form the first term from the right hand side of equation (3.5.22). To do this, we
use equation (3.5.15). In this way we successively get
U3, Mn
=
=
=
U3,1 Mn1 + U3,2 Mn2

(2 U3,n + 1 U3, )Mn1 + (1 U3,n + 2 U3, )Mn2
(1 Mn1 + 2 Mn2 )U3, + (2 Mn1 + 1 Mn2 )U3,n .
We use now equations (3.5.10) and (3.5.12)3,4 to get

U3, Mn
(1 Mn1 + 2 Mn2 )U3, + (n1 Mn1 + n2 Mn2 )U3,n
Mn U3, + Mnn U3,n .
(3.5.24)
Transforming adequately the first term in the right hand side of (3.5.24), we obtain
U3, Mn = (U3 Mn ), U3 Mn, + U3,n Mnn .
The tangential derivatives involved in this equation have the following expressions:
(U3 Mn ), = (U3 Mn ),1 1 + (U3 Mn ),2 2 ,
Mn, = Mn,1 1 + Mn,2 2 .
We assume that U3 and Mn are uniform function on D. Hence,
Z
(U3 Mn ), ds = 0.
(3.5.25)
since D is a closed curve. Thus from (3.5.24) and (3.5.25) we finally get
Z
Z
U3, Mn ds =
(U3 Mn, + U3,n Mnn )ds.
D
Using this equation in (3.5.22), we obtain

Z
Z
M k da.
{U3 (Qn + Mn, ) U3,n Mnn }ds =
qU3 da +
(3.5.26)
Now, equations (3.5.18) and (3.5.26) lead to the following work relation:
Z
Z
{Nnn Un + Nn U + (Qn + Mn, )U3 U3,n Mnn }ds +
qU3 da
D
D
Z
= 2
wda,
(3.5.27)
D
160
where the quadratic form w is defined by the following equation:

2w = N e + M k .
(3.5.28)
The work relation (3.5.27) is a direct consequence of the geometrical equation

(3.5.6) and equilibrium condition (3.5.8).
Using the constitutive relations (3.5.7) and the symmetry properties (3.5.9),
w can be expressed in the following form:
w=
1
1
e A e + e B k + k D k .
2
2
(3.5.29)
As in the usual elasticity theory, the left-hand side of the work relation (3.5.27) represents the total work of the external force acting on the laminate. Consequently,
w is the specific elastic energy stored in the deformed laminate. Hence, the total
elastic energy W stored in the laminate is
Z
W =
wda.
(3.5.30)
D
The above interpretation and equation (3.5.27) represents the content of the
announced and proved theorem of work and energy.
This theorem tells us what kind of boundary conditions can be given
on the boundary D, in order to assume the uniqueness of the solution of various
boundary value problems. The structure of the left-hand side of the work relation
(3.5.27) shows that the following fields can be prescribed on the boundary D:
Un or Nnn , U or Nn , U3 or Qn + Mn, and U3,n or Mnn .
(3.5.31)
The same work relations show that the following theorem takes place.
Uniqueness theorem. If the specific elastic energy w is a positive definite
quadratic form, the various boundary value problems can have no more than one
regular solution, modulo a rigid displacement.
3.6
Variational and extreme principles
We observe that due to the symmetry relations (3.5.9), the differential system
(3.5.6)(3.5.8) is self-adjoint. Due to this fact we can establish various variational
and extreme principles, corresponding to various boundary value problem.
In order to do this, we introduce first the three-dimensional vectors U and
U having the components (U , U3 ) and (U , U3 ), respectively. Also we consider
the energy functional
Z
W (U) =
w(U)da
(3.6.1)
D
where w is the quadratic form given by the equation (3.5.28) and (3.5.29).
161
3.6. VARIATIONAL AND EXTREME PRINCIPLES
For brevity we denote simply by W the first variation of W in U, in the

direction U. According to the usual definition, we have
W =
d
W (U + U)|=0 , being a real variable.
d
(3.6.2)
In order to evaluate the above variation, we take into account the geometric
relation (3.5.6), the constitutive equations (3.5.7), the symmetry properties (3.5.8)
and the expression (3.5.29) of the specific elastic (strain) energy w. Thus, after
some elementary computations, we get
Z
W =
(N U, M U3, )da.
(3.6.3)
D
Using Greens formula, we obtain

Z
W = (N, U + M, U3 )da
D
(U N n + U3 M, n U3, M n )ds.
(3.6.4)
To obtain this equation, we have used the following relations:

M U3, = (M U3, ), M, U3,
= (M U3, ), (M, U3 ), + M, U3 .
Using the Cauchys type relation (3.5.11)1 , we get
U N n = U Nn = Un Nnn + U Nn ,
(3.6.5)
Un and U being the normal and tangential components of the in-plane displacement field (U1 , U2 ).
Similarly, using the equilibrium condition (3.5.8)4 and the equation (3.5.23),
we obtain
U3 M, n = U3 Q n = U3 Qn ,
(3.6.6)
Qn = Q n being the normal component of the resultant shear force (Q1 , Q2 ).
Using a relation analogous to (3.5.27), we get
U3, M n = U3, Mn = (U3 Mn ), U3 Mn, + U3,n Mnn .
(3.6.7)
Introducing (3.6.5), (3.6.6), (3.6.7) in the line integral of equation (3.6.4), and
observing that
Z
(U3 Mn ), ds = 0,
D
162
we obtain the expression of the variation W

Z
W = (N, U + M, U3 )da
+
{Un Nnn + U Nn + U3 (Mn, + Qn ) U3,n Mnn } ds.
(3.6.8)
The last equation can be used to obtain variational principles, corresponding to

different boundary value problems.We shall illustrate the procedure by analyzing
two possibilities.
In order to do this we shall interpret the third equilibrium condition (3.5.8) 3 ,
that is the relations
Q = M,
(3.6.9)
as representing supplementary constitutive equations, expressing the resultant shear
forces Q in terms of the in-plane deformations e and of the curvatures k .The
status of the relations (3.6.5) is similar to that of the constitutive equations (3.5.7)
expressing the resultant in-plane forces N and the resultant bending moments
M in terms of the above mentioned kinematical fields.
Also, we suppose that the involved displacement fields U and their variations
U are of class C 2 on D and of class C 1 on D = D D, since we take into account
only regular solutions.
First let us assume that on the boundary D are given Nnn , Nn , Mn, +Qn
and Mnn ; i.e.
Nnn = , Nn = , Mn, + Qn = , Mnn = on D,
(3.6.10)
where , , , are given continuous functions on D. We suppose also that q is

a given continuous function on D.
In this case, we introduce the functional I(U) defined by the equation
Z
Z
qda.
(3.6.11)
(Un + U + U3 U3,n )ds
I(U) = W (U)
D
Taking into account equation (3.6.8), for the variation I of I in U, in the direction
U, we get
Z
I =
{N, U + (M, + q)U3 } da
D
Z
+
{(Nnn )Un + (Nn )U
D
+(Mn, + Qn )U3 (Mnn )U3,n }da.
(3.6.12)
Using the above equation, we can prove the following.

First variational principle. If U is a regular solution of the boundary value
problem (3.6.10), the first variation I of I is vanishing in U for any direction
163
U. Conversely, if I is vanishing in U for any direction U, then U is a regular

solution of the boundary value problem (3.6.10).
In order to prove this theorem, let us assume that U is a regular solution of
the considered boundary value problem. Hence, the equilibrium equations (3.5.8) 1 ,
(3.5.8)4 and the boundary conditions (3.6.10) are satisfied. Hence, according to
(3.6.12), I = 0 in U for any U.
In order to prove the inverse implication, we assume that I = 0 in U for
any U. In this case the relation (3.6.12) shows that the equilibrium equations
(3.5.8)2 and (3.5.8)4 , as well as the boundary conditions (3.6.10) are satisfied.
From the assumed supplementary constitutive relations (3.6.5), it follows that the
remaining equilibrium conditions (3.5.8)2 and (3.5.8)3 are also verified and the
proof is complete.
Let us observe that in the above variational principle, the variations U are
not submitted to any restrictions on the boundary D. In this sense we consider the
boundary conditions (3.6.10) as being natural boundary conditions. The situation is
entirely analogous to that encountered in the usual elasticity theory if the traction
is prescribed on the boundary of the body.
Let us suppose now that, on the boundary D, are given Un , U , U3 and
U3,n ;
Un = , U = , U3 = and U3,n = on D,
(3.6.13)
where , , , are continuous functions given on D. We suppose also that q is
a continuous function given on D.
In this case we shall introduce the functional J(U) defined by the equation
Z
J(U) = W (U)
qU3 da.
(3.6.14)
D
We shall calculate the variation J of J in U, in a direction U that satisfies

homogeneous boundary conditions; i.e.
Un = U = U3 = U3,n = 0 on D.
Using again (3.6.8) and taking into account (3.6.15), we get
Z
{N, U + (M, + q)U3 } da.
J =
(3.6.15)
(3.6.16)
Based on the last equation, we can prove the following.

Second variational principle. If U is a regular solution of the boundary
value problem (3.6.13), then the variation J of J in U is vanishing for any direction (variation) U satisfying the homogeneous boundary conditions (3.6.16).
Conversely, if U is a solution of the given boundary conditions (3.6.13) and if the
variation J of J is vanishing in U for any variation (direction) U, which satisfies the homogeneous boundary conditions (3.6.15), then U is a regular solution
of the boundary value problem (3.6.13).
164
The proof of the second variational principle is similar to that given for the
first one, and is entirely based on equation (3.6.16).
Let us observe that in the second variational principle, U and U are not
arbitrary on the boundary D; U must satisfy the given boundary conditions and
U must satisfy homogeneous boundary conditions. In this sense, we consider the
boundary conditions (3.6.13) as being essential boundary conditions. The situation is entirely analogous to that existing in the usual elasticity theory where the
displacement is prescribed on the boundary of the body.
The above boundary conditions are not typical either in the classical plate
theory or in the composite laminate theory. In these domains, the most frequently
encountered boundary value problems have a mixed character. That is, on boundary D are given some data concerning the displacements and complementary information concerning the force and moment resultants. Jones shows ([3.2], Chapter
5) that the most frequently used boundary conditions in laminate theory are formulated as a choice between simply supported, clamped or free edges. The situation
for laminate plates (laminates) is complex because there are actually four types
of boundary conditions that can be called simply supported edges and four types
of boundary conditions that can be called clamped edges. According to Jones,
the eight types of simply supported (prefix S) and clamped (prefix C) boundary
conditions are commonly classified as
S1 : U3 = 0 , Mnn = 0 , Un = , U = ,
S2 : U3 = 0 , Mnn = 0 , Nnn = , U = ,
S3 : U3 = 0 , Mnn = 0 , Un = , Nn = ,
S4 : U3 = 0 , Mnn = 0 , Nnn = , Nn = ,
(3.6.17)
and
C1 : U3 = 0 , U3,n = 0 , Un = , U = ,
C2 : U3 = 0 , U3,n = 0 , Nnn = , U = ,
C3 : U3 = 0 , U3,n = 0 , Un = , Nn = ,
C4 : U3 = 0 , U3,n = 0 , Nnn = , Nn = , on D.
(3.6.18)
In these relations, , , and are given functions on the boundary curve D.

The functionals and variational principles corresponding to these eight boundary conditions can be obtained as before, examining the structure of equation
(3.6.8) together with the structure of the boundary conditions taken into account.
Let us observe that the variational principle corresponding to the boundary condition C1 represents a particular case of the second variational principle
discussed above.
In the following we shall prove a relation which can be used to obtain minimum principles. Let us consider two displacement fields U and U0 , and as denoted
0
by e , k and e0 , k
, let the in-plane strains and the curvatures correspond
165
to U and U0 , respectively. Let us evaluate the functional W corresponding to

U + U0 . According to equations (3.5.29) and (3.5.30), we have
Z
1
0
{ (e + e0 )A (e + e0 )+
W (U + U ) =
D 2
1
0
0
0
)}da.
)D (k + k
) + (k + k
+(e + e0 )B (k + k
2
Taking into account the symmetry relations (3.5.9) and the constitutive equations
(3.5.7), we get
Z
0
M )da,
W (U + U0 ) = W (U) + W (U0 ) +
(e0 N + k
D
where N and M correspond to U. Now we recall the geometric relations (3.5.6)

and use Greens theorem to transform the surface integral into a line integral.
Taking into account supplementary constitutive equations (3.6.5) and using the
relations of type (3.5.24) on (3.5.25), we obtain
Z
W (U + U0 ) = W (U) + W (U0 )
(U0 N, + U30 M, )da
D
Z
0
Mnn }ds.
+
{Un0 Nnn + U0 Nn + U30 (Qn + Mn, ) U3,n
D
(3.6.19)
In order to obtain minimum principles, this equation plays the same role as
that played by equation (3.6.8) used to obtain variational principles.
Let us consider first the boundary value problem (3.6.10) and the functional
I(U) defined by equation (3.6.11). As in the usual elasticity theory, we call I(U)
the potential energy of the laminate, corresponding to the traction boundary
value problem (3.6.10). We shall denote by A the set of all regular displacement
fields U.
Using equation (3.6.19), we can formulate and prove a principle of minimum
potential energy appropriate to the composite laminate theory and to the boundary
value problem (3.6.10).
In order to prove the minimum principles, we assume that the specific elastic
(strain) energy w of the laminate, defined by equation (3.5.30), is a positive definite
quadratic form. We have:
The first principle of minimum potential energy. Let A denote the set
of all regular displacement field U and let I(U) be the functional defined on A by
equation (3.6.11). Let U be the solution of the traction boundary value problem
(3.6.10). Then
e
I(U) I(U)
(3.6.20)
e A, and equality holds only if U
e = U modulo a rigid displacement.
for every U
166
e U A and define U0 =U
e U. Using the definition (3.6.11) of the
Let U,
functional I(U), the equation (3.6.19), the equilibrium equation (3.5.8) 1,4 and the
fact that U is a solution of the traction boundary value problem (3.6.10), after
some simple computations, we get
e = I(U) + W (U0 ).
I(U)
(3.6.21)
e
J(U) J(U)
(3.6.22)
Since w is positive definite, W (U0 ) 0, hence (3.6.20) takes place. If I(U) =

e
I(U), then W (U0 ) = 0. Again, since w is positive definite, we get W (U0 ) = 0.
Thus, using again the positive definiteness of w, according to equation (3.5.29),
0
we must have e0 = 0 and k
= 0 in D. Accordingly, U0 is a rigid displacement
field of the laminate and the demonstration is complete.
We observe again that the admissible displacement fields for which the functional I(U) was defined do satisfy any restriction on the boundary line D. This
is so, since the traction boundary conditions (3.6.10) are natural boundary conditions.
Next, we consider the displacement boundary value problem (3.6.13) and
the functional J(U) defined by equation (3.6.14). We call J(U) the potential energy of the laminate corresponding to the displacement boundary value problem
(3.6.13).
We shall denote by B the set of all regular displacement fields U satisfying
the given displacement boundary conditions (3.6.13). We have:
The second principle of minimum potential energy. Let B denote the
set of all regular displacement field U that satisfy the boundary conditions (3.6.13),
and let J(U) be the functional defined on B by equation (3.6.14). Let U be the
solution of the displacement boundary value problem (3.6.13). Then
e B,and the equality holds only if U

e = U on D.
for every U
e U B and let us define U0 =U

e U. Then U0 satisfies homogeneous
Let U,
0
boundary conditions on D; i.e. Un = U0 = U03 = U03,n = 0 on D. Using
the definition (3.6.14) of the functional J, equation (3.6.19), the facts that U is
a solution of the boundary value problem (3.6.13) and U0 satisfies homogeneous
boundary conditions, we obtain
e = J(U) + W (U0 ).
J(U)
(3.6.23)
Since w is positive definite, from (3.6.23) we can conclude that (3.6.22) is true.
0
e
If J(U) = J(U), we obtain e0 = k
= 0 on D, hence U0 is a rigid displacement
0
field. Moreover, U must satisfy the homogeneous boundary conditions on D.
Hence U0 = 0 on D and the proof is complete.
We note again that now the admissible displacement fields for which the
functional J is defined must satisfy the given displacement boundary conditions
167
on the boundary line D. This is due to the fact that the displacement boundary
conditions (3.6.13) are essential boundary conditions.
We recall that the most frequent boundary conditions in the laminate theory
correspond to simple supported or clamped edges and are of mixed type. Using
equation (3.6.19), appropriate potential energies can be found, and can be formulated and proved appropriate minimum principles, corresponding to various
boundary conditions listed in the relations (3.6.17) and (3.6.18).
As in the usual elasticity theory, we can prove the conversers of the given
minimum principles.
Converse of the first principle of minimum potential energy. Let
U A and suppose that
e
I(U) I(U)
(3.6.24)
e A. Then U is a regular solution of the traction boundary value

for every U
problem (3.6.10).
e = U0 +U A.
Let U0 be an arbitrary vector field of class C on D. Then U
Using the equation (3.6.19) and the assumption (3.6.29), it is easy to see that
Z
{U0 N, + U30 (M, + q)}da
W (U0 )
D
Z
0
{Un (Nnn ) + U0 (Nn ) + U30 (Qn
+
D
0
+Mn, ) U3,n
(Mnn )}ds 0.
Obviously, this inequality must hold when U0 is replaced by U0 , being

an arbitrary real number. Hence we must have
Z
{U0 N, + U30 (M, + q)}da
ZD
+
{Un0 (Nnn ) + U0 (Nn ) + U30 (Qn
D
0
(Mnn )}ds = 0,
+Mn, ) U3,n
since W (U0 ) = 0.
Since U0 is an arbitrary field, from the above equation and from the supplementary constitutive relation (3.6.5), it follows that the equilibrium equations
(3.5.8) and the boundary conditions (3.6.10) are satisfied. Hence, U is a regular
solution of the traction boundary value problem (3.6.10). Analogously, we have
the following.
Converse of the second principle of minimum potential energy. Let
U B. Suppose that
e
J(U) J(U)
(3.6.25)
e B. Then U is a solution of the displacement boundary value
for every U
problem (3.6.13).
168
Let U0 be an arbitrary vector field of class C on D, and suppose that U0

e = U0 +U B. Using equation (3.6.19), the assumption
vanishes on D. Then U
0
(3.6.25) and the fact that Un0 = U0 = U30 = U3,n
= 0 on D, we get
Z
{U0 N, + U30 (M, + q)}da 0.
W (U0 )
D
Since this inequality must remain true if U0 is replaced by U0 , we get

Z
{U0 N, + U30 (M, + q)}da = 0.
D
Since U is arbitrary in D, from the last equation and from the supplementary
constitutive relations (3.6.5), it follows that the equilibrium equations (3.5.8) are
verified by U. Moreover, since U B, U satisfies also the boundary conditions
(3.6.13). Hence, U is a regular solution of the displacement boundary value
problem (3.6.13) and the demonstration is complete.
In a similar way, the converses of principles of minimum potential energies
corresponding to various, possible boundary value problems can be proved.
We note also that, as in the usual elasticity theory, the principles of minimum potential energy can be used to prove uniqueness theorems for the involved
boundary value problems.
As we have seen, in order to prove uniqueness theorems and minimum principles, we have assumed that the specific deformation (strain) energy w is a positive
definite quadratic form.
We recall also that from the beginning we have supposed that the elasticity
tensor c of any linearly elastic body is positive definite. Using this hypotheses, in
the Section 2.2 we have derived various restrictions which must be satisfied by the
elasticities in order to ensure the positiveness of c.
In a natural way, the following question is raised. If the elasticities ck , k =
1, ..., N of the laminate are positive definite, does the specific strain energy w of
the laminate have the same property?
Since the reduced transformed stiffnesses (Qij )k of the laminae and the laminate stiffnesses Aij , Bij , Dij are complicated functions of the laminae mechanical
and geometrical characteristics, it is difficult to find an answer for the above question for a laminate having arbitrary structure.
This is the reason why we shall analyze the problem only for the particular,
but important case of the regular antisymmetric cross-ply laminates, for which
the extensional, coupling and bending stiffnesses of the composite laminate can
be expressed by relatively simple relations in terms of the primary mechanical
characteristics of the laminae, using Tsais formulas (3.4.26).
We recall that from the positive definiteness of the elasticity c of an orthotropic elastic material, it follows that the technical constants of the body must
satisfy the restrictions (2.2.74)(2.2.79). In particular, we have
E1 , E2 , G12 > 0, 12 , 21 < 1,
(3.6.26)
169

|12 | <
E1
, |21 | <
E2
E2
.
E1
(3.6.27)
If we assume in addition that a traction tensor stress acting in a principal

material direction produces extension in that direction and contractions in the
other two principal material directions, we can conclude that
12 , 21 > 0.
(3.6.28)
Hence in this case, the Poissons ratios 12 and 21 satisfy the restrictions
0 < 12 <
E1
, 0 < 21 <
E2
E2
.
E1
(3.6.29)
We recall that E1 is the Youngs modulus in the fibers direction and E2 is

the Youngs modulus in the perpendicular, in-plane direction. Consequently, we
assume that
E1
< 1.
(3.6.30)
0<f
E2
Using the Tsais stiffness ratio f , we can express the inequalities (3.6.29) satisfied
by Poissons ratios 12 and 21 in the equivalent form
0 < 12 <
p
1
, 0 < 21 < f .
f
(3.6.31)
We return to equations (3.1.6) giving the (primary) reduced stiffness Q11 , Q12 ,
Q22 and Q66 in terms of the engineering constants of the lamina; we have
21 E1
E1
,
, Q12 =
1 12 21
1 12 21
E2
and Q66 = G12 .
=
1 12 21
Q11 =
Q22
(3.6.32)
Thus, from (3.6.26) and (3.6.28) we can conclude that all these stiffnesses are
positive; i.e.
Q11 , Q12 , Q22 , Q66 > 0.
(3.6.33)
The positive definiteness of the elasticity c of the lamina assures only the
positivity of the reduced stiffnesses Q11 , Q22 and Q66 . For the positivity of the
stiffness Q12 some supplementary assumption, leading to the inequalities (3.6.28),
must be also used.
We recall now Tsais formulas (3.4.26) giving the extensional, coupling and
bending stiffnesses of a regular antisymmetric cross-ply laminate. Using also the
170
relation (3.6.32), we get
221
E1
1+f
A11 , A66 = hG12 ,
, A12 =
h
1+f
1 12 21
2
1 f 1
hA11 ,
B11 =
2N f + 1
h2
h2 212
h2
A66 .
(3.6.34)
A11 , D66 =
A11 , D12 =
D11 =
12
12 1 + f
12
A11 =
From (3.6.26), (3.6.28), (3.6.30) and (3.6.34), we can conclude that

A11 , A12 , A66 > 0,
B11 < 0,
D11 , D12 , D66 > 0.
(3.6.35)
We observe now that the positive definiteness of the specific strain energy w of
a laminate, defined by equation (3.5.29), is equivalent with the positive definiteness
of the global stiffness matrix [E] of the laminate, introduced by equation (3.3.20).
According to Tsais relations (3.4.26), the stiffness matrix [E] of a regular
antisymmetric cross-ply laminate has the following expression:
A11 A12
0
B11 0
0
A12 A11
0
0
B11 0
0
0
A66 0
0
0
.
(3.6.36)
[E] =
B11 0
0
D11 D12
0
0
B11 0
D12 D11
0
0
0
0
0
0
D66
According to the Sylvesters criterion, [E] is positive definite

following six determinants are positive:

A11 A12 0

A11 A12

, 3 = A12 A11 0
1 = |A11 | , 2 =
A12 A11
0
0
A66

4 =

A11
A12
0
B11
A12
A11
0
0
0
0
A66
0
6 = det [E] .
B11
0
0
D11

A11

A12

, 5 = 0

B11

0
A12
A11
0
0
B11
0
0
A66
0
0
if and only if the

,

B11
0
0
D11
D12
0
B11
0
D12
D11
(3.6.37)
Long, but elementary computations lead to the following expression of the
above determinants:
171

2
421
A211 ,
1 = A11 , 2 = 1
(f + 1)2
(

2
421
1
h2
3
1
A66 A11
4 =
(f + 1)2
3
2
(

2
421
1
h4 4
1
A11 A66
5 =
(f + 1)2
3
16
3 = 2 A66 ,
2 )

f 1
1
,
N2 f + 1
2 )

f 1
1
,
N2 f + 1
6 = 5 D66 .
(3.6.38)
From the (3.6.35) and the first relation (3.6.38), we get

1 > 0.
(3.6.39)
We use now the restriction (3.6.31)2 satisfied by 21 . Thus we obtain

2

2
f 1
4f
421
> 0.
=
>1
1
f +1
(f + 1)2
(f + 1)2
Consequently, from the second relation (3.6.38), we get

2 > 0.
(3.6.40)
The third relation (3.6.38) and the above equality show that
3 > 0,
(3.6.41)
since, according to (3.6.35), A66 > 0.

Using again the restriction (3.6.31)2 , we successively get
2

2

2

2
f 1
1
1 f 1
f 1
1
421
1
2
>
2
1
f +1
N
3 f +1
f +1
N
(f + 1)2
3
2

f 1
1
1
.
=
f +1
3 N
We recall that the analyzed structure is a regular antisymmetric cross-ply

laminate. Hence N can take only the even values 2, 4, 6, .... Consequently, N 2.
Hence 31 N12 > 31 41 > 0. Thus, from the above relations, we can conclude that
1
3
2
421
1
(f + 1)2
1
2
N
f 1
f +1
2
> 0.
Now the fourth equation (3.6.38) leads to

4 > 0,
(3.6.42)
172
Hence, according to the last two equations (3.6.38), we have also

5 > 0 , 6 > 0
(3.6.43)
since the inequalities (3.6.35) take place.

Examining the inequalities (3.6.39)(3.6.43), we can see that all Sylvesters
determinants (3.6.37) are positive. Hence, we have the following.
Theorem of positive definiteness. The specific strain (deformation) energy w of a regular antisymmetric cross-ply laminate is positive definite, if the
specific strain (deformation) energies of the composing laminae are positive definite and if tensile tests applied in the fibers direction produce, in each laminae,
extensions in that direction and contractions in the perpendicular in-plane direction.
As the above example shows, the analysis of the positive definiteness of the
specific strain energy of a composite laminate can generally be a difficult task.
However, such analysis must be done since questions concerning uniqueness and
extreme properties are strongly connected with positive definiteness. Moreover, as
we shall see in the Chapter 7, the stability of a fiber-reinforced composite laminate
can be lost if its specific strain energy ceases to be positive definite.
3.7
Rectangular laminates
Introducing the global constitutive equations (3.5.7) and the geometrical

equations (3.5.6) into the equilibrium equations (3.5.8)1 and (3.5.8)4 , we shall obtain the differential system which must be satisfied by the components U 1 , U2 , U3 ,
of the displacement U in the plane domain D occupied by the middle surface of the
laminate. Elementary, but long computations lead to the following displacement
equilibrium equations:
A11 U1,11 + 2A16 U1,12 + A66 U1,22 + A16 U2,11 + (A12 + A66 )U2,12 + A26 U2,22
B11 U3,111 3B16 U3,221 (B12 + 2B66 )U3,122 B26 U3,222 = 0,
A16 U1,11 + (A12 + A66 )U1,12 + A26 U1,22 + A66 U2,11 + 2A26 U2,12 + A22 U2,22
B16 U3,111 (B12 + 2B66 )U3,112 3B26 U3,122 B22 U3,111 = 0,
D11 U3,1111 + 4D16 U3,1112 + 2(D12 + 2D66 )U3,1122 + 4D26 U3,1222 + D22 U3,2222
B11 U1,111 3B16 U1,112 (B12 + 2B66 )U1,122 B26 U1,222
B16 U2,111 (B12 + 2B66 )U2,112 3B26 U2,122 B22 U2,222 = q.
(3.7.1)
173
3.7. RECTANGULAR LAMINATES
Generally, the relation (3.7.1) is a complicated and coupled differential system. In-plane deformation and distortions of the laminate appear together, in an
inseparable way. But, obvious and sometimes important simplifications result
when the laminate is symmetric about the middle surface (Bij = 0), specially
orthotropic (all the terms with 16 and 26 indices vanish in addition to the B ij ),
2
homogeneous (Bij = 0 and Dij = Aij h12 ), or isotropic. In all these cases, equations
(3.7.1)1,2 are uncoupled from the equations (3.7.1)3 . In such situations, the first
two equations contain only the in-plane displacements U1 , U2 , and the third one
contains only the normal displacement U3 . Accordingly, equation (3.7.1)3 must
be solved to obtain the deflections of a plate and the system (3.7.1)1,2 must be
integrated to obtain the in-plane deformations of the laminate. Unfortunately, the
more general case of nonsymmetric laminates (there exist nonvanishing coupling
stiffnesses Bij ) requires the simultaneous integration of the coupled system (3.7.1).
Currently, many methods exist to solve the equilibrium equations (3.7.1).
The methods range from exact solutions to approximate numerical integration,
using finite element or finite difference approaches and various approximate energy methods of Rayliegh-Ritz or Galerkin type, based on the given minimum or
variational principles. In what follows, we shall consider only the case of a rectangular laminate, taking into account a small number of special examples.
Let us consider first the general class of laminated rectangular plates, as
shown in Figure 3.20, that are simply supported along edges x1 = 0, x1 = a1 , x2 =
0, x2 = a2 and subjected to a given normal load q = q(x1 , x2 ).
We suppose that the given normal load q = q(x1 , x2 ) can be expanded in a
double Fourier series; i.e.
q(x1 , x2 ) =
m=1 n=1
qmn sin
nx2
mx1
.
sin
a2
a1
(3.7.2)
Figure 3.20: Simply supported laminated rectangular plate under distributed normal load.
In what follows, the various types of possible laminates, such as specially orthotropic, symmetric angle-ply, antisymmetric cross-ply and antisymmetric angleply will be analyzed for the loading q = q(x1 , x2 ) given by equation (3.7.2).
174
As we know, a specially orthotropic laminate has either a single layer of specially orthotropic material or multiple specially orthotropic layers that are symmetrically placed about the laminate middle surface. For this special case considered, the nonvanishing laminate stiffnesses are A11 , A12 , A22 , A66 , D11 , D12 , D22 ,
D66 . In other words, neither shear or twist coupling, nor bending-extension coupling exists. Also, the in-plane deformations and bending and twisting are decoupled.Thus, for the laminate problem, the vertical deflection are described only by
one differential equation of equilibrium, resulting from the third equation (3.7.1),
D11 U3,1111 + 2(D12 + 2D66 )U3,1122 + D22 U3,2222 = q.
(3.7.3)
The boundary conditions corresponding to simply supported edges become

U3 = 0 , M11 = D11 U3,11 D12 U3,22 = 0 for x1 = 0 and x1 = a1 ,
(3.7.4)
U3 = 0 , M22 = D12 U3,11 D22 U3,22 = 0 for x2 = 0 and x2 = a2 .

The solution of the boundary value problem can be determined using the
separation of variables technique, as in the case of isotropic rectangular plates. In
this way, it is easy to check that the solution satisfying the boundary conditions
(3.7.4) must have the following relatively simple form:
U3 (x1 , x2 ) =
m=1 n=1
Amn sin
nx2
mx1
.
sin
a2
a1
(3.7.5)
This normal displacement field satisfies the equilibrium equation (3.7.3) only
if the Fourier coefficients amn are given by the relation
Amn =
qmn
1
.
m 4
4
D11 ( a1 ) + 2(D12 + 2D66 )( am1 )2 ( an2 )2 + D22 ( an2 )4
(3.7.6)
Once the normal displacement or deflection U3 is known, all force and moment
resultants can be obtained using the corresponding constitutive equations.
The case of a symmetric angle-ply laminate is much more complicated, even
if, for these structures, the coupling stiffnesses Bij are also vanishing. But now the
shear coupling stiffnesses A16 , A26 and the twist coupling stiffnesses D16 , D26 are
not zero. The equilibrium equation (3.7.1)3 , describing the deflection of the plate,
is decoupled and takes the form
D11 U3,1111 + 4D16 U3,1112 + 2(D12 + 2D66 )U3,1122 + 4D26 U3,1222 + D22 U3,2222 = q.
(3.7.7)
The simply supported edge condition becomes
U3 = 0, M11 = D11 U3,11 D12 U3,22 2D16 U3,12 = 0 for x1 = 0 and x1 = a1 ,
U3 = 0, M22 = D12 U3,11 D22 U3,22 2D26 U3,12 = 0 for x2 = 0 and x2 = a2 .
(3.7.8)
175
Now the solution of the equilibrium equation (3.7.7) is not as simple as before,
because of the presence of D16 and D26 . Due to the terms involving these nonvanishing coefficients, the method using the separation of variables cannot be applied and a Fourier type expression (3.7.5) does not satisfy the governing equation
(3.7.7). Moreover, the expansion (3.7.5) also does not satisfy the boundary conditions (3.7.8), again since the terms involving D16 and D26 are present. Actually,
the variables x1 and x2 cannot be separated in the expression of the normal displacement U3 . This is the reason why Ashton (see Jones [3.2], Chapter 5) has
solved the problem using the second principle of the minimum potential energy.
The problem being decoupled, the involved functional J(U), given in the equation
(3.6.14), takes the following simplified form:
1
2
2
2
+ 2D12 U3,11 U3,22 + D22 U3,22
(D11 U3,11
Z
2
qU3 da.
+4D66 U3,12 + 4D16 U3,11 U3,12 + 4D26 U3,22 U3,12 )da
J = J(U3 ) =
(3.7.9)
Ashton has approximated the deflection U3 by a finite number of terms of the

Fourier expansion (3.7.5). Such an expression satisfies the displacement boundary
conditions (3.7.8), hence is an admissible displacement field. The boundary conditions (3.7.8) concerning the bending moments must not be a` priori satisfied, since
they are natural boundary conditions. Ashtons approach is obviously a RayleighRitz method, applied to our particular case. Minimizing the functional J(U 3 ),
taking into account a finite number of terms in the expansion (3.7.5), we are lead
to a finite set of simultaneous linear algebraic equations for the chosen unknowns
amn . Such a system can be solved using a computer. Let us observe again that
only the displacement boundary conditions are exactly satisfied, but the natural
boundary conditions will be only approximately satisfied. The convergence of the
method may be slow, just because the natural boundary condition are not satisfied
exactly. For instance, Ashton has used 49 terms (up to m = 7 and n = 7) to obtain
approximatively the deflection U3 . Thus, for a uniformly loaded (q(x1 , x2 ) = 1)
(D12 +2D66 )
D26
16
22
= 1, D
square laminate (a1 = a2 = a) with D
D11 = D11 = 0.5,
D11
D11 = 1,
the maximum deflection at the center of the plate, found by Ashton, is
U3 max = U3 (0, 0) =
0.00425a4 q
.
D11
If D16 and D26 are ignored, that is the symmetric angle-ply laminate is approximated by a special orthotropic laminate having
(D12 + 2D66 )
D11
= 1 , D16 = D26 = 0,
= 1,
D11
D22
the maximum deflection found by Ashton is

U3 max = U3 (0, 0) =
0.0032a4 q
.
D11
176
Hence, the error in neglecting the twist coupling terms D16 and D26 , is about
24 percent, which represents a no negligible error. Thus, generally, a specially
orthotropic laminate is an unacceptable approximation for a symmetric angle-ply
laminate.
Let us consider now a regular antisymmetric cross-ply laminate. Such a
laminate has nonvanishing extensional stiffnesses A11 , A12 , A11 = A22 and A66 ,
bending-extensional coupling stiffnesses B11 and B22 = B11 , and bending stiffnesses D11 , D12 , D22 = D11 and D16 . Since B11 and B22 are not vanishing, the
displacement equilibrium equations are coupled. The general system (3.7.1) takes
A11 U1,11 + A66 U1,22 + (A12 + A66 )U2,12 B11 U3,111 = 0,
(A12 + A66 )U1,12 + A66 U2,11 + A11 U2,22 + B11 U3,222 = 0,
(3.7.10)
D11 (U3,1111 + U3,2222 ) + 2(D12 + 2D66 )U3,1122 B11 (U1,111 U2,222 ) = 0.

Whitney and Leissa (see Jones [3.2], Chapter 5) have solved the problem for
simply supported edges taking into account boundary conditions of type S 2 (see
Equations (3.6.17))
U3 = 0, M11 = B11 U1,1 D11 U3,11 D12 U3,22 = 0, for x1 = 0 and x1 = a1,
U2 = 0, N11 = A11 U1,1 + A12 U2,2 B11 U3,11 = 0,
U3 = 0, M22 = B11 U2,2 D12 U3,22 D11 U3,22 = 0, for x2 = 0 and x2 = a2 ,
U1 = 0, N22 = A12 U1,1 + A11 U2,2 + B11 U3,22 = q.
(3.7.11)
These authors have observed that in this case the variables x1 and x2 can
be separated and the displacements U1 , U2 , U3 can be obtained using Fouriers
method; i.e.
U1 =
U2 =
U3 =
m=1 n=1
X
m=1 n=1
X
m=1 n=1
mn cos
nx2
mx1
,
sin
a2
a1
mn sin
nx2
mx1
,
cos
a2
a1
mn sin
nx2
mx1
.
sin
a2
a1
(3.7.12)
It is easy to see that the boundary conditions (3.7.11) are satisfied. Obviously,
the Fourier coefficients mn , mn and mn can be obtained taking into account the
equilibrium equation (3.7.10).
The results obtained by Whitney and Leissa are replotted in Figure 3.21 for
the special situation in which the normal load is one term of the Fourier series;
177

i.e.
q = q(x1 , x2 ) = q0 sin
x2
x1
, q0 = const.
sin
a2
a1
Figure 3.21 gives the normalized maximum deflexion for a rectangular (a = b)

regular antisymmetric cross-ply graphite/epoxy laminated plate, for 2,4,6 and an
infinite number of layers.
20
2
15
U3,MAX E 2 h3 3
10
q 0 a24
E1
G
=40 E12=0.5
E2
2
=0.25
12
NUMBER OF LAYERS
10
4
x
q(x1,x2)=q0sin ax1 sin a22
1
2
a
ASPECT RATIO, a 1
2
Figure 3.21: Maximum deflection of a rectangular regular antisymmetric cross ply

laminate under sinusoidal normal load.
Let us observe that the infinite number of layers corresponds to the specially
orthotropic laminate, for which the coupling between bending and extension does
not exist. As the results show, for a two-layered laminate, the neglect of the coupling results in an under-prediction of the deflection by 64 percent. That is the
actual prediction is approximately three times bigger than the prediction corresponding to the orthotropic approximation. However, the effect of coupling on the
deflection dies out rapidly as the number of layers increases, independent of the
plate aspect ratio ab . We can say that when more than six layers exist, the coupling can be neglected without important error and the orthotropic approximation
becomes acceptable.
As Whitney and Leissa have shown, for composite laminates, the effect of
coupling between bending and extension on the plate deflection depends essentially
G12
1
on the stiffness ratio E
E2 , whereas the influence of E2 and 12 is relatively small.
178
In Figure 3.22 are given the maximum deflection of a square regulate antisymmetric cross-ply laminate, under sinusoidal transverse load, in terms of the
E1
1
orthotropic modulus ratio E
E2 . At E2 = 1, the effect of coupling is nonexistent. As
E1
E2 increases, the effect of coupling between bending and extension increases.
30
25
3
U 3,MAX E 2 h 2
10
q0a 4
G12
=0.5
E2
20
=0.25
12
15
2
10
NUMBER
OF
LAYERS
4
5
x
q(x1,x2)=q sin ax1 sin a 2
0
10
20
30
MODULUS RATIO,
E1
E2
40
50
Figure 3.22: Maximum deflection of a square regulate antisymmetric cross-ply

laminated plate under sinusoidal transverse load.
Summing up the conclusions resulting from the above presented examples,
we can say the following:
(1) In few special situations, the variables can be separated and the exact
solution can be obtained, but only as a Fourier series expansion.
(2) Frequently the Fourier series are lent convergent and many terms must
be taken into account to obtain a satisfactory solution.
(3) Generally the variables cant be separated. In these situations RayleighRitz and /or Galerkin type numerical methods can, and must be used, taking into
account the corresponding extreme and variational principles, and using computers to solve the resulting linear algebraic systems. The displacement fields taken
into account must satisfy exactly all given displacement boundary conditions.
(4) The presence in a composite laminate of coupling between bending and
extension generally increases deflections. Hence, coupling decreases the effective
stiffness of a composite laminate.
(5) For laminates exhibiting twist-curvature coupling, the deflections are increased.
3.8. PROBLEMS
179
(6) In the case of bending-extension coupling and twist-curvature coupling,

the effect on deflection decreases rapidly as the number of layers increases.
(7) The approximation of a general laminate by a specially orthotropic one
can lead to bigger errors by a factor of 3. Thus, the use of such an approximation
must be carefully proven to be justified for the case under consideration.
(8) The first general rule that can be established analyzing the presented
results tells us that coupling should be included in every analysis of composite
laminate behavior, unless coupling is proven to be insignificant.
(9) The first general rule tells us that for general laminates, specific investigations are necessary to obtain accurate information concerning their behavior.
3.8
Problems
P3.1 Show that for an isotropic lamina and in plane stress state, the strainstress relation are

1
1
S11 S12 0
2
2 = S12 S11 0
0
0
2(S11 S12 )
6
6
with S11 = E1 , S12 = E , E and being Youngs modulus and the Poissons
ratio of the laminae, respectively.
P3.2 Show that for an isotropic lamina and in plane stress state, the stressstrain relations are
1
Q11 Q12 0
1
2 = Q12 Q11 0
2
0
0
Q66
6
6
with
Q11 =
E
E
E
= = G.
, Q66 =
, Q12 =
2
2
2(1 + )
(1 )
(1 )
P3.3 The engineering constants of a scotchply1002 glass/epoxy fiber-reinforced

lamina have the following values:
E1 = 38.6GP a , E2 = 8.27GP a , 12 = 0.26 , G12 = 4.14GP a.
Find the compliance components and the reduced stiffnesses of this lamina.
P3.4 The engineering constants of a Kevlar 49/E epoxy type aramid/epoxy
lamina are
E1 = 76GP a , E2 = 5.5GP a , 12 = 0.34 , G12 = 2.3GP a.
Find the compliance components and the reduced stiffnesses of this lamina.
180
P3.5 Prove by direct calculations that equations (3.1.14) are true.

P3.6 Obtain by direct calculations the relations (3.1.19)(3.1.21).
P3.7 Prove that the equations (3.1.23), giving the apparent technical moduli
Ex , xy , Ey , Gxy , xy,x and xy,y , as functions of the angle [00 , 900 ], are true.
0
0
x Gxy
P3.8 Plot E
E2 , G12 , xy and xy,x as functions on [0 , 90 ] for a boron/epoxy composite, an orthotropic material with
E1 = 10E2 , G12 =
1
E2 , 12 = 0.3 , E2 = 18.5GP a.
3
Analyze the obtained results.

P3.9 Show that the apparent axial or longitudinal modulus Ex of a fiberreinforced orthotropic lamina can be written as function of [00 , 900 ] in the
following form:
E1
= (1 + a 4b) cos4 + 2 (2b a) cos2 + a
Ex
with
E1
and b =
a=
Ex
E1
G12
212
P3.10 Use the above expression of Ex to find its maxima and minima. Show
that if
E1
,
G12 >
2 (1 + 12 )
Ex is greater than both E1 and E2 for some value of , and if

G12 <
E1
E1
E2
+ 12
,
Ex is smaller than both E1 and E2 for some value of .

P3.11 Prove the validity of the equations (3.1.24) and (3.1.25).
P3.12 Prove that the combinations Q11 + Q22 + 2Q12 and Q66 Q12 are
invariant under rotations about the x3 = z axis and these invariants have the
constant values given by the equations
Q11 + Q22 + 2Q12 = Q11 + Q22 + 2Q12 = 2 (U1 + U4 ) ,

Q66 Q12 = Q66 Q12 = U5 U6 ,
where U1 , U4 , U5 and U6 are given by equations (3.1.25).

P3.13 Show that the reduced stiffnesses as a function of the angle can be
expressed in the following matrix form:
181
3.8. PROBLEMS
Q11
U1 U2
0
U3
0
1
Q22 U1 U2 0
U3
0
cos 2

Q12 U4 0
0
U
0
3
sin 2 ,
=
U5 0
Q
0
4U3 0
cos 4
66
2Q 0
0
U2 0
2U3
16
sin 4
0
0
U2 0
2U3
2Q26
where U1 , U2 , U3 , U4 , U5 are given by the equations (3.1.25).
P3.14 The engineering constants of a T300/5208 graphyte/epoxy fiber-reinforced lamina are given in Table 3.1. Find the coefficients U1 , U2 , U3 , U4 and U5
for this material.
P3.15 A boron/epoxy fiber-reinforced composite lamina has the following
engineering constants:
E1 = 206.85GP a , E2 = 20.68GP a , 12 = 0.3 , G12 = 6.86GP a.
(a) Plot the reduced transformed
stiffnesses Q11 (), Q22 (), Q12 () and Q66 ()

for this lamina for 00 , 900 .
(b) Plot the reduced
transformed
stiffnesses Q16 () and Q26 () for the same

lamina and for 00 , 900 .
(c) Analyze the results obtained in (a) and (b).
P3.16 Show that the functions S 11 (), ..., S 66 (), given by equations (3.1.21)
can be expressed in the following matrix form:
S 11
S 22
S 12
S 66
S 16
S 26
V1
V1
V4
V5
0
0
V2
V2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
V2
V2
V3
V3
V3
4V3
0
0
0
0
0
0
2V3
2V3
1
cos 2
sin 2
cos 4
sin 4
where
V1 =
V2 =
V3 =
V4 =
V5 =
1
(3S11 + 3S22 + 2S12 + S66 ) ,
8
1
(S11 S22 ) ,
2
1
(S11 + S22 2S12 S66 ) ,
8
1
(S11 + S22 + 6S12 S66 ) ,
8
1
(S11 + S22 2S12 + S66 ) .
2
b1 and the variation

P3.17 Plot the variation of the overall elastic modulus E
of the overall Poissons ratio b12 with the fiber volume fraction cf [0, 1], using
Voigts mixture rule.
182

b
P3.18 Plot the variations of the ratios EEm2 and

cf [0, 1], using Reuss mixture rule, assuming that
(a)
Ef
= 10;
Em
(b)
b12
G
Gm
with the volume fraction
Ef
= 100.
Em
P3.19 What conclusion do you get if you assume for the determination of
b2 equal strains in both the fiber and the matrix,
the overall transverse modulus E
instead of equal stresses.
P3.20 Show that if the curvatures k (x1 , x2 ), , = 1, 2 are vanishing, the
middle surface of a composite laminate rests plane after the deformation of the
laminate. In other words, show that the curvatures characterizes the bending and
the twisting of the laminate.
P3.21 Let us assume that the in-plane deformations e (x1 , x2 ) and the curvatures k (x1 , x2 ), , = 1, 2 of a laminate are vanishing.
Find in that case the components uk (x1 , x2 , x3 ), k = 1, 2, 3 of the displacement field and give the geometrical meaning of the obtained result.
P3.22 Assuming that a laminate is submitted to a rigid displacement, find
the components of the in-plane deformation and the components of the curvature.
P3.23 Show that the extensional stiffnesses Aij , i, j = 1, 2, 6 of a composite
laminate can be expressed by the following relations:
A11 = U1 V0A + U2 V1A + U3 V3A ,
A22 = U1 V0A U2 V1A + U3 V3A ,
A12 = U4 V0A U3 V3A ,
A66 = U5 V0A U3 V3A ,
1
A16 = U2 V2A U3 V4A ,
2
1
A26 = U2 V2A + U3 V4A ,
2
where
V0A = h,
N
X
V1A =
(zk zk1 ) cos 2k ,
k=1
V2A =
N
X
k=1
V3A =
N
X
k=1
V4A =
N
X
k=1
(zk zk1 ) sin 2k ,

(zk zk1 ) cos 4k ,
(zk zk1 ) sin 4k .
183
3.8. PROBLEMS
P3.24 Show that the coupling stiffnesses of a composite laminate can be

expressed by the following relations:
B11 = U2 V1B + U3 V3B ,
B22 = U2 V1B + U3 V3B ,
B12 = U3 V3B ,
B66 = U3 V3B ,
1
B16 = U2 V2B U3 V4B ,
2
1
B26 = U2 V2B + U3 V4B ,
2
where
V0B = 0,
N
V1B
1X 2
2
(zk zk1
) cos 2k ,
=
2
k=1
V2B =
1X 2
2
(zk zk1
) sin 2k ,
2
k=1
V3B =
1X 2
2
) cos 4k ,
(zk zk1
2
k=1
V4B =
1X 2
2
) sin 4k .
(zk zk1
2
k=1
P3.25: Show that the bending stiffnesses of a composite laminate can be

expressed by the following relations:
D11 = U1 V0D + U2 V1D + U3 V3D ,
D22 = U1 V0D U2 V1D + U3 V3D ,
D12 = U4 V0D U3 V3D ,
D66 = U5 V0D U3 V3D ,

1
D16 = U2 V2D U3 V4D ,
2
1
D26 = U2 V2D + U3 V4D ,
2
184
where
V0D =
V1D =
h3
,
12
N
1X
k=1
3
) cos 2k ,
(zk3 zk1
V2D =
1X 3
3
) sin 2k ,
(zk zk1
3
k=1
V3D =
1X 3
3
) cos 4k ,
(zk zk1
3
k=1
V4D
1X 3
3
) sin 4k .
(zk zk1
=
3
k=1
P3.26 Prove that the relations given in P3.24-P3.26 can be expressed

following concentrated matrix form:
U1 U2
0
U3
0
[A11 , B11 , D11 ]
V0[A,B,D]
[A22 , B22 , D22 ] U1 U2 0

U
0
3
V1[A,B,D]

[A12 , B12 , D12 ] U4 0

0
U3 0
V2[A,B,D]

[A66 , B66 , D66 ] = U5 0

0
U
0
3
V3[A,B,D]

2 [A16 , B16 , D16 ] 0

0
U2 0
2U3
V4[A,B,D]
0
0
U2 0
2U3
2 [A26 , B26 , D26 ]
in the
P3.27 Let us consider a composite laminate submitted to the constant force
resultants N 11 , N 22 and N 12 . Find the appropriate constant moment resultants
M 11 , M 22 and M 12 which must be applied to the laminate to obtain zero curvatures.

(a) Solve first the problem using the global constitutive equations expressing
[N ] and [M ] in terms of [e] and [k].
(b) Next, solve the problem using the inversed global constitutive equations
expressing [e] and [k] in terms of [N ] and [M ].
(c) Compare the results obtained in (a) and (b).
(d) Analyze the case in which the coupling stiffnesses are vanishing.
P3.28 Find for a single layer isotropic laminate with Young modulus E, Poisson ratio and thickness h, the extensional, coupling and bending stiffnesses.
P3.29 Find for a single layer specially orthotropic laminate with technical
constants E1 , E2 , 12 , G12 and thickness h, the components of the global stiffness
matrix [E].
P3.30 Consider two orthotropic laminae with principal material directions at
+ and with respect to the laminate reference axis. Prove that

Q16 + = Q16 and Q26 + = Q26 .
3.8. PROBLEMS
185
P3.31 Show that if a cross-ply laminate is symmetric about its middle surface,
all of its coupling stiffnesses are vanishing.
P3.32 Starting with Tsais formulas (3.4.24) and using the definition of a
regular symmetric cross-ply laminate, express the stiffnesses of the laminate in
2
terms of the reduced stiffness Q11 , the thickness h and the stiffness ratio f = E
E1 .
P3.33 Give a direct proof to the results obtained in P3.32.
P3.34 Prove that the global stiffness matrix [E] of a regular symmetric crossply laminate is positive definite if the elasticity tensor of the composing laminae
are positive definite, and the Poissons ratio satisfy the inequalities ij > 0 for
i, j = 1, 2, 3.
P3.35 An expanded view of a [+45/45/45/+45] regular angle-ply laminate
consisting of 0.25-mm thick unidirectional AS/3501 graphite/epoxy laminae is
shown in Figure 3.23. Determine the stiffness matrix [E] of this laminate.The
engineering constants of the laminae are
E1 = 138GP a , E2 = 9GP a , 12 = 0.3 , G12 = 6.9GP a , 21 = 12
E2
= 0.0196.
E1
Figure 3.23: Exploded view of a [+45/45/45/+45] regular angle-ply laminate.

P3.36 An exploded view of a [45/+45/45/+45] regular angle-ply laminate
consisting of the same 0.25-mm thick unidimensional A.S/3501 graphite/epoxy
laminae as used in P3.35 is given in Figure 3.24. Determine the global stiffness
matrix [E] of the laminate.
P3.37 The angle-ply laminate described in P3.35 is subjected to a single
uniaxial force per unit length N11 = 50M P a mm1 .
(a) Determine the resulting in-plane deformations and curvatures associated
with the x1 and x2 axes.
186
Figure 3.24: Exploded view of a [45/+45/45/+45] regular angle-ply laminate.
(b) Determine the resulting deformations and displacements associated with

the x1 , x2 and x3 axes in each laminae.
(c) Determine the resulting stresses associated with the x1 and x2 axes in
each laminae.
P3.38 The angle-ply laminate described in P3.36 is subjected to a simple
uniaxial force per unit length N11 = 50M P a mm1 .
(a) Determine the resulting in-plane deformations and curvatures associated
with the x1 and x2 axes.
(b) Determine the resulting deformations and displacements associated with
the x1 , x2 and x3 axes in each laminae.
(c) Determine the resulting stresses associated with the x1 and x2 axes in
each laminae.
P3.39 A regular angle-ply laminate has N unidirectionally reinforced orthotropic layers having the same thickness and with principal material directions
alternatingly oriented at + and to the laminate coordinate axes. The oddnumbered plies are at and the even-numbered plies at +. Show that the
transformed reduced stiffnesses of the laminate satisfy the following equations:

Q11 + = Q11 , Q12 + = Q12 ,

Q22 + = Q22 , Q66 + = Q66 ,

Q16 + = Q16 , Q26 + = Q26 .
P3.40 Show that for a symmetric (N odd!) regular angle-ply laminate, the
187
3.8. PROBLEMS
laminate stiffnesses are given by the following equations:

(A11 , A12 , A22 , A66 ) = h Q11 , Q12 , Q22 , Q66 ,

h
Q16 , Q26 , Bij = 0, i, j = 1, 2, 6,
(A16 , A26 ) =
N

h3
Q11 , Q12 , Q22 , Q66 ,
(D11 , D12 , D22 , D66 ) =
12

h3 2N 2 2
Q16 , Q26 .
(D16 , D26 ) =
3
12 N
In these equations in Qij , i, j = 1, 2, 6, and is accounted for.

P3.41 Show that for an antisymmetric (N even!) regular angle-ply laminate,
the laminate stiffnesses are given by the following equations:

(A11 , A12 , A22 , A66 ) = h Q11 , Q12 , Q22 , Q66 , (A16 , A26 ) = 0,

h2
Q16 , Q26 ,
(B11 , B12 , B22 , B66 ) = 0, (B16 , B26 ) =
2N

h3
(D11 , D12 , D22 , D66 ) =
Q11 , Q12 , Q22 , Q66 , (D16 , D26 ) = 0.
12
P3.42 Show that A16 , A26 and D16 , D26 for a symmetric regular angle-ply
laminate approach zero as the number of layers increases, while the total thickness
is held constant. What happens if equal thickness layers are added so that the
total laminate thickness increases, too?
P3.43 Show that B16 and B26 for an antisymmetric regular angle-ply laminate
approach zero as the total number of layers increases, while the total thickness is
held constant. What happens if equal thickness layers are added so that the total
laminate thickness increases, too?
P3.44 In what conditions are the stiffnesses A16 , A26 , D16 , D26 of a symmetric regular angle-ply laminate vanishing? In what conditions are the stiffnesses
B16 , B26 of an antisymmetric regular angle-ply laminate vanishing?
P3.45 Using the notations introduced in the Section 3.5 shows that
U Nn = U1 Nn1 + U2 Nn2 = Un Nnn + U Nn .
P3.46 Show that the specific strain energy w of a composite laminate can be
expressed in the following matrix form:
w=
1 T
[d] [E] [d] ,
2
where
[d] = [e11 , e22 , 2e12 , k11 , k21 , 2k12 ] .
P3.47 Using the work theorem for composite laminates and assuming the positive definiteness of the specific elastic energy w, formulate and prove the uniqueness
theorem corresponding to the classical plate theory of composite laminates. More
exactly, prove that if Un or Nnn , U or Mn , U3 or Qn + Mn, and U3,n or Mnn
188
are vanishing on the boundary D of the plane domain D occupied by the middle
surface of the laminate, then e and k are vanishing on D, assuming usual regularity conditions. Hence, the solution is vanishing, modulo a rigid displacement
of the plate. Give conditions in which this displacement is also vanishing!
P3.48 Formulate and prove a variational principle corresponding to the simply
supported edge boundary conditions S1.
P3.49 Formulate and prove a variational principle corresponding to the clamped edge boundary conditions C4.
P3.50 Find the appropriate potential energy and prove its minimum property
for a simply supported laminate, submitted to the boundary conditions S2.
P3.51 Find the appropriate potential energy and prove its minimum property
for a clamped laminate, submitted to the boundary conditions C2.
P3.52 Using the corresponding principles of minimum potential energy prove
the uniqueness theorems corresponding to the boundary value problems S2 and
C2, respectively.
P3.53 Formulate and prove the converses of the principles of minimum potential energy corresponding to the boundary value problems S2 and C2, respectively.
Bibliography
[3.1] Ashton J.E., Whitney J.M., Theory of laminated plates, Progress in Material Science Series, Vol. IV, Technomic Publishing Co., Stanford, 1970.
[3.2] Jones, R.M., Mechanics of composite materials, Hemisphere Publishing Co.,
New York, 1975.
[3.3] Christensen, R.M., Mechanics of composite materials, John Wiley and Sons,
1979.
[3.4] Tsai, W., Hahn, M.T., Introduction to composite materials, Technomic Publishing Co., Westport, Conneticut, 1980.
[3.5] Cristescu, N., Mechanics of composite materials, University of Bucharest,
Bucharest, 1983 (in Romanian).
[3.6] Whitney, J.M., Analysis of laminated anisotropic plates, Technomic, Lancaster, PA, 1987.
[3.7] Gibson, R.F., Principles of composite material mechanics, McGraw-Hill Inc.,
New York, 1994.
[3.8] Lekhnitski, S.G., Theory of elasticity of an anisotropic elastic body, HoldenDay, San Francisco, 1963.
[3.9] Barran, J.J., Laroze, S., Calcul des structures en materiaux composite, Ecole
National Superieur de lAeronautique et de lespace, Dept. structures, materiaux, technologie, 1987.
Chapter 4
MACROSCOPICALLY
ELASTIC COMPOSITES
4.1
Macroscopically linearly elastic composites
In this chapter, we discuss some fundamental problems concerning macroscopically homogeneous biphasic linearly elastic composites, currently representing
the basic and classical part of the general theory of micromechanics of composite
materials. The problems that will be analyzed are founded on the original results obtained by Hill [4.1][4.6], Budiansky [4.7], Hashin [4.8][4.10], Hashin and
Shtrikmann [4.11], [4.12]. Important information concerning the numerical characteristics of macroscopically homogeneous bodies are given in their Lecture Notes
by Suquet [4.13] and Zaoui [4.14]. An important result obtained by Garajeu [4.15]
in 1995 shows that even in the classical part of the micromechanics of composite
materials, there exists important open problems which must be clarified in the
future.
The subject of the theory of macroscopically or statistically homogeneous linearly elastic composite materials, in the simplest case, is the characterization of the
macroscopic or overall or equivalent elastic behavior of a mixture formed by two
solid phases firmly bounded together. One of the phases is the matrix, the other
represents the inclusions. No restriction is placed on the shape of the inclusions,
which may be, for example, fibrous, spherical or plate-like. It is assumed that the
mixture is homogeneous on a macroscale, but not necessarily isotropic. The phases
themselves are to be homogeneous. Their elastic moduli differ, and so the stress
and strain fields through the mixture are microscopically inhomogeneous, whatever the external displacement (constraint) or traction (load). The intensity and
the directionality of local heterogeneities should be distributed at the micro-level
without overall bias, a condition which does not exclude macroscopic anisotropy.
In other words, at a certain level, a macroscopically homogeneous composite is
190
CHAPTER 4. MACROSCOPICALLY ELASTIC COMPOSITES
heterogeneous and its response is considered to be prescribed pointwise in the

spirit of the mechanics of continua. But the microhomogeneities are distributed in
such a way that the material volumes of the composite beyond some representative
minimum, have comparable macroscopic or overall properties. This property, if it
exists, identifies the macroscopic level at which the material can be treated as if
it were homogeneous.
A real composite material contains a very large number of inclusions in a
matrix. Consequently, for arbitrary geometry and concentration of the phases, the
task of solving the usual boundary value problem, and of determining the elastic
state of the material, is hopelessly complex.
A restricted version of the problem is far more tractable but still central.
One is asking not for the stress-strain state in detail, but only for the macroscopic
or overall or equivalent elastic properties of the macroscopically or statistically
homogeneous composite. This involves finding the overall moduli (elasticities and
compliances) as functions on the relative concentrations of the phases, the inclusion geometry, the arrangement and degree of order, the distribution of sizes of
inclusions of given shapes, etc.
Actually, even this restricted theoretical objective is a formidable task and
can be more or less successfully approached only if the composite material is
macroscopically or statistically homogeneous. Roughly speaking, this means that
there exist representative volume elements (RVEs) of the body under consideration. By RVE we mean a relatively small sample of the composite material that
is structurally entirely typical of the whole mixture on average and contains a
sufficient number of inclusions for the overall moduli to be effectively independent
on the surface values of constrains and loading, so long as these are macroscopically homogeneous or uniform. That is, they fluctuate about a mean value with a
(spatial) wave-length small compared with the dimension l of the sample, and the
effects of such fluctuations become insignificant within a few wave-lengths from
the boundary. Accordingly, the contribution of this surface layer to any (volume)
average becomes negligible if the sample becomes large enough, resting however
much smaller than the characteristic dimension L of the body itself.
In theories of macroscopically homogeneous composites, the transition from
micro- to macrolevel depends on the finding of connections between suitable defined macro variables and the volume averages of micro fields over a representative
sample or RVE. These theories are based on the assumed existence of the overall
or macroscopic or equivalent response of some RVE.
As we have seen, the microconstituents of a RVE are treated as homogeneous continua whose properties (elastic moduli, concentrations, inclusion shape
and arrangement, etc.) are abstracted from experiment. In such theories, the transition from micro- to macrolevels is critical. Two main problems are involved:(i)
to define macro-variables and boundary data for the RVE in a physically meaningful way, and (ii) to determine whether and how the macro-variables, alone or
in combinations, are related to the volume averages of their micro-counterparts.
In the case of linearly elastic macroscopically homogeneous composite mate-
4.1. MACROSCOPICALLY LINEARLY ELASTIC COMPOSITES
191
rials, the primary micro-fields are Cauchys stress and the infinitesimal strain .
The corresponding macro-variables, intended for overall (equivalent) constitutive
equations, are the volume averages and of these micro-variables on suitably
chosen RVEs. The macrofields so defined are obviously easier to handle analytically
in the transition between levels. Moreover, as we already know, these macrofields
depend only on the corresponding surface data.
To quantify (approximate) the characterization of a macroscopically homogeneous composite and of a RVE, let us denote by d a linear order of magnitude
measure of the spatial heterogeneity; for example, the inclusions mean dimensions
or the spatial distances between inclusions. We take a representative sample of the
material (assuming its existence) in the form of a cube with side l, assuming to be
much larger than d, but much smaller than L, the characteristic dimension of the
whole body (see Figure 4.1).
Figure 4.1: Scales of analysis: d << l << L.

We suppose that the distribution of the heterogeneities in the RVE (sample)
is such that the following property is obtained for all sufficiently small d/l: over
each face, the surface displacement under any homogeneous surface traction, or
the surface traction under any homogeneous surface displacement, can be broadly
described as a wavelike function about a mean, with a period of order d and an
amplitude independent of l. This property, if it takes place, will be considered
as a minimal prescription for RVEs suitability for observing or calculating an
equivalent, or macroscopic, or overall constitutive law. A composite material having such RVEs will be called macroscopically or statistically homogeneous. Any
surface traction or loading and any surface displacement or constraint, having the
above mentioned wavelike character, will be called macroscopically homogeneous
192
loading or constraint, respectively.

More exact mathematical characterization of a macroscopically homogeneous
composite material, having RVEs with nearly identical micro- and macro- properties, is difficult to give without using the apparatus of mathematical statistics.
Note that the property of a composite material to be macroscopically homogeneous is a constitutive characteristic of the body. Observational, experimental
and theoretical facts can lead us to assume that a given structure is macroscopically
homogeneous. Once this hypothesis is accepted, its theoretical and experimental
implications can tell us if the supposed property actually takes place. According to the main characteristic of a macroscopically homogeneous composite, these
implications can be obtained analyzing the macro- and the equivalent macro- characteristics of a RVE and establishing the connections existing between the suitable
chosen micro- and macrofields.
As we shall see, the constitutive linkage between the two levels will be first
established through the tensor influence functions introduced in Section 2.5. These
tensor fields are associated with the microscopic kinematical and dynamical fields
existing in a RVE and have a fundamental role for obtaining the macroscopic
elastic response, since they act as weighting factors in average, giving the overall
elastic moduli.
Let us assume that a macroscopically homogeneous composite body B is
given. Let us denote by D the regular subregion occupied by a RVE of B, and let
v be the volume of D. If f is a microscopic kinematical or dynamical field on D,
we denote by
Z
1
f dv
(4.1.1)
f=
v D
the mean value of f on D.

In the following, we assume zero body forces.
We recall some important results, given in Section 2.6 (the first and second
Hill-Mandel lemmas), true for any body, in particular for a RVE of B, we have
P1 : If u is a kinematically admissible displacement corresponding to the
symmetric constant tensor E, that is if u(x)= Ex on D, if is the admissible
strain field corresponding to u, and if is an admissible, self-equilibrated stress
field, then
(4.1.2)
= E and = = E.
P2 : If is a statically admissible stress field corresponding to the symmetric

constant tensor , that is if n = n on D, and if u is an admissible displacement
field, being the strain corresponding to u, then
= and = = .
(4.1.3)
P3 : Particularly the relation (4.1.2) and (4.1.3) are true if [u, , ] is the
solution of the homogeneous displacement problem, or of the homogeneous traction
problem, formulated for the RVE.
193
The above product theorems or properties play a fundamental role in establishing the overall (equivalent, macroscopic) constitutive properties of a macroscopically homogeneous composite material. Their implication expresses material
or constitutive characteristics, since the existence of the RVEs, for which these
theorems are applied, is a material or constitutive property of a composite.
One can ask if the above means value theorems are true if the constraint
or the loading on the boundary of a RVE is only macroscopically homogeneous.
The final answer to this question is not yet given. According to Hills [5.6] and
Mandels [5.16] conjecture, the product theorems within a tolerance of order d/l
are valid when one of this field is subjected to surface data and this data is merely
macroscopically homogeneous. More exactly, for such kind of boundary conditions,
the relations (4.1.2) and (4.1.3) become
= + O(d/l).
(4.1.4)
Hills and Mandels conjecture is yet an unproved statement. The demonstration of this conjecture represents an important and difficult challenge for further
research working to more rigorous formulations of the theory of macroscopically
homogeneous materials.
Our object is a biphasic macroscopically homogeneous linearly elastic mixture. As before, D is the domain occupied by a RVE, D is the boundary and v the
volume of D. We denote by D1 and D2 the complementary subdomain occupied
by the matrix and by the inclusions, respectively, v1 and v2 are the volumes of
D1 and D2 , = D1 D2 being the common boundary of two phases. In what
follows, the indices 1 and 2 refer to the characteristics of the matrix and of the
inclusions, respectively. The phases are assumed to be homogeneous, but may be
anisotropic. The elasticity c of the composite is piece-wise constant; i.e.
c1 = const. in D1 ,
and c1 6= c2
(4.1.5)
c(x) =
c2 = const. in D2 ,
and
k(x) =
k1 = const. in D1 , k1 = c1
1 ,
k2 = const. in D2 , k2 = c1
2 .
(4.1.6)
As we already know (see Section 3.2), the positive numbers

c1 = v1 /v and c2 = v2 /v
(4.1.7)
are the concentrations or the volume fractions of the two phases.

Since v1 + v2 = v, we obviously have
c1 + c2 = 1.
(4.1.8)
We assume that c1 , c2 , c1 and c2 are given, c1 and c2 being symmetric and

positive definite fourth order tensors. Using these data, we shall try to characterize
194
the overall ( macroscopic, equivalent) properties of the composite. The size and
form of the inclusions in the RVE, as well as their spatial distribution, rest arbitrary
at this level of generality.
If f is a field given on D by
Z
Z
Z
1
1
1
f dv
(4.1.9)
f dv, f 2 =
f dv, f1 =
f=
v2 D 2
v1 D 1
v D
we denote the mean values of f , over the domains D, D1 , D2 , respectively.

According to (4.1.7) and (4.1.9), we have the following fundamental relation
between the mean values and concentrations
f = c 1 f 1 + c2 f 2 .
(4.1.10)
In order to define the overall elastic moduli, we use homogeneous displacement

or traction boundary conditions on the boundary of the RVE.
First let us assume that a D homogeneous displacement condition is prescribed; i.e.
u (x) = Ex on D, ET = E = const.
(4.1.11)
Let s = [u, , ] be the solution of this homogeneous displacement problem
corresponding to E. As we know (see Section 2.5), a unique dependence of the
strain for the given surface displacement condition is completely characterized
by E. That is
(x) = A (x) E,
(4.1.12)
where A (x) is the influence tensor function corresponding to the homogeneous
displacement boundary condition. This fourth order tensor field can be expressed
in terms of the corresponding Greens tensor function. The expression of the Green
tensor, and hence the expression of the influence tensor are generally unknown;
but their existence is certain.
Since as we know (see P1 )
= E,
(4.1.13)
the fundamental relation (4.1.12) can be written as

(x) = A (x) .
(4.1.14)
Consequently, the mean value A of A (x) satisfies the equation
A=J
(4.1.15)
where J is the fourth order unit tensor with components

Jklmn = km ln , k,l,m,n = 1,2,3.
(4.1.16)
Now let us recall the assumed stress-strain relation (x) = c(x)(x). Using
(4.1.14) for the mean value of the stress we get
= c = cA = cA,
(4.1.17)
195
since is constant on D.
The constant tensor
b
c = cA
(4.1.18)
is by definition the overall elasticity of the macroscopically homogeneous composite.

Accordingly, equation
(4.1.19)
= cb
represents the overall stress-strain relation of the composite.

As equation (4.1.18) shows, the overall elasticity b
c is not the mean value of
the elasticity c of the composite. In order to obtain b
c, the weightened mean value
(4.1.18) must be calculated, and the influence tensor function A (x) plays the role
of the weighting factor.
Once b
c is determined, in further calculi, the initial complex structure is replaced by the equivalent homogeneous linearly elastic body, completely characterized by the overall stress-strain relation (4.1.19).
Hence, the main theoretical problem reduces to the determination of the
influence tensor function A (x) and to the evaluation of the mean value (4.1.18).
This problem represents a formidable task and can be solved only in special cases
and/or by using mechanically meaningful supplementary assumptions.
However, for a biphasic mixture some simplifications occur even at this level
of generality. Indeed, from (4.1.14), using the definitions (4.1.9) we get
1 = A1 and 2 = A2 ,
(4.1.20)
where the constant influence tensors A1 and A2 are the mean values of the influence function A (x) on D1 and D2 , respectively.
Also, from the fundamental relation (4.1.10), we obtain
= c 1 1 + c2 2 .
(4.1.21)
Further, since c (x) has constant values on D1 and on D2 , using also the
equations (4.1.20), we obtain
1 = (c1 )1 = c1 1 = c1 A1
and
2 = (c2 )2 = c2 2 = c2 A2 .
Consequently, using (4.1.21), we get

= c1 c1 A1 + c2 c2 A2 .
Hence the overall stress-strain relation (4.1.19) becomes
=b
c with b
c = c 1 c 1 A1 + c 2 c 2 A2 .
(4.1.22)
196
Thus the overall elasticity b

c is known, if the influence tensors A1 and A2 are known.
However, finding of these constant tensors presents a very difficult problem, even
if A1 and A2 are not reciprocally independent. Indeed, from (4.1.10) and (4.1.15),
it results that A1 and A2 must satisfy the following equation:
c1 A1 + c2 A2 = J.
(4.1.23)
Hence, in order to obtain the overall stress-strain relation, only one of the
constant influence tensors must be determined.
From the symmetry of the strain it follows that the components Aklmn of
the influence tensor function A have the symmetries
Aklmn = Alkmn = Aklnm .
(4.1.24)
The components of the constant influence tensors A1 and A2 have the same
symmetries. The extension of the definition of the overall elasticity for a macroscopically homogeneous composite having an arbitrary number of phases is obvious.
From (4.1.18), (4.1.24) and from the symmetry properties of the microscopic
elasticity c, the following symmetry properties result for the components b
c klmn of
the overall elasticity b
c
b
cklmn = b
clkmn = b
cklnm .
(4.1.25)
There exists a dual modality to introduce the equivalent homogeneous body,

which can replace the composite. To show that, we now assume that on the boundary D of the RVE, homogeneous traction condition is prescribed; i.e.
(x) n (x) = n(x) on D, T = = const.
(4.1.26)
As before, we denote by s = [u, , ] the solution of this special traction

problem. There exists (see Section 2.5 and P.2.43) a unique dependence of the
stress on the given traction condition completely characterized by ; i.e.
(x) = B (x)
(4.1.27)
where B = B (x) is the influence tensor function corresponding to the homogeneous traction boundary condition. Since, we know (see P2 )
(4.1.28)
(x) = B (x) .
(4.1.29)
B = J.
(4.1.30)
the relation (4.1.17) becomes
Thus we can conclude that
Now we take into account the assumed micro-strain-stress relation (x) =

k (x) (x), k (x) = c1 (x). Since is a constant tensor, from (4.1.29) we get
= k = kB = kB.
(4.1.31)

The constant tensor
b = kB
k
197
(4.1.32)
is by definition the overall compliance of the macroscopically homogeneous composite.

Accordingly, the equation
b
(4.1.33)
=k
represents the overall strain-stress relation of the composite.

As before, in the case of a biphasic mixture, we get
1 = B1 and 2 = B2 ,
(4.1.34)
the constant influence tensors B1 and B2 being the mean values of the influence
tensor function B (x) on D1 and D2 , the domains occupied by the matrix and by
the inclusions, respectively.
Using again the fundamental relation (4.1.10), we can conclude that the overall strain-stress relation for a biphasic mixture has the form
b = c 1 k1 B 1 + c 2 k2 B 2 .
b with k
=k
(4.1.35)
c1 B1 + c2 B2 = J.
(4.1.36)
Obviously, equation (4.1.23) is replaced by its dual
Since is a symmetric tensor, the components Bklmn of B have the same symmetries as the components of A; i.e.
Bklmn = Blkmn = Bklnm .
(4.1.37)
Obviously, the components of the constant influence tensors B1 and B2 have the
same symmetry properties.
b has the same symmetries as the overall elasAlso, the overall compliance k
ticity b
c; i.e.
b
kklmn = b
klkmn = b
kklnm .
(4.1.38)
We recall that the microscopic elastic moduli c and k are symmetric tensors and
b have the same property. To get the answer we
ask if the overall moduli b
c and k
shall use the product theorems by Hill and Mandel, that is we shall take into
account the properties P1 , P2 and P3 , presented at the beginning of this Section.
First we consider again the homogeneous displacement problem and use equation (4.1.14).Thus we get
= c = A cA.
Let us denote by AT the transposed tensor of the fourth order tensor A, AT

defined by the equation (1.1.42). Using this relation, from the above equation, we
have
= AT cA.
198
Since the mean value is a constant tensor, the above relation becomes
= (AT cA).
(4.1.39)
At the same time according to the properties P1 and P3 , we have
= .
Using the overall stress-strain relation (4.1.19), we obtain
c.
= b
(4.1.40)
b
c = AT cA.
(4.1.41)
Comparing the relations (4.1.39) and (4.1.40) valid for any , we can conclude that
c can be expressed by the following equation:
The symmetry of c and the above relation implies the symmetry of b

c, as
it is easy to see. Hence, the overall elasticity
c has the same symmetries as the
micro-elasticity c; i.e.
b
cT = b
c or b
cTklmn = b
cmnkl .
(4.1.42)
Recalling again the micro-stress strain relation (x) = c(x)(x), and taking
into account equation (4.1.10), we get
c.
c = b
(4.1.43)
This equation can be used as a new energetic definition of the overall elasticity
c.
Indeed, if s = [u, , ] is the solution of the homogeneous displacement

boundary value problem corresponding to , due to the product theorem, the
initial definition of
c, using (4.1.19), and the new definition, using (4.1.43), lead to
the same value of
c. This fact can be obtained by using the fundamental relation
(4.1.14).
The new energetic approach, based on the second definition, is more versatile
if one wishes to obtain, or to estimate, the overall elasticity b
k.
Now let us consider the homogeneous traction problem and let us use the
relation (4.1.24). Since (x)= k (x) (x) , we obtain
= k = B kB.
Let us denote by BT the transposed tensor of B. Using BT , we get
= BT kB.
Since the mean value is a constant tensor, the above relation becomes
= (BT kB).
(4.1.44)
199
At the same time, the properties P2 and P3 (see Equation (4.1.23)) lead to
equation
= .
Now, using the overall strain-stress relation (4.1.33), we get
b.
=k
(4.1.45)
b = BT kB.
k
(4.1.46)
bT = k or b
k
kklmn = b
kmnkl .
(4.1.47)
Comparing the relations (4.1.44) and (4.1.45), valid for any , we can obtain
b can be expressed in the following way:
that the overall compliance k
The above relation and the symmetry of k show that the overall compliance
b has the same symmetries as the microcompliance k; i.e.
k
Recalling again the micro strain-stress relation (x) = k (x) (x), and using equation (4.1.45), we get
b.
(4.1.48)
k = k
As before, this equation can be used as a new energetic definition of the overall
b
compliance k.
Indeed, if s = [u, , ] is the solution of the homogeneous traction problem
b using
corresponding to , due to the product theorem, the initial definition of k
b
(4.1.33) and that using (4.1.45), lead to the same value of k. This can be obtained
by using the fundamental relation (4.1.29).
This new energetic approach is very useful in order to determine or to estimate
b
the overall compliance k.
We recall now that the microscopic elastic moduli c and k are positive definite. Consequently, c 0 and from the equality (4.1.41) and the definition of
the mean value, it follows that:
b
c 0 for any = T .
c = 0, from (4.1.41) we get = 0. Since c is positive definite,

Assuming b
from the above equation and the definition of the mean value, it results that 0
on D. Since is the mean value of , we can conclude that = 0. Thus, we can
conclude that the overall elasticity
c is positive definite; i.e.
and
b
c 0 for any = T
b
c = 0 if and only if = 0.
(4.1.49)
(4.1.50)
200
b is
By a similar reasoning, it can be proved that the overall compliance k
positive definite; i.e.
b 0 for any = T
(4.1.51)
k
and
b = 0 if and only if = 0.
k
(4.1.52)
We recall now the principles of minimum potential energy and minimum

complementary energy given in Section 2.4 for an usual elastic body and in Section
2.6 for piece-wise homogeneous elastic bodies (see mainly the inequalities (2.6.39)
and (2.6.45)!). Using these theorems, we can obtain the third definition of the
overall elastic moduli. Let us denote by K () the set of all kinematically admissible
displacement fields v corresponding to = T = const. More exactly
K () = {v admissible displacement field and v (x) = x on D}.
(4.1.53)
Let (v) be the strain field corresponding to v K (). According to the definition
of the mean value and according to the principle of minimum potential energy, if
s = [u, (u) , ] is the solution of the homogeneous displacement boundary value
problem corresponding to ; i.e. if u (x) = x on D, then we have
(u) c (u) (v) c (v) for any v K () .
(4.1.54)
Now, taking into account that (u) = , and using the second definition of
c, based on the relation (4.1.43), we can see that the overall elasticity
c satisfies
the relation
Z

1
(v) c (v) dv .
(4.1.55)
b
c = inf (v) c (v) = inf
vK() v D
vK()
Now let us denote by S () the set of all statically admissible stress field ,
corresponding to = T = const. More exactly,
S () = { statically admissible stress field and n = n on D}.
(4.1.56)
According to the definition of the mean value and according to the principle of
minimum complementary energy, if s = [u, , ] is the solution of the homogeneous
traction boundary value problem corresponding to ; i.e. if n = n on D, then
we have
k k for any S () .
(4.1.57)
Now, taking into account the fact that the mean value of is just , and using the
b based on the relation (4.1.48), we can see that the overall
second definition of k,
b
compliance k satisfies the relation
Z

1
b = inf k = inf
k
k dv .
(4.1.58)
S()
S() v D
4.2. HILLS WEAK AND STRONG ASSUMPTIONS
201
Note that the energetic relations (4.1.55) and (4.1.58) can be used to define
b respectively. It is easy to
the overall elasticity
c and the overall compliance k,
see that these new definitions and those previously used are equivalent. The new
energetic definitions based on equations (4.1.55) and (4.1.58) are useful in order
to obtain approximate values for the overall elastic moduli, or to get estimates,
concerning these macro-characteristics of a composite material.
4.2
Hills weak and strong assumptions
b are positive definite, hence, inverWe recall that the overall moduli
c and k
b1 exist.
tible. Thus, b
c1 and k
First, we analyze the homogeneous displacement boundary value problem
corresponding to .
Since
c is invertible, using (4.1.19) we can express as a function of ,
c1 . Now, the
c1 . Thus, from (4.1.14), we obtain (x) = A (x) b
getting = b
micro stress-strain relation (x) = c (x) (x) can be used to express the microstress (x) in terms of its mean value ; we obtain
c1 .
(x) = B(x) with B (x) = c (x) A(x)b
(4.2.1)
The mean value of the influence tensor function B (x) satisfies the relation
B=J .
(4.2.2)
Now, we return the homogeneous traction problem corresponding to .

b is invertible, using (4.1.33) we can express as a function of ,
Since k
b1 .
b1 . Consequently, from (4.1.29), we get: (x) = B (x) k
obtaining = k
Now, the micro strain-stress relation (x) = k (x) (x) gives the micro-strain
(x) as a function of its mean value :
b1 .
(x) = A (x) with A (x) = k (x) B (x) k
(4.2.3)
A=J.
(4.2.4)
The influence tensor function A (x) satisfies the relation
Until now we have obtained two overall constitutive equations (4.1.19) and
(4.1.33). If we start with the homogeneous displacement boundary value problem,
c. If we start
for the mean values we arrive to the overall material law = b
with the homogeneous traction boundary value problem, for the mean values we
b. Our aim is to replace the macroscopically
get the overall material law = k
homogeneous body by an equivalent homogeneous material. This replacement will
be meaningful only if the two overall material laws, obtained using two differ1
b=b
ent approaches, are equivalent; that is, only if k
c . Consequently, we must
202
look for supplementary conditions, which must be fulfilled by a macroscopically

homogeneous composite in order to assume that its replacement by an equivalent
homogeneous body can be realized in a consistent way.
In order to solve this important problem, let us denote by [u, , ] the solution
of the homogeneous displacement boundary value problem corresponding to , and
let [u1 , 1 , 1 ] be the solution of the homogeneous traction problem corresponding
to 1 . Now let us assume that 1 = and let us check if there exists any relation
between and 1 . In order to answer to this question, we shall suppose that any
macroscopically homogeneous composite, which can be replaced by an equivalent
homogeneous body, must satisfy the following supplementary restriction, tacitly
assumed in the theory of macroscopically homogeneous elastic mixtures.
Hills weak assumption. If [u, , ] is the solution of the homogeneous
displacement boundary value problem corresponding to a given , if [u1 , 1 , 1 ] is
the solution of the homogeneous traction boundary value problem corresponding
to a given 1 , and if the mean value of 1 is just ; i.e. if 1 = , then the mean
value of is just 1 ; i.e. = 1 .
Hills weak assumption, if it is satisfied by a macro-homogeneous mixture,
expresses a constitutive property of the composite. Only those macro-homogeneous
bodies can be meaningfully replaced by equivalent homogeneous materials, which
satisfy this supplementary constitutive restriction.
If Hills weak assumption is satisfied, and if 1 = , according to the hypothesis made, we also have = 1 . Hence, the overall constitutive equations (4.1.19)
and (4.1.33), obtained by the dual procedures used, become
b for any .
=b
c and = k
bc for any . Hence, we get

Consequently, we shall have = kb
1
b=b
k
c .
(4.2.5)
b is the
Hence, if Hills weak assumption is fulfilled, the overall compliance k
inverse of the overall elasticity b
c.
Thus, Hills weak assumption means the equivalence of the dual overall material laws and the replacement of the composite by a homogeneous body can be
realized in a consistent, meaningful way.
Also, equations (4.2.1)2 and (4.2.3)2 , connecting the influence tensor function
A (x) , B (x) and B (x) , A (x), appearing in the two dual boundary value problems,
take the following simplified form:
b and A (x) = k (x) B (x) b
B (x) = c (x) A (x) k
c.
(4.2.6)
However, even if Hills weak assumption is fulfilled, until now we are not able
to establish any connection between the influence tensor function A (x) and B (x),
appearing in the homogeneous displacement problem, and B (x) and A (x) present
in the homogeneous traction problem.
203
Hills weak assumption is a statement concerning the mean values of the

solutions of the two dual boundary value problems. We cannot say, at a first look,
that the equality 1 = of the mean values implies the equality (modulo a rigid
displacement) of the solutions of the dual boundary value problems. The assertion
concerning the validity of such an implication represents:
Hills strong assumption. Let s = [u, , ] be the solution of the homogeneous displacement problem corresponding to a given and let s1 = [u1 , 1 , 1 ]
be the solution of the homogeneous traction problem corresponding to a given
1 . If the mean value of 1 is just ; i.e. if 1 = , then s = s1 , modulo a rigid
displacement.
If Hills strong assumption is fulfilled, obviously Hills weak assumption is
also satisfied.
Moreover, if Hills strong assumption takes place, the relations (4.1.14), (4.1.25)
and (4.2.1)1 , (4.2.3)1 are simultaneously fulfilled with the same and ; i.e. we
have
(x) = A (x) = A (x) for any
and
(x) = B (x) = B (x) for any .
Consequently, we get
A (x) = A (x) and B (x) = B (x) .
(4.2.7)
The above equations show that if Hills strong assumption is satisfied, the influence tensor functions A (x) and B (x) are not independent. Indeed, according to
the relations (4.2.6), the influence tensor function must satisfy Hills compatibility
conditions
b and A (x) = k (x) B (x) b
B (x) = c (x) A (x) k
c.
(4.2.8)
1
b=b
Since k
c , these equations can be written in the following equivalent
form:
b
c (x) A (x) = B (x) b
c and k (x) B (x) = A (x) k.
(4.2.9)
We can ask now if Hills strong assumption is implied by Hills weak assumption. As we shall prove, using Garajeus reasoning, the answer is yes. To present
Garajeus theorem, we first introduce some necessary entities and shall prove a
convexity and uniqueness theorem.
Let us denote by C the set of all admissible displacement fields v. If u C,
we design by (v) the corresponding admissible strain field.
Let be a given, constant symmetric tensor. We denote by K () the set of all
admissible displacement fields v from C which satisfy the following supplementary
restriction: the mean value of the corresponding strain (v) is just ; i.e.
o
n
(4.2.10)
K () = v C and (v) = .
204
We have the following:

Convexity and uniqueness theorem.
(i) The set K () is convex ; i.e. if u, u1 K () , then u+(1 ) u1 K ()
for any [0, 1].
(ii) The elastic energy U () is strictly convex on K (). That is, if u, u 1
K () and = (u), 1 = (u1 ), then
U { + (1 ) 1 } U () + (1 ) U (1 )
for any [0, 1], and the equality takes place if and only if = 1 .
(iii) If u and u1 from K () realize the infimum of U () on K (), then u
and u1 are equal on D, modulo a rigid displacement.
In order to prove (i) we observe that if u, u1 K (), then (u) = (u1 ) = ,
and we have
(u+ (1 ) u1 )
= (u) + (1 ) (u1 )
= (u) + (1 ) (u1 )
= + (1 ) = for any [0, 1] .
Hence, u+ (1 ) u1 K () and (i) is proved.

In order to prove (ii), we introduce the symmetric bilinear form V = V (, 1 )
defined by the equation
Z
Z
1 cdv.
c1 dv =
V (, 1 ) = V (1 , ) =
D
Elementary computations show that

2
U {+ (1 ) 1 } = 2 U () + (1 ) V (, 1 ) + (1 ) U (1 ) .
Since, as we know
U ( 1 ) 0,
we obtain
V (, 1 ) U () + U (1 ) .
Thus, since [0, 1], it results
U {+ (1 ) 1 } 2 U () + (1 ) {U () + U (1 )} + (1 ) U ()
= U () + (1 ) U (1 ) .
Thus, the inequality of (ii) takes place.

If in (ii) there is equality, taking into account the above formulas, we get
2
U {+ (1 ) 1 } = 2 U () + (1 ) V (, 1 ) + (1 ) U (1 )
= U () + (1 ) U (1 ) .
205
From this relation it results

(1 ) {U () V (, 1 ) + U (1 )} = 0 for any [0, 1] .
Hence, we obtain
U () V (, 1 ) + U (1 ) = U ( 1 ) = 0.
Accordingly, = 1 , since the elasticity c of the material is positive definite.
Now it is clear that u =u1 , modulo a rigid displacement, and thus (ii) is
completely proved.
In order to prove (iii), let us assume that u and u1 from K () realize the
infimum of U = U () on K (). Hence, we have
U () = U (1 ) =
inf
vK()
U { (v)} .
Now from (i) and (ii) it results

U () U {+ (1 ) 1 } U () + (1 ) U (1 ) = U () for [0, 1] ,
since U (1 ) = U (). Consequently,
U ( + (1 )1 ) = U () = U (1 ) for any [0, 1] .
Hence,
U ( + (1 )1 ) = U () + (1 )U (1 ) for any [0, 1] .
Thus, according to the second part of the property, (ii) = 1 and (iii) is proved.
Now we are ready to prove an important result due to Garajeu [4.15].
Theorem. Hills weak assumption implies Hills strong assumption.
In order to prove this theorem we denote again by C the set of all admissible
displacement fields u and let (u) be the strain corresponding to u.
Let s = [u, = (u), = c] be the solution of the homogeneous traction
problem corresponding to . Thus sn (x) = (x) n (x) = n (x) on D.
Let s1 = [u1 , 1 = (u1 ), 1 = c1 ] be the solution of the homogeneous displacement problem corresponding to 1 . Thus, u1 (x) = 1 x on D.
According to the first energetic definitions (4.1.43) and (4.1.48) of the overall
b we have
elastic moduli
c and k,
and
b
(u) c (u) = k = k
c 1 .
(u1 ) c (u1 ) = 1 b
(4.2.11)
(4.2.12)
Now let us assume that the basic hypothesis of Hills weak assumption is
fulfilled; i.e.
(4.2.13)
(u1 ) = (u).
206
In this case, according to Hills weak assumption, we have also
1 (x) = (x).
(4.2.14)
At the same time, as we already know, the following relation takes place:
1
b=b
k
c ,
(4.2.15)
and the two boundary value problems lead to the same overall-stress-strain relation
c 1 .
c = b
= 1 = b
(4.2.16)
c = (u1 ) c (u1 ).
(u) c (u) = b
(4.2.17)
From the above consequence of Hills weak assumption, we can see that the
following relations are true:
We recall that in the first boundary value problem sn = n = n on D.

In this case, the definition of the mean value and the principle of the minimum
potential energy (see the relations (2.6.41) and (2.6.42)) show that the solutions
of the homogeneous traction problem corresponding to satisfies the relation
Z
1
1
unda
(u) c (u)
v D
2

Z
1
1
(4.2.18)
vnda .
(v) c (v)
= inf
vC
v D
2
As before, we denote by K () the set of all admissible displacement fields v

from C, which satisfy the restriction (v) = . Obviously, K () is a subset of C.

Z
Z
1
1
1
1
(u) c (u)
unda inf
(v) c (v)
vnda .
2
v D
vK() 2
v D
(4.2.19)
As we know, u is the displacement field corresponding to the solution s of
the traction boundary value problem. Hence (u) = , since the mean value
is defined just by this equation. Thus, we see that u K (). Consequently, from
(4.2.19) we can conclude that

Z
Z
1
1
1
1
inf
(v) c (v)
vnda (u) c (u)
unda.
vK() 2
v D
2
v D
(4.2.20)
Comparing (4.2.19) and (4.2.20) we arrive to the equation

Z
Z
1
1
1
1
(u) c (u)
unda = inf
(v) c (v)
vnda .
2
v D
vK() 2
v D
(4.2.21)
207
Since is a constant symmetric tensor, the last equation can be written in the
following equivalent form:
Z
1
1
(un + nu) da
(u) c (u)
2v
2
D

Z
1
1
(vn + nv) da .
(4.2.22)
(v) c (v)
= inf
2v
vK() 2
D
that
We recall now the mean strain theorem (see Equation (2.1.14)) and conclude
Z
1
(4.2.23)
(vn + nv) da = (v) = for any v K () .
2v D
Since u K () from (4.2.22) and (4.2.23), it becomes
(u) c (u) =
inf
vK()
(v) c (v).
(4.2.24)
Let us return now to u1 , the displacement field corresponding to the solution

s1 of the traction problem. According to the assumption (4.2.13), we have
(u1 ) = 1 = .
(4.2.25)
Hence u1 K () and from (4.2.25), we get
(u) c (u) =
inf
vK()
(v) c (v) (u1 ) c (u1 ).
(4.2.26)
But, if Hills weak assumption is assumed, according to the relation (4.2.17)

(u) c (u) and (u1 ) c (u1 ) are equal and their common value is b
c. Hence,
from (4.2.26) we can conclude that
b
c
= (u) c (u) = (u1 ) c (u1 )
inf
vK()
(v) c (v).
(4.2.27)
The above consequence of Hills weak assumption shows that the infimum of
the convex function v (v) c (v) on the convex set K () is realized by two
functions, u and u1 , contained in K (). Hence, according to the property (iii)
of the convexity and uniqueness theorem, u = u1 modulo a rigid displacement.
Hence, s = s1 modulo a rigid displacement and Garajeus theorem is proved.
At the same time, Garajeus result leads to the following important
Theorem. Hills weak assumption implies Hills compatibility relations.
Note also that the equations (4.2.27) show that the overall elasticity
c can
be defined in an equivalent manner by the following energetical relation:
Z
1
b
c = inf
(v) c (v) dv.
(4.2.28)
vK() v D
208
This energetic definition, the third one, can be used to evaluate or to estimate the overall elasticity
c of a macro-homogeneous composite, satisfying Hills
weak assumption.
b following Hill
As a first step to estimate the overall elastic moduli
c and k,
[4.1] we can obtain some universal bounds for the mechanical characteristics of the
equivalent homogeneous body.
In order to see how this can be done, let us consider first the homogeneous
displacement boundary value problem corresponding to .
According to the relation (4.1.55), we have

Z
1
(v) c(v)dv .
(4.2.29)
b
c = inf
vK() v D
Trying to evaluate b
c, Voigt (1912) has supposed a constant strain in the composite,
if homogeneous displacement is applied on its boundary. Taking into account this
assumption, let us consider the following displacement field:
vV (x) = x in D.
(4.2.30)
Since vV (x) satisfies the given homogeneous displacement condition and the nulljump condition on the common boundary of the matrix and the inclusions,
vV (x) is an element of the set K (). Hence, from (4.2.29), we obtain
b
c c (x),
since (vV (x)) = = const.

Let us introduce the constant tensor
cV c (x) =
1
v
cdv
(4.2.31)
(4.2.32)
representing the mean value of the elasticity c of the composite. We get Hills first
universal estimate
b
c c V
for any .
(4.2.33)
Generally, b
c 6= cV , and Voigts mixture rule is not true.
Let us consider now the homogeneous traction boundary value problem corresponding to . According to the relation (4.1.58), we have

Z
1
b = inf
k dv .
(4.2.34)
k
S() v D
b Reuss (1925) has supposed constant stress in the comIn trying to evaluate k,
posite, if homogeneous boundary conditions are applied on its boundary. Taking
into account this assumption, let us consider the following stress field:
R (x) = on D.
(4.2.35)
209
Since R (x) satisfies the given homogeneous traction condition and the nulljump condition on , R (x) is an element of the set S (). Hence, from (4.2.34),
we get
b k (x)
(4.2.36)
k
since R (x) = = const.

Let us introduce the constant tensor
kR k (x) =
1
v
kdv,
(4.2.37)
representing the mean value of the compliance k of the composite. We get Hills
second universal estimate
b kR
k
for any .
(4.2.38)
b 6= k , and the Reuss mixture rule is not true.

Generally k
R
At the first look these universal estimates are easy to obtain. However, they
were obtained at this level of generality by Hill only in 1963. That is, it was necessary, for about a half century, to understand the real significance of the estimates
due to Voigt and to Reuss.
Following Hill [4.1] again, we shall show that the overall elasticities are increased when either or both of the elasticities are increased in one or both phases.
Increased means that in each charged element of the material, the specific elastic energy obtained afterward should exceed the one existing before, if the local
strains were the same.
More exact, let us assume that two composite materials B and B1 have the
same geometry for the matrix and for the inclusions. Let c = c (x) and c1 = c1 (x)
be the micro-elasticities of B and B1 , respectively. B1 is said to be strengthened
in comparison with B if
c (x) c1 (x) for any and any x.
(4.2.39)
In this condition, we have

Hills comparison theorem. Let B and B1 be two macrohomogeneous composites, having the same geometry. Let B1 be strengthened in comparison with B.
Let b
c and b
c1 be the overall elasticities of B and B1 , respectively. Then,
or, briefly
c1
b
c b
b
cb
c1 .
for any ,
(4.2.40)
(4.2.41)
In order to prove the theorem, we analyze the behavior of the corresponding

RVEs.
Let us consider for both RVEs the homogeneous displacement boundary value
problem corresponding to the same . Let us denote by [u, = (u) , = c] and
210
[u1 , 1 = (u1 ) , 1 = c1 1 ] the corresponding solutions. The principle of minimum

potential energy, applied first to the original body and next to the strengthened
body, gives
(4.2.42)
b
c = (u) c (u) = inf (v) c (v)
vK()
and
b
c1 = (u1 ) c (u1 ) =
inf (v) c1 (v) .
vK()
(4.2.43)
Since the two RVEs have the same geometry u1 K (); hence,
(u) c (u) (u1 ) c (u1 ).
(4.2.44)
Also, according to the relation (4.2.39), we have
(u1 ) c (u1 ) (u1 ) c1 (u1 ).
(4.2.45)
Hence, according to (4.2.44) and (4.2.45), we obtain
(u) c (u) (u1 ) c1 (u1 ).
(4.2.46)
The last relation (4.2.46) and the formulas (4.2.42) and (4.2.43) show that b
c and
b
c1 satisfy the inequality (4.2.40) and the comparison theorem is proved.
4.3
Macroscopically isotropic biphasic mixture
Let us assume isotropic matrix and inclusions. Using the notations
1
1
= tr, e = 1, = tr, s = 1 ,
3
3
the micro-stress-strain relations are

k1 in D1 ,
=
k2 in D2 ,
and s =
1 e in D1
.
2 e in D2
(4.3.1)
(4.3.2)
Here, k1 , k2 are the bulk moduli, 1 , 2 are the shear moduli of the matrix
and of the inclusions, respectively.
We assume the composite to be macroscopically isotropic; i.e. the overall
behavior of the mixture is completely described by its overall bulk modulus b
k
and shear modulus
b. In order to estimate these overall moduli, it is no longer
necessary to impose general homogeneous boundary conditions on the boundary
of the RVE. It is enough to consider just two independent strain states, a pure
dilatation and a pure shear characterized by a given constant number and by a
given constant deviator e, respectively.
We take first a pure dilatation . Since the composite is macroscopically
isotropic, the corresponding overall mean stress will be an all round tension .
4.3. MACROSCOPICALLY ISOTROPIC BIPHASIC MIXTURE
211
Accordingly, the overall (equivalent) stress-strain relation, connecting these mean

values is
1
(4.3.3)
=b
k or = ,
b
k
b
k being the unknown overall bulk modulus. Using the fundamental formula (4.1.10),
we obtain
= c1 1 + c2 2 and = c1 1 + c2 2 ,
where c1 , c2 are the concentrations of the matrix and of the inclusions, respectively,
1 , 2 are the mean values of on D1 and D2 , the domains occupied by the
matrix and by the inclusions, and 1 , 2 are the mean values of on D1 and D2 ,
respectively. Using the constitutive equations (4.3.2), we obtain
1 = k1 1 , 2 = k2 2 , 1 =
1
1
1 , 2 = 2 .
k2
k1
Thus we get
= c1 k1 1 + c2 k2 2 and =
c1
c2
1 + 2 .
k1
k2
(4.3.4)
Since 1 , 2 and 1 , 2 are uniquely determined by and , respectively, the

general tensor equations (4.1.20) and (4.1.34) are now replaced by more simple
scalar relations,
1 = a1 , 2 = a2 and 1 = b1 , 2 = b2 .
(4.3.5)
Also, the general tensor relations (4.1.23) and (4.1.36) simply become
c1 a1 + c2 a2 = 1 and c1 b1 + c2 b2 = 1.
(4.3.6)
The numbers a1 , a2 and b1 , b2 are the influence coefficients corresponding to the

homogeneous displacement and traction problems, completely characterized by the
pure dilatation and by the hydrostatic pressure , respectively.
As we know (see Equations (4.2.9)), the micro-and macro-moduli are not
independent. It is easy to see that Hills tensorial compatibility conditions (4.2.9)
now take the following more simple scalar form:
a 1 k1 = b 1 b
k and a2 k2 = b2 b
k.
(4.3.7)
Using the influence coefficients, from the equations (4.3.3), (4.3.4) and (4.3.5), we
obtain the following expressions for the overall bulk modulus b
k:
1
c 1 b1
c 2 b2
b
k = c1 a1 k1 + c2 a2 k2 and =
+
.
b
k1
k2
k
(4.3.8)
These more simple scalar relations take the place of the more general tensor
equations (4.1.22) and (4.1.35), valuable for an arbitrary biphasic composite.
212
We observe also that due to Hills compatibility relations (4.3.7), the two
expressions (4.3.8) for b
k are equivalent, as it is easy to see. This equivalence is necessary to have a consistent theory, allowing the replacement of the heterogeneous
composite by a single equivalent homogeneous body. This fact reveals the great
importance of Hills compatibility conditions. As we already know, their validity
is implied by Hills strong assumption, and this, in turn, follows from Hills weak
assumption. We can thus conclude that the replacement can be meaningfully realized only if a macrohomogeneous composite also has the supplementary property
stipulated in Hills weak assumption.
Since k1 , k2 , c1 , c2 are supposed to be known, as the relations (4.3.6) and
(4.3.8) show, it is necessary to determine one of the influence coefficients a 1 , a2 , b1
or b2 , in order to obtain the overall bulk modulus b
k.
If we consider a pure shear e and denote by s the corresponding mean deviatoric stress, we get the overall stress-strain relations
s=
be and e =
1
s.
The overall shear modulus

b is given by the equivalent relations
b = c1 1 1 + c2 2 2 and
c 2 2
c 1 1
1
.
+
=
2
1
(4.3.9)
(4.3.10)
Here 1 , 2 , 1 , 2 are the concentration coefficients corresponding to the

involved displacement or traction problem.
As we know (see Sections 3.2 and 4.2), a crude approximate treatment of the
problem assumes that the strain throughout the mixture is uniform if the displacement boundary condition is homogeneous (Voigts assumption). This supposition
leads to Voigts evaluation or mixture rule
kV = c 1 k1 + c 2 k2 , V = c 1 1 + c 2 2
(4.3.11)
for the overall moduli.

The dual assumption is that the stress is uniform if the traction boundary
condition is homogeneous (Reuss assumption). This supposition leads to Reuss
evaluation of mixture rule
c2
c1
c2 1
c1
1
+
=
+ ,
=
2
1
k2 R
k1
kR
(4.3.12)
for the overall moduli.

The above relations represent special forms of the general equations (4.2.32)
and (4.2.37), if the mixture is macroscopically isotropic.
In this special case, Hills universal estimates (4.2.33) and (4.2.38) become
more simple:
kR b
k k V , R
b V .
(4.3.13)
213
Elementary computations, using (4.3.11), (4.3.12) and the relation c1 +c2 = 1,

show that the differences between Voigts and Reuss estimates can be expressed
as
2
kV k R =
2
(1 2 )
(k1 k2 )
, V R = 1
2 .
k2
k1
+
c1 + c2
c2
c1
(4.3.14)
Thus the Voigts values exceed indeed the Reuss ones as required by the
Hills bound estimates (4.3.13). These differences are only second order quantities
with respect to the small differences between the corresponding elastic constants
of the phases. Hills universal estimates lose their practical importance if one of the
phases (the inclusion) is comparatively rigid (k2 , 2 ), the other having finite
moduli, or if one of the phases (the matrix) is comparatively weak (k1 , 1 0).
In the first case kV , V , while kR , R rest finite, while in the second case
kR , R 0 while kV , V rest finite. In general, Hills universal estimates (4.3.13)
are rather poor when the phase moduli differ by more than a factor of two, or so.
It is known that Youngs modulus E can be expressed in terms of k and as
1
1
3
.
= +
3k
E
(4.3.15)
Let ER and EV denote Youngs moduli calculated from (4.3.15) with Reuss
and Voigts estimates, respectively, of the bulk and shear moduli, given by (4.3.11)
and (4.3.12); i.e.
1
1
3
1
1
3
.
(4.3.16)
+
=
,
+
=
3kV
V
3kR EV
R
ER
From (4.3.13), it follows that
or
1
1
1
,
b
E
EV
R
E
b EV ,
ER E
b is the overall Young modulus; i.e.

where E
1
1
3
.
= +
b
b 3b
E
k
(4.3.17)
(4.3.18)
Due to the linearity of the relation (4.3.15) between the reciprocal of Youngs
modulus and the reciprocal of the bulk and shear moduli, from (4.3.15) it results
in
c2
c1
1
.
(4.3.19)
+
=
E2
E1
ER
Thus Reuss estimate (4.3.16) of Youngs overall modulus is what would be

obtained by calculating the average (mean) longitudinal strain in a traction test
on the assumption that the microscopic stress in the mixture is uniform.
214

By contrast, in general,
EV 6= c1 E1 + c2 E2
(4.3.20)
since Youngs modulus is not a linear combination of the bulk and shear moduli
(see Equation (4.3.15)).
By direct calculation, it can be shown that
c1 E1 + c2 E2 EV and c1 E1 + c2 E2 = EV if and only if 1 = 2 ,
(4.3.21)
1 and 2 being Poissons ratios of the matrix and inclusions, respectively.

Finally we have the following chain of comparisons:
1

b
c2
c1
E
= ER
EV .
(4.3.22)
+
c 1 E1 + c 2 E2
E2
E1
b and c1 E1 + c2 E2 . When the Poisson

There is no universal ordering of E
b c1 E1 + c2 E2 ; when the
rations of the phases are equal, it can be shown that E
b
shear moduli of the phases are equal, E c1 E1 + c2 E2 .
Let us assume now that the phases have equal shear moduli ; i.e.
1 = 2 = ,
(4.3.23)
and only their bulk moduli k1 and k2 are different. In this situation, Hill [4.1] was
able to determine the overall bulk modulus b
k. We now present Hills solution and
some interesting and important conclusions derivable from Hills wonderful result.
Let us introduce the Newtonian potential = (x) satisfying the following
Poisson equation:
c2 in D1 ,
= {
(4.3.24)
c1 in D2 .
As it is known from the theory of the Newtonian potential, satisfying
(4.3.24) is a continuous function on D and its gradient grad has the same property.
However, the second derivatives ,ij of are discontinuous in D. According
to equations (2.7.16), (2.7.17) and (4.3.24), these derivatives satisfy the following
jump conditions across , the common boundary of the matrix and inclusions
[,ij ] = ni nj on .
(4.3.25)
Following Hill, let us introduce the following displacement field u (x) on D

4
1
(4.3.26)
c2 k1 + c1 k2 + x in D,
u = (k1 k2 ) grad +
3
3
where is a scalar parameter, to be determined later. The first term in the right
hand side of (4.3.26) is an irrotational displacement field generated by and the
215
second one represents an uniform expansion. Since u and grad u are continuous on
D, u is an admissible displacement field for the piece-wise homogeneous composite.
The corresponding strain is given on D by

4
1
(4.3.27)
c2 k1 + c1 k2 + ij .
ij = (k1 k2 ) ,ij +
3
3
Due to (4.3.25), has nonvanishing jump across . Particularly, its dilatational part = tr is piece-wise constant in D. Indeed, from (4.3.25) and (4.3.27),
we get

in D1 ,
k2 +
3
(4.3.28)
=

in D2 .
k1 +
Hence, the mean values 1 and 2 of , on the subdomains D1 and D2 occupied

by the matrix and by the inclusions in RVE are given by

4
.
(4.3.29)
, 2 = k1 +
1 = k2 +
Hence, according to the fundamental relation (4.1.10) the mean (average)

dilatation = tr in the mixture is given by the equation

4
,
(4.3.30)
= c 1 1 + c 2 2 = c 1 k2 + c 2 k1 +
since c1 + c2 = 1.
In order to obtain the (microscopic) stress , we use the stress-strain relation
in the form

2
2
1+2.
(4.3.31)
(tr) 1 + 2 = k
= k
3
3
Thus, using (4.3.27) and (4.3.28), we get

2
4
k
+
ij + 2 (k2 k1 ) ,ij
1
2
3
3
2
4
+ (c2 k1 + c1 k2 + )ij in D1 ,
3
3
ij =

2
4
k2
k1 +
ij + 2 (k2 k1 ) ,ij
3
3
2
4
+ (c2 k1 + c1 k2 + )ij in D2 .
3
3
(4.3.32)
216
Using these expressions and taking into account equation (4.3.24) satisfied
by , it is easy to see that
div =0 in D1 and D2 .
(4.3.33)
Hence, is a self-equilibrated stress field.

Taking into account the jump relations (4.3.25) satisfied by , it is easy to
prove that also satisfies the null-jump condition
[n] = 0 on .
(4.3.34)
The obtained results show that we have obtained the real displacement field
in the RVE under surface displacement values of type (4.3.26) and with the normal
component un = u n of u given by the equation
un = (k1 k2 )
1
+ x n on D1 ,
n 3
(4.3.35)
resulting from the relations (4.3.26) and (4.3.30).

This normal component is as yet arbitrary. It remains to be established that
the obtained family of solutions contains a solution corresponding to a macroscop1
ically uniform (see Section 4.1) pure dilatation (u (x) = x) in the considered
3
RVE. To this end, it is enough to prescribe a normal component of the surface dis1
placement equalling that in an uniform expansion (i.e. x n on D ); or equiv3
=0
alently, to prescribe vanishing normal derivative of the potential (i.e.
n
on D ), as can be seen from (4.3.35). We assume that the mixture is such that
the solution of this Neumann problem for is a function that fluctuates with a
wave-length of the order of the mean dimensions of the inclusions of the mean distance between them. Consequently, the displacement field given by (4.3.26) really
corresponds to macroscopically homogeneous displacement boundary conditions.
Hence, assuming that Hills and Mandels conjecture (4.1.4) is right, the product
theorem can be applied neglecting terms of order O (d/l). Thus the above selected
solution can be used to determine the equivalent bulk modulus. Obviously, if is
prescribed, can be determined using (4.3.30).
Now we can return to the equations (4.3.28) and (4.3.30). Using them, we
get
k1 + 4
k2 + 4
2
1
3
3
.
(4.3.36)
=
,
=
c1 k2 + c2 k1 + 43
c1 k2 + c2 k1 + 43
Comparing (4.3.5)1,2 and (4.3.36), we obtain the influence coefficients a1 and

a2
a1 =
k1 + 4
k2 + 4
3
3
,
a
=
.
2
c1 k2 + c2 k1 + 34
c1 k2 + c2 k1 + 43
(4.3.37)
217
Thus, if 1 = 2 = , our problem is completely solved. Indeed, from (4.3.8)

and the above equations, we get the value of the overall bulk modulus b
k in terms
of the known data (k1 , k2 , 1 = 2 = , c1 , c2 ):
4 (c1 k1 + c2 k2 ) + 3k1 k2
b
.
k=
3 (c1 k2 + c2 k1 ) + 4
(4.3.38)
Let us observe that the above relation can be expressed in the following
equivalent useful form:
c2
c1
1
=
4 .
4 +
b
k
+
k
+
k + 4
2
1
3
3
3
(4.3.39)
Hills remarkable result shows that the overall bulk modulus b

k depends solely
on the separated moduli and on the concentrations, and is unaffected by the shapes
and distributions of the inclusions.
Using Voigts and Reuss estimates (4.3.11)1 , (4.3.12), the overall bulk modulus b
k can be expressed in various equivalent ways:
b
1+
k
=
kR
1+
or
4kV
3k1 k2
4kR
3k1 k2
1
kV k
1
k kR
.
=
,
=
4kR
3k
k
1
2
kV k R
1 + 4kR kV kR
1 + 3k
1 k2
(4.3.40)
(4.3.41)
Of course, the overall shear modulus

b is just itself. This can be seen from
(4.3.10) and equation c1 1 + c2 2 = 1 satisfied by the concentration coefficients
1 and 2 .
We recall that Poissons ratio can be expressed in terms of k and by
=
3k
.
1 + 3k
1
2
(4.3.42)
Using this equation and the relation (4.3.38), it is easy to see that the overall
Poisson ratio b is given by
We recall also the equation
b =
c 1 1 + c 2 2 1 2
.
1 c 1 2 c 2 1
(4.3.43)
E = 2 (1 + ) .
(4.3.44)
b we get the
Using (4.3.43) and the last relation, for the overall Young modulus E,
expression
b = 4 (c1 E1 + c2 E2 ) E1 E2 .
(4.3.45)
E
4 (c1 E2 + c2 E1 )
218

This formula shows the deviation from Voigts mixture rule.
Also, from (4.3.45), we get
b if 1 = 2 = .
c 1 E1 + c 2 E2 E
(4.3.46)
1 (matrix) < 2 (inclusions),
(4.3.47)
Using Hills results for 1 = 2 = , it is possible to establish universal

bounds on the overall bulk modulus b
k for an arbitrary mixture (1 6= 2 ). In
order to do this, we recall Hills comparison theorem according to which b
k would
be increased (decreased) if both phases have a common rigidity modulus equal to
the larger (smaller) of their actual values. Consequently, the actual overall bulk
modulus b
k must lie between those of similarly proportional mixtures, in which one
of the phases have the same shear rigidity 2 and, in the other one, the same shear
rigidity 1 (the separate bulk moduli k1 and k2 being fixed). Hence, assuming that
from the relations (4.3.11)2 , (4.3.12)1 and (4.3.38), we get
b
42 kV + 3k1 k2
k
41 kV + 3k1 k2
.
42 kR + 3k1 k2
kR
41 kR + 3k1 k2
(4.3.48)
We stress the following fundamental result:

Hills completeness theorem [4.1]. The bounds (4.3.48) are the best possible, in terms only of the moduli and concentrations, when no regard is paid to
geometry.
Indeed, each bound in (4.3.48) is exact, for arbitrary geometries when the
shear moduli are both equal to 1 or to 2 , as shown in Hills evaluation (4.3.48).
Hence, to obtain best bounds for b
k, the geometry of the inclusions must be
taken into account.
Let us observe that using equation c1 + c2 = 1, the overall bulk modulus b
k,
given by the relation (4.3.38), can also be expressed in the following equivalent
forms:
c1
c2
b
.
(4.3.49)
= k2 +
k = k1 +
3c2
1
3c1
1
+
+
3k2 + 4
k1 k 2
3k1 + 4
k2 k 1
Thus, Hills universal bounds (4.3.49) can be expressed by the inequalities
where
k b
k k+ ,
k = k1 +
k + = k2 +
(4.3.50)
c2
,
3c1
1
+
3k1 + 41
k2 k 1
c1
3c2
1
+
3k2 + 42
k1 k 2
(4.3.51)
.
219
4.4. HASHIN-SHTRIKMAN PRINCIPLE
4.4
The Hashin-Shtrikman principle
The difficult problem of bounding the overall shear modulus remains. The
idea behind the method leading to (4.3.48) or (4.3.49) is valid here, too, but
cannot be used since the formula analogous to (4.3.48) is not known there, where
only shear moduli are distinct. Bounds for the overall shear modulus have been
proposed by Hashin and Shtrikman [4.11], [4.12] via their new variational and
extreme principle. We present this important result for the displacement boundary
value problem.
Consider a homogeneous body which occupies the domain B limited by the
b isi prescribed on the
boundary B. Let us assume that surface displacement
h u
boundary B and no body forces are present. Let u , , be the solution of

this displacement boundary value problem. According to the assumption made,
the stress-strain relation for the body B is
(x) = c (x) , c = const.
(4.4.1)
Next we consider a geometrically identic composite body B, with the same

b , but which is piecewise homogeneous and anisoprescribed surface displacement u
tropic, containing two phases, the matrix and the inclusions. Let [u, , ] be the
solution of the considered displacement boundary value problem. According to the
assumption made, the stress-strain relation for the body B is

c1 = const. in B1
(x) = c (x) (x) with c (x) =
(4.4.2)
c2 = const. in B2 ,
B1 and B2 being the complementary subdomains occupied by the matrix, and by
the inclusions, respectively.
Following Hashin and Shtrikman, we introduce the symmetric stress polarization tensor p defined by
=c + p.
(4.4.3)
We define also the vector field
u0 = u u .
Hence,
(4.4.4)
0 = (u0 ) = .
(4.4.5)
0
In their analysis Hashin and Shtrikman have chosen p and as unknown

fields and have formulated their variational principle in terms of these fields. Following them, we introduce the tensor
r = c c
(4.4.6)
and assume that it is invertible. The inverse of r will be denoted by h; i.e.

h = r1 .
(4.4.7)
220
Let us introduce the functional U, defined on p and 0 by the following

equation:
Z

1
p hp p 0 2p dv
(4.4.8)
U (p, 0 ) = U
2 B
where
Z
Z

1
1

cdv.
dv =
U =
2 B
2 B
(4.4.9)
div (c 0 + p) = 0 in B1 and in B2 , u0 = 0 on B,
(4.4.11)
The first variation U of U in (p, 0 ), in the direction p, 0 is defined by

relation

d
U p+p, 0 + 0 |=0 ,
(4.4.10)
U =
d
being a real parameter.
We give and prove now
The Hashin-Shtrikman variational and extreme principle.
(i)The functional U, subjected to the subsidiary conditions
[u0 ] = 0 and [(c 0 + p)n] = 0 on ,
div (c 0 + p) = 0 in B1 and in B2 , u0 = 0 on B,
(4.4.12)
(4.4.13)
(4.4.14)
p = r.
(4.4.15)
[u0 ] = 0 and [(c0 + p)n] = 0 on ,

is stationary; i.e. U = 0, when
Here in the common boundary of the matrix and the inclusions.

(ii) The stationary value U s = U(p, 0 )of U is an absolute maximum when
r is positive definite and is an absolute minimum when r is negative definite.
(iii)The stationary value U s is equal to the strain energy U() stored in the
body.
(i) First of all we observe that according to (4.4.3) and (4.4.6), the stationary
condition (4.4.15) is equivalent to the stress-strain relation (4.4.2) for the heterogeneous body.
Next we stress the fact that the divergence theorem can be applied in its
usual form since the null-jump conditions (4.4.12) and (4.4.14) are assumed to be
satisfied.
In order to prove (i), we must show that
U = 0,
(4.4.16)
for any p, 0 = (u0 ) satisfying (4.4.13), (4.4.14), if p and 0 = (u0 ) satisfy

(4.4.11), (4.4.12).
221
We observe that h has the same symmetry as c according to (4.4.6) and

(4.4.7). We also take into account the equation (4.4.5) defining 0 . In this way
from (4.4.8)(4.4.10) we get
Z
1
(2p hpp 0 p0 2p )dv

U =
2 B
Z
1
(2 (hp ) p + 0 p p0 )dv.
=
2 B
Since h = r1 , when the extreme condition (4.4.15) holds, the first term of
the integral vanishes. Hence,
Z
1
(0 p p0 ) dv.
(4.4.17)
U =
2 B
The supplementary conditions (4.4.11)1 , (4.4.12)2 and (4.4.13)1 , (4.4.14)2 can

be expressed in the following form:
c 0 + p = t with div t = 0 in B1 B2 , [tn] = 0 on ,
(4.4.18)
c 0 + p = t with div t = 0 in B1 B2 , [tn] = 0 on .
(4.4.19)
Introducing p and p from (4.4.18) and (4.4.19) into (4.4.17) and using the
symmetry of c, we get
Z
1
(0 t t0 ) dv,
U =
2 B
or, taking into account the divergence theorem and the relations (4.4.18), (4.4.19)
Z
1
(u0 tnu0 tn) da.
U =
2 B
Now the restrictions (4.4.12)1 and (4.4.14)1 show that the relation (4.4.16)
is true and (i) is proved.
In order to prove (ii) we must evaluate the second variation 2 U in (p, 0 ) in
the direction p, 0 . We have
2 U =
From (4.4.8), we obtain

2
U =

d2
U p+p, 0 + 0 |=0 .
2
d
Z
B
p hp+0 c 0 t0 dv.
222
The integral of the last term vanishes since t and u satisfy (4.4.19) and
(4.4.14), respectively. Hence,
Z

(4.4.20)
2 U =
p hp+0 c 0 dv.
B
If r is positive definite, so is its inverse h. From (4.4.20) we get, in this case,

2 U < 0,
hence the stationary value U s = U (p, 0 ) of U is an absolute maximum.

In order to prove the minimum condition, we consider the integral
Z
I =
p k pdv,
(4.4.21)
B
k being the inverse of c. Using again (4.4.19), we get

Z

t k t + 0 c 0 2t0 dv.
I =
B
The integral of the last term vanishes again; hence,

Z
0
0
t k t + c dv.
I =
(4.4.22)
As we know, k is positive definite. Hence, comparing the expressions (4.4.21)

and (4.4.22) of I, we can conclude that
Z
Z
0 c 0 dv.
p k pdv
(4.4.23)
B
Now (4.4.20) and (4.4.23) results in

Z
Z
Z
2
U p hpdv p k pdv = p (h+ k)pdv.
B
From this inequation, we can see that a sufficient condition for
2U > 0
is that h+ k be negative-definite. Because of the relations (4.4.6) and (4.4.7) and
of the positive definiteness of c and c, this condition is equivalent to the negative

definiteness of r. Hence, if r is negative definite, the stationary value U s = U (p, 0 )
of U is an absolute minimum and (ii) is completely proved.
In order to prove (iii) we must show that
Z
1
s
0
dv.
U = U (p, ) = U () =
2 B
223
Introducing the stationary condition (4.4.15) in the first term of the integral
(4.4.8), and using (4.4.7), we get successively
Z

1
r hp p 0 2p dv =
U s = U (p, 0 ) = U
2 B
Z

1
p p 0 2p dv.
=U
2 B
Taking into account (4.4.5), we get

Z

1
p 2p dv
Us = U
2 B
Z

1
p dv.
=U +
2 B
Now, taking into account (4.4.1), (4.4.3) and (4.4.9), we obtain

Z

1

s
+ c dv
U =
2 B
Z

1

+ dv.
=
2 B
From (4.4.5) = 0 and using this equation, U s becomes

Z
Z

1
1
+ 0 dv.
dv
Us =
2 B
2 B
But
0 dv =
0 dv = 0
since and are the stress corresponding to the solutions of the two displacement
boundary value problems, and u0 vanishes on B, satisfying null-jump conditions
on . Consequently, from the last expression of U s , we get
Z
1
dv = U () ,
(4.4.24)
U s = U (p, 0 ) =
2 B
and (iii) is proved.

As was shown by Hashin and Shtrikman, the above principle can be used to
obtain bounds for the overall elastic moduli.
In order to see how this can be done, we assume in this Section that both
components (phases) of the composite are isotropic. Moreover, as in Section 4.3,
we suppose that the biphasic mixture is also macroscopically isotropic.
All quantities referring to the homogeneous body, which are present in the
given theorem, will be marked by a superposed zero. The fields referring to the
matrix will be indexed by 1, those concerning the inclusions by 2.
224
We shall use the following notations denoting the decomposition of various

fields in their spherical and deviatoric parts
= 1+ e , = 1+ s , =
1
1
tr , = tr ,
3
3
(4.4.25)
1
1
= 1 + e, = 1 + s, = tr, = tr.
3
3
The stress-strain relation for the homogeneous body can be written in two
equivalent forms:

= tr 1+2
or
is
= 3 k and s = 2 e with k = + .
(4.4.26)
3

Consequently, the specific strain energy u = u of the homogeneous body

2

1
1
e
e
9
+2
.
(4.4.27)
=
k
2
2
Similarly, we can express the stress-strain relation for the composite in two
equivalent forms
= (tr) 1+2
u=
or
2
(4.4.28)
= 3k and s = 2e with k = + .
3
In these equations, , and k take the constant values 1 , 1 , k1 in the domain
occupied by the matrix, and the constant values 2 , 2 , k2 in the domain occupied
by the inclusions.

1
We must express now the tensor k = r1 = c c
. If and are two
symmetric tensor connected by the equation

= r = c c , = h,
from (4.4.26) and (4.4.28), we get

= 3 k k , s = 2 e.
Hence,
1
1
= 1 + e =
s
1+
2
3 k k
1
1
1

=

.
1+
3 k k
2
2
225
Now it is easy to see that the components hijkl of h are
1
1
1
1

hijkl =
(ik jl + il jk ) ,
ij kl +
3
3 k k
4
2
or, equivalently,
hijkl =
1
ij kl

+
4
9 k k

2
ik jl + il jk ij kl . (4.4.29)
3
Let us decompose now the polarization tensor p in its spherical and deviatoric
parts:
1
(4.4.30)
p = p1 + q, p = trp, trq = 0.
3
Thus from (4.4.29) and (4.4.30), we get
p hp =
k k
q
q.
(4.4.31)
Let D be the domain occupied by the RVE of the composite, and let D and v
the boundary and the volume of D, respectively. We consider also the homogeneous
material occupying the same domain D. We suppose that on the boundary D of
both bodies, the same homogeneous displacement is prescribed; i.e.
u (x) = x, u (x) = x on D
where is given, symmetric, constant tensor.

The solution of this displacement problem for the homogeneous body is
u (x) = x, (x) = , (x) =c , in D.
(4.4.32)

Hence, according to (4.4.27), the mean value of the strain energy U of
the homogeneous body will be

1 2
1
(4.4.33)
9k +2 ee ,
U =
2
v
where
1
tr, tre = 0.
(4.4.34)
3
Now we return to the RVE of the composite. As before, let [u, , ] be the
solution corresponding to the homogeneous displacement condition imposed on
the boundary of the RVE. In order to introduce the overall elastic moduli b
k and
= 1+e, =
226
b of the composite their energetical definition will be used. Thus, if U () is the

strain energy of the RVE, we get

1 b 2
1
ee .
9k + 2b
U () =
2
v
(4.4.35)
In order to apply the Hashin-Shtrikman principle, the mean value of U (p, 0 )

must also be determined. According to (4.4.8), we get
Z
Z
Z
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
p dv.
p dv +
p hpdv +
U (p, ) = U
2v D
2v D
2v D
v
v
(4.4.36)
In order to evaluate this mean value first, we use (4.4.31), (4.4.32)2 and (4.4.33).
In this way, (4.4.36) becomes
1
1 2
1
2
q q dv +
p +
U = 9 k 2 + 2 e e
v D k
v
2
k
Z
1
(4.4.37)
p 0 dv + 2p .
+
v D
Here p is the mean value of the polarization tensor p.

Following Hashin and Shtrikman, we assume now that the polarization stress
field p is piece-wise constant; i.e.

p1 = const. in D1 ,
p (x) =
(4.4.38)
p2 = const. in D2 ,
and
1
trp , trq = 0, = 1, 2.
3
Consequently, for the mean value of p, we get
p = p 1 + q , p =
p=
2
X
c p = p1+q with p =
=1
2
X
c p , q =
=1
2
X
c q ,
(4.4.39)
(4.4.40)
=1
c1 and c2 representing the concentration of the matrix and of the inclusions, respectively.
From (4.4.40), we get
p = 3
2
X
=1
c p + e
2
X
=1
c q .
227

Now (4.4.37) becomes
2
X
c
2
2
(4.4.41)
U (p, 0 ) = 9 k 2 + 2 e e
p
v
=1 k k
2
2
2
X
X
X
c
e
c q + 2U 0 (p, 0 ) .
c
p
+
2
q
q
+
6
=1
=1
=1 2( )
Here
1 0
W (p, 0 )
v
Z
1
0
0
p 0 dv.
W (p, ) =
2 D
U 0 (p, 0 ) =
and
(4.4.42)
(4.4.43)
It remains the most difficult problem: the evaluation of the mean value
U 0 (p, 0 ) in terms of the polarization field (4.4.38). The problem was solved by
Hashin and Shtrikman using Fourier transforms.
First of all we introduce the fluctuation p0 of the polarization stress p; i.e.
p0 = pp.
(4.4.44)
Taking into account that the mean value 0 of the fluctuation 0 of the strain is
vanishing, from (4.4.43) we obtain
Z
1
0
0
0
0 0
p0 0 dv.
(4.4.45)
W (p, ) = W (p , ) =
2 D
Also, since p is constant, the field equations (4.4.11), (4.4.12), which must be
satisfied by the fluctuations u0 , 0 and p0 , take the following form:

div c 0 + p0 = 0 in B1 B2 , u0 = 0 on B,
h 0
i
(4.4.46)
c + p0 n = 0 on .
[u0 ] = 0,
Introducing now the stress-strain relation (4.4.1), characterizing the homogeneous and isotropic material, we get the equilibrium equations which must be
satisfied by the field u0 :

0
0
0
(4.4.47)
+ uj,ij + ui,jj + pij,j = 0 in D1 D2 .
In order to evaluate the mean value (4.4.42), we assume now that the composite has a infinite extent. In this case, according to (4.4.43)-(4.4.47), our problem
can be formulated in the following way:
Given

0
0
0
0
(4.4.48)
+ uj,ij + ui,jj + pij,j = 0 in E , lim u (x) = 0
|x|
228
find u0 (x), and than evaluate U 0 (p, 0 ), using the equation

Z
1
1 0 0 0
0
0
p0 0 dv.
U (p, ) = lim W (p , ) = lim
v 2v D
v v
(4.4.49)
Recall that E is the whole three-dimensional Euclidean space.

Fortunately the complete solution of the system (4.4.48) is not required to
obtain the mean value (4.4.49). To see this we recall that if f (x) is a field given
on E, its Fourier transform F () is defined by
Z
1
(4.4.50)
f (x) eix dx, i = 1,
F () =
(2)3/2
where the integration is over the entire physical space E. We recall also that the
Fourier transform of the partial derivative f,i (x) is ij F (), where j is the j-th
component of the wave number vector .
Also, if g (x) is a second field given on E and G () is its Fourier transform,
the Parceval equality takes place:
Z
Z
(4.4.51)
F () G () d = f (x) g (x) dx.
Here the superposed star denotes complex conjugation and in the left-hand
side the integration is over the entire wave number space, while in the right hand
side, it is over the entire physical space.
Denoting by U() and P () the Fourier transform of u0 (x) and p0 (x) and
using the above recalled properties of the Fourier transforms, from (4.4.48) we get
the equations which must be satisfied by the components of U () and P () in
the wave-number space

2
2
2
2
2
+ i j Uj + Ui = ij Pij , = 1 + 2 + 3 .
Solving this system for the unknowns Ui we get

+2 i 2 Pim n + + ii Pkl k l
.
Ui =

+2 4

Now, for the Fourier transform F u0i,j of u0i,j , we get

+2 2 Pim j n + + i j Pkl k l

.
F u0i,j = ikj Ui =

+2 4
Returning to the expression (4.4.45) of W 0 (p0 , 0 ) and using the Parceval

equation (4.4.51), we get
+
P
l
l
l
l
P
d, (4.4.52)
2W 0 (p0 , 0 ) =
Pmi Pmj li lj +

ij kl i j k l

+2
229

where
li = i /.
(4.4.53)
The difficult task to evaluate these integrals still remains. To solve this problem we recall that the composite is macroscopically isotropic. Hence the polarization stress p (x) depends on x only, through the magnitude r = |x| of x, since
cannot exist a privileged direction in the mixture. To establish an important consequence of this fact we consider an arbitrary but fixed wave number vector .
We introduce in the physical space a Cartesian coordinate system such that the
axis x3 has the direction of . Simultaneously, let (r, , ) be a spherical system
of coordinates such that x1 = r sin cos , x2 = r sin sin , x3 = r cos , 0 < r <
, 0 < , 0 < 2. The volume element dx and the scalar product x
become dx = r 2 sin drdd and x = r cos . Thus, for the Fourier transform
P () of p0 (x) = p0 (r), we get
P () =
(2)
3/2
p0 (r)
r
sin rdr = P () .
Hence, the Fourier transform P () depends on only through the magnitude of this wave vector, if the composite is macro-isotropic. Thus, according to
(4.4.52), we have to calculate integrals of the following type:
I=
J=
Pmi () Pmj () li lj d,
Pij () Pkl () i j k l d.
In order to do this we introduce the spherical coordinates (, , ), 0 <

, 0 < , 0 < 2 in the wave number space. We get
l1 = sin cos , l2 = sin sin , l3 = cos , d = 2 sin ddd.
Consequently, I and J become
I=
J=
Pmi ()
Pmj
() d
2 Pij () Pkl () d
li lj d,
li lj lk ll d,
where is the unit sphere and d = sin dd is the surface element on . Due
230
to the spherical symmetry, we have

Z
Z
Z
Z
4
4
2
2
2
if i 6= j,
and
li lj d =
l1 d = l2 d = l3 d =
15
3
Z
Z
Z
4
,
l14 d = l24 d = l34 d =
5
Z
Z
Z
4
2 2
2 2
,
l1 l2 d = l2 l3 d = l32 l12 d =
15
Z
li lj lk ll d = 0,
if l1 , l2 , or l3 appears with an odd power.

Taking into account these results, and the equation d = 4 2 d, valid in our
case, we get
Z
1
P P d,
I=
3

Z
1
P11 P11 +P22 P22 +P33 P33 d
J=
5

Z

1
d
(trP) tr P + 2P P 3 P11 P11 +P22 P22 +P33 P33
+
15
or
Z n

o
1
(trP) tr P + 2P P d.
J=
15
Using again the Parceval equation (4.4.51), we obtain
Z n
Z
o
1
1
2
(trp0 ) + 2p0 p0 dx.
p0 p0 dx, J =
I=
15
3
Taking into account again the relation (4.4.52), W 0 (p0 , 0 ) becomes

2W 0 =
p0 p0 dx+
+

15 +2
Z n
o
2
(trp0 ) + 2p0 p0 dx.
Now we return to equation (4.4.49) getting

0
2U (p, ) =
or
2U 0 (p, 0 ) =
p0
p0
o
n
+
0 ) 2 + 2 p 0 p0 ,
(trp
+

15 +2
3 +8
+
2
(trp0 ) .
p0 p 0 +

15 +2
15 +2
231

Recalling that p0 = pp, we obtain
3 +8
{p p p p}
2U (p, ) =

15 +2
n
2 o
+
2
trp
.
(trp)

+
15 +2
0
Now taking into account the decomposition (4.4.40) of the mean value p into

its spherical and deviatoric part, and using the relation =k 2 /3, we obtain
finally the result derived by Hashin and Shtrikman:

(4.4.54)
2U 0 (p, 0 ) = 0 p2 p2 + 0 (q q q q),
where the Hashin-Shtrikman coefficients 0 and 0 have the following expressions:

+2
3
k
3
.
(4.4.55)
, 0 =
0 =

5 3 k +4
3 k +4
Recalling the definition (4.4.38) of the polarization stress p, we get
p2
p =
2
P
c p2
2
P
2
c p ,

2
2
2
P
P
P
c q .
c q
c q q
qqqq=
=1
=1
=1
=1
=1
Introducing these results in (4.4.54) and using the relation (4.4.42), we obtain
2
X
c
2
2
0
2
U (p, ) = 9 k + 2 e e
p
v
k
=1
k
2
2
2
X
X
X
c
q
+
6
c
p
+
2
e
c q
=1 2( )
=1
=1
!2
2
2
X
X
+0
c p
c p2
(4.4.56)
=1
=1
( 2
!
!)
2
2
X
X
X
+0
c q q
c q
.
c q
=1
=1
=1
Now, we return to the Hashin-Shtrikman principle to get bounds for the

overall moduli b
k and
b. For simplicity, we take v =1.
232

From the principle, it results that, if
k k and for = 1, 2,
(4.4.57)
that is, if the tensor r = c c is positive definite, then

U U s = U.
(4.4.58)
Analogously, if
k k and r for = 1, 2,
(4.4.59)
that if the tensor r = c c is negative definite, then

U U s = U.
(4.4.60)
In this way, taking U in the form (4.4.35) and using (4.4.56), the inequalities
(4.4.58) and (4.4.60) lead to bounds for the overall moduli. In order to find the
best bounds for a polarization field of type (4.4.38), we have maximized (4.4.56)
for conditions (4.4.57) and have minimized the same quantity for the conditions
(4.4.59).
Differentiating (4.4.56) with respect to p and q , = 1, 2, the extreme
conditions are found to be
+ 0 p 0 p + 3 = 0,
(4.4.61)
q + 0 q 0 q + e = 0.
(4.4.62)
k k
2( )
Let us denote by p and q

the (unique) solution of this system. It is easy
to see that this solution realizes the maximum of U when (4.4.57) holds, and the
minimum of U when (4.4.59) takes place. Also, direct computations show that the
value Ue of U for the solution is
1
1

.
(4.4.63)
e =U + p
Ue =U + 3p + q
2
2
= c1 q
1 + c2 q
2 can be obtained by
The mean values p = c1 p1 + c2 p2 and q
solving (4.4.61) and (4.4.62) for p and q
. The results are
p =
with
A=
2
X
=1
B
3A
e,
=
, q
1 + 0 B
1 + 0 A
k k
,
0
B=
2
X
=1
(4.4.64)
2( )
.
0
(4.4.65)
233
In order to found bounds for the bulk modulus b

k, we assume that the given
strain is spherical; i.e. = 1. It follows from (4.4.33), (4.4.35), (4.4.63) and
(4.4.64)1 that
>
A
b
,
(4.4.66)
k <k +
1 + 0 A
where the upper inequality sign applies if k >k and the lower if k <k for = 1.2.
Similarly, when the given strain is deviatoric; i.e. = e, from (4.4.33),
(4.4.35), (4.4.63) and (4.4.64)2 it follows that
>
b < +
B
1
,
2 1 + 0 B
(4.4.67)
where the upper inequality sign applies if > and the lower if < for
= 1.2.
It remains to specify the values of k and which, when introduced into

(4.4.66) and (4.4.67), will yield the highest lower bounds and the lowest upper
bounds. It can be proved by differentiation that the expressions in the right sides
of (4.4.66) and (4.4.67) are monotonically increasing functions of k and . Ac
cordingly, the highest lower bounds are obtained by taking the largest values of k
and which comply with (4.4.57). The lowest upper bounds are obtained for the
smallest values of k and which comply with (4.4.59).

Let us assume that
k1 k2 and 1 2 .
(4.4.68)
Then, for the highest lower bounds, denoted by k and , we must take
k = k1 and = 1 ,
(4.4.69)
and for the lower upper bounds, denoted by k + and + , we must choose
k = k2 and = 2 .
(4.4.70)
Introducing (4.4.69)1 and (4.4.70)1 into the right side of the relations (4.4.66)
it is found that
c2
,
k = k1 +
3c1
1
+
3k1 + 41
k2 k 1
(4.4.71)
c1
+
,
k = k2 +
3c2
1
+
3k2 + 42
k1 k 2
and
k b
k k+ .
(4.4.72)
234
Analogously, introducing (4.4.69)2 and (4.4.70)2 into the right hand side of
the relation (4.4.67), we get
= 1 +
c2
6c1 (k1 + 21 )
1
+
51 (3k1 + 41 )
2 1
c1
,
= 2 +
6c2 (k2 + 22 )
1
+
52 (3k2 + 42 )
1 2
(4.4.73)
and

b + .
(4.4.74)
The relations (4.4.71)(4.4.74) are true if (4.4.68) takes place. If there exists
a different ordering between k1 and k2, 1 and 2 , the above formulas must be
changed accordingly.
Comparing equations(4.3.48) obtained by Hill and the relations (4.4.71) deduced by Hashin and Shtrikman, we can see that k in the overall bulk modulus
of a composite with bulk moduli k1 , k2 and common shear modulus 1 ; similarly,
k + is the overall bulk modulus of a composite with bulk moduli k1, k2 and common shear modulus 2 . The limits k and k + obtained by Hashin and Shtrikman,
using their variational and extremal principle, are the same as those obtained by
Hill, using its comparison theorem and its exact solution for the bulk modulus of
a composite for which the two phases have the same shear modulus.
Consequently, the bounds k and k + are the best possible, if only the phases
moduli and their concentration, the inclusions geometry and relative distribution
resting arbitrary are known.
Since it was not possible yet to identify the bounds or + with exact
solutions, the question whether or not and + are the most restrictive bounds
for
b remains at present unanswered.
Summing up the theoretical results presented up to now, we can say that in
order to obtain the exact values of the overall moduli, we must know the strainenergy. In order to evaluate this energy, it is necessary to find the strain and stress
fields in the composite, which appears to be an impossible task. Consequently, the
attempts made to find the exact values of the overall moduli are found on simplifying assumptions concerning the geometry and the distribution of the inclusions.
A more attractive and more general approach consists in the use of the extremal
principle, in order to find bounds for the strain energy, and thus for the overall
moduli, without making assumptions about phase geometry.
The nature of the bounds to be found is such that the distance between them
increases with increasing relative stiffnesses of one phase ratio. As can be seen from
(4.4.71) and (4.4.73) in the extreme case of a rigid phase (k2 , 2 converge simultaneously to infinity), the upper bounds k + , + will increase to infinity, where as in
the other extreme situation of a very soft matrix (k1 , 1 converge simultaneously
235
to zero), the lower bounds k , will tend to zero. However, when the ratios
between the different phase moduli are not too large, the derived bounds are close
enough to provide a good estimate for the overall moduli.
In order to see that, we present the results obtained by Hashin and Shtrikman
[4.12] for a tungsten carbide-cobalt (W C Co) alloy for which experimental data
are available. According to the adopted notation, moduli of the cobalt have been
assigned the subscript 1 and for those of the tungsten carbide the subscript 2.
The bounds k , k + and , + have been numerically evaluated using formulas
(4.4.71) and (4.4.74), respectively. The results are given in Figures 4.2 and 4.3.
k
6
10 MPa
k 2 = 418.5 10 MPa
400
k+
k
200
k 1= 172.4 10 MPa
c2
0
0.2
0.6
0.4
0.8
1.0
Figure 4.2: Bounds for bulk modulus of WC-Co alloy.
10 MPa
2=
288.2 10 MPa
k+
200
k100
1=
79.3 10 MPa
c2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Figure 4.3: Bounds for shear modulus of WC-Co alloy.
236
The bounds E and E + for Youngs modulus have been obtained by using
the usual relation E = 9k/ (3k + ). These are shown in Figure 4.4 together with
experimental results and Hills universal bounds ER and EV . The comparison
shows that the Hill-Hashin-Shtrikman theory is in very good agreement with the
experimental values of the overall Young modulus and that the present bounds
E and E + are a marked improvement with respect to the Voigts and Reuss
V = c1 E1 + c2 E2 and ER = (c1 /E1 + c2 /E2 )1 .
type bounds E
PREVIOUS BOUNDS
EXPERIMENTAL POINTS
E
6
10 MPa
700
E 2 = 703.3
10 MPa
~
EV
600
E+
500
E-
400
300
E1= 206.9 106 MPa
200
ER
100
c2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Figure 4.4: Bounds for Young modulus of WC-Co alloy.

It should be noted that the moduli of tungsten carbide phase were quite large
as compared to those of the cobalt phase, the ratio being
k2 /k1 = 2.4, 2 /1 = 3.6, E2 /E1 = 3.4.
The bounds are nevertheless quite close. This indicates that the bounds obtained by Hill, Hashin, and Shtrikman should give a good estimate of the overall
moduli of two-phase components for a great variety of practical cases.
4.5
Budianskys and Hills self-consistent method
The general predictions obtained in Sections 4.3 and 4.4 are mostly restricted
to formulate universal bounds. Such bounds depend only on relative volumes
(concentrations) and do not reflect any particular geometry.
When one phase is a dispersion of spherical inclusions, a much more direct
approach is available. The method draws on Eshelbys solution (see Section 2.7)
concerning a uniform loaded infinite medium containing an ellipsoidal and, in
4.5. BUDIANSKYS AND HILLS SELF-CONSISTENT METHOD
237
particular, a spherical inclusion. Eshelbys results were used first by Budiansky [4.7]
and Hill [4.4] to obtain information about the overall properties of a composite.
As before, we assume a biphasic mixture with isotropic components. We
suppose also that the mixture is macro homogeneous and macro isotropic, and
the inclusions are spherical (or nearly spherical). As before, the bulk and shear
moduli will be denoted by k1, 1 and k2, 2 for the matrix, and for the inclusions,
1
respectively. If = tr, = tr, e and s are the deviatoric parts of the strain
3
and of the stress , respectively, the constitutive equations of the composite can
be written as
1
1
s in D1 ,
in D1 ,
2
k1
1
(4.5.1)
and
e
=
=
1
1
s in D2 .
in D2 ,
22
k2
Here D1 and D2 are the domains occupied by the matrix and by the inclusions
in the considered RVE, occupying the domain D.
Consequently, the overall stress-strain relations are
1
1
s.
and e =
b
2b
(4.5.2)
1
Here = tr, = tr, e and s are the deviatoric parts of the mean strain and
3
of the mean stress , respectively.
In order to determine the overall moduli b
k and
b in the first part of this
Section, we follow Budiansky. A little more general procedure, applicable also to
anisotropic composites was developed by Hill [4.3], [4.4].
Let us consider the homogeneous traction problem corresponding to =
1+s = const. Let us denote by s = [u, , ] the solution of this boundary value
problem.
Using the energetic definition of the overall compliance, we get
Z
1
1
1
kdv = 2 +
2Uk () =
s s.
(4.5.3)
b
v D
2b
Taking into account the special form of the boundary condition (n =n on D

and = const.), using the divergence theorem and the microscopic constitutive
equation (4.5.1), we successively obtain
Z
Z
Z
Z
1
1
1
1
2Uk () =
dv =
u nda =
unda =
(un + nu)da.
v D
v D
v D
2v
D
From the last result, through the divergence theorem, we get
Z
1
2Uk () =
dv.
v
D
238

Now we use again the microscopic strain-stress relation (4.5.1) getting
2v Uk () =
Z
D1
1
dv +
k1
D2
1
dv
k2
1
+ s
2
Z
D1
1
sdv +
1
D2

1
sdv .
2
Adding and substracting we obtain

Z
Z
1
1
1
dv
dv +
2v Uk () =
k1
k2
D2
D k1

Z
Z
1
1
1
1
sdv .
sdv +
+ s
1
2
2
D2
D 1
Taking into account again the micro-constitutive equation (4.5.1) and the
definition of the mean values, we obtain

Z
Z
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
s s+
2Uk () = 2 +
k2 dv + s
2 edv.
v D2 k 2
21
k1
k1
v
2
1
D2
Thus, it results in
2Uk () =
1 2
1
+
s s + c 2 k2
k1
21
1
1
k2
k1
2 + c 2 2
1
1
2
1
s e2 , (4.5.4)
where 2 and e2 are the mean values of and e on the domain D2 occupied by
the inclusions in the RVE.
Comparing (4.5.3) and (4.5.4), we get
1 2
1
1
1
+
s s = 2 +
s s + c 2 k2
b
2b
k
2
1
1
k
1
1
k2
k1
2 + c 2 2
1
1
2
1
s e2 .
(4.5.5)
b
Now it is clear that to obtain k and
b, the mean values 2 and e2 must be
expressed in terms of and s.
In order to solve this problem, we apply the self-consistence method. We
approximate 2 and e2 by the constant dilatation and the shear that would occur
in a single isolated spherical inclusion embedded in an infinite isotropic elastic
matrix subjected to the stress = 1+s at infinity, and having the as-yet unknown
overall moduli b
k and
b of the composite.
The exact solution of Eshelby for this problem was given in the Section 2.7.
Since the strain in the inclusion is uniform, according to the equations (2.7.52)
and (4.5.2), for the mean values 2 and e2 , we get
2 =
1
1

o s,
, e2 = n
k2 b
k
b+b
k
2 (2
b) b +
b
(4.5.6)
239
with the following expressions for the coefficients

b and b (see Equations (2.7.45))
b=
b
k + 2b
6 b
k
1 + b
b b = 2 4 5b
,
=
= 3 5,
=
4
b
15
1
b
15
3 (1 b)
3
k
+
4b
b
b
k+
3
(4.5.7)
b being the overall Poisson ratio of the composite.

Introducing (4.5.6) in (4.5.5), we obtain two equations satisfied by the overall
elastic moduli

c2
2
1
1
c2
k2
1
1

.
+ 1
=
,
+ 1
=
b
1 b (2
1
b
k1
k1
b) +
b
k
b k2 b
k +b
k
(4.5.8)
The above relations were obtained by Budiansky. They, together with the standard
relation
3b
k 2b
(4.5.9)
b =
b
6k + 2b
provide, in implicit form, the desired dependence of the overall moduli b

k and
b
on the elastic constants and concentrations of the matrix and of the spherical
inclusions.
Using the identity c1 + c2 = 1, after elementary computations, equations
(4.5.8) can be expressed in an equivalent, but more symmetric form
c1
b
k k2
c2
b
k k1
b
c1
c2
b
= .
+
,
b
b 1
b 2
k
(4.5.10)
These relations were first obtained by Hill.

Using the second expression (4.5.7) of
b and taking into account that c 1 +c2 =
1, from the equations (4.5.10)1 , we get

4
4
4
c
k
+
b
+
c
k
+
b
2
1
1
2
b + c 2 k1 + c 1 k2
4
3
3
b

=

b= 3
k+
.
4
4
4
4
3
k1 +
k2 +
k1 +
b
k2 +
b
3
3
3
3
Thus, we can express b

k parametrically in terms of
b:
1
4
b
k+
b
3
c1
4
k1 +
b
3
c2
4
k2 +
b
3
(4.5.11)
It is noteworthy to mention that this is identical with Hills exact solution

(4.3.39) for composites with arbitrary geometry, when the phases have equal shear
moduli. However, now we can determine both overall moduli, even if the phases
240
have different shear moduli. But now the geometry (form) of the inclusions is
specified.
Following Hill [4.4] we shall now analyze some properties of the obtained
results. Since the obtained formulas are meaningful only when
b
k,
b > 0,
from (4.5.7), we can deduce the following restrictions for

b and b
0<
b < 1, 2/5 < b < 3/5.
In order to discuss the behavior of

b, in general terms, one may retain
rameter in view of its restricted range given above. Clearing fractions in
(4.5.10), we get

n
o
b 1 2 = 0.
f (b
) 1 b
b2 + b (1 + 2 ) (c1 1 + c2 2 )
b
b as paequation
(4.5.12)
We find
f (R ) < 0 and f (V ) > 0,
R and V being the Reuss and Voigt estimates, respectively.

Consequently, the required positive root lies between R and V , respecting
Hills universal restriction (4.3.13). Also, it follows that b
k is certainly in the interval
obtained by substituting R and V in the monotonic relation (4.5.11). Hence, b
k
lies a fortiori between the best-possible bounds for an arbitrary geometry, which,
as we know, correspond to 1 and 2 in (4.5.11), according to the results obtained
in Section 4.3 and founded on Hills comparison theorem.
The above properties of
b and b
k obtained using the self-consistent method are
obviously satisfactory features of this procedure to evaluate overall elastic moduli.
Hill has derived also an explicit equation for
b, expressing both sides of the
relation
b = 3 5b using (4.5.10) and (4.5.11). Elementary computations lead to
the equation

c2 1
c1 2
c 2 k2
c 1 k1
+ 2 = 0.
(4.5.13)
+
+5
+
g (b
)
4
4
b 1
b 2
b
b k2 +
k1 +
3
3
This form of the equation satisfied by

b is useful for iterative or graphical
solutions, as well as for qualitative analysis.
The equation (4.5.13) could be put in a quadratic form but is far better as
it stands, and a solution between 1 and 2 can be obtained, by tabulating c1 or
c2 as a function of
b.
It is easy to see that as increases from 0 to , the first bracketed function
decreases monotonically to zero from 1 if k1 k2 6= 0, and from c1 if k2 = 0, from
c2 if k1 = 0, and finally vanishes if both k1 and k2 are zero. If 1 2 6= 0 and
241
2 < 1 , the second bracketed function decreases monotonically from 1 to

in the range (0, 1 ); from + to in (1 , 2 ), with values 0 and 1 at R and
at V ; and from + to 0 in (2 , ). It is therefore confirmed again, provided
that neither phase rigidity vanishes, that there exists precisely one positive root
and that it lies between the Reuss and Voigt estimates.
This root can be stated explicitly when the dispersion is diluted ; thus, if
c2 << 1.
In this case, in which the self-consistent method can give good results, we find
b 1 (1 + kc2 )
where
k1
.
4
k1 + 1
3
As can be seen from equation (4.5.13), the obtained approximate value of the
overall shear moduli
b is correct up to zero order in c2 .
Finally we analyze some extremal situations. To do this we shall use Budianskys equation (4.5.8). From the relations (4.5.7), we obtain
1
2
1
2 +
=
5
2 1
k
1
b=
4b
3b
k + 4b
, 1 b =
9b
k + 8b

.
b
5 3k + 4b
(4.5.14)
In what follows, we assume an incompressible matrix ; i.e.

k1 = .
In this case, from (4.5.8)1 , we get
c
1
1
.
=
b
b
k
k+
b k2 b
k
(4.5.15)
First we suppose that the inclusions are holes; i.e.

k2 = 2 = 0.
In this case, from (4.5.8)2 and (4.5.15), it results
We first assume
c2
1
1
c2
1
.
+
, =
=
b
1
b
(1
b) b
k
k
1 b
b
b
k 6= 0.
(4.5.16)
242
Consequently, (4.5.16)1 gives

Thus, from (4.5.14)1 it results
Hence, (4.5.14)2 gives
c2 = 1
b.
4 1 c2
b
b.
k=
3 c2
4 1 c2
b.
1 b =
3 c2
(4.5.17)
(4.5.18)
(4.5.19)
Thus, from (4.5.16)2 and (4.5.18), we get
b=3
(1 c2 ) (1 2c2 )
1 2c2
1 .
1 , b
k=4
c2 (3 c2 )
3 c2
(4.5.20)
Since
b and b
k cannot be negative, the obtained results can be accepted only
if c2 1/2. If c2 > 1/2, the only acceptable solution of the equation (4.5.16)1 is
b
k = 0. In this case the equation (4.5.16)2 can be satisfied only by
b = 0.
Summing up we can say that according to the self-consistent method if the
matrix is incompressible and the inclusions are holes, the overall moduli are
1 2c2
4 (1 c2 ) (1 2c2 )
b
1 , if 0 c2 < 1/2,
,
b=3
k=
3 c2
c2 (3 c2 )
(4.5.21)
b
k=
b = 0 if c2 > 1/2.
Next, we suppose that the inclusions are rigid; i.e.

k2 = 2 = .
In this case (4.5.15) gives
b
k = .
(4.5.22)
b = 2/5.
(4.5.23)
Consequently, from (4.5.14)2 it results
Since 2 , from (4.5.8)2 we get
b=
2
.
1 5c2 /2
(4.5.24)
This result can be accepted only for c2 2/5, since

b cannot be negative. If
c2 > 1/2, the equation (4.5.8)2 can be satisfied only by
b = .
243
4.6. OVERALL MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Summing up we see that if the matrix is incompressible and the inclusions

are rigid, according to the self-consistent method, the overall moduli becomes
b
k = and
b=
2
1 5c2 /2
if
0 c2 2/5
if
c2 > 2/5
(4.5.25)
Analyzing (4.5.21) and (4.5.25) we can see that if the matrix is incompressible
and if the inclusions are holes, zero stiffness of the composite is reached with a 50
percent voids ratio, but only a 40 percent concentration of rigid inclusions produces
infinite stiffness, that is a rigid composite.
These facts are interesting, but they show that the overall moduli obtained
using the self-consistent method should be used with caution when extreme ratios
of the stiffnesses of the phases are involved, or when the concentration of the
inclusions is relatively large. Under extreme conditions, the results are reliable only
when the dispersed phase is sufficiently diluted. The last conclusion is in perfect
agreement with the solving procedure involved in the self-consistent method, since
this procedure uses Eshelbys results concerning a single inclusion in an infinite
matrix.
4.6
Overall mechanical properties
Following Hill [4.2], we consider an anisotropic (aelotropic) composite having

a particular geometry and being of a great technological interest. In this structure, the embedded phase consists of continuous and perfectly aligned cylindrical
fibers. The matrix and the fibers are assumed to be homogeneous and transversally isotropic about the fiber direction (the direction of the x3 axis). The crosssections and spatial arrangement of fibers are subject merely to the requirement
that assures macroscopical homogeneity of the mixture together of its macroscopic
transverse isotropy. In these conditions, Hill was able to show that some of the
overall elastic moduli are connected by simple universal relations which are independent on the cross-section geometry at given concentrations. Moreover, Hill
has obtained the values of some of the overall elastic moduli when the phases have
equal transverse shear rigidity.
As we know from the results given in Section 2.2, the stress-strain relations of
a transversally isotropic elastic material are completely described by five independent elastic moduli and has the following form (see Equations (2.2.87)(2.2.89)):
11 = C11 11 + C12 22 + C13 33 , 23 = 2C44 23 ,
22 = C12 11 + C11 22 + C13 33 , 31 = 2C44 31 ,
33 = C13 11 + C23 22 + C33 33 , 12 = (C11 C12 ) 12 .
(4.6.1)
244
These equations can be inverted. If we use the technical constants, we get

11 =
13
12
1
33 ,
22
11
E1
E1
E1
22 =
13
1
12
33 ,
22
11 +
E1
E1
E1
33 =
1
31
31
33 ,
22 +
11
E3
E3
E3
31
13
,
=
E3
E1
23 =
1
23 ,
2G23
31 =
1
31 ,
2G23
12 =
1
12 .
2G12
(4.6.2)
From (4.6.1) and (4.6.2), we get

1
(11 + 22 ) = K12 (11 + 22 ) + C13 ,
2
11 22 = 2G12 (11 22 ) ,
where
K12 =
33 = C13 (11 + 22 ) + C33 33 ,

12 = 2G12 12 ,
(4.6.3)
E1
C11 C12
C11 + C12
.
=
, G12 =
2 (1 + 12 )
2
2
(4.6.4)
In these equations, K12 and G12 are the bulk and shear modulus, respectively,
governing planestrain deformation in the isotropy plane x1 , x2 ; C33 is the modulus for longitudinal uniaxial straining in the x3 (fiber) direction perpendicular to
the isotropy plane; and C13 is the associated cross-modulus.
In Hills analysis, concerning only these four elastic moduli, analytically it is
convenient to regard K12 , G12 , C33 and C13 as a basic independent set. In terms of
them, the axial Young modulus E3 and the associated Poisson ratio 31 are given
by the equations
C13
C2
.
(4.6.5)
E3 = C33 13 , 31 =
2K12
K12
The first two equations (4.6.3) can now be recast as

11 + 22 =
1
(11 + 22 ) 231 33 , 33 = 31 (11 + 22 ) + E3 33 . (4.6.6)
2K12
This unusual rearrangement will be useful a little later on.

For simplicity, in this Section, we shall use the following simplified notations:
K12 = k, C13 = l, C33 = n, G12 = m, E3 = E, 31 = ,
e = 11 + 22 , s =
1
(11 + 22 ) , = 33 , = 33 .
2
(4.6.7)
Thus the equations (4.6.3), (4.6.5) and (4.6.6) become

s = ke + le,
11 22 = 2m (11 22 ) ,
= le + n,
12 = 2m12 ,
(4.6.8)
245
1
s 2, = 2s + E,
(4.6.9)
2k
l
l2
.
(4.6.10)
E =n , =
2k
k
If the elasticity tensor c of a transversally isotropic material is positive definite, it can be shown that k, E and m are all positive.
As before, all quantities referring to the first phase (the matrix) will be indexed by 1, and those referring to the second phase (the fibers) will be indexed by
2.
We now consider RVE a prismatic specimen containing so many fibers as to
be macro-homogeneous. There is no loss in generality supposing that the ends of
this specimen are maintained plane and parallel by frictionless constraints which
can be moved longitudinally. Then, by symmetry, all transverse sections remain
plane and the axial strain component 33 = is independent of position and
equal to a constant, say, while the shears 13 and 23 vanish everywhere, and
the remaining components depend only on x1 , x2 . In the following we present
Hills results obtained from the above assumptions. As usual, the mean values are
denoted by a superposed bar and the overall moduli by a superposed. Thus the
overall (equivalent) constitutive equations, corresponding to (4.6.7) 1,2 are
e=
b.
le + n
l, = b
s=b
ke + b
(4.6.11)
b (c1 1 + c2 2 ) .
l (c1 e1 + c2 e2 ) + n
c1 1 + c 2 2 = b
(4.6.12)
Using the fundamental relation (4.1.10) concerning mean values, we get from
(4.6.11)
l (c1 1 + c2 2 ) ,
k (c1 e1 + c2 e2 ) + b
c1 s1 + c2 s2 = b
Since = is constant, obviously 1 = 2 = . Thus, (4.6.12) become
c1 s1 + c 2 s2 = b
k (c1 e1 + c2 e2 ) + b
l,
(4.6.13)
c1 1 + c 2 2 = b
l (c1 e1 + c2 e2 ) + n
b .
As we know the elastic moduli have constant values in each phase. Hence,
s1 = (k1 e + l1 )1 = k1 e1 + l1 ,
and
1 = (l1 e + n1 )1 = l1 e1 + n1 ,
s2 = k2 e + l2 = k2 e2 + l2 ,
2 = l2 e + n 2 = l2 e2 + n 2 .
(4.6.14)
Introducing the above relation in (4.6.13), we obtain
c1 (k1 e1 + l1 ) + c2 (k2 e2 + l2 ) = b
k (c1 e1 + c2 e2 ) + b
l,
c1 (l1 e1 + n1 ) + c2 (l2 e2 + n2 ) = b
l (c1 e1 + c2 e2 ) + n
b,
(4.6.15)
246
or, equivalently

l c1 l1 c2 l2 = 0,
k k 2 e2 + b
c1 b
k k 1 e1 + c 2 b

n c1 n1 c2 n2 ) = 0.
l l2 e2 + (b
c1 b
l l 1 e1 + c 2 b
(4.6.16)
We have used here the basic identity c1 + c2 = 1.

If the two homogeneous equations (4.6.16), the strain variables e1 , e2 , , were
distinct, they would define the same ratios e1 : e2 : no matter what the triaxial
loading of the RVE is. Whereas, on the contrary, the ratio e : = (c1 e1 + c2 e2 ) :
can be varied at will or, for instance, any one of e, e1 , e2 and can be made to
vanish, preventing lateral or axial deformations by suitable applied rigid enclosures.
Thus the two equations (4.6.15) must be similar and hence their corresponding
coefficients are proportional
b
b
b
k1 k 2
l c 1 l1 c 2 l2
k k2
k k1
,
=
=
=
b
b
l1 l 2
n
b
c
n
c
n
1 1
2 2
l l2
l l1
(4.6.17)
the final ratios following in a trivial way from the first two. As equivalent, more
symmetrical version of the relations (4.6.17), is
b
l c 1 l1 c 2 l2

l1 l2 b
k c 1 k1 c 2 k2
k1 k 2
(4.6.18)
k1 k 2
=
(b
n c 1 n1 c 2 n2 ) .
l1 l 2
These relations characterize the deviations of the overall moduli from the
values corresponding to Voigts estimates or to the mixture rule.
The above procedure can be applied to the equation (4.6.9): let every averaged
quantity in (4.6.9) be decomposed using the basic formula: f = c1 f1 + c2 f2 , and
afterward eliminate the phase averages of strains in terms of the stresses, or the
phase averages of stresses of the strain, by means of the local (micro-) constitutive
relations. In this, way we get

1
1
1
1
c1
s1 + c 2
s2 2 (b
c1 1 c2 2 ) = 0,
b
b
k k1
k k2
(4.6.19)

b c1 E1 c2 E2 = 0.
2c1 (b
1 ) s1 + 2c2 (b
2 ) s2 + E
Since these equations must also be similar, we get
1
1
1
1
b
k k1 = b
k k2 =
b 1
b 2
b c1 1 c2 2
1 b
E c 1 E1 c 2 E2
4
1
1
k
k2
.
= 1
1 2
(4.6.20)
247
Equivalently,

c2
c1
1 2 1
b c1 1 c2 2 =
1 b
1
k2
k k1
k2
k1
1
1

1 k1
k2 b
E c 1 E1 c 2 E2 .
=
4 1 2
(4.6.21)
Hills derivation is preferable to the tedious elimination of l and n between

the macroscopic analogues of the relations (4.6.10) and (4.6.18).
Applying the principle of minimum potential energy to the plane transverse
dilatation of the composite, one readily finds Voigts and Reuss type bounds for
the plane-strain overall bulk modulus b
k in analogy to those obtained in the Section
4.3 for the three-dimensional overall bulk modulus. We get
c2
c1
1
1
b
+ .
k kV c1 k1 + c2 k2 and
b
k
k
k
2
1
R
k
(4.6.22)
It is precisely the deviations of the exact value and its reciprocal from these
bounds which appear in connections (4.6.18) and (4.6.21) between the overall
moduli.
As in the Section 4.3, the intervals
c1 c2
2
(k1 k2 ) ,
c1 k2 + c2 k
1
2
1
1
c1 c2
1
1
,
= c1
c2 k k
kV
kR
2
1
+
k1
k2
kV k R =
(4.6.23)
become small quantities of second order when the phase moduli are only slightly
different.
Taking into account (4.6.22)2 and returning to (4.6.21), we can derive the
important inequality
b
c1 E1 + c2 E2 E,
(4.6.24)
the equality holding only for 1 = 2 .

As we have seen in Section 4.3 (see relations (4.3.22)), there is no universal
ordering of the overall Young modulus and of the Voigts type estimate in the
case of macro isotropic composite with inclusion having arbitrary geometry and
distribution. Contrary to this fact, for a fiber-reinforced composite, the inequality
(4.6.24) is true, but now the geometry and distribution of the inclusions (parallel
cylindrical fibers) are known.
From (4.6.22)2 and (4.6.21), we can conclude also that
b c1 1 + c2 2 according to (1 2 ) (k1 k2 ) 0.
(4.6.25)
248

Similarly, from (4.6.22)2 and (4.6.18), we get
n
b c 1 n1 + c 2 n2
(4.6.26)
b
l c1 l1 + c2 l2 according to (k1 k2 ) (l1 l2 ) 0.
(4.6.27)
Let us observe that the above analysis concerns universal connections and
estimates only for 4 overall moduli:
b12 = b
b13 = b
b33 = n
b3 = E
b and b13 = b.
C
k, C
l, C
b, E
Following Hills method, further results and exact evaluations for the above
four overall moduli can be obtained assuming that the matrix and the fibers have
the same transverse shear moduli; i.e.
G12 (matrix) = G12 (f ibers) or
m1 = m2 = m.
(4.6.28)
In the last part of this Section, we present Hills results for this special case.
Let us introduce an irrotational plane displacement field using the potential
function f = f (x1 , x2 )
u = f, , = 1, 2.
(4.6.29)
From (4.6.28), (4.6.29) and the constitutive equations (4.6.8), we obtain

1
l1 f + n1 in D1 ,
k1 f + l1 in D1,
33 =
(11 + 22 ) =
l2 f + n2 in D2 .
in
D
,
k
f
+
l
2
2
2
2
11 22 = 2m (f,22 f,11 ) , 12 = 2mf,12 in D1 and D2 .
(4.6.30)
Here D, D1 , D2 are the domains occupied by the RVE by the matrix and by
the fibers, respectively.
Also, it is easy to see that the above stress field is self-equilibrated if the
potential f satisfies Poissons equation

e1 in D1,
(4.6.31)
f =
e2 in D2 .
As we know, the potential f , satisfying the equation (4.6.31) is continuous in

D and its first order derivatives are also continuous in D. In exchange, its second
order derivatives have nonvanishing jumps across , the common boundary of the
matrix and of the fibers, we have
[f, ] = (e2 e1 ) n n on , , = 1, 2.
(4.6.32)
Since the potential is of class C 1 on D, the displacement corresponding to f

has null-jump across the boundary . As we already know, the stress vector must
have also null-jump across ; i.e. we must have
[n] = 0 or [ n ] = 0 on , , = 1, 2.
(4.6.33)
249
Elementary computation, using the relations (4.6.29)(4.6.32) shows that

the condition (4.6.33) will be satisfied if and only if e1 and e2 satisfy the following
restriction:
(4.6.34)
(k1 + m) e1 + l1 = (k2 + m) e2 + l2 .
If this condition is fulfilled, [u, , ] represents a possible elastic state of the

fiber-reinforced piece-wise homogeneous composite.
Obviously the second equation satisfied by the mean values e1 and e2 is the
fundamental relation
(4.6.35)
c1 e1 + c2 e2 = e.
Solving the system (4.6.34), (4.6.35), we get
1
{(k2 + m) e + c2 (l2 l1 ) } ,
c 1 k2 + c 2 k1 + m
1
{(k1 + m) e c1 (l2 l1 ) } .
e2 =
c 1 k2 + c 2 k1 + m
e1 =
(4.6.36)
Similarly, from (4.6.14) and from s = c1 s1 + c2 s2 , it results
s = c1 k1 e1 + c2 k2 e2 + (c1 l1 + c2 l2 ) .
(4.6.37)
Now we assume that = 0 and use the equations (4.6.36). Thus, we get
s=
m (c1 k1 + c2 k2 ) + k1 k2
e.
c 1 k2 + c 2 k1 + m
(4.6.38)
Comparing (4.6.11)1 and (4.6.38), and recalling that = 0, we can conclude

that the overall plane-strain bulk modulus b
k=b
k12 is given by the following equivalent relations:
m (c1 k1 + c2 k2 ) + k1 k2
c1 k1 (k2 + m) + c2 k2 (k1 + m)
b
k=
=
.
c 1 k2 + c 2 k1 + m
c1 (k2 + m) + c2 (k1 + m)
(4.6.39)
Now, the remaining overall moduli follow straightforward from the equations
(4.6.18) and (4.6.21).
In order to obtain the best bounds for the overall moduli ( without restriction
m1 = m2 !), we again use Hills comparison theorem. First, we observe that by
virtue of the monotonic connections (4.6.18) and (4.6.21) any upper (lower) bound
on b
k for a particular fiber composite automatically yield upper (lower) bounds
b and b. More specifically, let
on b
l and n
b together with lower (upper) bounds on E
b
us suppose that such a bound on k is derived as the actual overall plane bulk
modulus of another composite that differs only in its plane shear rigidity m 1 and
m2 . Then the bounds also coincide with the actual moduli of this comparison
composite, since the connections are unaffected. In particular, a change in either
of the plane shear rigidities alters b
k in the same sense. It follows that b
k is bracketed
by the plane overall bulk-moduli of two comparison composites, identical with the
250
one under consideration except that the phases have a common transverse shear
rigidity either m1 or m2 . Therefore, from the exact solution (4.6.39) for just such
a structure, and assuming
m1 (matrix) m2 (f ibers)
(4.6.40)
we get
c1 k1 (k2 + m1 ) + c2 k2 (k1 + m1 ) b c1 k1 (k2 + m2 ) + c2 k2 (k1 + m2 )
.
k
c1 (k2 + m2 ) + c2 (k1 + m2 )
c1 (k2 + m1 ) + c2 (k1 + m1 )
(4.6.41)
Also, from the equations (4.6.21), we get, among others,
b c 1 E1 c 2 E2
c1 c2
E
c1 c2
,
2
1
c2
c
1
c2
c1
1
4
(
)
1
2
+
+
+
+
m2
k1
k2
m1
k1
k2
(4.6.42)
and
c1 c2
b c1 1 c2 2
c1 c2

.
1
c2
c
1
c2
c1
1
1
1
+
+
+
+
(1 2 )
m2
k1
k2
m1
k1
k2
k1
k2
(4.6.43)
The above bounds are the best-possible when no regard is paid to the transverse geometry at any given concentration.
4.7
Hashins bounds for the overall moduli
Using Hills method, bounds were obtained for the overall plane bulk modulus, for the overall axial Young modulus and for the overall axial Poisson ratio.
Now we present Hashins results [4.9] concerning the bounds for the overall transverse and axial shear moduli. In order to obtain these bounds, Hashin uses the
variational and extreme principle presented in Section 4.4. We recall again that a
fiber-reinforced material may be considered as a matrix material which contains
long cylindrical fibers of another material. The case to be considered again is that
of parallel fibers which are so long that the end effects can be neglected. The material is a cylindrical specimen whose cross-section is very large in comparison to
fiber cross-sections. The generators of the specimen and the fibers are parallel and
because of the neglecting of the end effects, the fibers may be assumed to traverse
the specimen continuously from base to base, as was the case in the preceding Section. Also, we assume that the matrix and the fibers are transversally isotropic,
the cross-section being the plane of isotropy. Moreover we suppose, as before, that
the composite is macroscopically transversally isotropic, with the cross-section as
the plane of isotropy. The cross-section of various fibers are arbitrary. Since the
phase regions are cylindrical, the geometry is completely defined by that of any
4.7. HASHINS BOUNDS FOR THE OVERALL MODULI
251
transverse plane cutting through the specimen. As before, the objective is to bound
the overall elastic moduli in terms of phase moduli and phase concentrations only.
In the following, the specimen is referred, as in the Section 4.6, to a Cartesian
system of axes x1 , x2 , x3 such that x1 , x2 are in the plane of isotropy and x3 has
the fibers direction. We recall that a transversally isotropic material has five independent elastic moduli. As in Section 4.6, for our analysis, a convenient choice of
the moduli is the plane-strain bulk modulus K12 , the axial Young modulus E3 , the
axial Poissons ratio 31 , the transverse shear modulus G12 , and the axial shear
modulus G13 . For brevity in this Section, we use the following simplified notations:
k = K12 , E = E3 , = 31 , m = G12 , = G13 .
(4.7.1)
Since the bounds for E3 , K12 and 31 were obtained by Hill, here our attention
will be concentrated on K12 , G12 and G13 . As we shall see, the bounds obtained
b 12 by using Hills and Hashins method,
for the overall plane bulk modulus K
respectively, are the same. Obviously, this is a very satisfactory feature of the two
theories.
Following Hashin, first we shall try to get bounds for k = K12 and m = G12 .
As usual, we consider a RVE which occupies in the isotropy plane x1 , x2 the
domain D, bounded by the curve D. The characteristics of the matrix will be
indexed by 1 and those concerning the fibers by 2. The complementary plane
subdomain occupied by the matrix and by the fibers will be denoted by D 1 and
D2 , respectively. The common boundary of the matrix and of the fibers will be
designed by .
We assume that the RVE is in plane strain state; that is, the axial displacement u3 is vanishing and the transverse displacements u1 and u2 depend only on
x1 and x2 ; i.e.
u = u (x1 , x2 ) , = 1, 2.
(4.7.2)
In order to apply the Hashin-Shtrikman principle (see Section 4.5), we consider a geometrically identical cylindrical homogeneous and transversally isotropic
body. The material characteristics and fields referring to this body will be denoted
by a superposed zero. We assume that the homogeneous body is also in plane-strain
state; i.e.
u = u (x1 , x2 ) , = 1, 2, u3 0.
(4.7.3)
The deformation and stress , , = 1, 2, in the RVE are decomposed
in their isotropic and deviatoric parts as follows:
1
,
2
1
+ s , = .
2
= + e , =
As we already know, the concerned stress-strain relations are

2k1 in D1 ,
2m1 e in D1 ,
=
, s =
2k2 in D2
2m2 e in D2 .
(4.7.4)
(4.7.5)
252
Here k1 and m1 are the plane bulk modulus and transverse shear modulus of
the matrix, whereas k2 and m2 are the plane bulk modulus and transverse shear
modulus of the fibers.
For the homogeneous cylinder, analogous decompositions are used:
1
,
2
1
= + s , = .
2
= + e , =
(4.7.6)
The corresponding stress-strain relations are
= 2 k , s = 2 me in D,
(4.7.7)
k and m being the plane bulk modulus and transverse shear modulus of the homogeneous body.

1
We shall now express the tensor: h = r1 = c c
corresponding to our
plane-strain problem. To do this we observe that if

= 2 k k and s = 2 m m ,
then, it is easy to see that
=
h =
4 k k
with
2 m m
2 k k
Hence,
4 m m
( ) .
( + ) , (4.7.8)
, , , = 1, 2.
Let us introduce now the polarization tensor p. As is natural, we assume that
its components p are functions only on x1 , x2 ; i.e.
p = p (x1 , x2 ) .
As before, we use the following decomposition:
p = p + q , p =
1
p .
2
(4.7.9)
Taking into account (4.7.8) and (4.7.9), we get

p h p =
p2
k k
m m
q q .
(4.7.10)
253
We assume now that the two cylinders are submitted to the same homogeneous displacement conditions corresponding to = = const.; i.e.
u (x ) = x , and u (x ) = x on D.
In this case the solution in the homogeneous body has the following form:
u (x ) = x , (x ) = , (x ) = + s = const. in D .
(4.7.11)

Hence, the mean value of the strain energy U of the homogeneous body
will be
1 2
(4.7.12)
U =k + m e e .
S
Here S is the area of the plane domain D, and is decomposed in its spherical
and deviatoric parts as
= + e , =
1
.
2
Now we return to the RVE of the mixture. If U () is the strain energy of

this body, according to the energetical definition of the overall moduli b
k and m,
b
we have
1
(4.7.13)
b e e .
U () = b
k 2 + m
S
To apply the Hashin-Shtrikman principle, the mean value U (p, 0 ) /S also
must be determined. We recall that the fluctuations 0 are defined by the relation
0 = = .
Using the general formula (4.6.8) for our plane-strain state, we get
Z
1
1
1
p h p da
U (p, 0 ) = U
2S D
S
S
Z
Z
1
1
+
p da +
p 0 da.
S D
2S D
Now we take into account that (x ) = in D, and use the evaluations

(4.7.10) and (4.7.12). Thus the above equation becomes
U (p, 0 ) = k 2 + m e e
S
Z
1
1
1
q q da
p2 +
2S D k
m
2
m
k
+p +U 0 (p, 0 ) .
(4.7.14)
254
In this equation, we have used the following notations:

Z
1
1 0 0 0
0
0
0
0
0
p 0 da.
U (p, ) = W (p , ) and W (p , ) =
2 D
S
(4.7.15)
Now, following Hashin, we assume a piece-wise constant polarization field

1
p in D1
(4.7.16)
p (x) =
p2 in D2 .
Also, we decompose p , p1 and p2 in their isotropic and deviatoric parts
1
p ,
2
1
1
+ q
, p1 = p1 ,
2
1
2
+ q
, p2 = p2 .
2
p = p + q , p =
p1 = p1
p2 = p2
(4.7.17)
Thus, since the material is piece-wise homogeneous, the relation (4.7.15) takes
1 c1
1
p2
U (p, 0 ) = k 2 + m e e (
2 k 1
S
k
1
c2
c1
c2
2
2
1
1
2
q
q q

)+
q
+
+
p2 +
2 m m
2 m m
k2 k
+2p + q q + U 0 (p, 0 ) .
(4.7.18)
Obviously, the mean values p and q are given by

2
1
,
+ c2 q
p = c1 p1 + c2 p2 , q = c1 q
(4.7.19)
c1 and c2 representing the concentrations for the matrix and for the fibers, respectively (in the cross-section of the cylinder!).
The most difficult problem remains: to evaluate U 0 (p, 0 ), depending on the
unknown field 0 . In order to solve this problem, we first introduce the fluctuation
p0 of the polarization field:
p0 = p p .
Since the mean value of the fluctuation 0 is vanishing, from (4.7.15)2 we can
see that W (p, 0 ) can be expressed as
Z
1
0
0
(4.7.20)
p0 0 da.
W (p, ) =
2 D
255
Now we recall that the fluctuation 0 must satisfy the differential system
(4.4.11)1 and the fluctuation u0 of the displacement field must satisfy the homogeneous boundary condition (4.4.11)2 . Taking into account the assumptions made,
it is easy to see that for our plane-strain state and for our transversally isotropic
phases, the general subsidiary restrictions relation (4.4.11)1,2 take the following
special forms:
0
0
0
0
k u, + m u, + p, = 0 in D1 D2 , u = 0 on D.
(4.7.21)
As before, in order to evaluate the mean value U 0 (p, 0 ), we assume that the
composite cylinder has an infinite extend in its transverse plane. Then our problem
can be formulated as follows:
Given
k u0, + m u0, + p0, = 0 in E2 ,

(4.7.22)
1/2
,
lim u0 (x) = 0, |x| = x21 + x21
|x|
find u0 (x), and evaluate U 0 (p, 0 ) by using the equation
1 0 0 0
W (p , ) .
(4.7.23)
S S
Here E2 is the two-dimensional Euclidean space. To solve the problem, we
now use two-dimensional Fourier transforms: if f = f (x) is a field depending on
x1 , x2 , its two-dimensional Fourier transform F (), depend on 1 , 2 , the Cartesian
components of , and is given by the equation
Z
1
f (x) eix dx, x = 1 x1 + 2 x2 .
F () =
2
U 0 (p, 0 ) = lim
Here the integration is over the entire two-dimensional physical space E 2 .

Denoting, by U () and P (), the two-dimensional Fourier transform of
u0 (x) and p0 (x) , and using the properties of the Fourier transforms, we can
replace the field equation (4.7.22) by the relation
2
2
2
2
k U + m U = i P , = 1 + 2 .
Solving this system for U , we get

k P k + m 2 P
.
U = i

m k + m 4

Accordingly, the Fourier transform F u0, of u0, is

k P k + m 2 P

.
F u0, =

m k + m 4
256
Thus, from (4.7.15)2 and the Parceval equation, we get

Z k P P k + m
2 P P
1
0
0
d.

W (p, ) =
2
m k + m 4
Here the integration is taken over the entire two-dimensional space of the
wave vectors and the superposed star denotes complex conjugation.
Introducing
l =
W 0 (p, 0 ) becomes
0
W (p, ) =
where
I=
2m
P P l l d, J =
I+
J,

2m k+m
(4.7.24)
P P l l l l d.
(4.7.25)
In order to evaluate these integrals, we recall that the composite is macroisotropic in its transverse plane. Consequently the polarization stress p defined in
1/2
(4.7.16) can depend on x only through its magnitude ||x|| = x21 + x22
. Hence,
as in Section 4.4, we can conclude that the Fourier transform P of p can
1/2
depend on only through its magnitude = 12 + 22
. Thus, the integrals
(4.7.25) become
I=
P () P () d
l l d, J =
P () P ()
l l l l d.
(4.7.26)
Here is the unit circle and d is the line element on . Due to the existing
symmetry, we get
Z
Z
Z
2
2
l1 d = l2 d = ,
l1 l2 d = 0,
l14 d =
3
,
l24 d =
4
if l , l , l , l appears at an odd power.
l12 l22 d =
,
4
l l l l d = 0,
257

In this way, using also the equation d = 2d, from (4.7.25), we get
1
P P d,
2

Z
Z
1
3
{P P +2P P
P11 P 11 +P22 P22 d +
J=
8
8

Z
1
(P P +2P P )d.
3 P11 P 11 +P22 P22 }d =
8
I=
Introducing these values in (4.7.24), after some computations, it results
k
W =

16 m k + m
0
P P
k +2 m
d

8m k+m
P P d.
Using again the Parceval equation, we find
k
W =

16 m k + m
0
p0 p0 dx
k +2 m

8m k+m
p0 p0 dx.
Now, returning to the equation (4.7.23), we obtain
k +2 m
k
p0 p0 .
U =

p0 p0
8m k+m
16 m k + m
0
Recalling that p0 = p p and p = p + q , we get
with

2U 0 = 0 p2 p2 + 0 q q q q ,
k +2 m
,
, 0 =
0 =
4 m (k + m)
k+m
(4.7.27)
(4.7.28)
and
2
p2 = c1 p21 + c2 p22 , p2 = (c1 p1 + c2 p2 ) ,

2
2
1
1
,
q
+ c2 q
q
q q = c1 q

1
2
1
2
.
q q = c1 q + c2 q c1 q + c2 q
Now, we can return to equation (4.7) and can give the final form of the mean
258
value U (p, 0 ) /S.
U (p, 0 ) = k 2 + m e e
S
c
c
c
1 c1
2
1
2
2
2
1
1
2
2

q
q
+
q
q
+
p
+
p
2 k 1 k 2 2 m1 m
2 m2 m
k
k
2
1

2
1
2
1
+ c2 q
c1 q
+ c2 q
+2 (c1 p1 + c2 p2 ) + c1 q
o
n
0
2
c1 p21 + c2 p22 (c1 p1 + c2 p2 )
+
2

0 1 1
2
1
2
1
2
2
. (4.7.29)
+ c2 q
c1 q
+ c2 q
c1 q
q
c1 q q + c2 q
+
2
Now, we use the Hashin-Shtrikman principle to get bounds for the overall
moduli b
k and m,
b taking for simplicity s = 1.
From this principle, it results that if
k k and m m for = 1, 2,
(4.7.30)
that is, if the tensor r = c c is positive definite, we have

U U s = U.
Also, if
k k and m m for = 1, 2,
(4.7.31)
(4.7.32)
hence, if the tensor r = c c is negative definite, we have

U U s = U.
(4.7.33)
Thus, taking U in the form (4.7.13) and using (4.7), the inequalities (4.7.31)
and (4.7.33) lead to bounds for the overall transverse bulk modulus b
k and for the
overall transverse shear modulus m.
b As in Section 4.4, in order to obtain the best
bounds, (4.7) must be maximized if (4.7.30) takes place, and must be minimized
1
2
if (4.7.32) is true. Differentiating (4.7) with respect to p and q
, q
, we obtain
the following extreme conditions:
k k
+ 0 p 0 p + 2 = 0, = 1, 2,
q
+ 0 q
0 q + e = 0, , , = 1, 2.

2 m m
(4.7.34)
(4.7.35)
Let us denote by p and q

the (unique) solution of this system. It is easy
to see that the solution leads to a maximum of U if (4.7.30) is true, and to a
259
minimum if (4.7.32) is true. Also, direct computation starting from the system
(4.7.34)(4.7.35) shows that the corresponding value Ue of U has the following
simple expression:
1
(4.7.36)
Ue = U + 2p + q e .
2
1
2
+ c2 q
can be obtained
The mean values p = c1 p1 + c2 p2 and q = c1 q
solving (4.7.34) and (4.7.35) for p and q , respectively. The results are
p =
with
A=
2
X
=1
1+ 0 A
, q =
k k
,B=
0
B
e ,
1 + 0 B
2
X
=1
(4.7.37)
(4.7.38)
0
2
0 and 0 being given by the equations (4.7.28).

In order to find bounds for the overall transverse bulk modulus b
k, we assume
that = . In this case, from (4.7.13), (4.7.36) and (4.7.37), it follows that
b
kk+
A
,
1 + 0 A
(4.7.39)
where the upper sign applies for k >k and the lower one for k <k .
Similarly, for = e from (4.7.13), (4.7.36) and (4.7.37), it results for the
overall transverse shear modulus m
b
m
b m+
B
1
,
2 1 + 0 B
(4.7.40)
where the upper sign applies for > and the lower for <.
As in the Section 4.4, we must specify the values of k and m, introduced

in (4.7.39) and (4.7.40), will give the highest lower bounds and the lowest upper
bounds. It can be proved (see P.4.32) that the functions from the right-hand side
of the relations (4.7.39) and (4.7.40) are monotonically increasing functions of k
and . Hence, the highest lower bounds are obtained by considering the largest
values of k and m compatible with (4.7.30). The lowest upper bounds will be
obtained taking into account the smallest values of k and m which rest compatible
with (4.7.30).
Let us assume that
k1 k2 and m1 m2 .
(4.7.41)
Then for the lowest lower bounds, denoted by k and m , we must take
k = k1 , m = m1 , and for the highest upper bounds, denoted by k + and m+ , we
260
must take k = k2 , m = m2 . Introducing this value in (4.7.38)1 and (4.7.39), and

taking into account the expression (4.7.28)1 of 0 , we get
k = k1 +
c2
,
c1
1
+
k1 + m 1
k2 k 1
and
k + = k2 +
c1
,
c2
1
+
k2 + m 2
k1 k 2
k b
k k+ .
(4.7.42)
(4.7.43)
Analogously, introducing the adopted values in (4.7.38)2 and (4.7.40), and

taking into account the expression (4.7.28)2 of 0 , we get
c2
,
c1 (k1 + 2m1 )
1
+
2m1 (k1 + m1 )
m2 m 1
c
1
m+ = m 2 +
c2 (k2 + 2m2 )
1
+
2m2 (k2 + m2 )
m1 m 2
m = m 1 +
(4.7.44)
and
m m
b m+ .
(4.7.45)
In order to analyze the obtained results, we first observe that taking into
account the equation c1 + c2 = 1, after simple computations, we can express the
bounds k and k + in the equivalent form:
c1 k1 (k2 + m2 ) + c2 k2 (k1 + m2 )
c1 k1 (k2 + m1 ) + c2 k2 (k1 + m1 )
.
, k+ =
c1 (k2 + m2 ) + c2 (k1 + m2 )
c1 (k2 + m1 ) + c2 (k1 + m1 )
(4.7.46)
Comparing (4.7.46) with Hills inequations (4.6.41), we can see that Hills
bounds and Hashins bounds for the overall plane bulk modulus b
k are the same.
This coincidence is remarkable, since the approaches used by Hill and by Hashin to
obtain these bounds are entirely different. Hill derived an exact solution for a twophase fiber-reinforced material of arbitrary phase geometry under uniform average
axial strain and isotropic transverse strain, for the case of equal phase transverse
shear moduli, and obtained the bounds using his energetical comparison theorem;
Hashin has obtained the bounds using his variational and extreme principle and
used piece-wise constant polarization fields. However, there exists a difference between the results obtained by the two approaches: Hashin was able to obtain the
bounds only assuming that (k2 k1 ) (m2 m1 ) > 0, while Hill could deduce the
bounds even if (k2 k1 ) (2 1 ) < 0. In exchange, Hills method cannot be used
to obtain the bounds for the overall transverse shear modulus m.
b
We already know that k and k + are the best bounds that can be obtained
if only the phase moduli and their concentrations are taken into account, the
geometry of the fibers and their relative distributions in the matrix remaining
arbitrary.
k =
261
Unfortunately, it cannot be concluded that the bounds m and m+ are the

best possible for the entire range of concentrations. In this regard, the situation is
similar to that encountered in the case of a macro-isotropic composite.
b 13 ).
It remains to obtain bounds for the overall axial shear modulus
b = (G
This problem was solved by Hashin, using again the variation and extreme principle.
As before, we consider a RVE, occupying the cylindrical domain D, bounded
by D. The matrix characteristics will be indexed by 1, those of the fibers by 2.
We assume that on the boundary D of the RVE are applied the following
homogeneous displacement conditions corresponding to =const.
u1 = 0, u2 = x3 , u3 = 0 on D.
(4.7.47)
In this case in the RVE arises an antiplane strain state described by the following
displacement field:
u1 = 0, u2 = x3 , u3 = u3 (x1 , x2 ) in D.
(4.7.48)
Consequently, only 13 and 23 are nonvanishing and

13 =
1
1
u3,1 , 23 = ( + u3,2 ) .
2
2
(4.7.49)
Hence, the only nonvanishing components of the stress are

21 13 in D1
21 23 in D1
13 =
, 23 =
22 13 in D2
22 23 in D2 .
(4.7.50)
Here 1 and 2 are the axial shear moduli of the matrix and of the fibers, respectively.
Let us consider now a homogeneous material occupying the same domain D.
We denote by its axial shear moduli. Let us assume that on the boundary D of
the homogeneous material, the same displacement conditions are prescribed; i.e.
u1 = 0, u2 = x3 , u3 = 0 on D.
Since this body is homogeneous, the displacement field in the whole domain
D will have the same form:
u1 = 0, u2 = x3 , u3 = 0 in D.
(4.7.51)
Hence, the only nonvanishing components of the strain and stress are
23 = /2, 23 = 2 23 = in D.
(4.7.52)
From these equations for the mean value of the strain energy U in the homogeneous cylinder, having the volume v, we get the value
1 1 2
U= .
2
v
(4.7.53)
262
We take now into account the equations (4.7.3), (4.7.50) and (4.7.52). Thus,
we can see that the polarization stress p has only two nonvanishing components
which depend on x1 and x2
p13 = p13 (x1 , x2 ) , p23 = p23 (x1 , x2 ) .
(4.7.54)

1
In order to find the form of the tensor h = c c
adequate to our analysis,
we use the stress-strain relations (4.7.50) and (4.7.52). Thus we find that if

13 = 2 13 , 23 = 2 23 ,
then
13 =
13 ,
23 =
Hence, in the considered antiplane strain-state, we get

p hp =
23 .

p213 + p223 .
(4.7.55)
Thus, the general relation (4.4.8) for the mean value of U (p, 0 ) becomes
Z
Z

2
1
1
1
1
2
2
p23 23 dv + U 0 .
(4.7.56)
dv
+
+
p
p
U = 2
23
13
v D
2v D
2
v
In order to obtain (4.7.56), we have taken into account (4.7.52)(4.7.54) and

have used the following notations:
Z
1
(4.7.57)
(p13 013 + p23 023 ) dv,
U 0 = W 0 with W 0 =
v
D
013 and 023 being the involved fluctuations.
Also, since according to (4.7.52)1 23 is constant in D, the equation (4.7.56)

becomes
Z

1
1
1
1
0
2
2
(4.7.58)
U = 2
p13 + p23 dv + p13 + U .
2v D
2
v
Denoting by U the strain energy of the RVE and designing by

b the overall axial shear modulus of the composite cylinder, according to the energetical
definition of the overall moduli, we get
1 2
1
b .
U=
2
v
(4.7.59)
Now we return to the general relations (4.4.4) and (4.4.5), introducing the
fluctuations u0 and 0 . According to the equations (4.7.48) and (4.7.51), only the
263
axial component u03 of the fluctuation u0 is nonvanishing and it depends only on

x1 and x2
(4.7.60)
u01 = 0, u02 = 0, u03 = u03 (x1 , x2 ) .
Hence, only the components 013 and 023 of the fluctuation 0 are not zero and
013 =
1
1 0
u , 0 = u03,2 .
2
2 3,1 23
(4.7.61)
Let us introduce the fluctuation p013 and p023

p013 = p13 p13 , p023 = p23 p23 .
(4.7.62)
Since the mean values of the fluctuations 013 and 023 are vanishing, we can express
W 0 introduced by the equation (4.7.57)2 in the following equivalent forms:
Z
Z

1
0
0
0
0
0
(4.7.63)
p013 u03,1 + p023 u03,2 dv.
W =
(p13 13 + p23 23 ) dv =
2
D
D
Now we recall that p and 0 must satisfy the subsidiary condition (4.4.11). Taking
into account (4.7.61) and (4.7.62), it is easy to see that in our antiplane strain
state, the first two differential equations and boundary conditions (4.6.11) are
identically satisfied and the third one takes the following form:
u03,11 + u03,22 + p13,1 + p23,2 = 0 in D , u03 = 0, on D.
In the differential equation, p13 and p23 can be replaced by the fluctuations
p013 and p023 , since the mean values p13 and p23 are constant in D. Thus we get the
following field equation and boundary condition, which must be verified by u 03
u03,11 + u03,22 + p013,1 + p023,1 = 0 in D , u03 = 0 on D.
(4.7.64)
Now, following Hashin, we assume piece-wise constant polarization fields

11 in D1
21 in D1
p13 (x) =
, p23 (x) =
(4.7.65)
12 in D2
22 in D2 .
Hence, the fluctuations p013 , p023 and the mean values p13 and p23 are

21 p23 in D1
11 p13 in D1
,
(4.7.66)
, p023 =
p013 (x) =
22 p23 in D2
12 p13 in D2
p13 = c1 11 + c2 12 , p23 = c1 21 + c2 22 .
(4.7.67)
At the same time, according to (4.7.58), (4.7.66) and (4.7.67), we get

)
(

c2
c1
1 2 1
1
2
2
2
2
U =
12 + 22
11 + 21 +
2
2
v

2
+ (c1 21 + c2 22 ) + U .
(4.7.68)
264
In order to evaluate the mean value U 0 , we suppose that the fiber-reinforced

cylinder has an infinite extent in its transverse direction. Now our problem becomes:
Given
u03,11 + u03,22 + p031,1 + p032,2 = 0 in E2 , lim u03 (x) = 0,

(4.7.69)
kxk
find u03 (x1 , x2 ), and obtain U 0 using the equations

Z

1
1
p013 u03,1 + p023 u03,2 dv.
U 0 = lim W 0 with W 0 =
v v
2
(4.7.70)
E2
In order to solve this problem, we again use the two-dimensional Fourier

transform. Denoting by U3 , P13 and P23 the Fourier transform of u03 , p013 , p023 and
using the properties of the Fourier transform, we replace the field equation (4.7.69) 1
given in the physical space, by its correspondent in the wave-number space
2 U3 = i (1 P13 + 2 P23 ) .
Hence, the Fourier transforms of the derivatives u03,1 , u03,2 are

1 2 P13 + 22 P23
2 P13 + 1 2 P23
0
.
=
,
F
u
F u03,1 = 1
3,2
2
2
Now, from (4.7.70)2 and using the Parceval theorem, we get

Z
1
2
2
0
1 P13 P13 +21 2 P13 P23 +2 P23 P23 d.
W =
2
In order to evaluate this integral, we return to (4.7.65). Since the composite

is macro-isotropic in its transverse plane, the polarization fields p13 (x) and p23 (x)
1/2
depend on (x1 , x2 ) only through the magnitude kxk = x21 + x22
. Consequently,
as we already know, P13 () and P23 () can depend on (1 , 2 ) only through the
magnitude 2 = 12 + 22 . Taking into account this fact and the existing cylindrical
symmetry, we can conclude that W 0 is given by the following equation:

Z
1
P13 P13 +P23 P23 d.
W0 =
4
Thus, a new appeal to the Parceval equality gives

Z n
o
1
2
2
(p013 ) + (p023 ) dx.
W0 =
4
265
Now, returning to the equation (4.7.70)1 and using the relations (4.7.66), we
find
U0 =
1 n
2
c1 (11 p13 ) + c1 (21 p23 ) + c2 (12 p13 ) + c2 (22 p23 )
Using the equation c1 + c2 = 1 and the relations (4.7.67), finally we get

o
c1 c2 n
2
2
U 0 = (11 12 ) + (22 21 ) .
4
The last equation and the relation (4.7.68) give

)
(
2
2
c2
c1
1 2 1
1
2
2
2
2
+
U =
12 + 22
11 + 21
2
2
v
2
1
o
c1 c2 n
2
2
+ (c1 21 + c2 22 ) (11 12 ) + (22 21 ) .(4.7.71)
4
Now, we return to the Hashin-Shtrikman principle to get bounds for

b. For
simplicity, we take v = 1. According to this principle, if
1 , 2
(4.7.72)
U U s = U,
(4.7.73)
we have
and if
1 , 2
(4.7.74)
U U s = U.
(4.7.75)
we get
Thus taking U in the form (4.7.59) and U in the form (4.7.71), the inequalities
(4.7.73) and (4.7.75) lead to bounds for the overall axial shear modulus
b. In
order to get the best bounds, (4.7.71) must be maximized if (4.7.72) takes place,
and must be minimized if (4.7.74) is true. Differentiating (4.7.71) with respect to
11 , 12 , 21 , 22 , we get the following extreme conditions:
11
21
c2
c2
(11 12 ) = 0,
(22 21 ) = ,
12
22
c1
(11 12 ) = 0,
c1
(4.7.76)
(22 21 ) = .
Let us denote by 11 , 12 , 21 , 22 the (unique) solution of this system. It can

be seen that the solution leads to a maximum of U for (4.7.72) and to its minimum
266
for (4.7.74). Also, by some algebra, it can be deduced that the corresponding value
Ue of U is
1
1
(4.7.77)
Ue = 2 + (c1 21 + c2 22 ) .
2
2
The mean value p32 = c1 21 + c2 22 can be obtained solving (4.7.76)3,4 for

21 and 22 . We get
(4.7.78)
c1 21 + c2 22 = C
with
C=

c1 +2 1 + c2 +1 2
+c1 2 + c2 1
(4.7.79)
Now it follows from (4.7.59), (4.7.77) and (4.7.78) that
b +C,
(4.7.80)
with the upper sign if (4.7.72) is true, and with the lower sign if (4.7.74) takes
place.
As before, we must assign those values to which, when introduced in

(4.7.80), will give the highest lower bound and the lowest upper bound for the
overall axial shear modulus
b. It can be seen that the function from the right
hand side of the inequalities (4.7.80) is monotonically increasing with . Hence,
the highest lower bound is obtained by taking the largest value of compatible
with (4.7.72). Similarly, the lowest upper bound will be obtained by taking into
account the smallest value of compatible with (4.7.74).

Let us assume that
1 2 .
(4.7.81)
Then, for the highest lower bound, denoted by ,
= 1 ,
must be considered, and for the lowest upper bound, denoted by + ,
= 2
must be taken. Introducing the above values in (4.7.79), and taking into account
(4.7.80), we get, after some elementary computations,
= 1 +
c2
,
c1
1
+
21
2 1
+ = 2 +
c1
c2
1
+
22
1 2
(4.7.82)
and

b + .
(4.7.83)
267
4.8. PROBLEMS
Hashin was able to show that and + are the best possible bounds for the
overall axial shear modulus
b in terms of the phase moduli and the concentration
only. More exactly, Hashin has shown that and + are the exact solutions for
some fiber-reinforced composites having particular structures. Hence, the above
bounds can be improved only if supplementary informations concerning the geometry of phases and their distributions are taken into account.
Summing up the presented results from the Sections 4.6 and 4.7, due to Hill
and Hashin, we can say the following concerning the fiber-reinforced composites
which are macro-homogeneous and macroscopically transversally isotropic:
(i) Were obtained bounds for the five independent overall moduli for an arbitrary transverse phase geometry.
(ii) All of the bounds, except perhaps those for the overall transverse shear
modulus, are the best possible in terms of phase moduli and concentrations only.
(iii) The obtained bounds are valuable for any concentrations of fibers in the
matrix.
(iv) If the transverse shear moduli of the matrix and of the fibers are equal,
the overall axial Young modulus, the overall plane bulk modulus, the overall axial
Poisson ratio and, obviously, the overall transverse shear modulus can be exactly
evaluated in terms of the corresponding phase moduli and concentrations, for
arbitrary transverse phase geometry and for any value of the fiber concentration
in the matrix.
4.8
Problems
P4.1 Give the kinematical meaning of the influence tensor function A = A (x).
P4.2 Give the definition of the overall elasticity of a macro-homogeneous
composite having three different phases and find the analogous of the equations
(4.1.20), (4.1.22) and (4.1.23).
P4.3 Give the dynamical meaning of the influence tensor function B = B (x).
P4.4 Using the equations (4.1.41) and (4.1.44), show that the overall elastic
b are symmetric tensors.
moduli b
c and k
P4.5 Show that the overall compliance b
k is positive definite.
P4.6 Prove the equivalence of the second and third (energetic) definitions of
c.
P4.7 Give a dual, equivalent formulation of Hills weak assumption.
P4.8 Show that if Hills strong assumption is fulfilled, the influence tensor
functions A (x) and B (x) satisfy the equation AT (x) B (x) = J.
P4.9 Assuming Hills strong assumption, show that the constant influence
tensors A1 and B1 satisfy the following Hill compatibility conditions:
b = k1 B1 and B1b
c = c 1 A1 .
A1 k
268
Which compatibility conditions are satisfied by the constant influence tensors A 2

and B2 ?
Are the above compatibility conditions satisfied if only Hills weak assumption
is satisfied?
P4.10 Prove Hills compatibility conditions (4.3.7) for a macro-homogeneous
and macro-isotropic biphasic composite.
P4.11 Formulate and prove the dual Hill type comparison theorem for the
overall compliances.
P4.12 Why must the two composites have the same geometry in Hills comparison theorem?
P4.13 Show that Voigts estimate can be obtained assuming A (x) = J and
Reuss estimate follows supposing B (x) = J.
P4.14 Prove that for a biphasic mixture, Hills universal estimates become
b k V c 1 k1 + c 2 k2 .
b
c c V c 1 c1 + c 2 c2 , k
P4.15 Prove Hills universal estimates (4.3.13) for a biphasic macro-homogeneous and macro-isotropic composite.
P4.16 (a) Using the equations (4.3.8)1 , (4.3.11)1 , (4.3.12)1 and the inequalities (4.3.13)1 , show that the influence coefficients a1 and b1 satisfy the relations
a1 < 1, b1 > 1 if k2 < k1 ; a1 > 1, b1 < 1 if k1 < k2 .
(b) Using the equations (4.3.5), give the mechanical meaning of the results
obtained in (a).
P4.17 Prove the relations (4.3.15) and (4.3.42).
P4.18 For a biphasic macro-homogeneous and macro-isotropic composite, E V
is defined by the equation (4.3.16). Prove that
c1 E1 + c2 E2 EV and c1 E1 + c2 E2 = EV if and only if 1 = 2 .
P4.19
P4.20
P4.21
P4.22
Using (4.3.38) and the relation c1 + c2 = 1, prove (4.3.39).

Prove the relation (4.3.43).
Prove the relation (4.3.45).
Show that
b if 1 = 2 = .
c 1 E1 + c 2 E2 E
P4.23 Show that if 1 = 2 < , the overall Poisson ratio b satisfies the
relation
c2
c1
1
.
+
=
1 2
1 1
1 b
P4.24 Show that if 1 = 2 = , the following inequations are satisfied:

1

c2
c1
R c1 1 + c2 2 b V
+
2
1
269
4.8. PROBLEMS
where
2 3kV
2 3kR
R =
.
, V =
1+
1+
3kV
3kR
P4.25 Show that b

k given by (4.3.38) satisfies the equation
b
k k2
=
k1 k 2
tions
c1
.
c2 (k1 k2 )
1+
4
k2 +
3
P4.26 Using P4.25, show that the overall bulk modulus b

k satisfies the inequa-
b
c1
k k2
c1
,
c1 (k1 k2 )
c2 (k1 k2 )
k1 k 2
1+
1+
4
4
k2 + 1
k2 + 2
3
3
when sgn (k2 k1 ) = sgn (2 1 ), and with the inequalities reversed when
sgn (k2 k1 ) = sgn (2 1 ) .
P4.27 Prove the validity of the relation (4.3.48) giving b
k if 1 = 2 = .
P4.28 Hills bounds k and k + are given by the equations (4.3.50). Prove
that
kR < k and k + < kV .
P4.29 A biphasic macro-homogeneous and macro-isotropic glass-epoxy composite has the following mechanical and geometrical characteristics:
E1 = 3GP a, E2 = 70GP a, 1 = 0.3, = 0.2, c1 = 0.3, c2 = 0.7.
(a) Find k1 , 1 and k2 , 2 .
(b) Find kV , V and kR , R .
c2
c1
+ .
(c) Find EV , V , ER , R , c1 E1 + c2 E2 , c1 1 + c2 2 ,
2
1
(d) Compare EV and c1 E1 + c2 E2 .
(e) Find k , k + and compare kR , k and k + , kV .
P4.30 A biphasic macro-homogeneous and macro-isotropic mixture has the
following mechanical characteristics:
1 = 2 = = 30GP a, k1 = 25GP a, k2 = 40GP a.

b and b if c1 = 9 , c2 = 1 .
(a) Find the overall elastic moduli b
k,
b, E
10
10
9
1
.
, c2 =
(b) Find the same quantities if c1 =
10
10
(c) Compare and analyze the results obtained in (a) and (b).
270
P4.31 Find the solution of the system (4.4.61), (4.4.62) and prove the relations
(4.4.63)(4.4.65).
P4.32 Prove that the functions

B
A
, g = g k , = +
f = f k , =k +
2 (1 + 0 B)
1 + 0 A
cannot decrease if k and increase. In these relations, , are given by the

equations (4.4.55) and A, B are given by the equations (4.4.65).
P4.33 Show that the Hashin-Shtrikman bounds can be expressed by the equations

+

+ 1
2
1
c2 ,
= 1 + 2
1
c1 ,
= 1 + 1
2
2 1
1
1 2
in which the concentrations c1 and c2 are isolated , and

1 =
6 (k2 + 22 )
6 (k1 + 21 )
.
, 2 =
5 (3k2 + 42 )
5 (3k1 + 41 )
P4.34 Prove that the difference + is given by the following relation
1 2
1 1
2
1
2
1
.
=
c
c
1
2
1
2
2
{1 + c1 1 (2 1 )} {2 + c2 2 (1 2 )}
(2 1 )
+
P4.35 Find the difference k + k of the Hill-Hashin-Shtrikman bounds for

the overall bulk modulus b
k.
P4.36 Give the graphical representation of kR , kV , k and k + as functions
of the inclusion concentration c2 , assuming k1 < k2 and 1 < 2 .
P4.37 The mechanical and geometrical characteristics of a macro-homogeneous
and macro-isotropic carbon/epoxy composite are
E1 = 4GP a, E2 = 200GP a, 1 = 0.3, 2 = 0.2, c1 = 0.4, c2 = 0.6.
(a) Find kR , kV , R , V .
(b) Find k , k + , , + .
P4.38 (a) Show that if k2 and 2 converge to infinity, the upper bounds
k + , + also converge to infinity.
(b) Show that if k1 and k2 converge to zero, the lower bounds k , also
converge to zero.
P4.39 Prove that the relations (4.5.7) are true.
P4.40 Starting with Budianskys relations (4.5.8), show that Hills relations
(4.5.10) are true.
P4.41 Using the equation (4.5.11), express b
k as function of
b and show that
b
if
b is increasing, than k is also increasing.
271
4.8. PROBLEMS
P4.42 Show that the function f = f (b

) defined by the equation (4.5.12)
satisfies the inequalities
f (R ) < 0 and f (V ) > 0.
What important conclusion can be obtained from the above result?
P4.43 Show that the function f = f (b
) satisfies also the inequalities
f (1 ) < 0 and f (2 ) > 0, if 1 < 2 .
What important conclusions can be obtained from the above result?
P4.44 Show that the overall shear modulus
b determined by the self-consistent
method satisfies the equation

c2 1
c1 2
c 2 k2
c 1 k1
+2=0 .
+
+5
+
4
4
b 1
b 2
b
b k2 +
k1 +
3
3
P4.45 Find the overall moduli b

k and
b using the self-consistent method and
Eshelbys energetical theorem given in the final part of the Section 2.6.
P4.46 In the final part of Section 4.5 for a dilute dispersion (c2 << 1) we
have obtained the following approximate value for the overall shear modulus:
b = 1 (1 + kc2 ) with
1
2
1
2 +
=
5
2 1
k
k1
.
4
k1 + 1
3
Assuming an incompressible matrix (k1 = ) and supposing rigid inclusions

(k2 = 2 = ), find the approximative value of the overall shear modulus
b. Compare the obtained result with the relation (4.5.24) giving
b in the conditions assumed in this problem.
P4.47 Show that if the elasticity tensor c of a transversally isotropic material
is positive definite, the material parameters E = E3 , k = K12 and m = G12 ,
introduced by the equations (4.6.4) and (4.6.7) are all positive.
P4.48 Prove the inequality
b c 1 E1 + c 2 E2
E
b of a fiber-reinforced composis satisfied by the overall axial Young modulus E

ite. Here E1 and E2 are Youngs axial moduli for the matrix and for the fibers,
respectively.
P4.49 Show that the values obtained for the lower and upper bounds of the
overall plane bulk modulus b
k, using Hills and Hashins method are the same.
P4.50 Express the difference of the bounds k + and k of the overall plane
bulk modulus b
k, in terms of the phase moduli and concentrations.
272
P4.51 Using Hashins method, find the overall plane bulk modulus b
k for
a composite in which the matrix and the fibers have the same transverse shear
modulus; i.e. m1 = m2 = m.
P4.52 Let us consider a transversally isotropic material. Express the transverse Young modulus E1 , the transverse Poisson ratio 12 and the axial Poisson
ratio 13 , in terms of the axial Young modulus E3 , of the plane bulk modulus
K12 , of the transverse shear modulus G12 and of the axial Poisson ratio 31 of the
material.
Bibliography
[4.1] Hill, R., Elastic properties of reinforced solids; some theoretical principles,
J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 11, 357-372, 1963.
[4.2] Hill, R., Theory of mechanical properties of fiber-strengthened materials: I.
Elastic behavior, J. Mech. Phys Solids, 12, 199-221, 1964.
[4.3] Hill, R., Theory of mechanical properties of fiber-strengthened materials: III.
Self consistent model, J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 13, 189-198, 1965.
[4.4] Hill, R., A self-consistent mechanics of composite-material, J. Mech. Phys.
Solids, 13, 213-222, 1965.
[4.5] Hill, R., The essential structure of constitutive laws for metal composites and
policrystals, J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 15, 79-95, 1967.
[4.6] Hill, R., On macroscopic effects of heterogeneity in elastoplastic media at
finite strain, Math. Proc. Cambr. Phil. Soc., 95, 481-494, 1984.
[4.7] Budiansky, B., On the elastic moduli of some heterogeneous materials, J.
Mech. Phys. Solids, 13, 223-227, 1965.
[4.8] Hashin, Z., Theory of mechanical behavior of heterogeneous media, Appl.
Mech. Rev., 17, 1-9, 1964.
[4.9] Hashin, Z., On the elastic behavior of fiber reinforced materials of arbitrary
transverse phase geometry, J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 13, 119-134, 1965.
[4.10] Hashin, Z., Analyse of composite materials, A survey, J. Appl. Mech., 50,
481-504, 1983.
[4.11] Hashin, Z., Shtrikman, S., On some variational principles in anisotropic and
non-homogenous elasticity, J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 10, 335-342, 1962.
[4.12] Hashin, Z., Shtrikman, S., A variational approach to the theory of the elastic
behavior of multiphase materials, J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 11, 127-140, 1963.
[4.13] Suquet, P., Materiaux composites-Materiaux nouveaux, Lecture Notes, Univ.
Marseille, 1989.
[4.14] Zaoui, A., Materiaux hetèrogènes, Lecture Notes,Univ. Marseille, 1989.
[4.15] Garajeu, M., Contribution a` letude du comportement non lineaire de milieux
poreaux avec ou sans renfort, Thèse de Docteur, Univ. Marseille, 1995.
[4.16] Mandel, J., Plasticite classique et viscoplasticite, Int. Centre Mech. Sci.,
Courses and lectures, No. 97, Udine 1971, Springer, Wien, New York, 1972.
Chapter 5
THE
THREE-DIMENSIONAL
LINEARIZED THEORY
5.1
Elements of nonlinear elasticity
The elements of nonlinear elasticity succinctly presented in the following can

be found, for instance, in Malverns fundamental monograph [5.1].
7Let us denote by B the reference configuration of a deformable body. Let
{ek }, k = 1, 2, 3 be an orthonormal basis in V and let {O, ek } be an orthogonal
Cartesian coordinate system in E. We design, by X = Xk ek , the position vector
of a particle P of the body; Xk represent the material, referential, or Lagrangean
coordinates of the particle P . Let x = xk ek be the position vector of the same
particle at the current time t, in a motion
x = (X, t), xk = k (Xl , t), k, l = 1, 2, 3
(5.1.1)
of the body. The numbers xk represent the current, spatial or Eulerian coordinates
of the particle P .
The gradient of the deformation F = F(X,t) corresponding to the motion
(5.1.1) is defined by the equations
F = F(X, t) = X (X, t) = [GradX (X, t)]T .
(5.1.2)
We assume that F is a nonsingular tensor and its determinant J is always

positive; i.e.
J(X,t) = det F(X,t) > 0.
(5.1.3)
If Fkm are the components of F in the basis {ek em }, k, m = 1, 2, 3; i.e. if
F = Fkm ek em ,
274
CHAPTER 5. THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL LINEARIZED THEORY
according to the definition (5.1.2), we have

Fkm =
k
= k,m .
Xm
Let us denote by
U = U(X, t) = Uk (Xl , t)ek
the displacement vector corresponding to the motion (5.1.1), and by
H = H(X, t) = X U(X, t) = [GradX U(X, t)]T = Hkm (Xl , t)ek em
(5.1.4)
the gradient of the displacement. We have the equations

x = X + U(X, t), xk = Xk + Uk (Xl , t),
Hkm =
Uk
= Uk,m
Xm
(5.1.5)
(5.1.6)
and
F = 1 + H, Fkm = km + Hkm = km + Uk,m .
(5.1.7)
We denote by G = G(X, t) the Greens deformation or strain tensor defined

by the equation
1
(5.1.8)
G = (FT F 1).
2
Using (5.1.7), we get
G=
1
1
(H + HT + HT H), Gkm = (Uk,m + Um,k + Ul,k Ul,m ).
2
2
(5.1.9)
We denote by 0 = 0 (X) and by = (x, t) the mass densities in the

reference configuration B and in the current configuration Bt , respectively. These
mass densities are related by the equation
0 (X) = J(X, t)(x, t).
(5.1.10)
Let us denote by T = T(x, t) the Cauchys symmetric stress tensor , by

b = b(x, t) the unit body force in Bt , and by a = a(x, t) the acceleration corresponding to the given motion. These three fields and the mass distribution in B t
satisfy Cauchys equation of motion
divx T(x, t) + (x, t)b(x, t) = (x, t)a(x, t),
(5.1.11)
or in component form,
Tkm,m + bk = ak , k, m = 1, 2, 3.
(5.1.12)
Now let us consider a material surface element da in the current configuration of the body and let us denote by n = n(x, t) the unit normal to da, and
275
5.1. ELEMENTS OF NONLINEAR ELASTICITY
by df the (surface) force acting on da. Let tn = tn (x, t) be Cauchys stress vector
corresponding to da and df ; we have
df = tn da.
(5.1.13)
Accordingly, the Cauchys stress vector tn is the current (surface) force per
unit area of the current material surface.
As is well known, tn can be expressed in terms of T and n by the Cauchys
equation
tn (x, t) = T(x, t)n(x, t).
(5.1.14)
Let dA be the considered material surface element in the reference configuration B of the body, and let N = N(X) be the unit normal to dA. Nansons
formula establishes the connection between the pairs N, dA and n, da; we have
JNdA = FT nda.
and
(5.1.15)
From this equation, we get

q
da = (det C)N C1 N dA with C = FT F,
n=
FT N with FT (F
1 T
T 1
.
NC N
Let us denote by = (X, t) = km (Xl , t)ek em the nominal stress, that
is the transposed of the first, nonsymmetric Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor. The
nominal stress tensor is defined in terms of Cauchys stress tensor T and of the
gradient of the deformation F by the equation
1
) = (F )
= JF1 T
(5.1.16)
and satisfies the equation of motion of Piola-Kirchhoff type
DivX (X, t) + 0 (X)b(X, t) = 0 (X)U(X,

t),
(5.1.17)
or in component form,
m , k, m = 1, 2, 3.
km,k + 0 bm = 0 U
(5.1.18)
In these equations, the superposed dot designs the derivative with respect to
= U(X,
the time t, i.e. the material time derivative. Hence U

t) is the acceleration
field, corresponding to the Lagrangean description of the motion.
The current (surface) force df acting on the current material surface element da can be equivalently expressed using the Piola-Kirchhoff stress vector
sN = sN (X, t), by the following equation:
df = sN (X, t)dA.
(5.1.19)
276
Accordingly, Piolas and Kirchhoffs stress vector sN is the current (surface)

force reported to the unit area of the material surface element taken in the reference
configuration of the body.
As is well-known, sN can be expressed in terms of and N by the following
relation:
sN (X, t) = T (X, t)N(X), sNm = km Nk .
(5.1.20)
Returning to the equations (5.1.13) and (5.1.19), and using the relation
(5.1.14), we can obtain the formula connecting the Cauchys stress vector t n and
the Piolas and Kirchhoffs stress vector sN :
tn = q
(det C)N C
sN .
N
Let us denote by = (X, t) = km (Xl , t)ek em the second symmetric

Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor, defined by the following equation:
= JF1 TFT or T = J 1 FFT .
(5.1.21)
Examining the relations (5.1.16) and (5.1.21), we can conclude that the nominal stress tensor and the symmetric Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor are connected by the equation
= FT or km = kl Fml .
(5.1.22)
In the following, we consider only homogeneous, hyperelastic solid bodies. We

denote by u = u(G), the specific strain energy or the specific elastic energy of this
material, reported to the unit material volume in the reference configuration. We
assume that the function u = u(G) is given, and is the constitutive equation of the
considered body. Since the material is hyperelastic, the specific strain energy is an
elastic potential and can be expressed through G by the following constitutive
equation or stress-strain relation:
=
U
(G).
G
(5.1.23)
The above equation satisfies automatically the principle of objectivity or of

the material frame indifference.
Since both and G are symmetric tensors, if the basic constitutive relation
u = u(G) is expressed as a function depending on the components Gpq of G, i.e.
if u = u(Gpq ), in order to obtain the component form of the stress-strain relation
(5.1.23), we must use the following relation:

1
u(Gpq ).
(5.1.24)
+
km =
Gmk
2 Gkm
277
Taking into account the equation (5.1.22) and (5.1.23), we can obtain the
nominal stress in terms of F and G
= H(F) =
U
U
T
(G)F .
(F) =
G
F
(5.1.25)
This relation shows the way in which the constitutive function H = H(F)
can depend on F, in order to respect the principle of objectivity.
The presented relations show that in the spatial or Eulerian description of the
motion, the Cauchys stress tensor and the actual configuration are involved; in the
referential or Lagrangean description of the motion, the nominal stress tensor with
respect to the reference configuration and the reference configuration are involved.
Sometimes it is useful to take as a reference configuration of the body, its
current configuration B corresponding to the time . We denote by
x = (X, )
(5.1.26)
the position vector of a particle P at this time, and by

y = (X, t)
(5.1.27)
we design the position vector of the same particle at an arbitrary moment t in the
current configuration Bt , as shown in Figure 5.1.
B
B
F( )
P
F (t)
F(t)
X
Bt
Figure 5.1: The configuration B, B and Bt .

As we know, the equation (5.1.26) can be inverted to obtain
X = 1 (x, ).
Thus, y can be expressed in terms of x and t in the following way:
y = (X, t) = (X
(x, ), t) (x, t) = ((X, ), t).
(5.1.28)
278
We denote by F(X, t) and F(X, ) the involved gradients of deformation,

with respect to the reference configuration in B:
F(X, t) F(t) = [GradX (X,t)]T ,
(5.1.29)
F(X, ) F( ) = [GradX (X, )]T .

Also, we denote by F (x, t) the gradient of deformation reported to the configuration B , taken as reference configuration:
F (x, t) F (t) = [gradx (x, t)]T .
(5.1.30)
Since (x, ) = x, we have

F ( ) = 1.
(5.1.31)
Using (5.1.28) and the chain rule, we get the following fundamental relation connecting the deformation gradients F( ), F(t) and F (t):
F( ) = F (t)F(t).
(5.1.32)
Similarly, if
J( ) = det F( ), J (t) = det F(t) and J (t) = det F (t),
(5.1.33)
we get
J(t) = J (t)J(t)
(5.1.34)
J ( ) = 1.
(5.1.35)
and
We denote by u = u (x, t) the displacement vector from B to Bt ; i.e.
y = x + u (x, t).
(5.1.36)
H = H (x, t) H (t) = [gradx u (x,t)]T
(5.1.37)
F (t) = 1 + H (t).
(5.1.38)
Its transposed gradient is
and we have
We return now to equation (5.1.9) giving Greens deformation tensor G;
accordingly, we get
G( ) =
1
1 T
(F ( )F( ) 1) and G(t) = (FT (t)F(t) 1).
2
2
(5.1.39)
Taking into account the relations (5.1.32) and (5.1.38), we obtain an equation
expressing the current Green tensor G(t) in terms of G( ), F( ) and H (t)
1
T
T
G(t) = G( ) + FT ( ){H (t) + H (t) + H (t)H (t)}F( ).
2
(5.1.40)
279
Now we introduce the nominal stress tensor = (x, t) (t) reported to

B , taken as reference configuration. According to the general rule (5.1.16), we get
(t) = J (t)F1 (t)T(t).
(5.1.41)
Since the relations (5.1.31) and (5.1.35) take place, we have

( ) = T( ).
(5.1.42)
Also, using the relations (5.1.22), (5.1.32) and (5.1.34), we obtain the following equation connecting the current values of the nominal stress (t) corresponding to B and the current values of the symmetric Piola-Kirchhoff stress
(t) corresponding to B:
(t) = J 1 ( )F( )(t)FT ( )FT (t).
(5.1.43)
Also, according to the general rule (5.1.17), the nominal stress tensor (x, t)
corresponding to B taken as reference configuration, satisfies the following equation of motion:
divx (x, t) + (x, )b(x, t) = (x, ) u (x, t),
(5.1.44)
where (x, ) is the mass density in B taken as the reference configuration.

The component form of the above equation is
km,k + bm = u m .
(5.1.45)
The above equation corresponds to the updated Lagrangean approach. In this procedure the involved fields are expressed as functions of xk , the coordinates of the
particle P in the configuration B , taken as reference configuration at time .
Let us denote by sn = sn (x, t) the Piola-Kirchhoff stress vector, reported to
B , the chosen reference configuration. According to the general rule (5.1.20), we
have
sn (x, t) = T (x, t)n(x, )
or
snm (t) = km (t)nk ( ),
(5.1.46)
where n = n(x, ) is the unit normal to the material surface element in B . We

recall that sn is a surface force reported to the unit material surface in the deformed
configuration B selected as the reference configuration. According to (5.1.12) and
(5.1.43), the following equation is true:
sn (x, ) = tn (x, ) = T(x, )n(x, ).
(5.1.47)
Now we are ready to derive the laws governing the incremental behavior of a
body, where one of its initial deformed equilibrium configuration is changed under
the action of small, time-dependent external perturbations.
280
5.2
Lagrangean approach
The fundamental aspects concerning the incremental behavior of deformable

bodies are presented, for instance, in Guzs monographs [5.2][5.8] for the cases
of elastic, viscoelastic, elastic-plastic and elastoviscoplastic materials; in Ogdens
monograph [5.9], analyzed in great detail, is the case of elastic materials; Eringens
and Maugins monographs [5.10] concerns the case of elastic materials interacting
with electromagnetic and thermal fields. In presenting the basic results in the case
of hyperelastic materials, we follow Guzs approach exposed in its fundamental
monograph [5.8].
For certain problems, the current state of an elastic body can be reached
in two steps: initial static deformation followed by superposed, time-dependent,
infinitesimal deformations from this static equilibrium state. In this case, it is possible to find the final state of the body, by solving a nonlinear elastic-static problem
and a linear dynamic (or static) problem. The theory, corresponding to the second
step, will be named linearized mechanics of deformable bodies. The theory of local
stability of elastic solids is based on the linearized mechanics. The laws describing
the behavior of the incremental fields involved in the linearized mechanics can be
obtained using the Lagrangean, or the updated Lagrangean approach. The first
procedure is followed, for instance, by Guz (see [5.2][5.8]), the second one by
Eringen and Maugin [5.10]. Ogden [5.9] presents both alternatives. Depending on
the analyzed problem, both variants can be useful. If the initial imposed static
deformation is small, both methods lead to the same field equation describing the
behavior of the incremental fields, produced by the small supplementary perturbations of the initial deformed equilibrium state. In the Lagrangean approach the
external surface tractions applied on the boundary of the body are reported to
the unit area of the corresponding material surface elements taken in the reference
configuration B. In the updated Lagrangean approach, the same surface forces
are reported to the unit area of the corresponding material surface element taken
in the initial deformed equilibrium configuration. If the initial applied static deformation is small, the above distinctions become negligible. In the Lagrangean
approach, all fields are considered as functions of the Lagrangean coordinates X k
of the particles. In the updated Lagrangean approach, the fields concerning the
initial deformed equilibrium state are considered as functions of the Lagrangean
coordinates Xk of the particles, but the incremental fields, produced by the applied
small time dependent perturbations, are considered as functions of the Eulerian
coordinates xk of the particles in the initial deformed equilibrium configuration of
the body.
If the initial applied static deformations are small, the above distinctions
become negligible. The component form of the involved field equations will be
presented only at the end of each analysis, since most parts of the computations
can be realized more easily using direct vector and tensor forms. This intrinsec way
is followed by Owen [5.9]; Guz [5.2][5.8] and Eringen and Maugin [5.10] utilize
the component form in their analysis.
281
5.2. LAGRANGEAN APPROACH
In this Section we discuss the Lagrangean approach.

We assume that in its initial reference configuration B, the body is stressfree. We suppose that at the time = 0 the body is statically deformed. We shall
denote the resulting equilibrium configuration B0 by B ; i.e.
B B0 .
The above notation is in accordance with that used in the preceding Section, since
B was identified with B0 , that is, with the configuration B corresponding to the
moment = 0 at which the initial static deformation was applied. This static
deformation will be described by the equation
x = (X, 0) (X).
(5.2.1)
Accordingly, the gradient of this deformation will be denoted by F; i.e.
T
F = F (X) = [GradX (X)]
and
J = J (X) = det F (X).
(5.2.2)
The involved displacement field and its transposed gradient will be denoted
by U = U (X) and H = H (X), respectively; i.e.
x = (X) = X+ U (X)
and
T
H = H (X) = [GradX U (X)] ,
and
(5.2.3)
F = 1+ H .
(5.2.4)
The nominal stress tensor (X, 0) will be simply denoted by = (X) and
the involved body force density b(X, 0) will be denoted by b = b (X). According
to the general Piola-Kirchhoff equation (5.1.17) we can conclude that , and b

must satisfy the following equilibrium equation:
DivX (X) + (X) b (X) = 0.
(5.2.5)
Similarly, the Piola-Kirchhoff stress vector sN (X, 0) will be denoted by
sN = sN (X), and, according to the general rule (5.1.20), we have
sN (X) = (X)N(X).
(5.2.6)
282
The involved Green deformation tensor G(X,0), denoted by G=G (X), according to the general rule (5.1.8), is given by the equation
G (X) =
1 T
{F (X) F (X) 1}.
2
(5.2.7)
Denoting (X, 0) by = (X), and using the hyperelastic constitutive equation (5.1.23), we obtain
u
u
,
(5.2.8)
( G)
=
G
G
where the superposed tells us that the involved derivative must be calculated
for G = G.
Finally, denoting (X, 0) simply by = (X), from the general constitutive equation (5.1.25), we obtain
= H(F) = F =
u T
F .
G
(5.2.9)
Now let us assume that over the initial deformed equilibrium configuration B ,
small time-dependent external perturbations are applied, resulting in the current
configuration Bt . Denoting by y the position vector of a particle P at the time t,
we shall have
y = (X, t) = (X) + U(X, t),

(5.2.10)
where the incremental field U = U(X, t) represents the incremental displacement
from the initial deformed equilibrium configuration B to the neighboring current

configuration Bt .
We denote by
(5.2.11)
H = H(X, t) = [GradX U(X, t)]T
the small transposed gradient of the incremental displacement field.

Denoting by F(X,t) the gradient of the deformation (5.2.10), we shall have
F(X, t) = F (X) + H(X, t).
(5.2.12)
By the fact that the applied external time-dependent perturbations are small,
we mean that the corresponding transposed gradient H(X, t) of the incremental
displacement field is small, that is, it satisfies the following restriction
| H(X, t) |<< 1 for X B and t 0.
(5.2.13)
Moreover, we suppose that all products of all perturbations of all fields,

due to H(X, t), are negligible with respect to the perturbation itself. The theory
obtained using this approximation is just the linearized three-dimensional theory
of hyperelastic solids.
283
In the following, the small perturbation will be denoted by a superposed bar

and, for simplicity, the spatial variable will not be mentioned. In this notation, for
Greens deformation tensor G, we shall have
G(t) = G +G(t).
(5.2.14)
According to the general rule (5.1.8) and the relation (5.2.12), taking into
account the assumed approximation, we get
G(t) =
Hence,
1 T
T
{F H(t) + H (t) F}.
2
(5.2.15)
1 T
T
G(t) = G + {F H(t) + H (t) F}.
2
Analogously, we take
(5.2.16)
(t) = +(t),
(5.2.17)
(t) = +(t),
and in this way from the general rule (5.1.22) and from the relations (5.2.9) 3 ,
(5.2.12), we obtain
T
(t) = (t) F + H (t).
(5.2.18)
It remains to express, in the adopted approximation, the perturbation (t)
of the symmetric Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor in terms of E and H(t). To this end
we use the general hyperelastic constitutive equation (5.1.23) and the expression
(5.2.16) of G(t). We have
u 1 T
u
T
{G + [F H(t) + H F]}.
{G(t)} =
2
G
G
(t) = +(t) =
Consequently, it results
(t) =
2 u 1 T
T
{ [F H(t) + H (t) F]}.
GG 2
(5.2.19)
For simplicity we introduce the tensor
2 u
2u
=
(G).
K
GG
GG
(5.2.20)
Since G is a second order symmetric tensor, K will be a fourth order symmetric tensor. If u = u(G) is considered as a function u = u(Gpq ) of the components
Gpq of G, the components Kklmn of the tensor
K
2u
(G)
GG
284
must be calculated using the relation

Kklmn =
1
)u(Gpq ).
+
)(
+
(
Gnm
Glk Gmn
4 Gkl
(5.2.21)
The above equation shows that the tensor K has the usual symmetry properties
of the elasticity tensor c of the linear elasticity theory; i.e.
Kklmn = Klkmn = Kklnm = Kmnkl .
(5.2.22)
In all that follows, the symmetric fourth order tensor K is considered as a

linear function defined on the vector space of all symmetric second order tensor
b4 .
and having values in the same space. Briefly, K L
As seen, from the symmetry properties of the tensor K, introduced by equation (5.2.20), it results that the tensor equation (5.2.19) can be expressed in the
following simplified, but equivalent form
(t) = K {F H(t)}.
(5.2.23)
The component form of this equation is
kl = K klmn F pm H pn = K klmn F pm Up,n .
(5.2.24)
Now we can return to the relation (5.2.18) to get the perturbation (t) of
the nominal stress in terms of F, and H(t). According to (5.2.23) we obtain

T
T
(5.2.25)
(t) = {K F H(t) } F + H (t).
As it is easy to see, the component form of this equation is
kq = F ql F pm K klmn H pn + kn H qn .
(5.2.26)
Introducing the fourth order tensor C with components
C kqpn = F ql F pm K klmn ,
(5.2.27)
the above equation becomes
kq = C kqpn H pn + kn H qn .
(5.2.28)
At the same time, the symmetry relation (5.2.22), defined by the fourth order
tensor K show that C has the following symmetry property:
C kqpn = C npqk .
(5.2.29)
285
Moreover, if we introduce the fourth order tensor with components
kqpn = C kqpn + kn qp ,
(5.2.30)
the incremental constitutive equation (5.2.28) takes the following form:
kq = kpqn H pn = kqpn Up,n ,
or, in tensor form,
(5.2.31)
= UT .
(5.2.32)
Obviously, generally kqpn is not symmetric neither in (k, q), nor in (p, n); i.e.
kqpn 6= qkpn ,
kqpn 6= kqnp .
(5.2.33)
This result is not surprising, since neither the incremental nominal stress,
nor the incremental displacement gradient U are symmetric. However, since C
has the symmetry property (5.2.29) and since is symmetric, as it is easy to see
examining the relation (5.2.30), we can conclude that the fourth order tensor
has the following symmetry property:
kqpn = npqk .
(5.2.34)
Let us denote by b = b(X,t) the small time-dependent perturbation of the

body force density reported to the unit material volume in the stress-free reference
configuration B of the body; i.e.
b(X,t) = b (X)+b(X,t).
(5.2.35)
As we know, the nominal stress tensor = (X,t) must satisfy the Piola
Kirchhoff equation of motion (5.1.17). At the same time, = (X) satisfies

the Piola-Kirchhoff equation of equilibrium (5.2.5). Hence, taking into account
the decomposition (5.2.17)2 , we can conclude that the incremental fields (X,t),
b(X,t) and U(X,t) must satisfy the following incremental equation of motion:
DivX (X, t) + (X)b(X) = (X) U (X, t),
or, in component form,
m .
km,k + bm = U
(5.2.36)
(5.2.37)
Finally, we shall design by sN = sN (X, t) the incremental Piola-Kirchhoff

stress vector; i.e.
(5.2.38)
sN (X, t) = sN (X)+sN (X,t).
286
According to the general rule, sN (X, t) can be expressed through (X, t) and
N(X) by the relation (5.1.20). Hence, the decompositions (5.2.17)2 and (5.2.38)
show us that the incremental Piola-Kirchhoff stress vector sN (X, t), in terms of the
incremental Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor (X, t) and of the unit normal N(X), is
given by the following Piola-Kirchhoff type equation:
T
sN (X, t) = (X, t)N(X), sNm = km Nk .
(5.2.39)
Considerable simplifications of the incremental constitutive equation can be

obtained if we assume that the following two assumptions are fulfilled:
(i) The initial applied static deformation is infinitesimal (geometrical linearity); i.e.
|H (X) |<< 1 for X B.
(5.2.40)
(ii) The specific elastic energy u is a quadratic function of the infinitesimal

strain tensor ; i.e. the material is linearly elastic (physical linearity); in this case
we have
1
1
(5.2.41)
u = u() = c = kl cklmn mn ,
2
2
where c is the elasticity tensor of the linear elastic theory.
To distinguish this important situation from the general one, we shall denote
the Cauchys stress tensor T by ; i.e.
= T and = T .
(5.2.42)
According to the assumption (5.2.40) in the relations connecting = T,
and , we can take
F= 1, F km w km and J w 1.
(5.2.43)
Consequently, we shall have
T=== .
(5.2.44)
Now, we can specify the equilibrium equation, constitutive relation and ge
ometrical equation concerning the initial deformed equilibrium configuration B .

We shall have

T
.
(5.2.45)
U + U
Div = 0, = c , =
2
Also, the Piola-Kirchhoff stress vector sN will be expressed in terms of and

we obtain
sN = N.
(5.2.46)
287
5.3. UPDATED LAGRANGEAN APPROACH
The equation of motion (5.2.36) involving the incremental fields , b and U,

as well as the relation (5.2.39) connecting the incremental fields sN and are
unchanged.
In exchange, the incremental constitutive equation (5.2.32) concerning and
U takes a simplified form. Indeed, since now the inequality (5.2.40) is true, in
the relation (5.2.27) giving the coefficients C kqpn , we can assume F ql = ql and,
in this way, also taking into account the relations (5.2.20) and (5.2.41), we get
C kqpn = ckqpn .
(5.2.47)
Consequently, with (5.2.30) and (5.2.44), the constitutive coefficients kqpn ,

denoted simply by kqpn become
kqpn kqpn = ckqpn + kn qp .
(5.2.48)
Hence, the incremental constitutive equation (5.2.32) becomes
= UT , kq = kqpn Up,n .
(5.2.49)
As we know, the elasticities Ckqpn are symmetric in (k, q) and (p, n). However,
as equation (5.2.48) shows, even in the geometrically and physically linear case, the
incremental constitutive coefficients kqpn are not symmetric in (k, q) and (p, n);
i.e. generally
kqpn 6= qkpn and kqpn 6= kqnp .
(5.2.50)
However, as before, the following symmetry property is true:
kqpn = npqk .
(5.2.51)
Before analyzing the consequences implied by this symmetry property, as well

as those implied by the lack of symmetries (5.2.50), we shall present the updated
Lagrangean approach to obtain the incremental field equations.
5.3
Updated Lagrangean approach

In the updated Lagrangean approach, the initial deformed equilibrium con
figuration B0 = B is taken as reference configuration in order to obtain the linear

equations governing the behavior of the incremental fields considered as functions
of x = (X), the position vector of a particle P in B .

Let us denote the mass density = (x, 0) existing in the initial deformed
equilibrium configuration B by = (x). According to the general rule (5.1.11),

we have
(x) J (X) = (X).

(5.3.1)
288

The Cauchys stress tensor T = T(x, 0), in a similar manner, will be denoted
by T = T (x). Also, for simplicity, the involved body force density b = b(x, 0)
will be denoted by b = b (x). This notation can be confusing, since in presenting
the Lagrangean approach, the body force density in B was designed by the same
symbol. Then b was considered as depending on the Lagrangean variable X; now
it is taken as a function on the Eulerian variable x = (X). Accordingly, we have
b = b (X) = b ( (x)), and the last composed function was designed again as
b = b (x)!
Taking into account the general Cauchy equation (5.1.10), we can conclude
that , T and b satisfy the following equilibrium equation:
divx T (x)+ (x) b (x) = 0.
(5.3.2)
Denoting the involved Cauchys stress vector tn = tn (x, 0) by tn = tn (x),

according to the general relation (5.1.14), we shall have
tn (x) = T (x)n(x),
(5.3.3)
where n = n(x) is the unit normal to the considered material surface element in
the initial deformed equilibrium configuration B .
Greens strain tensor G = G (X) is given by equation (5.2.7), and the sym
metric Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor = (X) is expressed by the constitutive
relation (5.2.8) as a function of G (X). Hence, using the general rule (5.1.21), for
T, we obtain the following stress-strain relation:
u T
(5.3.4)
F .
G
Thus, all field equations involved in the updated Lagrangean approach and
concerning the initial deformed equilibrium configuration, were obtained.
Let us assume again that to the initial deformed body, at the initial ( = 0)
1 T
T=J
F F = J
equilibrium configuration B small time dependent external perturbations are applied, resulting in the current neighboring configuration Bt. The corresponding
incremental displacement field u0 = u0 (x, t) will now be denoted for simplicity
by u = u(x, t). Thus, using the general notation (5.1.36), and remembering that
= 0, we shall have
J = 0 (x, t) = x + u(x, t).
(5.3.5)
Accordingly, we denote by F0 = F0 (x, t) and by H0 = H0 (x, t) the transposed (spatial or updated) gradients corresponding to the incremental motion 0
and to the incremental displacement field, respectively; i.e.
F0 = F0 (x, t) = [gradx 0 (x, t)]T , H0 = H0 (x, t) = [gradx u(x, t)]T .
(5.3.6)
289

By J0 = J0 (x, t) we denote the determinant of F0 (x, t); i.e.
J0 = J0 (x, t) = det F0 (x, t).
(5.3.7)
F0 (x, t) = 1 + H0 (x, t).
(5.3.8)
Obviously, we have
Since 0 (x, 0)= x, the following equation are true:
F0 (x, 0) = 1 and J0 (x, 0) = 1.
(5.3.9)
Taking into account the general equation (5.1.32) and the relations (5.3.7),
(5.3.8), we get
F(X, t) = F0 (x, t) F (X) = {1 + H0 (x, t)} F (X)

and
(5.3.10)
J(X, t) = det F(X, t) = J0 (x, t) J (X).
(5.3.11)
Here F(X, t) is the gradient of the deformation from the initial reference
configuration B to the current one, Bt .
In order to get the incremental field equations, applying the updated Lagrangean method, we take as reference configuration the initial deformed equi
librium configuration B = B0 . In accordance with the system of notation used,
we designed, by 0 = 0 (x, t), the nominal stress tensor reported to B taken

as reference configuration. Some algebra, the general relations (5.1.21), (5.1.40)
and the formula (5.3.10), (5.3.11) show that 0 can be expressed by the following
equivalent equations:
1
0 = 0 (x, t) = J0 (x, t)F1

0 (x, t)T(x, t) = J
(X) F (X)(X, t) F (X)F0 (x, t).

(5.3.12)
In these relations, T = T(x, t) and = (X, t) are the current Cauchy stress
tensor and the current symmetric Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor, respectively.
According to (5.3.9) and (5.3.12)1 , 0 (x, t) satisfies the equation
0 (x, 0) = T (x).
(5.3.13)
At the same time the general relation (5.1.44) shows that the updated nominal stress tensor 0 (x, t) satisfies the following equation of motion:
divx 0 (x, t)+ (x)b(x, t) = (x) u (x, t); okm,k + bm = um ,
(5.3.14)
where b = b(x, t) is the body force density acting in Bt , but reported to the
unit material volume in B taken as reference configuration. Let us denote by
290
sno = sno (x, t) the Piola-Kirchhoff stress vector reported to B chosen as reference
configuration; sno (x, t) represents a surface force acting in the current configura
tion Bt , but reported to the unit material surface in B .

According to the general rule (5.1.46), we have
sno (x, t) = 0 (x,t)n(x)
(5.3.15)
where n = n(x) is the unit normal to the considered material surface element in
B.
Let us observe that according to (5.3.3) and (5.3.13), we have
sno (x, o) = tn (x).
(5.3.16)
Now we recall that the applied time-dependent external perturbations, lead
ing from B to Bt , are assumed to be small.

Consequently, we suppose that H0 = H0 (x, t) satisfies the following restriction:
| H0 (x, t) |<< 1 for x B and t 0.
(5.3.17)
In this situation, as before, we assume that all products of all perturbations

due to H0 (x, t) are negligible with respect to the perturbations. In this approximation, leading to the updated Lagrangean version of the linearized theory, according
to the equation (5.3.8), we shall have
F0 (t) = 1 + H0 (t), F1
0 (t) = 1 H0 (t), J0 (t) = 1 + trH0 (t).
(5.3.18)
In these equations, as well as in the following relations, for simplicity the

spatial argument is not mentioned. Also, the small perturbations or increments of
various fields will be denoted by a superposed bar.
For instance, taking into account the general relation (5.1.8) and the equations (5.2.7), (5.3.10) together with the restriction (5.3.17), in the frame-work of
the linearized theory, for the Greens strain tensor G(t), we get
G(t) = G + G(t),
(5.3.19)
the small perturbation G(t) being given by the equations:
G(t) =
1 T
1 T
T
T
F {u(t) + u(t) } F .
F {H0 (t) + H0 (t)} F =
2
2
(5.3.20)
Analogously, taking into account also (5.3.13), we get
(t) = + (t) and 0 (t) = T + 0 (t),
(5.3.21)
where (t) is the perturbation of the symmetric Piola-Kirchhoff stress-tensor,

whereas 0 (t) represents the perturbation of the updated nominal stress tensor.
291
Now, according to the second relation (5.3.12) and the first formula (5.3.18), from
(5.3.20), after some algebra, we get
T
F (t) F + T H0 (t).
0 (t) = J
(5.3.22)
Consequently, to get the increment 0 (t) in terms of the increment H0 (t), we

must find the increment (t) as a function of H0 (t). To solve the problem, we must
use the general constitutive equation (5.1.23) and the relations (5.3.19)(5.3.21).
Thus, following the same procedure as that utilized in the preceding Section, we
get

1 T
T
(5.3.23)
H0 (t) + H0 (t) F ,
(t) = K F
2
b 4 is the fourth order tensor defined by equation (5.2.20). Since this

where K L
tensor has the symmetries (2.2.22), the above equation becomes
T
(t) = K [F H0 (t) F].
(5.3.24)
Using now the relations (5.3.22) and (5.3.24), we obtain the incremental
constitutive equation corresponding to the updated Lagrangean approach
1
F {K [F H0 (t) F]} F + T H0 (t).
0 (t) = J
(5.3.25)
To obtain the component form of this tensor equation, we start with the
relation
1
okq = J
or
F kl {K [F H0 F]}lm F mq + T km H omq ,
F kl F qm {K [F H0 F]}lm + T km H omq .
okq = J
(5.3.26)
Similarly, we have
{K [F H0 F]}lm = K lmnr [F H0 F]nr = K lmnr F np H ops F sr ,
or
{K [F H0 F]}lm = K lmnr F pn F sr H ops .

Introducing the last result in (5.3.26), we get
1
okq = J
F kl F qm F pn F sr K lmnr H ops + T ks H oqs .
(5.3.27)
Let us introduce now the fourth order tensor c having the following components:
1
ckqps = J F kl F qm F pn F sr K lmnr .
(5.3.28)
292
Now the incremental constitutive equation (5.3.27) takes the following form:
okq (t) = ckqps H ops (t) + T ks H oqs (t).
(5.3.29)
Also the symmetry properties (5.2.22) of K and the equation (5.3.28) show
that the fourth order tensor c has all symmetries of the usual elasticity tensor c;
i.e.
ckqps = cqkps = ckqsp = cpskq .

(5.3.30)
Moreover, if we introduce the fourth order tensor having the components
kqps = ckqps + T ks qp ,
(5.3.31)
we can express the incremental constitutive equation (5.3.39) in the following more
condensed form:
(5.3.32)
okq = kqps H ops = kqps up,s .
Hence, the tensor form of the incremental constitutive equation, appropriate to

the updated Lagrangean approach is
o = uT .
(5.3.33)
In spite of the fact that c has the symmetry properties (5.3.30), generally
kqps is not symmetric in (k, q) and (p, s); i.e.
kqps 6= qkps and kqps 6= kqsp .
However, since c has the symmetry properties (5.3.30) and Cauchys stress tensor
T is symmetric, the tensor has the following symmetry property:
kqps = spqk .
(5.3.34)
In order to establish the incremental equation of motion, we assume that
b(x, t) = b (x) + b(x, t),
(5.3.35)
b = b(x, t) representing the small perturbation of the body force density. Taking
into account the general equation of motion (5.3.14), the decomposition (5.3.21) 2
and the equilibrium equation (5.3.2), we can conclude that the incremental fields
0 , b and u must satisfy the following incremental equation of motion appropriate
to the updated Lagrangean approach:
divx o (x, t) + (x)b(x) = (x) u (x, t), okm,k + bm = um .
(5.3.36)
293
Finally, we denote by sn = sn (x, t) the updated incremental Piola-Kirchhoff

stress vector; i.e.
sn (x, t) = sn (x) + sn (x, t) = tn (x) + sn (x, t),
(5.3.37)
the last equation following from (5.3.16). Using again the decomposition (5.3.21)
and the relation (5.3.3), we get the incremental relation expressing the perturbation sn (x, t) through the perturbation o (x, t) and the unit normal n(x)
sn (x, t) = 0 (x, t)n(x).
(5.3.38)
As before, further simplification of the incremental field equations can be

obtained if we suppose that the initial deformed equilibrium state corresponds to
initial applied infinitesimal deformation and the material is linearly elastic; i.e.
the restriction (5.2.51) is satisfied. In this case, the field equations concerning the
initial deformed equilibrium configuration B take their form established in the final
part of the preceding Section, since the involved incremental fields, corresponding
to the Lagrangean or to the updated Lagrangean approach can be considered as
functions of X or as functions of x = (X).

The equation of motion (5.3.36) involving the incremental fields o , b and
u, as well as the relation (5.3.38) connecting the incremental fields sn and o rests
unchanged. Moreover, the unit normal n(x) can be replaced by the unit normal
N(X). However, the incremental constitutive equation (5.3.33), concerning o and
u takes, as before, a simplified form. Indeed, since now the inequality (5.2.40)
is true, the components ckqps of the tensor c can be calculated assuming that
F kl = kl in the relation (5.3.28). Thus, from (5.2.20) and (5.2.41), we get
ckqpm = ckqpn .
(5.3.39)
Consequently, from (5.3.31), and (5.2.44), with (5.2.48), we obtain
kqps = ckqps + ks qq = kqpn = kqpn .
(5.3.40)
Thus the incremental constitutive equation (5.3.33) becomes
okq = kqps H ops = kqps up,s ,
(5.3.41)
o = uT .
(5.3.42)
or, in tensor form,
Comparing (5.2.48) and (5.3.42), we can conclude that
= o .
(5.3.43)
294
To distinguish this important case from the general one, we shall denote
= o by . Hence, if the initial applied deformation is small (infinitesimal),
the incremental constitutive equations becomes
= uT or kq = kqps up,s ,
(5.3.44)
the components of being given by the relation
kqps = ckqps + ks qp ,
(5.3.45)
ckqps being the components of the elasticity tensor c of the considered linearly
elastic material and ks representing the components of Cauchys stress tensor
describing the stress state in the initial deformed equilibrium configuration B .

Summing up the obtained results, we can see that if the initial applied deformation is small and the material is linearly elastic, the Lagrangean approach
and the updated Lagrangean approach lead to the same incremental field equation. This conclusion is obviously a natural one and shows the internal consistency
of the two distinct ways in which the two variants of the three-dimensional linearized theory were obtained. According to their significance, the two variants are
equivalent.
As the two equivalent variants of the linearized theory show the incremental
behavior of the body is governed by the constitutive tensor , or equivalently, by
the constitutive tensor .

At the same time, we observe that the laws governing the incremental behavior of the body are linear. However, generally the incremental boundary value
problem can be very difficult, even if the material is homogeneous in its refer
ence configuration B, since the constitutive tensors and can be complicated
functions of X or of x, respectively, if the initial applied deformation x = (X)
is arbitrary, that is if the corresponding gradient of deformation F = F (X) is

a complicated function of X. In such a situation, the corresponding incremental
equation of motion or of equilibrium lead to linear second order differential systems with variable coefficients. The incremental boundary value problems will be
drastically simplified if the initial applied deformation is homogeneous, that is, if
F (X) F is a constant tensor. In this case the constitutive tensor and

will also be constant tensors, and the incremental equation of motion or of equilibrium lead to linear second order differential systems with constant coefficients.
Further simplifications appear if the initial applied homogeneous deformation is
also infinitesimal and the material is linearly elastic, since in this case the involved
constitutive tensor can be expressed directly in terms of the elasticity tensor c of
the material and of the involved initial applied constant stress tensor . However,
the boundary value problems involving the incremental fields even in this particular situation are much more complicated than those encountered in the theory
of linearly elastic anisotropic solids. Indeed, the stress-strain relation of a linearly
5.4. GLOBAL AND LOCAL UNIQUENESS. STABILITY
295
elastic generally anisotropic material is completely characterized by, at most, 21

independent elasticities, whereas, in the incremental stress-strain relation, appear
generally 45 independent constitutive coefficients kqps , since the components of
the constitutive tensor has only the symmetry properties (5.2.51). However, as
we shall see later on, this property plays an essential role in the linearized theory,
since it assumes the self-adjointness of the involved incremental field equations,
which, at its turn, leads to very useful variational principles, permitting solving
approximately various incremental boundary value problems using Ritz type of
numerical algorithms. We note that the important symmetry properties (5.2.34),
(5.3.34) and (5.2.51) of the constitutive tensor , and , respectively, are direct
consequences of the fact that the considered material is hyperelastic. Generally,
the above mentioned symmetry properties and self-adjointness does not take place
in various linearized theories, as was shown for instance by Guz [5.8] in the case
of linear viscoelastic materials and by Soos [5.11] in the case of linear piezoelectric
crystals.
Finally, we observe that the classical elasticity tensor c involved in the linear
theory of hyperelastic anisotropic solids is always positive definite. However, the
constitutive tensors , and , named also instantaneous elasticities, involved in

the three dimensional linearized theory of the incremental fields can cease to be
positive definite, for some critical values of the initial applied static deformations
or stress. In such cases, the instability of the initial deformed and prestressed
equilibrium configuration can occur.
The three-dimensional linearized theory presented above can be used to detect such dangerous cases. To develop this idea we must clarify what we mean by
a stable or unstable equilibrium configuration. In doing this, we follow Pearson
[5.12], Hill [5.13], Guz [5.8] and Ogden [5.10].
5.4
Global and local uniqueness. Stability
Following Ogden [5.9] and as a prelude to the discussion of stability, we begin

by analyzing the mixed boundary value problem in the framework of nonlinear
elastostatics and of linearized (incremental) elastostatics, respectively. Since we
consider equilibrium problems, all fields are time independent. We shall use the
Lagrangean approach. Consequently, all fields depend on the Lagrangean variable
X.
We start with nonlinear elastostatics.
The gradient F of a static deformation x = (X) and Greens strain tensor
G satisfy the following geometric equations:
F = = [Grad ]T , G =

1 T
F F1 .
2
(5.4.1)
The nominal stress tensor must satisfy the equilibrium equation corresponding
296
to given mass density 0 and given body force density b

Div + 0 b = 0 in B.
(5.4.2)
The nominal stress tensor must satisfy also the hyperelastic constitutive equation
corresponding to given specific elastic energy u = u(G)
= H(F) =
u
u
(G)FT .
(F) =
G
F
(5.4.3)
The last reduced form of the constitutive equation satisfies the principle of material
frame indifference. Consequently, the rotational balance equation is also satisfied.
We suppose that S1 and S2 are two complementary subsurface of the boundary B of the body in its stress-free reference configuration B.
In mixed boundary value problem on S1 , the boundary condition in displacement must be satisfied,
x = = V on S1 ,
(5.4.4)
while S2 must be satisfied on the boundary condition in loading or traction
sN = T N = L on S2 ,
(5.4.5)
V = V(X) and L = L(X) being a given deformation and a given traction on S 1

and S2 , respectively.
Such a loading, which is prescribed and depends only on X, is referred to as
dead loading. In any dead loading process, which takes the body from its reference
configuration B to its deformed configuration, an increase in the magnitude of the
load changes the deformation but, on the other hand, changes in the surface geometry resulting from the deformation do not have the effect of modifying that load.
More generally than for dead-loading boundary condition (5.4.5), the traction at a
material point P may depend on the deformation and possibly on deformation
gradient F. Such loading is named configuration dependent. A traction of this type
is sensitive to the deformation it has produced, and is modified continually as the
deformation process proceeds. This is the reason why Ogden [5.9] names it deformation percutive loading, and Guz [5.5]-[5.8] names it following loading. However, a
dead-loading is also named controlled traction. A configuration dependent loading
adapts itself to the changing shape of the boundary of the deformed configuration.
The loading by a hydrostatic fluid pressure, directed always along the variable unit
normal to the boundary of the deforming configuration, represents a typical and
important example of deformation sensitive or following loading.
The dead loadings are important in applications. As an illustration we consider a circular cylinder of uniform cross-section and with plane ends normal to its
axis, consisting of isotropic elastic material. We assume that the circular cylinder
is maintained during deformation under the action of nominal compression
of magnitude > 0 at the ends of the cylinder and parallel to the cylinder axis.
The lateral surface is taken free of traction. Figure 5.2.(a) illustrates a possible deformed configuration corresponding to contraction of the cylinder. Another type
297
of possible deformed configuration arises if, at some critical value of , the cylinder buckles under the applied compressive stress and the cylinder bows (for
example), as illustrated in Figure 5.2(b).
Figure 5.2: Example of traction boundary condition, showing possible deformed

configurations of a circular cylinder of uniform cross-section under uniaxial nominal compression of magnitude : (a) uniform contraction; (b) buckled configuration.
The analyzed case provides an example of nonuniqueness of the solution of
the traction-boundary value problem. In the given example, the deformation path
(in the space of deformation gradients) is said to bifurcate at the bifurcation point,
corresponding to the critical value of the load . Beyond the bifurcation, two paths
of deformations are possible, as shown by (a) and (b) in Figure 5.2.
We discuss now some questions concerning the uniqueness of the mixed
boundary value problem of nonlinear elastostatics.
Let , be two possible solutions of (5.4.1)(5.4.5), with corresponding de
body forces b, b on B, surface

formation gradients F, F, nominal stresses , ,
tractions L, L on S2 and with the same displacement condition on S1 . Then by

using the divergence theorem together with (5.4.2), (5.4.4) and (5.4.5), we obtain

T
Z v
v
T
dV
F F

0 b b dV
B
Z

+
L L dA.
(5.4.6)
S2
If
b = b in B and L = L on S2
(5.4.7)
298
it follows from (5.4.6) that

Z
B

T
F FT dV = 0.
(5.4.8)
Then, two distinct solutions and necessarily satisfy (5.4.6) or (5.4.8), as

appropriate.
We usually say that is a kinematically admissible deformation field if is
a regular vector field on B = B B, and if satisfies the given displacement
boundary condition.
Let us suppose now that there exists a solution to the mixed boundary
value problem. From (5.4.8) it follows that this solution is unique if there is no
distinct kinematically admissible deformation field for which (5.4.8) holds; i.e.

T
Z
(5.4.9)
F FT dV 6= 0
B
for all 6 satisfying (5.4.4).

A sufficient condition for uniqueness is that
T

Z
F FT dV > 0
(5.4.10)
for all kinematically admissible deformation fields , 6 .

An equally valid condition sufficient for uniqueness is provided by (5.4.10)
with the inequality reversed. However, in the theory of linearly elastic solids, the
inequality (5.4.10) takes place, since the elasticity tensor c is positive definite.
Hence, the second alternative must be rejected.
A stronger inequality, which implies (5.4.10), is

T

F FT > 0 in B
(5.4.11)
for all pairs F, F6 F (not necessarily gradients of deformation fields).

If the elastic material is of Cauchys type; i.e.
= H(F)
(5.4.12)
where H is a given constitutive function, which is not derived from a specific elastic
energy as in (5.4.3), the restriction (5.4.11) states that the constitutive function
H, considered as an application depending on F, is a strictly convex function.
The buckling of elastic bars shows that uniqueness is not generally expected.
Hence, the inequalities (5.4.10) and (5.4.11) are too restrictive for the Cauchys
type elastic constitutive function H.
299
For a hyperelastic material the inequality (5.4.11), assuming uniqueness, is

replaced by the following restriction concerning the specific elastic energy u =
u(F), considered as function of F:
T
u(F) u(F) (F FT ) > 0, with =
u
(F),
F
(5.4.13)
for all F, F 6= F. This condition states that the constitutive function u(F), considered as function of F, is a strictly convex scalar valued function.
By reversing the roles of F and F in (5.4.13)1 and adding the result to

(5.4.13)1 , it is easy to see that the restriction (5.4.13) implies the restriction
(5.4.11). The converse is not true in general. However, as the above observation
shows, the restriction (5.4.13) assures uniqueness for Greens type hyperelastic
materials.
By integration of (5.4.13) over B and application of the divergence theorem,
with the equation of equilibrium (5.4.7) and boundary conditions (5.4.4), (5.4.5),
we have
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
u(F)dV 0 b dV L dA.
u(F)dV 0 b dV L dA >
B
S2
S2
(5.4.14)
Now let us introduce the potential energy functional defined on the set A
of all kinematically admissible deformation fields by the equation
Z
Z
Z
() =
u(F)dV 0 bddV L dA.
(5.4.15)
B
S2
This inequality (5.4.14) tells us that
() > ().
(5.4.16)
Also we can state that if is a solution and if the inequality (5.4.16) holds
for all kinematically admissible deformation fields 6 , then uniqueness is guaranteed (see Pearson [5.12] and Hill [5.13]).
Moreover let be a (regular) variation of , vanishing on S1 . We denote
the variation of in and in the direction by . The use of the divergence
theorem and of the constitutive equation (5.4.1) gives
Z
Z
= (Div + 0 b) dV + (T N L) dA.
B
S2
This equation proves the validity of the following variational principle:

The kinematically admissible deformation is a solution of the mixed boundary value problem (5.4.2)(5.4.5) if and only if the variation of vanishes in
300
for all admissible directions , that is, for all regular variations vanishing
on S1 .
As in the linear case, this is appropriate to , as the potential energy functional corresponding to the external dead loading system (b, L), and to the above
variational principle as the principle of stationary potential energy.
Following Pearson [5.12], Hill [5.13], Guz [5.5] , [5.8] and Ogden [5.9], we turn
now to the stability interpretation of the restriction (5.4.14), which is written as
Z
Z
Z
Z
0 b ( )dV + L ( )dA. (5.4.17)

u(G)dV u(G)dV >
B
S2
Let correspond to an actual solution and let be an arbitrary kinematically

admissible deformation. The above inequality tells us that the variation of the total
elastic energy, in moving from the equilibrium configuration to the configuration
, exceeds the work done by the prescribed dead body forces and tractions. We say
that the equilibrium configuration is stable if the above condition is fulfilled
for all configurations 6 . Expressed in the form (5.4.16), the relation (5.4.17)
shows that for a stable equilibrium configuration , the potential energy functional
is minimized by in the set A of all kinematically admissible deformations or
configurations.
In fact, following Owen [5.8], we shall say that an equilibrium configuration
is stable if the weaker inequality
() ()
(5.4.18)
holds for all kinematically admissible deformations , with the possibly of equality
holding for some 6 .

It follows that stability does not generally imply uniqueness. Conversely, from
(5.4.9) it results that a unique equilibrium configuration need not be stable. However, it is not of practical interest to study uniqueness of unstable equilibrium
configurations.
The inequality (5.4.18) is a global sufficient condition for stability of the
equilibrium configuration determined by . It is too restrictive to be regarded as a
stability criterion; i.e. as a necessary and sufficient condition for stability of . If,
however, is combined to some small neighborhood of ; i.e. if U = is an

incremental displacement field, then (5.4.18) is a suitable local stability criterion,
often referred to as infinitesimal stability criterion. Just this criterion shall be
discussed in the context of linearized theory. Also, we shall examine the question
of uniqueness in the framework of the linearized theory. To do this we assume that
the initial deformed equilibrium configuration B corresponds to the deformation
x = (X),
(5.4.19)
301
solution of the following mixed boundary value problem:
T
F = = [Grad ] , G =
1 T
(F F 1),
2
u T
Div + 0 b = 0, =
F ,
G
(5.4.20)
x = = V on S1 , sN = N = L on S2 .
We assume now that in B an increment b(X) of the body force is given, on
S1 an increment V(X) of the displacement is prescribed, and on S2 an increment
L(X) of the dead loading is imposed. In the following, for simplicity, in writing the
above increments, we shall neglect the superposed bars, accordingly, the increment
of the nominal stress tensor will be simply denoted by .
The resulting neighboring equilibrium configuration B 0 corresponds to the
incremental displacement field
U = U(X),
solution of the following mixed incremental boundary value problem
Div + 0 b = 0, = UT in B,
T
U = 0 on S1 , sN = N = L on S2 .
(5.4.21)
(5.4.22)
We examine first the question of uniqueness of the mixed incremental bound

ary value problem. Let us suppose that U and U are two possible solutions, with
respectively. Let their difcorresponding incremental nominal stresses and ,
ferences be denoted by
b = .
b = U U,
(5.4.23)
U
b and
b correspond to the following
It follows from (5.4.21) and (5.4.22) that U
homogeneous and linear mixed incremental boundary value problem:
b T in B,
b = 0,
b = U
Div
b = 0 on S1 , N
b = 0 on S2 .
U
(5.4.24)
(5.4.25)
By use of the divergence theorem, the homogeneous equilibrium equation and

boundary conditions lead to
Z
b UdV
b
= 0.
(5.4.26)
B
With the inverted constitutive equation (5.4.24)2 , the last equation can be replaced
by the relation
Z
b T dV = 0.
b U
(5.4.27)
U
B
302
Hence, by analogy with (5.4.10), the inequality

Z
b UdV
b
> 0 or
b U
b T dV > 0
U
(5.4.28)
b satisfying (5.4.25)1 , with U

b 6 0, suffices for
true for all admissible fields U,
uniqueness of the solution of the mixed incremental boundary value problem.
Following the pattern of the first part, we consider next the inequality:
b b
U
uT > 0 in B
(5.4.29)
b 6 0. If the instantaneous elasticity satisfies in B, the above

for all fields U
inequality, the uniqueness, of the mixed incremental boundary value problem is
assured. According to the general definition, if the inequality (5.4.29) takes place,
the instantaneous elasticity is positive definite in B.

Using the incremental constitutive equation (5.4.24)2 , we can express the
restriction (5.4.29) in the form
b U
b >0 in B
(5.4.30)
b 6 0.
for all fields U
b = 0, then
b = 0 and
It follows from (5.4.24)2 and (5.4.30) that if U
conversely. Thus, if the instantaneous elasticity is positive definite in B, the

b and the corresponding
relation between the incremental displacement gradient U
b is one-to-one.
incremental nominal stress
As the buckling of elastic bars proves uniqueness is not to be expected in general for incremental boundary value problems of the three-dimensional linearized
theory, and the positive definiteness of the instantaneous elasticity may fail for
certain initial applied deformation F.

In the first part of this Section, we discussed the stability interpretation of
the sufficient conditions for uniqueness in the context of nonlinear elastostatics.
We now examine the significance of the global sufficient condition for stability
(5.4.8) for incremental displacements from the initial deformed configuration B .
We set, as before, U = . If is a kinematically admissible deformation, the

incremental displacement field U must vanish on S2 ; i.e.
U = 0 on S2 .
(5.4.31)
A long, but elementary computation, using Taylor expansion, shows that
1
3
u(F) = u(F) + UT + U UT + O(| U | ).
2
(5.4.32)
303
By use of the divergence theorem, the equilibrium equation (5.4.20)3 and the
boundary condition (5.4.20)5,6 , (5.4.31) shows that the second order term in U
is
Z
(5.4.33)
U UT dV.
() () =
2 B
Thus, according to (5.4.18), the local criterion of stability of the equilibrium
configuration B may be expressed as

Z
U UT dV 0
(5.4.34)
for all incremental displacement fields U which vanishes on S1 .

Using the incremental constitutive equation (5.4.21)2 , the restriction (5.4.34)
can be equivalently expressed as
Z
UdV 0.
(5.4.35)
B
It follows also from (5.4.31) or (5.4.35) that the potential energy functional
is rendered a local minimum by a locally stable equilibrium configuration within
the considered class of kinematically admissible deformations .

If equality holds in (5.4.34) for some U 6 0 with U = 0 on S1 , then the
local stability is said to be neutral. If the integral (5.4.31) is negative for some U
with U = 0 on S1 , we say that the equilibrium configuration B is unstable.

b in (5.4.28) and U in (5.4.34) satisfy the
Since the admissible vector fields U
same homogeneous boundary condition on S1 , it follows that the restriction placed
on by (5.4.28) and the strict form of (5.4.34); i.e.

Z
U UT dV > 0
(5.4.36)
are identical. However, because equality is permitted in (5.4.31), local stability

doesnt generally imply incremental uniqueness. Although inequality (5.4.28) 2 implies local stability, it is not necessary for incremental uniqueness. Therefore, incremental uniqueness, in general, does not entail local stability. The situation is
similar to that encountered in discussing global uniqueness and stability.
We note also that if an equilibrium configuration is unique in the incremental sense of (5.4.34), it fails to be unique in the global sense. Thus, (5.4.10)
may hold for in some neighborhood of , there may exist some kinematically
admissible deformations outside that neighborhood for which (5.4.8) holds. This
follows, since (5.4.36) cannot hold for every configuration.
We suppose now that the arbitrary incremental displacement fields U and
U are associated through the incremental constitutive law (5.4.21)2 with the in respectively, at the same initial deformed
cremental nominal stresses and ,
equilibrium configuration B .
304

Thus,
= UT and = U .
(5.4.37)
From the symmetry property (5.2.24) of the instantaneous elasticity , we

get the local Betti type symmetry relation
U = U.
(5.4.38)
Let b and b be the incremental body forces and let L, L be the incremental
surface loadings on S2 , associated with U and U, respectively. We take V and V

to be the prescribed incremental displacements on S1 .
By integration of (5.4.38) over B, use of the divergence theorem, the incremental equilibrium equations and boundary conditions, results in
Z
Z
UdV =
U dV
B
B
Z
Z
Z
T
=
0 b UdV + V NdA +
L UdA (5.4.39)
B
S1
0 b U dV +
T
V NdA +
Z2
L U dA,
S2
S1
for all solutions U and U of the corresponding mixed incremental boundary value
problems.
Equations (5.4.39) are referred to as Bettis reciprocal theorems in the framework of the three-dimensional linearized theory. Its validity relies on the selfadjointness of the governing incremental field equations embodied in the symmetry
of the instantaneous elasticity . The classical Betti theorem of linear elastostatics,
given in Section 2.3, is included in (5.4.39) as a special case, for which is replaced
by c, since we have assumed that the reference configuration B is stress free; i.e.
= 0 in B.
We stress the fact that there is no global nonlinear counterpart of the Bettis
reciprocal theorem, since the nominal stresses and of the nonlinear elastostatics do not satisfy a symmetry relation as (5.4.38); i.e. generally
T
F 6= FT
even if the material is hyperelastic!
Returning to the linearized theory, by following the procedure that led to
(5.4.39) with U = U, we obtain the following work relation:

Z
Z
Z
Z
UdV =
0 b UdV + L UdA + V T NdA.
(5.4.40)
B
S2
S1
305
The above equality is the incremental analogue of the classical work relation
given in Section 2.3 and encountered in the linear elastic theory.
To obtain a variational principle, appropriate to the three-dimensional lin
earized theory, we take U to be a variation U of U with = , L = L, b = b
and V= 0. The substitution in (5.4.39) leads to the equation

Z
Z
UdV =
UdV
B
ZB
Z
Z
=
0 b UdV + ULdA + V T NdA
B
0 bUdV +
B
Z2
S1
L UdA.
(5.4.41)
S2
By making use of the symmetry property (5.2.24) of the instantaneous elastic
ity , hence of the self-adjointness of the incremental field equations, from (5.4.41)
we obtain
Z
Z
Z
1
UdV =
0 b UdV + L UdA,
2 B
B
S2
for all variations U vanishing on S1 .

Moreover, since b and L are dead-loadings, the above equation can be written
in the equivalent form
Z
Z
1Z
(5.4.42)
UdV 0 b UdV L UdA = 0
2 B
B
S2
for all variations U vanishing on S1 .

Let us denote by A the set of all kinematically admissible incremental displacement fields, that is, the set of all regular incremental displacement fields that
satisfies the given displacement boundary condition on S1 . Let the energy functional be defined on A by the following relation:
Z
Z
Z
1
(5.4.43)
U UdV 0 b UdV L UdA.
(U) =
2 B
B
S2
As the relation (5.4.42) shows, we have the following incremental variational principle. A solution (unique or not) U of the mixed incremental boundary
value problem makes the energy functional stationary on A.
The converse is also true, and can be easily established by rearranging (5.4.42)
in the form
Z
Z
U (Div + b) dV + U (T N L)dA = 0.
(5.4.44)
B
S2
306
Now it is easy to see that if the variation of is vanishing in a kinematically admissible incremental displacement field U, for all variation U of U,
vanishing on S1 , then U is a regular solution of the mixed incremental boundary
value problem.
The above variational principle, appropriate to the linearized theory, is useful
to obtain approximate solutions for various incremental boundary value problems.
We call the functional incremental potential energy corresponding to the
external incremental dead loading system {b, L}. It plays a role similar to that
played by the usual potential energy of the classical linear elasticity, and is analyzed
in Section 2.4.
Now let us assume that the sufficient condition (5.4.28) for incremental
uniqueness is satisfied. Let us suppose that U is the unique solution of the mixed
incremental boundary value problem (5.4.21), (5.4.22). We consider also an arbib vanishing on S1 ; i.e.
trary incremental displacement field U
Then
b = 0 on S1 .
U
(5.4.45)
e =U+U
b
U
is a kinematically admissible incremental displacement field. Using the definition

(5.4.43) of , the divergence theorem, the incremental equilibrium equation and
boundary conditions (5.4.21), (5.4.22), the restriction (5.4.45) and the symmetry
property (5.2.34) of the instantaneous elasticity , after elementary computations,

we get
Z
b UT dV ,
e = (U) + 1
U
(5.4.46)
(U)
2 B
e A.
for any U
Consequently, according to the sufficient incremental uniqueness condition
(5.4.28), we can conclude that
e > (U)
(U)
(5.4.47)
e 6 U. Hence,
for any kinematically admissible incremental displacement field U
the incremental potential energy is minimized by the unique solution U on the
set A of all kinematically admissible incremental displacements.
Summing up, we can conclude that the incremental variational principle can
be strengthened by a minimum principle of the incremental potential energy at
initial deformed equilibrium configurations, for which the incremental uniqueness holds. Such equilibrium configurations are locally stable, since (5.4.29) implies
(5.4.31), and hence (5.4.34).
In the above we have discussed the questions concerning global and local
uniqueness and stability using the Lagrangean approach. The same questions can
be analyzed using the updated Lagrangean approach. The problems P5.19P5.24
show how this can be done.
307
5.5. DYNAMIC CRITERIA OF STABILITY
5.5
Dynamic criteria of stability
Suppose that the dead-load mixed boundary value problem (5.4.20) with data
b, V, L has a solution determining the initial deformed equilibrium configuration
B . We examine now in detail the inhomogeneous mixed incremental boundary

value problem (5.4.21), (5.4.22) corresponding to the increments (perturbations)
b, V, L.
Let us denote by A the set of all regular incremental displacement fields which
vanish at S1 , the part of the boundary B on which the incremental displacement
is prescribed.
Also, we define on A the functional E by the following rule:
Z
E(U) =
U UT dV for any U A.
(5.5.1)
B
The incremental displacement fields from A will be named admissible and,

for reasons which will be clear a little later on, E will be named the exclusion
functional .
From the results of the preceding Section, the solution of the mixed incremental boundary value problem is unique if
E(U) > 0 for any U from A and U 6 0 on B.
(5.5.2)
Also, if the above condition is fulfilled, the initial deformed equilibrium con
figuration B , or equivalently , is locally stable.

Let us consider now the homogeneous mixed incremental boundary value
problem (5.4.21), (5.4.22); i.e. the boundary value problem corresponding to null
external perturbations (b = V = L = 0). We have
Div = 0, = UT on B,
(5.5.3)
U = 0 on S1 , T N = 0 on S2 .
Obviously, the vanishing incremental displacement field
U 0 on B
(5.5.4)
is always a solution of the homogeneous incremental boundary value problem

(5.5.3).
If the exclusion functional E has the property (5.5.2), U 0 in B is the
only solution. Hence, the underlying dead-loading boundary problem (5.4.20) has
a unique solution, itself, in some neighborhood of .
For certain initial deformed equilibrium configurations B , however, there may

exist an U 6 0 satisfying the homogeneous incremental boundary value problem
308
(5.5.1). In other words, there exists an for some B such that

Z
E(U) =
U UT dV = 0,
(5.5.5)
U 6 0 being a solution of the homogeneous incremental boundary value problem

(5.5.3). If this happens, the solution of the mixed incremental boundary value
problem (5.4.21), (5.4.22) is definitely not unique.
An equilibrium configuration B in which the incremental uniqueness fails,

is called by Ogden [5.8] an eigen configuration, or an e-configuration for short.
Hill [5.13] uses the term eigenstate for an e-configuration. A solution U 6 0 of the
homogeneous incremental boundary value problem in an e-configuration is called
an eigenmode or e-mode.
The inequality (5.5.2) ensures that the considered equilibrium configuration
B is not an e-configuration. Because (5.5.2) excludes e-modes, E is referred to as

the exclusion functional for the considered dead-load problem.
The divergence theorem and equations (5.5.3) show that if there exists an
e-mode U, then
Z
Z
Z
T
T
E(U) =
U U dV = U NdA U Div dV = 0, (5.5.6)
B
S2
confirming (5.5.5).
The variational counterpart of the relation (5.5.6) is
Z
Z
Z
1
1
U Div dV = 0 (5.5.7)
E = U UT dV = U T NdA
2 B
2
B
S2
for all admissible variations U of U; i.e. for all regular variations which vanish
on S1 .
Consequently, an e-mode makes the exclusion functional E stationary within
the class of all admissible variations. The equations (5.5.7) show that the converse
is also true: any admissible incremental displacement field U 6 0 that makes the
exclusion functional stationary within the class of admissible variations, is an
e-mode. These results are special cases of the incremental variation principle of
the preceding subsection.
An e-mode U defines an adjacent equilibrium configuration 0 = + U (i.e.
0 is near ) under the same given loads {b, L}.

Since the body, when it is in an eigenstate, would remain in equilibrium if
it is slightly displaced in the manner of the eigenmode, we can say that the body
is in a neutral equilibrium state and its stability is neutral with respect to such
displacements.
309
As in any eigenvalue problem, because of the linearity and homogeneity of

the incremental boundary value problem (5.5.3), an e-mode U has arbitrary magnitude. It should be remembered that the equation of the linearized theory are
valid only if U is incremental in the sense that products of small perturbations
can be neglected. The magnitude of an e-mode U must therefore be restricted
accordingly.
Summing up, we can say that when a body there is in an e-configuration, it
remains in equilibrium if it is subjected to an eigenmodal displacement.
Moreover, the potential energy functional , defined by the equation (5.4.43),
is stationary not only for the underlying configuration but also for each equi
e = + U adjacent to and defined by an eigenmode U.

librium configuration
This can be seen by noting (5.5.5)(5.5.7) and recalling from (5.4.33) that
Z
1
1
(5.5.8)
U UT dV = E(U).
( +U) () =
2
2 B
Now we consider a deformation path generated by some monotonically increasing loading parameter (for example, contained in L). Let us suppose that
along the path, the exclusion functional E(U) is positive definite; i.e. (5.5.2) holds
for all admissible U, up to some critical value of the parameter in question, beyond
which the exclusion functional is indefinite. By continuity, it follows that the set
of configurations, where the exclusion functional is positive definite, is bounded by
configurations where it is semidefinite; i.e. where
Z
E(U) =
U UT dV 0
(5.5.9)
B
for all admissible U, with equality holding for some U 6 0.

According to (5.5.9), the exclusion functional E has a local minimum in which
U 6 0, hence E is stationary in U for all admissible variations U. Consequently,
U 6 0 is necessarily an e-mode and thus the equilibrium configurations where the
exclusion functional is semidefinite are necessarily e-configurations.
This is in contrast with the situation for e-configurations where the exclusion
functional is indefinite because an admissible incremental displacement U may
make the exclusion functional vanish but not be an e-mode; i.e. may not make
the exclusion functional stationary. Such e-configurations are locally unstable and
therefore of no practical interest.
Eigen configurations with the semidefiniteness property (5.5.9) are called
primary e-configurations since they are the first e-configurations to be reached on
a stable path of deformation of the type considered above. As Hill says, the involved
primary e-configurations are at the stability limit. Observe also that according to
the accepted classification, in the linearized theory all primary e-configurations
are neutrally stable.
The above results show that the three dimensional linearized theory can and
must be used just to detect the primary eigen configurations and to determine the
critical values of the loading parameters for which such configurations occur.
310
Since the relations (5.4.28) and (5.4.36) are equivalent, the criticality of the
exclusion functional is independent of the nonhomogeneous incremental data b, L,
V. It follows that the solutions of the inhomogeneous or homogeneous incremental
boundary value problems (5.4.21), (5.4.22) or (5.5.3), respectively, are unique at
any stage along the considered stable deformation path, up to a primary e-configuration, at which uniqueness fails and the solution path bifurcates (as for the
buckling of a compressed elastic bar).
The critical configuration C or equivalently B C is named a bifurcation point

on the deformation path.
In order to emphasize the close connection between the homogeneous and
nonhomogeneous incremental problems we suppose that U is an e-mode at C
so that both C and C + U are solutions of the underlying dead-load problems
corresponding to critical data bC , LC , VC . The nonhomogeneous incremental
problem at C , with L 6= 0, b = 0, V = 0, for example, corresponds to L be
ing taken beyond its critical value LC up to LC + L. Let W be a solution of

this problem. Then W + U is also a solution of the same nonhomogeneous incremental problem, U containing an arbitrary scalar factor. Note however that L is
constrained by
Z
L UdA = 0
(5.5.10)
S2
at C (when b = V = 0 as assumed). This follows from Bettis reciprocal relae = W and U the e-mode. Thus, the incremental dead loading
tion (5.4.41) with U
L in a e-configuration is orthogonal, in the sense of (5.5.10), to each e-mode at
that configuration.
By contrast with (5.5.10), since W is not an e-mode at C , we have

Z
S2
L Wda =
W WT dV > 0.
B
If (5.5.10) holds for some L 6 0 on S2 , then W exists and bifurcation occurs.

To the first order, L has no component in the direction U (in the sense of (5.5.10))
and therefore the considered loading parameter has a turning point with respect to
the e-mode direction at c . Any incremental load L that violates (5.5.10) cannot
be supported in equilibrium by the material.
The branching behavior of a deformation path at the critical configuration
c is shown in Figure 5.3, which shows the stable path of deformation up to c ,
and the two solution branches through c of the local problems, the tangents at
these path at c being W and W + U. The behavior of the body after branching
cannot be predicted by the linearized theory.
311
Figure 5.3: Stable solution path (continuous case) bifurcates at the e-configuration
c into two branches (broken curves) with tangents W and W + U at c , where
U is an e-mode at c .
Now let us assume that the initial deformation x = c (X) is homogeneous;
i.e. the corresponding gradient of deformation F = F (X) is a constant tensor
F = F (X) = const. in B.
(5.5.11)
Since the material is homogeneous, it results that the instantaneous elasticity
is a constant tensor ; i.e.
= (X) = const. in B.
(5.5.12)
For all-round dead load, i.e. for the incremental traction boundary value
problem (S1 = , S2 = B), we can take as admissible incremental displacement
field U, one which has constant gradient on B. Thus, we can see that for all-round
dead load, the restriction (5.5.2) is equivalent to
U UT > 0
(5.5.13)
for all gradients U 6 0.

In a primary e-configuration, we must have
U UT 0
(5.5.14)
e 6 0 necessarily holding at each

for all (constant) U with equality for some U
point of the body. Moreover, the incremental constitutive equation (5.4.21) 2 shows
e is subjected to the stationarity property
that the corresponding e-mode U
e = U
e T = 0 in B
(5.5.15)
312
in a primary e-configuration and for all-round dead loading, since the left-hand
e
side of (5.5.14) has a local minimum in the corresponding e-mode U.
e with a uniform (conIt is also clear that any incremental displacement U
stant) nonvanishing gradient satisfying (5.5.15) is an e-mode, but not necessarily
a primary one, for all-round dead loading.
Hence, if the initial deformation F is homogeneous (constant), the local sta
bility of the resulting equilibrium configuration B or equivalently , relative to

any boundary condition implies the positive semidefiniteness of the corresponding
instantaneous elasticity . To obtain this property, it is sufficient to assume local

stability for all-round dead loading; i.e. for incremental traction boundary value
problems.
Up to now we have used a static, energetic criterion of stability. To justify its
necessity and sufficiency, dynamical concepts and stability criteria must be taken
into account. To do this, we take as fundamental the definition and dynamic test of
stability due to Dirichlet and Kelvin (see Hill [5.13]): an equilibrium configuration
or state is said to be stable if, in motion, following an arbitrary perturbation, the
amplitudes of the additional displacements and velocities are always vanishingly
small when the disturbance itself is. If, on the other hand, the amplitudes and
velocities are finite for some type of disturbance, however small this may be, the
configuration or state is said to be unstable. Hence, we must prove that for a
hyperelastic material, a necessary and sufficient condition of stability in the dynamic sense is that in any geometrically possible displacement from the position
of equilibrium, the stored elastic energy exceeds the work done on the system by
the external dead loads. In thermodynamic context, this question was analyzed by
Ericksen [5.14] and Gurtin [5.15][5.18]. We shall use Gurtins way of reasoning,
remaining however in the hyperelastic framework.
Let us assume that the time independent fields 0 = 0 (X), b = b(X),
V = V(X) and L = L(X) represent a given mass distribution in B, a given dead
body force density in B, a given deformation on S1 , and a given dead traction
on S2 , respectively. An elastic process corresponding to 0 , b, V, L is an ordered
array p = [, , u] with a regular motion, a nominal stress tensor and u a
specific elastic energy defined on B [0, ), such that:
(i) the geometric equations
F = T , G =
1 T
(F F 1);
2
(5.5.16)
(ii) the equation of motion
Div + 0 b = 0 ;
(5.5.17)
(iii) the hyperelastic constitutive equation

=
u
u
(G)FT
(G) =
G
F
(5.5.18)
313

u = u(G) being a known regular constitutive function;
(iv) the mixed boundary conditions
= V on S1 and sN = T N = L on S2 .
(5.5.19)
Using the geometrical equation (5.5.16)1 and the constitutive equation (5.5.18) for
the material time derivative of u, we obtain
u = T .
Denoting by
U = U () =
(5.5.20)
u(G)dV
(5.5.21)
the total elastic energy corresponding to , and integrating (5.5.20) over B, resulting in
Z
U () =
(t) T (t)dV.
(5.5.22)
B
Using the divergence theorem, the equation of motion (5.5.17) and the boundary
conditions (5.5.19), we can express the material time derivative U of the total
elastic energy in the following form, valuable for the considered elastic process
Z
Z
bo dV
+ L dA
K (),
(5.5.23)
U () =
B
S2
where
K()
=
1
2
0 dV
(5.5.24)
is the total kinetic energy of the body corresponding to . Integrating the equation
(5.5.23) from 0 to t, we obtain
Z
Z
0 b ((t) (0))dV L ((t) (0))dA
U ((t)) + K((t))
S2
= U ((0)) + K((0)).
(5.5.25)
As before, we denote by B or equivalently , an initial deformed equilibrium
configuration corresponding to the deformation x = (X).
By a kinematically admissible deformation, corresponding to B or , we mean

now a regular deformation with the following properties:
(i)
= on S1 ;
(ii) if 6, then and are not related by a rigid deformation; i.e.
(X) 6= Q (X) + a,
314
where Q is an orthogonal tensor and a is a vector.

On the set of all kinematically admissible deformations , we introduce the
energy functional
Z
Z
() = U () U ()
0 b ( )dV
L ( )dA.
(5.5.26)
B
S2
We call () the potential energy of , relative to , and corresponding to

the given dead-load system {b, L}.
Note that
() = 0.
(5.5.27)
Let us suppose for the moment, that and are related by a rigid deformation; i.e.
(X) = Q (X) + a.
Then G = G and, since u depends on only through G, from (5.5.21) it
follows that U () = U (). Hence, if b 0 and if L 0 on S2 or if S2 = ,

equation (5.5.26) reduces to
() = 0.
(5.5.28)
The next theorem is based on the assumption that () has a strict local
minimum at . Using equation (5.5.27), for this assumption to have a meaning we
must rule out situations in which equation (5.5.28) holds for 6 . The requirement (ii) in the definition of a kinematically admissible deformation is introduced
with this purpose in mind. Note that (ii) follows from (i) when S2 6= B!
We denote by K the set of all kinematically admissible deformations and we
assume that a metric d : K K R+ is introduced on K. For instance, we can
take
Z

1/2
d(, ) =
| | dV
but it is not necessary to specify the form of d, which in applications may vary
from problem to problem.
We denote by K(a) the following set of kinematically admissible deformations
K(a) = { K : d(, ) = a},

where a is a positive number. We define also the number (a) by the equation
(a) =
inf ().
K(a)
Following Gurtin, we say that the potential energy has a strict local min
imum at , over K and, with respect to d, if there exists a number a > 0 such
that
(5.5.29)
(a) > 0 for 0 < a <a .
315
If has strict local minimum at , then
() {d(, )} > 0
(5.5.30)
provided that K and d(, ) < a0 .

Examining the relations (5.4.17) and (5.5.26), we can see that for the above
choice of , the classical static, energetic condition of stability holds, if has a
strict local minimum at .

By a kinematically admissible motion, we mean a motion x = (X, t) with
the following properties:
(i) for each fixed t 0, the deformation x = (X, t), denoted simply by (t),
is kinematically admissible;
(ii) the application t d((t), ) is continuous.

Now we can prove a theorem due to Gurtin stating the sufficiency of the
classical static, energetical criterion of stability for dynamic stability. We have the
following:
Sufficiency theorem. Assume that has a strict local minimum at .

Then given > 0 there exists a = () > 0 such that, if p is an elastic process
with the following properties,
(i) the motion x = (X, t) in p is kinematically admissible; i.e.
(X, t) = (X) on S1 ;
(ii)p satisfies the initial constrains
d((0), ) < , ((0)) < , K((0))
< ,
(5.5.31)
then p satisfies
d((t), ) < , K((t))
< for all t 0.
(5.5.32)
That is, if the initial perturbation of the equilibrium state B is small, in

the sense that (5.5.31) takes place, the perturbation rests small for all times,
in the sense that (5.5.32) is satisfied. Hence, the equilibrium configuration B is

stable according to the Dirichlet-Kelvin dynamic criterion of stability, interpreted
quantitatively only in the sense specified by the inequalities (5.5.31) and (5.5.32).
For the proof of the above theorem, we chose > 0 and, without loss in
generality, let
(5.5.33)
< a,
and take
= min
()
,
2 2
(5.5.34)
316
By (5.5.29), > 0. Let p be an elastic process satisfying (i) and (ii). Thus
equation (5.5.25) holds for t 0. In this way, considering the equation (5.5.26) for
t = 0 and for t > 0, after elementary computations, we get
((t)) + K((t))
= ((0)) + K((0)).
(5.5.35)
Since K()
0, from (5.3.31), (5.5.34) and the above equality, we get
((t)) < ().
(5.5.36)
In view of the relations (5.5.31)1 , (5.5.32) and (5.5.33),
d((t), ) < < a .

Let us assume that the time
= sup{t : d((t), ) < }
is finite. Since the applications t d((t), ) is continuous, we get
d(( ), ) = < a,
and we can conclude from (5.5.30) that
() = (d(( ), )) (( )),
which contradicts (5.5.36). Therefore, = and (5.5.32)1 holds.
Moreover, (5.5.31)1 and (5.5.33) imply that ((t)) > 0 for all t 0 and, in
this way, the relations (5.5.34), (5.5.35) yield (5.5.32)2 .
Hence indeed, the stability in static, energetic sense implies stability in dynamic sense.
We now analyze if reciprocal of this property takes place.
In order to do this, we consider an elastic process p with the following properties:
(i) the motion x = (t) in p is kinematically admissible relative to ;

(ii) p starts from rest; i.e.
(0)
= 0 in B.
Hence, the initial total kinetic energy of the body in this process is vanishing;
i.e.
K((0))
= 0.
According to (5.5.35) for elastic processes of this type, the current value of
the potential energy , relative to , cannot surpass its initial value; i.e.
((t)) ((0)).
(5.5.37)
317
Following Gurtin, by the domain of attraction of the equilibrium configura

tion we mean the set of all configurations K with the following property.
There exists an elastic process p such that
(i) the motion x = (t) in p is kinematically admissible relative to ;

(ii) p starts from rest;
(iii) p starts from the configuration K; i.e.
(0) = K in B;
(iv) p end is the equilibrium configuration ; i.e.
(t) , (t)
as t , the convergence being uniform in B.
Note that from (i) and (iii), it follows that
K = on S1 ,
so that K is kinematically admissible relative to .

Now we are ready to prove a theorem due to Gurtin which shows that in a
certain precise sense, the static, energetic criterion of stability supplies a necessary
condition for the dynamic elastic stability. We have the following:
Necessity theorem. Let K belong to the domain of attraction of . Then,
() (K).
(5.5.38)
To prove this theorem, we use the fact that if K is in the domain of attraction
of , then there exists an elastic process p with properties (i)-(iv). According to

(i), (ii) and (5.5.38), for the motion x = (t) in this process, we have
((t)) (K) for t 0.
The last inequality in conjunction with (iv) implies (5.5.37) and the necessity
theorem is proved.
We recall that according to the static, energetic criterion of local stability, an
equilibrium configuration B is locally stable if other equilibrium configurations do

not exist in its neighborhood, and is locally unstable if there exist other equilibrium
configurations in its neighborhood. Then, if we use the static, energetic method,
the analysis of the stability problem is reduced to searching for the bifurcation
points of a deformation path. This is the reason why the static stability analysis is
founded on the homogeneous, linear and mixed incremental boundary value problem (5.5.3) of the three-dimensional linearized theory. According to the dynamic
criterion of local stability, the equilibrium configuration B is locally stable if the

incremental time dependent fields produced by small time depended perturbations
318
of B remain small for any time. Obviously, if we wish to apply the more general
dynamic criterion, the homogeneous system (5.5.3) governing the static behavior
of the incremental fields must be replaced by the corresponding incremental field
equations which take into account the time dependence of the involved fields; i.e.
assuming null body forces, the stability analysis must be based on the use of the
following dynamic incremental linear and homogeneous system:
= UT ,
Div = 0 U,
U = 0 on S1 , sN = T N = 0 on S2 .
(5.5.39)
In dynamic analysis, it is frequently assumed that the small perturbation of
the underlying equilibrium configuration B corresponds to small oscillations in

the neighborhood of the analyzed equilibrium state (see for instance Guz [5.5],
[5.8], Ogden [5.9] and Truesdell and Noll [5.19]). In this case, according to the
Dirichlet-Kelvin dynamic criterion of stability, B is locally stable if the amplitude

of the involved oscillation converges to zero when the time goes to infinity, or
when it is a function which varies periodically in time. In the stability analysis of
this type, most frequently it is assumed that the time dependence of the involved
it
oscillations is described by the
exponential function e , where represents the
complex frequency and i = 1. For brevity, we shall call the method based on
this assumption the dynamic frequency method. In the framework of this method,
the governing system (5.5.39) takes the following simplified homogeneous form:
Div ( UT ) + 0 2 U = 0 in B,
U = 0 in S1 , N UT = 0 on S2 ,
(5.5.40)
where, for simplicity, the amplitude U = U(X) of the incremental displacement

was denoted by the same symbol U as for the time dependent displacement
U = U(X, t).
Thus, using the dynamic frequency method, to study local stability we are led
to the following eigenvalue problem: those values of the complex frequency
must be determined for which there exist nonvanishing solutions of the homoge
neous, linear system (5.5.40). We recall that the instantaneous elasticity depends on the material properties of the body, as well as on the initial deformation
leading to the reference configuration B to the initial deformed equilibrium con
figuration B . In its turn, this deformation is determined by the loading parameters.

Consequently the possible eigenvalues 0 2 depend on the mass distribution of the
body, on the material properties of the body, on the loading parameters, on the
geometric characteristics of the body, and through the complementary surfaces S 1
and S2 , on the imposed displacement and dead traction conditions.
According to Dirichlet-Kelvin dynamic stability criterion, in the framework of
the dynamic frequency method, the initial deformed equilibrium configuration B
319
is locally stable if the imaginary part Im of the complex frequency is positive;

i.e. if
Im > 0;
(5.5.41)
the equilibrium configuration B is unstable if

Im < 0;
(5.5.42)
and the boundary of the stability domain is determined by the condition

Im = 0.
(5.5.43)
Since depends on the loading parameters, the last condition determines
the critical values for which local instability of the equilibrium configuration B
can occur.
In a natural way, we must now raise the following question: what is the connection between the critical values of the local parameters determined using the
static (energetic) criterion of local stability, and those obtained using the above
presented dynamic frequency method. To find the answer, we first prove the following.
Theorem. The eigenvalues 0 2 of the eigenvalue problem (5.5.40), corresponding to the dynamic frequency method, are always real numbers.
For the proof of this property, we assume that 0 2 is a complex number and
denote, by a superposed bar, the complex conjugation.
Let 0 2 and U be a solution of the eigenvalue problem (5.5.40). Since is

2
a real valued tensor, we can conclude that the complex conjugate quantities 0
and U satisfy the homogeneous linear system
Div ( U ) + 0 U = 0 in B,
U = 0 on S1 , N U = 0 on S2 .
(5.5.44)
Multiplying equation (5.5.40)1 by U and by U, respectively, and subtracting

the obtained results, we get
U Div UT U Div U + 0 (2 )U U = 0.
We integrate this equation on B, use the divergence theorem and the homogeneous boundary conditions (5.5.40)2,3 and (5.5.44)2,3 . Thus we find
Z
Z
T
2
(U UT U U )dV = 0 (2 ) U UdV.
B
Since the instantaneous elasticity has the symmetry property (5.2.34), the
left-hand side of the above equality is vanishing. Hence we get
Z
2
2
0 ( ) U UdV = 0.
B
320
We recall that U is an eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue 0 2 ;

hence, U 6 0 on B. Consequently, the integral in the last equation is nonvanishing.
Thus we must have
2
(5.5.45)
0 2 = 0 .
Taking into account the above result, we can conclude that all eigenvalues
0 2 are real numbers and the theorem is proved.
Let us observe that the above property is true since the instantaneous elasticity has the symmetry property (5.2.34); i.e. the involved differential operator
is self-adjoint. For instance, for viscoelastic materials or piezoelectric crystals, the
above property generally does not take place.
According to equation (5.5.45), can be either only a real number, or only
an imaginary number; it cannot be a complex number, only if itself is vanishing.
As the dynamic frequencies criterion shows, the loss of stability takes place
for those critical values of the loading parameters for which Im just pass from
positive to negative values. Since 6= 0 cannot be a complex number, assuming
continuous dependence of on the loading parameters, we can conclude that in
the moment of loss of stability, must be vanishing, as shown in Figure 5.4.
Figure 5.4: Continuous line: possible path in the complex frequency plane; interrupted lines: impossible paths in the complex frequency plane.
Hence, the boundary of the stability domain is determined for those critical
values of the loading parameters for which
= 0.
(5.5.46)
In other words, according to the frequency method, the equilibrium config
uration B becomes locally unstable when the eigenvalue problem (5.5.40) has a
solution for zero eingevalue. But in this case, the eingenvalues problem (5.5.40)
corresponding to the frequency method and the eigenvalue problem (5.5.3) corresponding to the static (energetic) method become identical. This fact shows that
the following theorem due to Guz [5.5], [5.8] is true.
321
Equivalent theorem. The static (energetic) method, founded on the static

(energetic) criterion of local stability, and the dynamic frequency method, founded
on the general dynamic criterion of the local stability, lead to the same critical
values of the loading parameters.
In the above precise sense, we can say that the static (energetic) criterion of
local stability is necessary and sufficient for the dynamic stability, if the material
is hyperelastic.
An important time-dependent perturbation, frequently used in stability analysis, is a disturbance named progressive or harmonic plane wave, defined by the
equation
U = Aei(KXt) .
(5.5.47)
Here A, K = KN are constant vectors, N N = 1 and is a constant
number. A is the amplitude of the wave, K represents the wave number, the real
unit vector N characterizes the direction of propagation of the wave, and is
the frequency. A, K and can be complex quantities; if this is the solution, the
incremental displacement U is the real part of the expression from the right-hand
side of equation (5.5.47). The quantity
U 2 = 2 /K 2
(5.5.48)
is the square of the velocity if propagation of the wave. We recall that U 2 is always
a real number, since the instantaneous elasticity is symmetric; i.e. satisfies the
property (5.2.34).
In general, a progressive plane wave cannot exist in a hyperelastic material,
except when the equations describing the incremental motion have constant coefficients. This condition is fulfilled if the initial applied deformation is homogeneous
and we assume that this is the case. Also, the displacement (5.5.47) must be compatible with the boundary condition, as, for example, for an infinite medium and
we suppose that this is the case.
Substitution of (5.5.47) into (5.5.39)1,2 yields
2
klmn Nk Nn Am = 0 U Al .
(5.5.49)
The tensor Q = Q (N), having the components
Qlm (N) = klmn Nk Nn
(5.5.50)
represents the acoustic tensor, corresponding to the direction of propagation N.

Now the system (5.5.49) becomes
Q (N)A = 0 U 2 A.
The last equation represents the propagation condition.
(5.5.51)
322
From the symmetry of , it follows that the acoustic tensor is symmetric for
any direction of propagation.
Equation (5.5.51) determines the possible wave amplitudes and wave speeds
for any given direction of propagation in the prestressed material.
Since the acoustic tensor is symmetric for a hyperelastic material, the eigenvalues 0 U 2 of equation (5.5.51) are real and there exists a triad of mutually
orthogonal real eigenvectors A1 , A2 , A3 for each N. However, the wave speed is
real for all N if and only if
0 U 2 > 0
(5.5.52)
for any direction of propagation. From (5.5.51), it results
A Q (N)A
, A 6= 0.
0 U =
AA
2
(5.5.53)
Hence, the condition (5.5.52) is fulfilled for any direction of propagation if and
only if the acoustic tensor Q (N) is positive definite for any N; i.e. if and only if
A Q (N)A > 0 for any A 6= 0 and any N.
(5.5.54)
Taking into account (5.5.50), we can express the last condition in the following
equivalent form:
(AN)T (AN ) > 0 for any AN 6= 0,
(5.5.55)
where AN is the tensor product of the vectors A and N.
If this restriction is fulfilled, we say that the instantaneous elasticity is

strongly elliptic.
Since not every second order tensor has the form AN, strong ellipticity of
the instantaneous elasticity generally does not imply its positive definiteness. Con
versely, if is positive definite, it is also strongly elliptic.

When the instantaneous elasticity is strongly elliptic, the corresponding incremental equilibrium equation is also named strongly elliptic or briefly elliptic, in
accordance with the usual terminology of the theory of partial differential equations.
Positive definiteness of the instantaneous elasticity implies the ellipticity of
the incremental equation of equilibrium. Conversely, if the instantaneous elasticity
ceases to be positive definite, the incremental equation of equilibrium can lose its
ellipticity.
Since the possible wave speeds are eigenvalues of the acoustic tensor, they
are determined from the characteristic equation
det (Q (N) 0 U 2 1) = 0.
(5.5.56)
Since Q (N) is symmetric, any eigenvalue 0 U 2 is real. If is strongly elliptic,

any eingenvalues is positive, hence all possible velocities of propagation are real.
323
5.6. HOMOGENEOUS INITIAL DEFORMATIONS
Particularly, if is positive definite, the initial deformed equilibrium configuration
B is locally stable, all possible velocities of propagation, for any direction, are real.
In this case, the amplitudes of all possible incremental plane waves rest small at
any time, if they were small at the beginning.
In this way we can see that the use of the plane waves offers one advantage
in that the nature of roots of the characteristic equation is reflected obviously in
a dynamic criterion of stability. First, a negative root leads to a purely imaginary
value of U , say U = i, where > 0. Since the amplitude A is real, a suitable
contribution of two solutions of the type (5.5.47) leads to a particular real solution
of the form
U(X, t) = AeKt cos K X, K, > 0,
(5.5.57)
the value of which increases without limit as t . Let us observe also that if 0
is an eigenvalues of Q (N), the corresponding solution is time independent.

Summing up, we can say that, unless all the eingenvalues of the acoustic
tensor Q (N) are nonnegative, there exists in an infinite prestressed hyperelastic

medium certain infinitesimal perturbations which amplify with time, according to
the three-dimensional linearized theory. Conversely, if the instantaneous elasticity
is positive definite, the prestressed, initial deformed equilibrium configuration
B is locally stable, every plane wave has a real frequency, and its amplitude rests
small at all times. We can see again the intimate connection existing between
stability in static and dynamic sense, for a hyperelastic material.
This does not mean that we should necessarily impose, as a condition to the
constitutive function and to the initial deformation, that is, to the corresponding
instantaneous elasticity, that the acoustic tensor be such as to have only positive
eigenvalues. Rather, the above results indicate that for a given material, any initial
deformed homogeneous configuration giving a negative eigenvalue to Q (N) is not

likely to be encountered in practice, since, in such a state, there are certain kinds
of perturbation which, though small in magnitude initially, begin to grow and
then destroy the given equilibrium configuration. Perhaps in this way, physical
instability, such as buckling, ultimately may come to be explained.
5.6
Homogeneous initial deformations

We assume the initial applied deformations to be homogeneous. In this case,
the instantaneous elasticities , and are constant tensors. We assume also

vanishing body force. Since the instantaneous elasticities are constant tensors, the
incremental equations of equilibrium are a linear system of second order partial
differential equations having constant coefficients. In this case, using the associated matrix method, the incremental displacement fields can be expressed by
displacement potentials, all of which satisfy the same linear partial differential
324
equation with constant coefficients. We shall illustrate the procedure assuming

linearly hyperelastic materials and small initial deformations. With appropriate
modifications, many of the results which will be presented in this particular, but
important case, rest true even if the material is hyperelastic but nonlinear, and the
initial applied deformation is large. The case of a nonlinear, isotropic hyperelastic
material is analyzed by Guz in his monographies [5.2][5.8] in the case in which
the initial applied homogeneous deformation is large, but the mixed components
of the corresponding Green strain tensor are vanishing.
Since the initial applied deformation is small, the involved fields can be considered as functions of X or of x. We shall use the second variant. In the considered
case, the involved instantaneous elasticity is and its components are given by
the equations (5.2.48). For simplicity the initial applied displacement field will be
denoted by u = u (x) and the incremental displacement field by u = u (x). We

recall that if the initial applied deformation is small, the Cauchys stress tensor,
corresponding to the initial applied deformation, is designed by = (x) and
the corresponding infinitesimal strain tensor by = (x). To stress the fact that
the initial applied deformation is small, we shall denote the incremental nominal
stress tensor by = (x), the incremental displacement imposed on the part S 1
of the boundary B by v = v (x) and the incremental dead traction imposed in
the complementary part S2 of the boundary by l = l (x). Taking into account the
introduced simplified notations, and recalling that the material is linearly hyperelastic (physical linearity) and the initial applied deformation is small (geometrical
linearity), on the basis of the results presented in the last part of the Section 5.2,
we can conclude that the incremental static behavior of the body, if we consider
the mixed incremental boundary value problem, is governed by the following incremental field equations:
the incremental equilibrium equation
div = 0 or kl,k = 0, k,l = 1, 2, 3 in B;
(5.6.1)
the incremental constitutive equation

= uT or kl = klmn um,n , k,l,m,n = 1, 2, 3;
(5.6.2)
the expressions of the components of the instantaneous elasticity
klmn = cklmn + kn ml ,
(5.6.3)
where cklmn are the components of the elasticity tensor c of the considered linear,
hyperelastic material and kn are the components of the Cauchys stress tensor
corresponding to the initial deformation;
the mixed incremental boundary conditions
u = v or uk = vk on S1 and sn = T n = l or snl = kl nk = ll on S2 ,
(5.6.4)
325
where v = v(x) is a given incremental displacement on S1 , l = l(x) is a given

incremental dead traction on S2 and n = n(x) is the outward unit normal to S2 ,
sn being the incremental Piola-Kirchhoff stress vector.
We recall that the instantaneous elasticity is symmetric; i.e. its components
satisfy the following relation:
klmn = nmlk .
(5.6.5)
We recall also that the infinitesimal strain tensor = (x), corresponding to
the initial applied infinitesimal displacement u = u (x), is given by the classical

geometrical relation

1
1
T
um,l + ul,m .
(5.6.6)
or ml =
u + u
=
2
2
The initial stress , existing in the initial deformed equilibrium configuration,

is given by the classical stress-strain relation
= c or kn = cknml ml .
(5.6.7)
Let us observe that all functions depend on the coordinates x1 , x2 , x3 of the

particles in the reference configuration of the body and all partial derivatives are
considered relative to these coordinates.
We recall also that the above used approximation is permitted since the initial
applied deformation is small; i.e.

(5.6.8)
u << 1 or um,n << 1 for m, n = 1, 2, 3.
Ending this introductory part, we recall that Cauchys stress vector tn acting
in the initial deformed configuration B on a material surface element with unit

normal n is given by the classical relation
tn = n or tnk = kl nl .
(5.6.9)
Actually, the last equations can be used to determine the traction tn which
must be applied on the boundary of the body in order to produce the initial
displacement u = u (x); i.e. the initial applied deformation of the material.

We recall also that Piolas and Kirchhoffs incremental stress vector sn , acting
on a material surface element with unit normal n and produced by the superposed
incremental deformation of the body, can be calculated using the relation
sn = T n or snl = kl nk .
(5.6.10)
326
Now we are ready to discuss the displacement potential problem.

Since klmn are constant quantities, the component form (5.6.1) of the incremental equation of equilibrium can be written in the following equivalent form:
Plm um = 0,
(5.6.11)
where Plm are differential operators defined by the equation

Plm = klmn
2
.
xk xn
(5.6.12)
Let us introduce the 3 3 matrix

P = [Plm ]
(5.6.13)
and let us denote by det P its determinant. Also, we design by P 1 the inverse of
the matrix P . We recall the following relation, well known in matrix calculus:

det P
= P 1 mj det P,
Pjm
(5.6.14)

where P 1 mj are the components of the matrix P 1 .
Let us consider now three regulated scalar valued functions
(j) = (j) (x1, x2, x3 ) , j = 1, 2, 3,
(j)
and, using the associated matrix method, let us assume that the components u m
of the incremental displacement u(j) corresponding to (j) are expressed by the
following equations:
det P (j)
.
(5.6.15)
u(j)
m =
Pjm
According to (5.6.12), we get

1
u(j)
m ={ P
mj
det P }(j) .
Introducing the above expression in the operational form (5.6.10) of the incremental equilibrium equation, we successively obtain

(j)
Plm um
= {Plm P 1 mj det P }(j) = (lj det P ) (j) = ( det P ) (l) .
Hence, the incremental equilibrium equation (5.6.3) will be satisfied by the incremental displacement fields u(j) given in (5.6.15), if and only if the three functions
(j) satisfy the same differential equation
(det P ) (j) = 0 for j = 1, 2, 3.
(5.6.16)
327
The functions (j) , given u(j) through the relation (5.6.15) and satisfying
the same differential equation (5.6.16), will be called incremental displacement
potentials or briefly displacement potentials. The usefulness of the displacement
potentials results from the fact that all of them satisfy the same differential equation. In general, in the three-dimensional case (5.6.16), it is a complicated sixth
order partial differential equation with constant coefficients. Moreover, even if the
displacement potentials satisfy the same differential equation, in the boundary condition (5.6.2) all three potentials appear simultaneously and the problem actually
rests coupled in this sense. We can say that even if we use the displacement potentials to solve incremental boundary value problems, generally the mathematical
problem to be solved remains extremely complex.
Considerable simplification can be achieved only assuming supplementary
symmetry properties of the material, particular forms of the initial imposed deformation, supplementary symmetry properties of the geometry of the body and
particular forms of the imposed surface displacements and tractions.
Concerning the symmetry properties of the material, we shall assume that
the material is orthotropic (see Section 2.2), the symmetry planes being the coordinate planes used up to now. The assumption made is sufficiently general to
study the stability behavior of a large class of composite materials submitted to
various loading conditions. Since the material is linearly elastic and orthotropic,
its elasticity tensor c is characterized by the relation (2.2.19) of the Section 2.2.
Concerning the particular form of the initial imposed deformation, we shall
assume that the initial imposed displacement u has the following components:
u1 = (1 1) x1 , u2 = (2 1) x2 , u3 = (3 1) x3 ,
(5.6.17)
where 1 , 2 , 3 are given constant quantities. Since the initial deformation is

small, 1 , 2 , 3 must satisfy the condition
|k 1| << 1 for k = 1, 2, 3.
(5.6.18)
The assumption made is sufficiently general to study buckling of a large class

of composite materials, as anisotropic bars and plates, or composite laminates.
According to (5.6.5) and (5.6.18), only the diagonal components of the initial
infinitesimal strain are nonvanishing, and we have
11 = 1 1, 22 = 2 1, 33 = 3 1, kl = 0 for k 6= l.
Since (5.6.18) takes place, we have

11 , 22 , 33 << 1.
(5.6.19)
(5.6.20)
Using the relation (2.2.19) and the above results, we can conclude that only
the diagonal components of the initial stress are nonvanishing and we have the
328
relations
11 = C11 11 + C12 22 + C13 33 , 22 = C21 11 + C22 22 + C23 33 ,
33 = C31 11 + C32 22 + C33 33 , kl = 0 for k 6= l.

(5.6.21)
Analyzing attentively the structure (2.2.19) of the elasticity tensor c and
using the relations (5.6.3) and (5.6.21) we can conclude that the nonvanishing
components of the instantaneous elasticity are given by the following equations:
1111 = C11 + 11 , 2222 = C22 + 22 , 3333 = C33 + 33 ,

1122 = 2211 = C12 = C21 , 2233 = 3322 = C23 = C32 ,
3311 = 1133 = C13 = C31 ,
1212 = 2121 = C66 , 2323 = 3232 = C44 , 3131 = 1313 = C55 ,
(5.6.22)
2112 = C66 + 22 , 1221 = C66 + 11 ,

3223 = C44 + 33 , 2332 = C44 + 22 ,
1331 = C55 + 11 , 3113 = C55 + 33 .
The determination of instantaneous elasticities must be made carefully, since

a single, little mistake can lead to completely erroneous results.
The behavior of an orthotropic linearly elastic material is governed by 9
independent elasticities. However, even in the special case analyzed by us, the
incremental behavior of the same material is governed by 15 independent instantaneous elasticities. Moreover, the elasticity tensor c is always positive definite,
but the instantaneous elasticity tensor can lose its positiveness if instabilities
occur. It is clear that the incremental boundary value problems are much more
complicated as those encountered in the usual linear theory at anisotropic elastic
bodies.
Using the incremental constitutive equation (5.6.2) and the relations (5.6.22),
we can express the incremental nominal stress through the gradient u of the
incremental displacement field. Simple computations lead to the following relations
329
expressing the components of in terms of the components of u:

11 = 1111 u1,1 + 1122 u2,2 + 1133 u3,3 = C11 + 11 u1,1 + C12 u2,2 + C13 u3,3 ,

12 = 1212 u1,2 + 1221 u2,1 = C66 u1,2 + C66 + 11 u2,1 ,

13 = 1313 u1,3 + 1331 u3,1 = C55 u1,3 + C55 + 11 u3,1 ,

21 = 2112 u1,2 + 2121 u2,1 = C66 + 22 u1,2 + C66 u2,1 ,

22 = 2211 u1,1 + 2222 u2,2 + 2233 u3,3 = C21 u1,1 + C22 + 22 u2,2 + C23 u3,3 ,

23 = 2323 u2,3 + 2332 u3,2 = C44 u2,3 + C44 + 22 u3,2 ,

31 = 3113 u1,3 + 3131 u3,1 = C55 + 33 u1,3 + C55 u3,1 ,

32 = 3223 u2,3 + 3232 u3,2 = C44 + 33 u2,3 + C44 u3,2 ,

33 = 3311 u1,1 + 3322 u2,2 + 3333 u3,3 = C31 u1,1 + C32 u2,2 + C33 + 33 u3,3 .
(5.6.23)
12 6= 21 , 23 6= 32 , 31 6= 13 .
As we have said, further simplifications can be achieved introducing supplementary assumptions concerning the geometry of the body. We assume that the
body is a long cylinder, having generators parallel to the Ox3 axis. In this case, the
components of the outward unit normal n to the lateral surface Sl of the cylinder
are characterized by the following equations:
n1 = n1 (x1 , x2 ) , n2 = n2 (x1 , x2 ) , n3 0 on Sl .
(5.6.24)
We suppose also that the imposed incremental displacement v and the imposed incremental dead traction l on the lateral surface of the cylinder satisfy the
following restrictions:
v1 = v2 0, v3 = v3 (x1 , x2 ) on Sl1 ,
l1 = l2 0, l3 = l3 (x1 , x2 ) on Sl2 ,
(5.6.25)
where Sl1 and Sl2 are complementary lateral subsurfaces on Sl .

In such conditions in an orthotropic cylinder, without initial deformations, if
it is sufficiently long relative to its transverse dimensions and the end effects can be
neglected, an antiplane state can arise relative to the plane Ox1 x2 , characterized
by the following relations:
u1 = u2 0, u3 = u3 (x1 , x2 ) in B.
(5.6.26)
As it is well known, even if the above conditions concerning the geometry

of the body and the applied surface displacements and tractions are fulfilled, in
330
an elastic cylinder having general anisotropy cannot appear an antiplane state,

that is, the relation (5.6.26) are not fulfilled. We have seen that the incremental
stress-strain relations are much more complicated as those encountered in the usual
theory of orthotropic materials. Hence, we must verify if the assumption (5.6.26),
expressing the existence of an antiplane state, is compatible with the incremental
equilibrium equations (5.6.1) and with the imposed external constraints (5.6.25),
on the lateral surface Sl of the cylinder.
To analyze this compatibility problem, first of all we observe that if the conditions (5.6.26) are fulfilled, according to (5.6.23) the components of the incremental
nominal stress depend only on x1 , x2 , and have the following expressions:
11 0, 21 0, 31 = 3131 u3,1 ,
12 0, 22 0, 32 = 3232 u3,2 ,
13 = 1331 u3,1 , 23 = 2332 u3,2 , 33 0.
(5.6.27)
Now it is the easy to see that the first two equilibrium equations (5.6.1) 2 are
identically satisfied, and the third equilibrium equation becomes
13,1 + 23,2 = 0 or 1331 u3,11 + 2332 u3,22 = 0 in S,
(5.6.28)
where S denotes the plane domain bounded by the closed curve , representing
the generatrix of the cylinder.
Taking into account the relations (5.6.10), (5.6.24) and (5.6.27) on the lateral
surface Sl of the cylinder for the components snl of the Piola-Kirchhoff stress vector
sn , we obtain the following expressions:
sn1 = sn2 0, sn3 = 13 n1 + 23 n2 on Sl .
(5.6.29)
Examining equations (5.6.4), (5.6.25) and (5.6.29), we can see that on the
lateral surface of the cylinder, the first two displacement and traction boundary
conditions are identically satisfied, and the third displacement and traction boundary condition will be satisfied if
u3 = v3 on 1 and sn3 = 13 n1 + 23 n2 = l3 on 2 ,
(5.6.30)
where 1 and 2 are complementary subcurves on the curve , corresponding to

the lateral complementary subsurfaces Sl1 and Sl2 .
Summing up the results of this analysis, we can state that if the assumed
conditions are fulfilled, in our cylindrical body can exist an antiplane (incremental)
state. The only nonvanishing components of the incremental displacement field are
u3 = u3 (x1 , x2 ) .
(5.6.31)
The only nonvanishing components of the incremental nominal stress are

13 = 1331 u3,1 , 23 = 2332 u3,2 , 31 = 3131 u3,1 , 32 = 3232 u3,2 .
(5.6.32)
331
The only incremental equation that must be satisfied is

13,1 + 23,2 = 0 or 3131 u3,11 + 2332 u3,22 = 0 in S.
(5.6.33)
The only boundary conditions that must be satisfied are

u3 = v3 on 1 ,
sn3 = 13 n1 + 23 n2 = 1331 u3,1 n1 + 2332 u3,2 n2 = l3 on 2 .
(5.6.34)
The only involved instantaneous elasticities are
1331 = C55 + 11 , 2332 = C44 + 22 , 3131 = C55 , 3232 = C44 .
(5.6.35)
Since the only unknown function is u3 = u3 (x1 , x2 ), the displacement potential problem is automatically solved if we have an antiplane state.
Let us assume now that the imposed incremental displacement v and the
imposed lead traction l satisfy the following restrictions on the lateral surface S l
of the long cylindrical body:
v1 = v1 (x1 , x2 ) , v2 = v2 (x1 , x2 ) , v3 0 on Sl1 ,
l1 = l1 (x1 , x2 ) , l2 = l2 (x1 , x2 ) , l3 0 on Sl2 .
(5.6.36)
Assuming again a sufficiently long cylinder and neglecting the end effects, we
shall analyze if a plane state can exist in the body relative to the plane Ox 1 x2 ,
and characterized by the relations
u1 = u1 (x1 , x2 ) , u2 = u2 (x1 , x2 ) , u3 0 in B.
(5.6.37)
To analyze the compatibility problem, we observe that according to (5.6.23)

and (5.6.37), the components of the incremental nominal stress depend only in
x1 , x2 and are given by the equations
11 = 1111 u1,1 + 1122 u2,2 , 21 = 2112 u1,2 + 2121 u2,1 , 31 0,
12 = 1212 u1,2 + 1221 u2,1 , 22 = 2211 u1,1 + 2222 u2,2 , 32 0,
13 0,
23 0,
33 = 3311 u1,1 +
+3322 u2,2 .
(5.6.38)
Now it is easy to see that the third incremental equilibrium equation (5.6.1) 2
is identically satisfied, and the first two become
11,1 + 21,2 = 0, 12,1 + 22,2 = 0 in S.
(5.6.39)
Taking into account (5.6.10), (5.6.24) and (5.6.38), for the components s nl ,
on the lateral surface Sl , we get
sn1 = 11 n1 + 21 n2 , sn2 = 12 n1 + 22 n2 , sn3 0 on Sl .
(5.6.40)
332
Examining equations (5.6.4), (5.6.36) and (5.6.40), we can see that the third
displacement and traction boundary conditions are identically satisfied on the
lateral surface of the cylinder and the first two will be fulfilled if
u1 = v1 , u2 = v2 on 1 ,
(5.6.41)
sn1 = 11 n1 + 21 n2 = l1 , sn2 = 12 n1 + 22 n2 = l2 on 2 .
Hence, if the assumed conditions are fulfilled, in the considered cylindrical
body a plane state can exist .
The two nonvanishing components of the incremental displacement field are
u1 = u1 (x1 , x2 ) , u2 = u2 (x1 , x2 ) .
(5.6.42)
The only nonvanishing components of the incremental nominal stress are

11 = w1111 u1,1 + w1122 u2,2 ,
12 = 1212 u1,2 + 1221 u2,1 ,
33 = 3311 u1,1 + 3322 u2,2 .
21 = 2112 u1,2 + 2121 u2,1

22 = 2211 u1,1 + 2222 u2,2
(5.6.43)
The only incremental equilibrium equations that must be satisfied are

11,1 + 21,2 = 0, 12,1 + 22,2 = 0 in S,
(5.6.44)
or, equivalently,
w1111 u1,11 + w1122 u2,21 + 2112 u1,22 + 2121 u2,12 = 0,
(5.6.45)
w1212 u1,21 + w1221 u2,11 + 2211 u1,12 + 2222 u2,22 = 0.
The only involved boundary conditions that must be satisfied are
u1 = v1 , u2 = v2 on 1 ,
(5.6.46)
sn1 = 11 n1 + 21 n2 = l1 , sn2 = 12 n1 + 22 n2 = l2 on 2 .
The only involved instantaneous elasticities are
1111 = C11 + 11 ,
1212 = 2121 + C66 ,
3311 = C13 ,
2222 = C22 + 22 ,
1221 = C66 + 11 ,
3322 = C23 .
1122 = 2211 + C12 ,
2112 = C66 + 22 ,
(5.6.47)
To analyze the displacement problem, we observe that the equilibrium equations (5.6.45) can be expressed in the following operatorial form:
P11 u1 + P12 u2 = 0,
P12 u1 + P22 u2 = 0
(5.6.48)
333

with
P11 = 1111
P21
2
2
+ 2112 2 ,
2
x2
x1
P12 = (1122 + 2121 )
2
,
x1 x2
(5.6.49)
2
,
= (1212 + 2211 )
x1 x2
P22
2
2
= 1221 2 + 2222 2 .
x2
x1
Since 1122 = 2211 and 2121 = 1212 , we have

P12 = P21 .
(5.6.50)
Using the general relations (5.6.15) and (5.6.16) for the two dimensional case,
or directly, it can be seen that the components u1 , u2 of the incremental displacement field u can be expressed by two displacement potentials (1) = (1) (x1 , x2 )
and (2) = (2) (x1 , x2 ) in the following way:
u1 = P12 (1) + P22 (2) ,
u2 = P11 (1) P12 (2)
(5.6.51)
and the incremental equilibrium equations (5.6.48) will be identically satisfied if

(1) and (2) satisfy the differential equation
()
2
P11 P22 P12
= 0,
= 1, 2.
(5.6.52)
The explicit form of the relations (5.6.51) and (5.6.52) can be obtained if we
use the equations (5.6.49). Thus, we get Guzs representation [5.8]
u1 = (1122 + 1212 ) (1) ,12 + 1221 (2) ,11 + 2222 (2) ,22 ,
(5.6.53)
u2 = 1111 (1) ,11 + 2112 (1) ,22 (1122 + 1212 ) (2) ,12 ,
and the differential equation which must be satisfied by the displacement potentials
()
{1111 1221
4
+ [1111 2222 + 1221 2112
x41
2
(1122 + 1212 ) ]
4
4
}() = 0, = 1, 2.
+
2222
2112
x2 4
x21 x22
Using (5.6.53) and (5.6.43), we obtain the incremental nominal stress com-
334
ponents in terms of the potentials () :
2 (2)
2
11 = {1111 1212 2 + [1111 2222 1122 (2211 + 1212 )] 2 }
x2 x1

x1
2 (1)
2
,
+ 1111 1212 2 + 1122 2112 2
x1
x2
x1

2 (2)
2
12 = 1221 1122 2 + 1212 2222 2
x1
x2
x1
2 (1)
2
,
+{1221 1111 2 + [1221 2112 1212 (1122 + 1212 )] 2 }
x2 x1
x1
2 (2)
2
}
+
21 = {[2112 1221 1212 (1122+ 1221 )]

2112
2222
x22 x2
x21

(1)
2
2
,
+ 1111 1212 2 2112 1122 2
x2 x1
x1

2 (2)
2
22 = 1122 1221 2 2222 1212 2
x1
x2
x1
2 (1)
2
.
+{[1111 2222 1122 (1122 + 1212 )] 2 + 2222 2112 2 }
x2 x2
x1
(5.6.54)
As in the classical theory of anisotropic bodies, there exist incremental boundary value problems which can be solved using a single displacement potential, that
is assuming (1) 0 or (2) 0. However, to solve some important problems, concerning, for instance, cracks in prestressed materials, two independent potentials
must be used.
We observe that if the instantaneous elasticities satisfy the restriction
2222 6= 0 and 2112 6= 0,
the equation satisfied by () can be factorized, becoming
2
2

2
2
2
2
+ 1
+ 2
() = 0,
x22
x21
x22
x21
(5.6.55)
(5.6.56)
where the parameters 12 and 22 satisfy equations

f () 4 2A 2 + B = 0,
(5.6.57)
with
2
A=
1111 2222 + 1221 2112 (1122 + 1212 )

1111 1221
, B=
.
2 2222 2112
2222 2112
(5.6.58)
If the restriction (5.6.55) does not take place, the factorization procedure can
and must be changed accordingly.
335
To study various stability and boundary value problems, the nature of the
parameters 12 and 22 must be known. As is clear from the relation (5.6.57), 12
and 22 are given by the relations
p
2
(5.6.59)
1,2
= A A2 B.
To study the nature of these roots, we shall analyze the incremental harmonic
wave problem, corresponding to a time-dependent plane incremental state. More
exactly, we look for solutions of the form
u = a ei(kn x t) , , = 1, 2
(5.6.60)
of the incremental equations of motion, corresponding to the plane state.

Taking into account the relations (5.6.45), we can conclude that the incremental equations of motion have the following form:
1111 u1,11 + 2112 u1,22 + (1122 + 1212 ) u2,12 = 0 u
1 ,
(5.6.61)
(1122 + 1212 ) u1,12 + 1221 u2,11 + 2222 u2,22 = 0 u
2 ,
the instantaneous elasticities being given by equations (5.6.47).
In (5.6.60), a is the constant amplitude of the wave, the constant k > 0 is
the wave number, the constant unit vector u gives the direction of propagation
and the constant > 0 is the wave frequency.
Introducing (5.6.60) in (5.6.61), we obtain the propagation condition

1111 n21 + 2112 n22 a1 + (1122 + 1212 )n1 n2 a2 = 0 u2 a1 ,
(5.6.62)

(1122 + 1212 )n1 n2 a1 + 1221 n21 + 2222 n22 a2 = 0 v 2 a2 ,
where:
u2 =
2
k2
(5.6.63)
is the square of the wave velocity.

The characteristic equation giving the possible wave velocities takes the following form:

(5.6.64)
20 u4 a (n1 , n2 ) 0 u2 + 2222 2112 b n1, n2 = 0
with
2a (n1 , n2 ) = (1111 + 1221 ) n21 + (2112 + 2222 ) n22 ,

b (n1, n2 ) = n42 + 2An22 n21 + Bn21 ,
(5.6.65)
(5.6.66)
A and B being given in (5.6.58). To get equation (5.6.64), we have assumed that
the restriction (5.6.55) is fulfilled.
336
Let us assume now that the initial deformed homogeneous equilibrium configuration is locally stable; i.e. the corresponding instantaneous elasticity is positive definite. As Sylvesters criterion shows, in this case, the involved instantaneous
elasticities must satisfy the following restrictions:
1111 , 2222 , 1221 , 2112 > 0,
2
> 0,
1111 2222 1212
(5.6.67)
2
1221 2112 1212
> 0.
Let us observe, that in this case, the restrictions (5.6.55) are fulfilled.
Also, the positive definiteness of implies positive definiteness of the corresponding acoustic tensor involved in the propagation condition (5.6.62) and in
the characteristic equation (5.6.64). Consequently, the roots 0 u21 and 0 u22 of this
equation are real and positive for all directions of propagation. Particularly, as
seen from (5.6.64) results, we must have

0 u21 + 0 u22 = a n1, n2 > 0, 0 u21 0 u22 = 2222 2112 b n1, n2 > 0
(5.6.68)
for any n1 and n2 such that n21 + n22 = 1.
Since w2222 and w2112 are positive, we can conclude from (5.6.68)2 that
b(n1 , n2 ) > 0
(5.6.69)
for all n1 , n2 such that n21 + n22 6= 0. In this way, taking n2 = n1 , where is an
arbitrary real number, from (5.6.69) and (5.6.66) we can conclude that if the initial
deformed homogeneous equilibrium configuration is locally stable, we have
g () 4 + 2A2 + B > 0 for any real number .
(5.6.70)
Let us assume now that

2 = 2 ,
(5.6.71)
being an arbitrary negative number. Taking into account the equation (5.6.57)
defining the function f (), we can conclude that if the initial deformed equilibrium
configuration in locally stable, we have
f () = 4 2A 2 + B > 0 for any 2 < 0.
(5.6.72)
The obtained results can be summed up in the following.

Theorem. If the initial deformed homogeneous equilibrium configuration is
locally stable, then:
(i) The incremental equilibrium equation is elliptic.
(ii)The second order algebraic equation
g () 4 + 2A2 + B = 0
cannot have real roots.
337

(iii)The second order algebraic equation
f () = 4 2A 2 + B = 0
cannot have imagining roots.

(iv)The parameters 12 and 22 in the factorized equation (5.6.56) are real
and positive or complex and conjugate numbers.
The above theorem will be used in Section 8 to express the incremental fields
by complex potential.
Now we return to the three dimensional case and assume that the material
in transversally isotropic, Ox1 x2 is the plain of isotropy. We suppose also that the
initial applied displacement field satisfies the symmetry condition
1 = 2 .
(5.6.73)
Now the structure of the elasticity tensor c is given by the relation (2.2.50).
Consequently, we have
C11 = C22 , C13 = C23 , C44 = C55 , 2C66 = C11 C12 .
(5.6.74)
From (5.6.19) and (5.6.73), we get
11 = 22 = 1 1, 33 = 3 1.
(5.6.75)
The relation (5.6.22), (5.6.74) and (5.6.75) jointly give
11 = 22 = (C11 + C12 ) 11 + C13 33 , 33 = 2C13 11 + C33 33 .
(5.6.76)
Taking into account (5.6.22), (5.6.74), (5.6.75), we conclude that in the considered cylindrical symmetry case, the instantaneous elasticities are given by the
following supplementary relations:
1111 = 2222 = C11 + 11 , 3333 = C33 + 33 ,

1122 = 2211 = C12 , 1133 = 3311 = 2233 = 3322 = C13 ,
1221 = 2112 =
1212 = 2121 =
(C11 C12 )+ 11 ,
2
1
(C11 C12 ), 1313 = 3131 = 2323 = 3232 = C44 ,
2
1331 = 2332 = C44 + 11 , 3113 = 3223 = C44 + 33 .
(5.6.77)
Moreover, if follows also that the equation

1111 1221 = 1122 + 1212
is satisfied.
(5.6.78)
338
In the considered cylindrical symmetric case, these are 8 independent instantaneous elasticities.
For simplicity we shall use the notations
Yk =
2
2
= Y12 + Y22 = 1 .
+
, k = 1, 2, 3,
x22
x21
xk
(5.6.79)
Using (5.6.78) and (5.6.79) for the differential operators Plm introduced by
the equation (5.6.12), we find the following simplified expression:
P11 = 1111 Y12 + 1221 Y22 + 3113 Y32 ,
P22 = 1221 Y12 + 1111 Y22 + 3113 Y32 ,
P33 = 1331 1 + 3333 Y32 ,
P12 = P21 = (1111 1221 )Y1 Y2 ,
P13 = P31 = (1133 + 1313 )Y1 Y3 ,
P23 = P32 = (1133 + 1313 )Y2 Y3 .
Using the above expression, we find

2
2
2
P22 P13
P33 + 2P12 P13 P23 P11 P23
det P = P11 P22 P22
2
= (1111 1 + 3113 Y32 )(1221 1 + 3113 Y32 ),
P11 P22 P12
(5.6.80)
(5.6.81)
(5.6.82)
2
2
= (1133 + 1313 )2 (1221 21 + 3113 Y32 )Y32 .
P22 P13
2P12 P13 P23 P11 P23
(5.6.83)
Now we assume that

1111 6= 0, 1221 6= 0, 1331 6= 0.
(5.6.84)
If one of these conditions are not fulfilled, the procedure must be changed
accordingly.
If our assumptions are fulfilled, we get
det P =

1111 1221 1331 { 21 +
2
3113
3113 (1111 + 1221 )
Y4
1 Y32 +
1111 1221 3
1111 1221

3113 2
(1133 + 1313 )2
3333 2
Y ]1 Y32 }.
[1 +
Y3
1 +
1221 3
1111 1331
1331
339

We also have
21 +
2
3113 2
3113 2
3113
3113 (1111 + 1221 )
Y ).
Y )(1 +
Y 4 = (1 +
1 Y32 +
1221 3
1111 3
1111 1221 3
1111 1221
In this way, we obtain

(1111 1221 1331 )1 det P
3333 2
3113 2
Y )
Y3 )(1 +
1331 3
1111
2
3113 2
(1133 + 1313 )
Y ).
1 Y32 ](1 +
1221 3
1111 1331
[(1 +
Factorizing the first brackets and using the notation (5.6.79), finally we get
(1111 1221 1331 )1 det P = (1 + 12
2
2
2
2
2
), (5.6.85)
)(
+
)(
+
1
1
3
2
x23
x23
x23
where the parameters 12 , 22 and 32 are given by the following relations:

12 =
2
2,3
with
c=
=c
3113
1221
c2
3113 3333
1331 1111
1111 3333 + 1331 3113 (1133 + 1313 )2

.
21111 1331
(5.6.86)
(5.6.87)
(5.6.88)
Returning to the relation (5.6.16), according to (5.6.85), we can conclude

that the displacement potential (j) must satisfy the following differential equation
established by Guz [5.6], [5.8]:
(1 + 12
2
2
2
)(1 + 22 2 )(1 + 32 2 )(j) = 0, j = 1, 2, 3,
2
x3
x3
x3
(5.6.89)
the parameters 12 , 22 and 32 being expressed in terms of the instantaneous elasticities through the relations (5.6.86),(5.6.87).
Following Guz, we introduce now two function 1 and 2 satisfying the following equation:
2
(5.6.90)
(1 + 12 2 )1 = 0,
x3
(1 + 22
2
2
2
)2 = 0.
)(
+
1
3
x23
x23
(5.6.91)
Let us observe that if 1 and 2 satisfy the above equations, 1 and 2 satisfy
also Guzs equation (5.6.89).
340
We recall now the representation (5.6.15) of the incremental displacements

through the displacement potentials and introduce the following combination of
(j)
the fields um :
(3)
(2)
um = u(1)
m um + um =
det P (1) det P (2) det P (3)

.
+

P3m
P2m
P1m
Also we take
(1) = (2) = 1 , (3) = 2 .
In this way, we get
um = (
det P
det P
det P
2 .
)1 +
P3m
P2m
P1m
(5.6.92)
We shall analyze the above relation in detail for m = 3. The computations

for the component u1 and u2 corresponding to m = 1 and m = 2 must be made
in the same way. For m = 3, equation (5.6.92) becomes
u3 = (
det P
det P
det P
2 .
)1 +
P33
P23
P13
(5.6.93)
In order to evaluate the partial derivatives of det P in relation to Pjm , considered as independent variables, the expression (5.6.85) of det P must be symmetrized
in the following manner:
det P = (P11 P22 P12 P21 )P33 + P12 P13 P23 + P21 P31 P32 P11 P23 P32 P22 P13 P31 .
(5.6.94)
After the derivatives were determined, to obtain the final results we can use
the symmetry relations Pjm = Pmj . Using the above procedure, we get
det P
det P
det P
2
.
= P11 P22 P12
= P12 P13 P11 P23 ,
= P12 P23 P22 P13 ,
P33
P23
P13
(5.6.95)
Using the expression (5.6.80) of the differential operators Pjm , we get
det P det P
(1 + 12 2 ), (5.6.96)
)
= (1133 + 1313 )1221 (
x3
x2 x1 x3
P23
P13
where 12 is given by the equation (5.6.86). According to the assumption made, the
potential 1 satisfies the differential equation (5.6.90). Hence, the contribution of
1 to u3 is vanishing. Consequently, equation (5.6.92), from m = 3, becomes
u3 =
det P
2
)2 .
2 = (P11 P22 P12
P33
2
and using the relaReturning now to the expression (5.6.82) of P11 P22 P12
tion (5.6.80), it is easy to see that this operator has the following expression:
2
= (1111 1 + 3113 Y32 )(1221 1 + 3113 Y32 ).
P11 P22 P12
341

The last two equations jointly give
u3 = (1111 1 + 3113
2
2
)(1221 1 + 3113 2 )2 ,
2
x3
x3
1 =
2
2
.
+
2
x22
x1
(5.6.97)
(5.6.98)
After similar calculus for u1 and u2 , results are

u1 =
)[(1122 + 1212 )(1331 1 + 3333 2 )

+
(
x3
x2
x2 x1
(1133 + 1331 )2
u2 =
2
2
2
(1221 1 + 3113 2 )2 .
]1 (1133 + 1313 )
2
x3
x1 x3
x3
)[(1122 + 1212 )(1331 1 + 3333 2 )

+
(
x3
x2
x1 x1
(1133 + 1331 )2
2
2
2
(1221 1 + 1313 2 )2 .
]1 (1133 + 1313 )
2
x3
x2 x3
x3
(5.6.99)
We suppose now that

1122 + 1213 6= 0 and 1133 + 1331 6= 0.
(5.6.100)
In this case the relation (5.6.97) and (5.6.99) can be simplified introducing
the new potentials
(
2
2
)[(1122 + 1212 )(1331 1 + 3333 2 ) (1133 + 1331 )2 2 ]1 ,

+
x3
x3
x1 x2
(1133 + 1313 )(1221 1 + 3113
2
)2 .
x23
(5.6.101)
Introducing these relations in equations (5.6.97) and (5.6.99), we finally obtain Guzs representation of the incremental displacement by two displacement
potentials and , appropriate to the axially symmetric case
u1 =
2
, u2 =
x1 x3
x2
x1
x2 x3
u3 =
1
2
(1111 1 + 1313 2 ).
1133 + 1313
x3
(5.6.102)
342
Since the function 1 and 2 satisfy the differential equations (5.6.90) and
(5.6.91), respectively, Guzs displacement potentials and must satisfy the following differential equations:
(1 +12
2
2
2
2
2
+ 2 , (1 +22 2 )(1 +32 2 ) = 0. (5.6.103)
) = 0, 1 =
2
2
x3
x3
x1 x3
x3
If
12 6= 22 ,
according to Baggios theorem, the potential can be expressed as

= 2 + 3 ,
(5.6.104)
and the new potential 2 and 3 must satisfy the differential equations
(1 + 22
2
2
)2 = 0, (1 + 32 2 )3 = 0.
2
x3
x3
(5.6.105)
Examining the above results, we can see that Guzs theorem gives a representation of incremental displacement field through three displacement potentials
, 1 and 2 , each of them satisfying a second order partial differential equation,
if the parameters 1 , 2 , 3 are distinct.
Guzs representation is useful to study a three-dimensional incremental boundary value problem. Particularly, as we shall see in the Section 6, it can be used to
study stability problem concerning anisotropic cylindrical bars. As we shall see, if
the bar has a circular transverse section, we can find the primary eigenmodes describing the Eulerian buckling of the bar. Since, in the axially symmetric case, all
boundary value problems can be more easily analyzed by using cylindrical coordinates, in what follows we shall present Guzs representation with such coordinates.
Let us denote by {er , e , ez } the physical basis of a cylindrical system of
coordinates and let r, , z be the cylindrical coordinates of a point P as in Figure
5.5.
We have
x1 = r cos , x2 = r sin , x3 = z,
x2
(5.6.106)
r = (x21 + x22 )1/2 , = arctan , z = x3 ,
x1
and
er = e1 cos + e2 sin , e = e1 sin + e2 cos , ez = e3 ,
e1 = er cos e sin , e2 = er sin + e cos , e3 = ez .
(5.6.107)
u = u 1 e1 + u 2 e2 + u 3 e3 = u r er + u e + u z ez ,
(5.6.108)
The orthonormal basis {er , e , ez } changes when the point P changes, but
any vector field depending on P can be expressed as a linear combination of the
vector {er , e , ez } corresponding to P . Particularly, for the incremental displacement vector u, we have
343
Figure 5.5: Cylindrical coordinates r, , z.

ur , u and uz representing the radial, tangential and axial components of the
displacement u. Directly from (5.6.107) and (5.6.108), we obtain
ur = u1 cos + u2 sin , u = u1 sin + u2 cos , uz = u3
u1 = ur cos u sin , u2 = ur sin + u cos , u3 = uz .
(5.6.109)
cos
sin
r
r
.
=
,
=
= sin ,
= cos ,
r
x2
r
x1
x2
x1
(5.6.110)
Also, from (5.6.106), it results
The above equations show that if the displacement potentials and , considered until now as depending on the Cartesian coordinates x1 , x2 , x3 , will be
assumed as functions of the cylindrical coordinates r, , z, their derivatives relative
to x1 , x2 , x3 can be expressed in terms of their derivatives relative to r, , z using
the relations
. (5.6.111)
=
,
+ cos
= sin
,
sin
= cos
z
r x3
r
r x2
r
x1
Considering and as depending on r, , z and using the relation (5.6.111),

from Guzs representation (5.6.102), we get
u1 = (
2
1
1 2
) cos ,
) sin + (
+
rz
r
r z
r
u2 = (
1 2
1
2
+
) cos + (
) sin ,
r z
r
r
rz
u3 = (1133 + 1313 )1 (1111 1 + 3113
2
),
z 2
(5.6.112)
344
where the two-dimensional Laplacian 1 is now expressed, using the cylindrical

coordinates r and , by the equation
1 =
1 2
1
2
.
+
+
r r r2 2
r2
(5.6.113)
The above relation can be established using equations (5.6.98), (5.6.110) and
(5.6.111).
Now, introducing (5.6.112) in (5.6.109)1,2,3 , we obtain Guzs representation
in cylindrical coordinates, appropriate to the cylindrical symmetric case
ur =
1 2
2
1
,
, u =
r z
r
rz
r
(5.6.114)
u3 = (1133 + 1313 )1 [1111 (
1
1
) + 3113 2 ].
+
+
z
r r r2 2
r2
In any point P , the corresponding physical basis {er , e , ez }, depending on

P , can be used to construct in P a tensorial basis, following the usual procedure
presented in Section 1.1. Particularly, the incremental nominal stress tensor ,
evaluated in P , can be expressed as a linear combination of the elements forming
the constructed terminal basis; i.e. we have
= rr er er + r er e + rz er ez + r e er + e e +
(5.6.115)
z e ez + zr ez er + z ez e + zz ez ez = kl ek el ,
kl being the components of in the tensorial bases {ek , el }, k, l = 1, 2, 3, and
rr , ..., zz representing the physical components of , corresponding to the introduced cylindrical coordinate system. Now, directly from (5.6.107)4,5,6 and (5.6.115),
we obtain
rr = 11 cos2 + (12 + 21 ) sin cos + 22 sin2 ,
= 11 sin2 (12 + 21 ) sin cos + 22 cos2 ,
r = (22 11 ) sin cos + 12 cos2 21 sin2 ,
r = (22 11 ) sin cos 12 sin2 + 21 cos2 ,
rz = 13 cos + 23 sin , z = 13 sin + 23 cos ,
zr = 31 cos + 32 sin , z = 31 sin + 32 cos , zz = 33 .
(5.6.116)
The above relation will be used to express the physical components rr , ..., zz
in terms of ur , u , uz considered as functions of r, , z. We shall analyze in detail
the problem for rr . For the other components, the procedure is similar and we
present only the final results.
345
To solve the problems, we first use the relation (5.6.23) and the restrictions
(5.6.77), (5.6.78) satisfied by the instantaneous elasticities in the cylindrical symmetric case. In this way we obtain, in Cartesian coordinates, the following simplified incremental constitutive equations:
11 = 1111 u1,1 + 1122 u2,2 + 1133 u3,3 ,
12 = 1212 u1,2 + 1221 u2,1 ,
13 = 1313 u1,3 + 1331 u3,1 ,
21 = 1221 u1,2 + 1212 u2,1 ,
22 = 1122 u1,1 + 1111 u2,2 + 1133 u3,3 ,
(5.6.117)
23 = 1313 u2,3 + 1313 u3,2 ,

31 = 3113 u1,3 + 1313 u3,2 ,
32 = 3113 u1,3 + 1313 u3,2 ,
33 = 1133 u1,1 + 1133 u2,2 + 3333 u3,3 .
Now using the first equation (5.6.116), we get for rr the following expression:
rr = (1111 u1,1 + 1122 u2,2 + 1133 u3,3 ) cos2
+(1122 u1,1 + 1111 u2,2 + 1133 u3,3 ) sin2
+(1111 1122 )(u1,2 + u2,1 ) sin cos .
(5.6.118)
To get the above relation, we have used also the symmetry restriction (5.6.68)
satisfied in the axially symmetric case.
Now we return to equations (5.6.109)3,4 and (5.6.110). After long, but elementary computations, we get the following relations:
u1,1 =
u
1 ur
u
ur
1 u
ur
) sin cos ,
+
+ ) sin2 (
cos2 + (
r
r
r
r
r
r
u1,2 = (
u2,1 =
ur
1 u
ur
u
u
1 ur
) sin cos ,
sin2 + (
) cos2
r
r
r
r
r
r
ur
1 u
ur
u
1 ur
u
) sin cos ,
) sin2 + (
cos2 (
r
r
r
r
r
r
u2,2 = (
1 u
ur
ur
u
1 ur
u
+ ) cos2 +
sin2 + (
+
) sin cos .
r
r
r
r
r
r
(5.6.119)
346
Introducing (5.6.119) in (5.6.118), we get the expression of rr in terms of

the radial, tangential and axial components of the incremental displacement field.
Finally, after long but elementary computations, founded in the above procedure,
we obtain
uz
ur
1 u
ur
,
+ ) + 1133
+ 1122 (
rr = 1111
z
r
r
r
r = 1221
u
1 ur
u
),
+ 1212 (
r
r
r
rz = 1313
uz
ur
,
+ 1331
r
z
r = 1221 (
u
u
1 ur
,
) + 1212
r
r
r
= 1111 (
uz
ur
ur
1 u
,
+ 1133
+ ) + 1122
z
r
r
r
z = 3113
u
1 uz
,
+ 3131
z
r
zr = 3113
uz
ur
,
+ 3131
r
z
z = 3113
u
1 uz
+ 3131
,
z
r
ur
1 u
ur
uz
+
+ ) + 3333
.
(5.6.120)
r
r
r
z
Finally, let us consider the Piola-Kirchhoff stress vector sn acting on a material surface element with unit normal n. These two vectors can be expressed as
a linear combination of er , e , ez
zz = 1133 (
sn = s nr e r + s n e + s nz e z ,
n = n r er + n e + n z ez .
snz
get
(5.6.121)
In their turn, using the general formula sn = T n, the components snr , sn ,

can be expressed in terms of the components rr ,..., zz , nr , n and nz . We
snr = rr nr + r n + z nz ,
sn = r nr + n + z nz ,
(5.6.122)
snz = rz nr + z n + zz nz .
If one uses cylindrical coordinates to formulate and to solve incremental
boundary value problems, the above relations must be taken into account to express boundary conditions in traction.
347
5.7. PROBLEMS
5.7
Problems
P5.1 Let us consider a body, and let B and B be two reference configurations
of the body, Bt representing its current configuration. Let us denote by X, X and
x the position vectors of a particle P of the body in its configurations B, B and
Bt , respectively. Let us assume that X and X are connected by the equation
X = QX,
where Q is a given, constant orthogonal tensor. Let us denote by
x = (X) and x = (X)
the deformation of the body from B to Bt and from B to Bt , respectively.
(a) Show that F and F, the gradients of deformation from B to Bt and from
B to Bt are connected by the equation
F = F Q.
(b) Let G and G the Greens strain tensor corresponding to F and F, respectively. Show that
G = QT G Q.
P5.2 Let us assume that the body considered in P5.1 is hyperelastic. Let us
assume that uB (G) and u (G) are the constitutive functions giving the specific
B
elastic energy of the body, if B and B are used as reference configurations to

describe the deformation of the body; i.e.
u = uB (G) = u (G).
B
Show that the two constitutive functions are connected by the equation
u (G) = uB (QT G Q)
B
for any symmetric tensor G.
P5.3 We say that two reference configurations B and B connected as in P5.1
are equivalent for a hyperelastic material if the same deformation of B and of B ,

respectively, produce the same specific elastic energy in the material; i.e. if we
have
uB (G) = u (G)
B
for any symmetric tensor G. In this case, the orthogonal tensor Q is named a
symmetry transformation from B to B .
348
Show that if reference configurations, B and B , connected by the equation
X = QX are equivalent, the constitutive function uB (G) must satisfy the equation
uB (QGQT ) = uB (G)
P5.4 Let us denote by GB the set of all symmetry transformations of the
material, corresponding to its reference configuration B.
(a) Show that the transformations 1 and 1 are elements of GB for any B.
(b) Show that if the orthogonal transformation Q GB , then its inverse
Q1 = QT is also an element of GB .
(c) Show that if the orthogonal transformation Q1 , Q2 GB , then their
composition Q1 Q2 is also an element of GB .
Since GB has the properties (a)(c), its named the symmetry group of the
material, corresponding to its reference configuration B.
b be two reference configurations of the material and let X
P5.5 Let B and B
b
b respectively.
and X be the position vectors of a particle P of the body in B and B,
b
Let us assume that B and B are connected by the following relation:
b = X,
X
where is an orthogonal tensor. Let us denote by GB and G B

b the symmetry
b respectively. Show that the sets
groups of the material, corresponding to B and B,
GB and G B
b are connected by the relation
GB
b = GB T .
P5.6 Let us assume that the constitutive function uB (G) of a hyperelastic

material is a quadratic form of Greens strain tensor G; i.e.
uB (G) =
1
G CG,
2
where C, the elasticity tensor of the material, is a given constant fourth other
tensor, having all symmetries of the elasticity tensor c of a linearly hyperelastic
material.
(a) Show that if the orthogonal tensor Q is a symmetry transformation of
the material, corresponding to the reference configuration of B; i.e. if Q GB ,
then the elasticity tensor C of the material must satisfy the restriction
(QGQT ) C(QGQT ) = G CG
(b) Show that if C satisfies the above restriction for any symmetric tensor G
and for an orthogonal tensor Q, then Q GB .
349
5.7. PROBLEMS
(c) Show that C satisfies the restriction given in (a) if and only if its components Cklmn satisfy the restrictions
Cklmn = Qkp Qlq Qmr Qns Cpqrs .
(d) Using the results obtained in (a)(c), justify the definition of a symmetry
transformation given in Section 2.2 for a linearly hyperelastic material.
P5.7 Let B and Bt be the reference and the current configuration of a body.
Let dA be a material surface element of the body in its reference configuration B
and let da be the same material surface element in the current configuration B t
of the body. Let us denote by N the unit normal real dA and let n be the unit
normal to da. Prove Nansons formula
n da = JFT NdA with J = det F.
P5.8 (a) Let C = FT F be the Cauchy-Green strain tensor. Show that C and
its inverse C1 are symmetric positive definite tensors.
b) Using Nansons formula, prove the relation
q
da = ( det C)N C1 NdA
and
FT N.
N C1 N
P5.9 Let us denote by 0 = 0 (X) the mass density of a body in its reference
configuration B and by = (x, t) its mass density in its current configuration.
Prove the relation
0 (X) = J(X, t)(x, t).
n=
P5.10 Starting with the global principle of momentum balance, appropriate

to the Eulerian formulation and using the results given in P5.7 and P5.9, give the
global principle of momentum balance, appropriate to the Lagrangean formulation.
P5.11 Using the results obtained in P5.10, obtain the equation of motion
appropriate to the Lagrangean formulation.
P5.12 Let {ek } be an orthonormal basis in V and let (O, xk ) be the corresponding Cartesian coordinates system in E. Let us consider a body which, in
its reference configuration, is a parallelepiped defined by the inequalities a k
Xk ak , k = 1, 2, 3, ak being given positive numbers, and Xk representing the
Lagrangean coordinates of a particle P of the body. Let us assume the body submitted to the following static deformation:
x 1 = 1 X1 , x 2 = 2 X2 , x 3 = 3 X3 ,
where xk are the Euclidean coordinates of the particle P , and 1 , 2 , 3 are given
real numbers, satisfying the restriction
1 2 3 > 0.
350
(a) Find the deformed equilibrium configuration B of the body.
(b) Find F, J = det F, C = FT F and G = 12 (F F 1).

(c) Give the interpretation of the restriction imposed by 1 , 2 , 3 .
P5.13 Let us assume that the body given in P5.12 is a nonlinear hyperelastic
body, its specific strain energy u = u(G) being given by the following constitutive
relation
u = u(G) = (trG)2 + G G,
2
where and are two material constants and G in the Greens strain tensor.
(a) Show that our material is isotropic.
(b) Find the restrictions which must be satisfied by the material constants
and , if the specific strain energy of the material is a positive definite quadratic
form.
P5.14 Using the data given in P5.12 and P5.13 find:
(a) The symmetric Piola-Kirchhoff stress , the nominal stress and the
Cauchys stress T, corresponding to the deformed equilibrium configuration B.
(b)The Cauchys stress vector tn acting on the boundary of the deformed
body and the Piolas and Kirchhoffs stress vector sN acting on the initial boundary
of the body.
(c) The body force density b assuming equilibrium of the body in the de
formed configuration B.
(d) Analyze and interpret the results obtained in (a) and (b), taking into
account the mechanical significance of the Cauchys stress tensor and vector, and
the Piolas and Kirchhoffs stresses, tensors and vectors, respectively.
P5.15 The parallelepiped considered in P5.12 is submitted to the following
deformation named pure shear in the Ox1 x2 plane:
x1 = X1 + X2 ,
x2 = X 2 ,
x3 = X 3 ,
where > 0 is a given number.
(a) Find the deformed equilibrium configuration B of the body.
(b) Find F, J , C = FT F and G =

1
T
2 (F F
1).
(c) Find the eigenvalues and eigendirections of the Greens strain tensor G.
P5.16 Assume now that the parallelepiped deformed as in P5.12 is made up
by the hyperelastic material given in P5.13. Find:
(a) The stress tensors , and T corresponding to B .
351
5.7. PROBLEMS
(b) Cauchys stress vector tn acting on the boundary of the deformed body.
(c) The force density b assuming the equilibrium of the body in the deformed
configuration B .
(d) Analyze and interpret the results obtained in (a).
(e) Find the eingenvalues and eigendirections of the stress tensors .

(f) What happens if the normal surface forces acting on the boundaries of
the body are vanishing?
P5.17 Find the condition which must be satisfied by 1 , 2 , 3 from P5.12
and by from P5.15 to have infinitesimal initial deformations from B to B . Solve

the problems (a)(d) of P5.14 and the problems (a)(e) of P5.16 in this case and
compare the obtained results with those obtained for large initial deformation.
P5.18 Let us denote by U(X) the incremental displacement field in the Lagrangean approach and by u(x) the (same!) incremental field in the updated Lagrangean approaches. Show that
X U = FT x u.
P5.19 Show that the incremental elasticities and , corresponding to the

Lagrangean and updated Lagrangean approaches, respectively, are related by the
equation
1
klmn = J
F kp F nq plmq .
P5.20 Prove that

1
u uT = J
and
U U dV =
U UT
Z
u uT dv.
P5.21 Show that the instantaneous elasticity is positive definite in the
reference configuration B if and only if the instantaneous elasticity is positive
definite in the initial deformed equilibrium configuration B .

P5.22 Give the formulation of the mixed incremental boundary value problem
(5.4.21)(5.4.22) appropriate to the updated Lagrangean approach and establish
the connection existing between the external force system, appropriate to the two
equivalent approaches of the incremental problems.
P5.23 Give the expression of the incremental potential energy functional =
(U), appropriate to the updated Lagragean approach.
352
P5.24 Discuss incremental uniqueness, local stability, incremental variational

and extremal principles, using the updated Lagrangean formulation of the threedimensional linearized theory.
P5.25 Find the instantaneous elasticities and corresponding to the initial
deformed equilibrium configuration B given in P5.12 and P5.13.

P5.26 Let us assume that the simple shear given in P5.15 is infinitesimal ; i.e.
|| << 1. Let us assume also that the considered material is linearly elastic and
isotropic. Find the instantaneous elasticity corresponding to the initial deformed
equilibrium configuration B .
P5.27 Show that the stress free reference configuration B of a linearly hyperelastic anisotropic material is locally stable if its elasticity tensor c is positive
definite.
P5.28 By direct verification show that the elasticities cklmn of a linearly
elastic orthotropic material can be expressed by the relations
cklmn = kl mn Ckn + (1 kl )(km ln + kn lm )Ckl (!),
with G23 = G32 = G44 , G31 = G13 = G55 , G12 = G21 = G66 .
In the above relation, there is no summation relative to the indices appearing
twice or three times. The sign (!) will be used in what follows to indicate this fact.
P5.29 We assume that a linearly elastic orthotropic material is submitted to
the initial infinitesimal deformation (5.6.17)(5.6.18). Verify by direct computations that
1112 = 2111 = 0 and 1223 = 3221 = 0.
What is the general rule giving the vanishing instantaneous elasticities?
P5.30 Show that in the case given in P5.29, the instantaneous elasticities are
given by the following relation:
klmn = kl mn Ckn + (1 kl )(km ln + kn lm )Gkl + kn lm (!).

P5.31 Let us consider a linearly hyperelastic anisotropic material submitted
to an initial applied infinitesimal homogeneous deformation. Find the conditions
which must be fulfilled by the elasticity tensor c of the material and by the initial
applied infinitesimal homogeneous deformation for which, in the body, can exist
an incremental antiplane state relative to the plane Ox1 x2 .
P5.32 In the situation given in P5.31, find the conditions which must be
fulfilled by the elasticity tensor c and the initial applied deformation for which, in
the body, can exist an incremental plane state relative to the plane Ox 1 x2 .
P5.33 Let us assume that the initial deformed equilibrium configuration B of

a linearly elastic orthotropic body corresponds to the displacement field given by
the relations (5.6.17)(5.6.18). Let us suppose that the elasticity c of the involved
material is positive definite.
353
5.7. PROBLEMS
Find sufficient condition assuming local stability of B relative to

(a) antiplane incremental states, with respect to the Ox1 x2 plane;
(b) plane incremental states, with respect to the Ox1 x2 plane.
P5.34 Let us consider a nonlinear hyperelastic and isotropic material. Since
the material is isotropic, the specific strain energy u = u(G) can depend on Greens
strain tensor G only through the principal invariants I1, I2 and I3 of G; i.e. we
have
u = u(G) = u(I1 , I2 , I3 )
with
I1 = trG, I2 = trG2 , I3 = trG3 .
(a) Show that
I1
= 1,
G
I2
= 2G,
G
I3
= 3G2 .
G
(b) Show that

=
u 2
u
u
u
G .
G+3
1+2
(G) =
I3
I2
I1
G
(c) Show that if the reference configuration B of the body in stress-free, the
constitutive function u = u(I1 , I2 , I3 ) must satisfy the restriction
u
(0, 0, 0) = 0.
I1
P5.35 Let us assume that the nonlinear hyperelastic isotropic material considered in P5.34 is submitted to the initial homogeneous deformation given in
P5.12.

(a) Find the invariants I 1 , I 2 , I 3 of G in terms of 1 , 2 , 3 .
(b) Find and T in terms of the constitutive function u = u(I1 , I2 , I3 ) and

1 , 2 , 3 .
(c) Show that the components of the tensor K, defined by equation (5.2.22)
given by the relations
K klmn = kl mn akn + (1 kl )(km ln + kn lm ) kl (!)

where
akn = (k l + 2kn Bkk ) u (!),
kl = Bkl u
354
and
k =
(!),
+ 3 Gkk
+ 2 Gkk
I3
I2
I1
Bkl =
(!).
+ (Gkk + Gll )
I3
2
I2
P5.36 Find the instantaneous elasticity klmn and klmn in the case considered in P5.35.
P5.37 Find the nonvanishing components of and in terms of akn , kl ,
kn , T kn and 1 , 2 , 3 in the case considered in P5.35.

P5.38 Using the results obtained in P5.37, find the conditions which must
be fulfilled by 1 , 2 , 3 and if we suppose that the instantaneous elasticities
klmn satisfy the following supplementary symmetry relations:
klmn = lkmn and klmn = klnm .

P5.39 Analyze problem P5.38 assuming uniform initial expansion; i.e. supposing that
1 = 2 = 3 .
P5.40 Analyze problem P5.38 assuming linearly hyperelastic material and
infinitesimal initial deformation; i.e.
|1 1| , |2 1| , |3 1| << 1.
P5.41 Show that if, in P5.35, the initial applied deformation satisfies the
restriction
1 = 2 ,
the instantaneous elasticities klmn and klmn satisfy the supplementary symmetry relations (5.6.77), (5.6.78) characterizing the evidence of a cylindrical symmetry
in the initial deformed equilibrium state B .

P5.42 Let us consider a body and let Bt be its current configuration. Let us
assume that the boundary Bt of the body is submitted to a hydrostatic pressure
tn (x, t) = p(x, t)n(x, t), where p = p(x, t) > 0 is a scalar field and n = n(x, t) is
the unit outward normal to Bt . Using the updated Lagrangean method, find the
incremental traction boundary condition in this case. Do we have here a dead load
incremental traction boundary problem?
P5.43 Analyze and solve the above problem using the Lagrangean approach
to incremental boundary value problems.
P5.44 Prove the validity of equations (5.6.99).
355
5.7. PROBLEMS
P5.45 Prove that
1 =
1 2
1
2
2
2
+ 2 2.
= 2+
+
2
2
r r r
r
x2
x1
P5.46 Verify equation (5.6.120)4,5,6 expressing r , and z in terms of

ur , u , u z .
P5.47 Express r , and z in tensor of Guzs displacement potentials
and .
P5.48 Find the mechanical significance of the Cartesian components 11 ,
12 ,..., 33 of the incremental nominal stress tensor .
P5.49 Find the mechanical significance of the cylindrical components rr ,
r ,..., zz of the incremental nominal stress tensor .
P5.50 Let us consider an infinite body deformed as in P5.12 and P5.13. Find
in this case the acoustic tensor Q (N) and the equation giving the velocity of the
incremental progressive or harmonic plane waves.
P5.51 Let us consider an infinite body deformed as in P5.15 and P5.13. Find
in this case the acoustic tensor Q (N) and the equation giving the velocity of the
incremental progressive or harmonic plane waves.
P5.52 Analyze problem P5.51 assuming infinitesimal initial applied shear;
i.e. supposing that || << 1.
P5.53 Find the acoustic tensor q (n) appropriate to the updated Lagrangean
approach to the incremental problem.
P5.54 Using the updated Lagrangean approach, find sufficient condition assuming the existence of the incremental harmonic plane waves for any direction of
propagation.
Bibliography
[5.1] Malvern, L. F., Introduction to the mechanics of continuous medium, PrentinceHall, Inc. London, 1969.
[5.2] Guz, A.N., Stability of three-dimensional deformable bodies, Naukova Dumka,
Kiev, 1971 (in Russian).
[5.3] Guz, A.N., Stability of elastic bodies at large deformations, Naukova Dumka,
[5.4] Guz, A.N., The fundamentals of stability of mine working, Naukova Dumka,
[5.5] Guz, A.N., Stability of elastic bodies submitted to hydrostatic pressure,
Naukova Dumka, Kiev, 1979 (in Russian).
356
[5.6] Guz, A.N., Three dimensional theory of stability of bars, plates and shells,
Visha Schola, Kiev, 1980 (in Russian).
[5.7] Guz, A.N., Mechanics of brittle fracture of materials, with initial stresses,
Naukova Dumka, Kiev, 1983 (in Russian)
[5.8] Guz, A.N., Fundamentals of three-dimensional theory of stability of de-formable bodies, Visha Schola, Kiev, 1986 (in Russian).
[5.9] Ogden, R.W., Non-linear elastic deformations, John Wiley & Sons, New
York, 1984.
[5.10] Eringen, A.C., Maugin, G.A., Electrodynamics of continua, Vol. I, Foundations and Solid Media, Springer, New York, 1990.
[5.11] Soos, E., Stability, resonance and stress concentration in prestressed piezo
electric crystals containing a crack, Int. J. Engn. Sciences, 35, 1997.
[5.12] Pearson, C.E., General theory of elastic stability, Q. Appl. Math., 14, 133144, 1956.
[5.13] Hill, R., On uniqueness and stability in the theory of finite elastic strain, J.
Mech. Phys. Solids, 5, 229-241, 1957.
[5.14] Ericksen, J.L., A thermo-kinetic view of elastic stability, Int. J. Solids Structures, 2, 573-580, 1966.
[5.15] Gurtin, M.E., Modern continuum thermodynamics, 168-213 in Mechanics Today, Vol.1, Ed. S. Nemat Nasser, Pergamon Press, 1973.
[5.16] Gurtin, M.E., Thermodynamics and the potential energy of an elastic body,
J. Elasticity, 3, 1-4, 1973.
[5.17] Gurtin, M.E., Thermodynamics and the energy criterion for stability, Arch.
Rat. Mech. Analysis, 52, 93-102, 1973.
[5.18] Gurtin, M.E., Thermodynamics and stability, Arch. Rat. Mech. Analysis,
59, 63-96, 1975.
[5.19] Truesdell, C., Noll, W., The non-linear field theories of mechanics, Handbuch der Physik, Band III/3, Ed. S. Fl
ugge, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg,
New York, 1965.
Chapter 6
BUCKLING OF
COMPOSITE STRIPS AND
BARS
6.1
Internal and superficial stability
We analyze some kinds of instability, characteristic of the bodies having

internal structure, such as, for instance, the fiber-reinforced composite materials.
We assume a linear orthotropic elastic body, submitted to small, infinitesimal
initial deformations. With appropriate modification, the results can be extended
to nonlinear hyperelastic solids submitted to arbitrary initial deformations.
The phenomenon of internal instability was analyzed for the first time by
Biot [6.1]. As Guz [6.2] shows, this phenomenon has a well-defined physical meaning and can be elucidated taking into occurrent the fact that all materials have
an internal structure. The phenomenon, named internal instability, concerns the
loss of stability of this structure, and depends on the geometrical and mechanical characteristics of the internal structure, but it is independent of geometrical
characteristics of the body, as a whole. A rigorous study of this phenomenon must
take explicitly into account the parameters describing the internal structure of the
body. In continuum approach, it is just these parameters that are neglected. The
material is considered as a structureless continuum and its behavior is described
by constitutive equations containing material constants, determined using experimental and theoretical procedures. At this phenomenological level, the structural
properties of the body are implicitly reflected by the values of the elasticities occurring in the stress-strain relations of the material.
Since the internal instability is not related to the geometrical characteristics
of the body as a whole, nor to the influence of the boundary conditions on the
358
CHAPTER 6. BUCKLING OF COMPOSITE STRIPS AND BARS
behavior of the body, the problems concerning internal instability lead to the study
of the behavior of an infinite body, submitted to well-defined given loads, acting
at large distances. This is the reason why we assume that the initial deformed and
prestressed infinite body is in a homogeneous equilibrium state. Consequently, its
incremental behavior is governed by the differential system (see Equations (5.6.11)
and (5.6.12)):
2
,
(6.1.1)
Lml ul = 0, Lml = klmn
xk xn
where the instantaneous elasticities klmn depend on the elasticities cklmn of the
material, as well as on the initial applied stress .

We assume that the stress free reference configuration of the body is locally
stable. Hence, the differential system (6.1.1) corresponding to = 0 is elliptic. If,

on a given loading path, the instantaneous elasticity is positive definite; i.e. the
system (6.1.1) conserves its ellipticity, the solutions of various incremental boundary value problems are unique, have a local character, and internal instability does
not occur. If for some critical values of the loading parameters, the system (6.1.1)
ceases to be elliptic, and becomes hyperbolic, the behavior of the perturbation,
described by (6.1.1), changes radically and their local character is lost. A perturbation, appearing in a small domain, can propagate along the characteristics,
producing considerable damages in the material. By internal instability we mean
just the occurrence of such essential change in the behavior of the perturbation.
Hence, internal instability occurs when on a given loading path the differential system (6.1.1) ceases to be elliptic. The corresponding critical values of the loading
parameters are determined using the above criterion.
According to Guzs representation theorem (see Equation (5.6.16)), we can
replace the system (6.1.1) by a simple equation,
(detP ) (j) = 0, P = [Plm ] , j = 1, 2, 3,
(6.1.2)
satisfied by the displacement potentials (j) . Consequently, the critical values of

the loading parameters, producing internal instability, are those values for which
on a given loading path the ellipticity of the equation (6.1.2) is for the first time
lost.
As we already know, there exists an internal connection between the loss of
internal stability, the loss of incremental uniqueness and the loss of existence of
real velocities of propagation of incremental plane harmonic waves.
According to the above observation, we can say that the occurrence of the
internal instability is guaranteed if the instantaneous elasticities satisfy the condition
lk klmn mn = 0 for any mn such that kn mn 6= 0.
(6.1.3)
In the following we shall illustrate these general ideas by some special cases.
To do this, we observe that the implications of the general criterion (6.1.3) can
be more easily determined using the factorized forms of the equations satisfied by
the displacement potentials.
359
6.1. INTERNAL AND SUPERFICIAL STABILITY
We start the analysis considering incremental plane states. Examining the

equation (5.6.56) and the restrictions (5.6.55), it can be seen that internal instability occurs when
1 = 0 or 2 = 0 for 2222 6= 0 and 2112 6= 0.
(6.1.4)
According to equations (5.6.57) and (5.6.58), the above condition will be satisfied
if
B = 0,
or, more exactly, if
1221 = 0 or 1111 = 0 for 2222 6= 0 and 2112 6= 0.
(6.1.5)
Taking into account the values (5.6.47) of the involved instantaneous elasticities,
the above conditions become
C66 + 11 = 0 or C11 + 11 = 0 for C22 + 22 6= 0 and C66 + 22 6= 0.
(6.1.6)
The reference configuration of the body being assumed locally stable, the
elasticities of the material satisfy the inequalities
2
> 0.
C11 , C22 , C66 , C11 C22 C12
(6.1.7)
Thus, the relations (6.1.6) show that internal instability can occur only if 11 is a
compressive stress; i.e.
11 < 0.
We assume now that, on the considered loading path,
22 = 0.
(6.1.8)
In this case, the restrictions (6.1.6)3,4 are satisfied. Internal instability occurs only
if the applied compressive stress 11 satisfies the condition
11 = C66 or 11 = C11 .
(6.1.9)
We suppose that the material is a fiber-reinforced composite, and the fibers

have the direction of the applied compressive force. As we know from the results
presented in Chapter 3, for such composite materials, the transverse shear rigidity
C66 is much smaller as the longitudinal axial rigidity; i.e.
C66 C11 .
(6.1.10)
Hence, internal instability occurs if the compressive stress, applied in the

fibers direction, reaches the critical value
ci
11 = C66 .
(6.1.11)
360

ci
The internal deformation produced by 11 are infinitesimal, since the compressive stress acts in the fibers direction and (6.1.10) is true. Hence, the conditions
in which the used incremental theory is applicable are fulfilled. Consequently, the
loss of internal stability actually can occur in a fiber-reinforced composite, if the
applied compressive force acts in the fibers direction.
If the material is isotropic, C66 and C11 have the same order of magnitude
and internal instability cannot occur for compressive force, for which the linear
theory of elasticity is applicable.
The loss of internal stability for fiber-reinforced composite materials, for relatively small compressive stresses, is a direct consequence of their structured character, reflected at phenomenological level by the relation (5.6.10), expressing the
strong anisotropy of the composite. This is the reason why the internal instability
is also named structural instability.
We analyze now the transversally isotropic, cylindrically symmetric state. According to the restriction (5.6.84) and to the equation (5.6.85), internal instability
occurs if
1 = 0 or 2 = 0 or 3 = 0 for 1111 6= 0, 1221 6= 0 and 1331 6= 0.
(6.1.12)
Using the relation (5.6.76), we can conclude that the above condition will be
satisfied if
3113 = 0 or 3333 = 0 for 1111 6= 0, 1221 6= 0 and 1331 6= 0.
(6.1.13)
Hence, taking into account the expressions of the involved instantaneous elasticities (5.6.77), we can see that the critical values of the loading parameters must
satisfy the conditions
C44 + 33 = 0 or C33 + 33 = 0,
for 12 (C11 C12 ) + 11 6= 0 and C44 + 11 6= 0.
(6.1.14)
Since the reference configuration is assumed to be locally stable, the involved

elasticities satisfy the restrictions
C11 , C33 , C44 , 2C66 = C11 C12 > 0.
(6.1.15)
We can see again that internal instability can occur only in the presence of
a compressive stress; i.e. only if
33 < 0.
We assume that on the loading path
11 = 0.
(6.1.16)
In this case, the restrictions (6.1.14)3,4,5 are satisfied, and internal instability
occurs only if
33 = C44 or 33 = C33.
(6.1.17)
361
We suppose that the material is a fiber-reinforced composite, and the compressive force is applied in the direction of fibers. As we know from the results
presented in Chapter 3, for such a composite the longitudinal, axial rigidity C 33
is much greater than the axial shear rigidity C44 ; i.e.
C44 C33.
(6.1.18)
Hence, internal instability occurs when the applied compressive stress reaches
its critical value
ci
33 = C44 .
(6.1.19)
As before, the loss of the internal stability actually can take place, for relatively small compressive stresses, and it is a direct consequence of the structured
character of a fiber-reinforced composite.
Summing up the obtained results, we recall that for fiber-reinforced composite
materials, their shear moduli have relatively small values. The applied compressive
stresses can reach values having the order of magnitude of these moduli, producing
however infinitesimal strains. Hence, by compression in the direction of the fibers,
the composite can lose its internal stability, for relatively small compressive forces.
To avoid such dangerous situations, leading to the destruction of the material, the
involved compressive forces must be drastically limited in their magnitude.
The second dangerous case, which can occur when we are dealing with composite materials, concerns their superficial instability. This phenomenon is characterized by the appearance of possible eigenmodes having significant amplitudes
near the free-boundary of the body, which decay rapidly if the distance from the
boundary increases. Rayleigh surface waves, known in classical linear elastodynamics, have similar behavior. Their statical analogue does not exist in classical linear
elastostatics for bodies in stress-free configurations, but may exist in a prestressed
material. The phenomenon of superficial instability was first analyzed by Biot [6.1]
for an incompressible prestressed elastic half space. The case of orthotropic materials, in the framework of the linearized theory, was for the first time analyzed
by Guz [6.2]. Let as assume first that the domain occupied by the orthotropic
material is the half space < x1 < , x2 < 0, < x3 < as shown in Figure 6.1. We analyze the possibility of superficial instability assuming incremental
plane states, relative to the plane x1 x2 .
We assume that the material is a fiber-reinforced composite, the fibers having
the direction of the axis Ox1 . We assume also that the initial applied stress acts
in the direction of fibers; i.e.
11 6= 0 and 22 = 0.
(6.1.20)
According to equations (5.6.47), the involved instantaneous elasticities are
1111 = C11 + 11 , 1122 = 2211 = C12 , 2222 = C22 ,
1221 = C66 + 11 , 1212 = 2121 = 2112 = C66 .
(6.1.21)
362
Figure 6.1: Superficial instability. Incremental plane states.
Since the elasticities satisfy the inequalities (6.1.7), the restrictions (5.6.55)
are fulfilled. Hence, we can use Guzs representation (5.6.53). We recall that the displacement potentials (1) and (2) must satisfy the differential equation (5.6.56).
We suppose that
(6.1.22)
12 6= 22 ,
a restriction satisfied for nearly all orthotropic materials. In this case, according
to Baggios theorem, the displacement potentials () have the form
() = (1) + (2) , = 1, 2,
where () satisfy the equations

2
2
2
+ 2 () = 0, , = 1, 2.
x2
x21
(6.1.23)
(6.1.24)
Since the boundary x2 = 0 of the half space is stress-free, the following boundary condition must be satisfied:
21 = 22 = 0 for x2 = 0.
(6.1.25)
Also, for large distances from the boundary of the half-space, we must have
lim
x2
{u1 (x1 , x2 ) , u2 (x1 , x2 )} = 0.
(6.1.26)
As we know (see Section 5.6), 12 and 22 cannot be negative or vanishing

numbers if the considered prestressed equilibrium configuration is locally stable.
In order to simplify the analysis, we suppose that 12 and 22 are positive real
numbers. If 12 and 22 are complex numbers, the procedure must be modified
accordingly.
In order to find the appropriate solutions of the equations (6.1.24), we shall
consider the equation
2
2
+ 2 2 = 0 with > 0.
2
x2
x1
(6.1.27)
363
We look for solutions of the form

(x1 , x2 ) = Z1 (x1 ) Z2 (x2 ) .
In this case, from (6.1.27), we get
Z 00
Z100
= 2 2 = a2 ,
Z2
Z1
where a > 0 is an arbitrary real number. From the above equations, it results that
can have one of the following forms
(x1 , x2 ) = {A exp(ax2 ) + B exp(ax2 )} sin ax1 ,
(x1 , x2 ) = {A exp(ax2 ) + B exp(ax2 )} cos ax1 ,
a
(x1 , x2 ) = {A exp(ax1 ) + B exp(ax1 )} sin x2 ,
a
(x1 , x2 ) = {A exp(ax1 ) + B exp(ax1 )} cos x2 ,
where A and B are arbitrary constants and a, > 0.

Since the incremental displacement field must converge to zero, when x 2
, we can use, as possible displacement potentials in our stability analysis only,
the functions
a
a
(x1 , x2 ) = B1 exp( x2 ) sin ax1, (x1 , x2 ) = B2 exp( x2 ) cos ax1 ,
B1 and B2 being arbitrary constants.

We take
a = /l > 0,
(6.1.28)
(6.1.29)
where the arbitrary positive number l > 0 is the half wave-length of the possible
eigenmode by which the superficial instability manifests.
According to equations (6.1.23) and (6.1.28), the displacement potentials can
have the following forms:
(1) = (A1 ea1 x2 + A2 ea2 x2 ) sin ax1 ,
(2) = (B1 ea1 x2 + B2 ea2 x2 ) cos ax1 ,
(6.1.30)
where A1 , A2 , B1 , B2 are arbitrary constants, a is given by (6.1.29), and

1 , 2 > 0.
(6.1.31)
First we suppose that (2) 0 and look for a possible eigenmode described
by .
(1)
364
The incremental displacements u1 , u2 are expressed in terms of the potentials

by equation (5.6.53). Introducing (1) in these relations, we get
u1 = a2 (1122 + 1212 ) (1 A1 ea1 x2 + 2 A2 ea2 x2 ) cos ax1 ,

1111 + 12 2112 A1 ea1 x2 + 1111 + 22 2112 A2 ea2 x2 sin ax1.
(6.1.32)
The incremental nominal stress components 21 and 22 can be evaluated
using the incremental constitutive equations (5.6.54)3,4 . We get
u2 = a 2
21 = a3
22 = a3
2
X
=1
2
X
=1

1212 1111 + 2112 1122 2 A ea x2 cos ax1 ,

1122 (1122 + 1212 ) 2222 1111 + 2222 2112 2
A ea x2 sin ax1 .
(6.1.33)
From (6.1.33), it follows that the homogeneous boundary conditions (6.1.25)

are satisfied if and only if there exists nonvanishing constants A1 and A2 satisfying
the following homogeneous system:

1212 1111 + 2112 1122 12 A1 + 1212 1111 + 2112 1122 22 A2 = 0,

1 1122 (1122 + 1212 ) 1111 2222 + 2222 2112 12 A1

+ 2 1122 (1122 + 1212 ) 1111 2222 + 2222 2112 22 A2 = 0.
(6.1.34)
Hence, there exists eigenmode, that is, superficial instability occurs, if and
only if the determinant of the system is vanishing. Elementary computations
show that has the expression
= (2 1 )
(6.1.35)
where
= 1212 1111 {1122 (1122 + 1212 ) 1111 2222 }
+ {2112 1122 [1122 (1122 + 1212 ) 1111 2222 ] + 1212 1111 2222 2112 }

1 2 + 1212 1111 2222 2112 12 + 22 + 2112 1122 2222 2112 12 22 .
(6.1.36)
Since 1 6= 2 , from (6.1.35), it follows that = 0 if and only if

= 0.
(6.1.37)
365
The expression (6.1.36) of can be considerably simplified if we take into

account the relations (5.6.57) and (5.6.58). According to these equations,
2
12 + 22 = 2A =
1111 2222 + 1221 2112 (1122 + 1212 )

,
2222 2112
12 22 = B =
1111 1221
.
2222 2112
Introducing these expressions in (6.1.37), we obtain

r
1111
,
= (1212 + 1122 )
2222
(6.1.38)
with

2
2
.
+ 2112 1221 1111 2222 1122
1111 2222 1221 2112 1212
(6.1.39)
We suppose that the above expressions have sense; i.e.
=
1111 , 2222 , 2112 , 1221 > 0.
(6.1.40)
According to (6.1.20)2 and (5.4.47), the above conditions are satisfied if
C11 + 11 > 0, C66 + 11 > 0, C22 > 0, C66 > 0.
(6.1.41)
The last two conditions are fulfilled since we have assumed that the stress-free
reference configuration is locally stable. According to equations (6.1.9), the first
two conditions mean that we assume an internally stable prestressed equilibrium
configuration.
Now, from (6.1.38) we can conclude that the characteristic equation (6.1.37)
is satisfied if
1122 + 1212 = 0 or = 0.
(6.1.42)
Equations (6.1.20)2 and (5.6.47) show that the first equation requires
C12 + C66 = 0.
According to (2.2.74), (2.2.76), (2.2.81) and (2.2.85), this relation cannot he
satisfied for composite materials since C66 > 0 and C12 > 0.
Accordingly, superficial instability can occur if and only if the second equation
(6.1.42) is fulfilled. From (5.6.47), (6.1.20)2 and (6.1.39), we can conclude that this
equation, containing the unknown 11 , has the form

r
r

2
+ C22 11 = 0.
C66 + 11 C66 C11 C22 C12
C11 + 11 C22 C66 11 +
(6.1.43)
366
If the stress-free reference configuration is locally stable, the inequalities

(6.1.7) are satisfied. Then we can conclude that the left-hand side of the above
equation is positive if 11 = 0. Hence, a static analogue of Rayleighs surface waves

cannot exist, if the stress-free reference configuration of the body is locally stable.
The critical value of 11 , for which superficial instability can occur in a prestressed
equilibrium configuration, must satisfy equation (6.1.43). We shall analyze now if
such critical value may exist. After some obvious transformations, (6.1.43) becomes

2

2
+ C22 11 = 0. (6.1.44)
C11 + 11 C22 C66 11 C66 + 11 C11 C22 C12
We introduce the dimensionless ratios
x = 11 /C11 , = C66 /C11 > 0.
(6.1.45)
In this way, (6.1.44) takes the form
C22
C11
C22
C11

C2
C22
C22
C22
C22
x2
12
1 +2
x3 +
2
C11
C11
C11
C11
C11
2

2
2
2
C12
C22
C22
C12
C22
C12
= 0. (6.1.46)
2
x+
2 + 2
2
C11
C11
C11
C11
C11
C11

We recall that for a fiber-reinforced composite,

C66 C11 ;
hence,
1.
(6.1.47)
Consequently, using an iterative method, we look for a root having the following form:
x = x0 + x1 + 2 x2 + 3 x3 .
(6.1.48)
Introducing (6.1.48) in (6.1.46), and neglecting terms of order 4 and higher,
we determine successively the unknowns x0 , x1 , x2 and x3 .
An elementary but long computation gives
x0 = 0, x1 = 1, x2 = 0, x3 =
2
2
C22
C11
C11
.
2 )2
C22 (C11 C22 C12
(6.1.49)
Introducing (6.1.49) in (6.1.48), we get

2
2
C11
C22
C11
x = 1 2
2 )2
C22 (C11 C22 C12
(6.1.50)
367
cs
Using the notation (6.1.45) for the critical value 11 for which superficial instability
occurs, we obtain the following expression:
!
2
2
2
C22
C11
C66
cs
11 = C66 1
.
(6.1.51)
C11 C22 (C11 C22 C12 )2
ci
We recall that the critical value 11 , for which internal (structural) instability
occurs, is given by the equation (6.1.11). Hence, it results
!
2
2
2
C22
C11
C66
cs
ci
11 = 11 1
.
(6.1.52)
2 )2
C11 C22 (C11 C22 C12
Using the relations (2.2.85), we can express the critical values in terms of the
engineering constants of the material. We get

G2
cs
ci
11 = G12 , 11 = G12 1 12 (1 13 31 ) (1 23 32 ) .
(6.1.53)
E1 E2
In a fiber-reinforced composite
G212 E1 E2 and 0 <
G212
(1 13 31 ) (1 23 32 ) < 1.
E1 E2
Consequently, according to (6.1.53),

si
ci
11 < 11 < 0.
(6.1.54)
Hence, the critical load-producing superficial instability is a compressive one,

as well as the critical load-producing structural (internal) instability. Moreover, the
superficial instability appears before the structural one.
Thus, we can see that our assumptions are consistent.
Since the critical load leading to superficial instability has the order at magnitude of the transverse shear modulus, the losing of superficial stability, for relatively small compressive stresses, can really occur in a fiber-reinforced composite
loaded by compressive forces acting in the fibers direction. To avoid a dangerous situation, due to the structured character of the composites, the admissible
compressive forces must be drastically limited.
It can be shown that assuming (1) 0 and taking (2) as in equation
(6.1.30)2 , we obtain the same results as before.
Let us assume now that the domain occupied by the material is the half space
< x1 , x2 < , x3 < 0. We suppose that the material is fiber-reinforced in
the planes x3 = const., and in these planes there is no preferred direction. In this
case, we can assume that the material is transversally isotropic, x 3 = const. being
the isotropy planes. Also, we suppose that
11 = 22 , 33 = 0.
(6.1.55)
368
Hence, the prestressed equilibrium configuration of the composite is in a

transversally isotopic, cylindrically symmetric state. We shall analyze the conditions in which superficial instability can occur through cylindrically symmetric
incremental deformations. In order to study the problem, we can use Guzs representation (5.6.102). Also, we assume that the stress-free reference configuration of
the composite is locally stable and its prestressed equilibrium state is structurally
(internally) stable.
Taking into account the assumptions made, from (5.6.77) we obtain the following values of the nonvanishing instantaneous elasticities:
1111
1133
1313
1212
= 2222
= 3311
= 3131
= 2121
= C11 + 11 , 3333 = C33 , 1122 = 2211 = C12 ,

= 2233 = 3322 = C13 ,
= 2323 = 3232 = 3113 = 3223 = C44 ,
= C66 , 1331 = 2332 = C44 + 11 , 1221 = C66 + 11 .
(6.1.56)
Since the prestressed equilibrium state is internally stable, the parameters

1 , 2 , 3 given by equation (5.6.86)(5.6.87) cannot vanish. We shall assume
that 1 , 2 , 3 are real numbers, a condition which is satisfied for nearly all composite materials, for relatively small initial applied stresses. Since the equations
(5.6.86)(5.6.87) give only the squares of these parameters, we shall assume that
1 , 2 , 3 > 0.
(6.1.57)
Also, we suppose that 1 , 2 , 3 are distinct; i.e.

1 6= 2 6= 3 6= 1 .
(6.1.58)
We know that Guzs displacement potentials and must satisfy the differential equations (5.6.103). Since 2 6= 3 , = 2 + 3 , where 2 and 3 satisfy
the second order differential equations (5.6.105).
Before looking for appropriate solutions of equations (5.6.103)1 and (5.6.105),
we recall that the boundary x3 = 0 must be stress-free and the amplitudes of
the possible eigenmodes converge to zero, when the distance from the boundary
increases. Hence, the incremental nominal stresses and displacements must satisfy
the following conditions:
31 = 32 = 33 = 0 for x3 = 0,
(6.1.59)
and
lim
x3
ul (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = 0, l = 1, 2, 3.
(6.1.60)
Examining the structure of equations (5.6.103)1 and (5.6.105), we are ready

to study the possible solutions of the following equation:

2
2
2
2
= 0, > 0.
(6.1.61)
+
+
x23
x22
x21
369

We look for a solution having the form
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = Y (x1 , x2 ) Z (x3 ) .
(6.1.62)
Z 00
1 Y
= a2 ,
= 2
Z
Y
(6.1.63)
where a is a positive real number. We consider only this alternative, taking into
account the condition (6.1.60) imposed at large distances from the boundary.
The equation for Y becomes
1 Y + a2 Y = 0.
(6.1.64)
Y (x1 , x2 ) = Y1 (x1 ) Y2 (x2 ) .
(6.1.65)
We assume that
Introducing (6.1.65) into (6.1.64), it results in

00
Y2
Y100
2
+ a = b2 ,
=
Y2
Y1
(6.1.66)
where b is a positive real number, such that

c2 = a 2 b2 ,
(6.1.67)
and c is also a positive real number. Now, for Y1 and Y2 , we find the following
possible expressions:
Y1 (x1 ) = sin bx1 or Y1 (x1 ) = cos bx1 ,
Y2 (x2 ) = sin cx1 or Y2 (x2 ) = sin cx2 .
(6.1.68)
We now return to equation (6.1.63)2 satisfied by Z; with (6.1.66), we get

Z 00
b2 + c 2
Z = 0.
2
(6.1.69)
This equation has the following solutions:

a
Z1 (x3 ) = e x3 or Z2 (x3 ) = e x3 .
(6.1.70)
Since > 0, the second alternative must be rejected, as we can see examining
the condition (6.1.60) imposed at large distances from the boundary. Consequently,
according to (6.1.62), (6.1.68) and (6.1.70), can have one of the following expressions:
a
= e x3 sin bx1 sin cx2 , = e x3 sin bx1 cos cx2 ,

a
a
= e x3 cos bx1 sin cx2 , = e x3 cos bx1 cos cx2 .
(6.1.71)
370
All these expressions can be used to satisfy the boundary condition (6.1.60).
Taking into account also the condition (6.1.59) imposed on the boundary x 3 = 0,
and following Guz [6.2], we assume that the displacement potentials and have
the following form:

a
a
a
x
x
x
= A1 e 1 3 sin bx1 sin cx2 , = A2 e 2 2 + A3 e 3 3 cos bx1 cos cx2 , (6.1.72)
where A1 , A2 , A3 are arbitrary constants, and a, b, c are given by the equations

q
(6.1.73)
b = /l1 , c = /l2 , a = 1/l12 + 1/l22 .
The arbitrary positive constants l1 and l2 represent the half wave-lengths of

the possible eigenmode, in directions x1 and x2 , respectively.
We must determine now the incremental displacements u1 , u2 , u3 , corresponding to the potentials and , using to this purpose the Guzs representation
formulas (5.6.102). Elementary computations given
o

n
a
a
a
x
x
x
sin bx1 cos cx2 ,
u1 = cA1 e 1 3 + ab 21 A2 e 2 3 + 31 A3 e 3 3
o

n
a
a
a
x
x
x
cos bx1 sin cx2 ,
u2 = bA1 e 1 3 + ac 21 A2 e 2 3 + 31 A3 e 3 3

a
1
x
u3 = a2 (1133 + 1313 ) { 1111 + 22 3113 A2 e 2 3

a
x
(6.1.74)
+ 1111 + 32 3113 A3 e 3 3 } cos bx1 cos cx2 .
The involved incremental nominal stress components can now be determined,

using equations (5.6.117). We find

a
a
x
2
2 x 3
31 = a{c11 3113 A1 e 1 3 + 1133ab
+1313 [ 1313 1111 + 2 3113 1133 A2 e

a
+ 1313 1111 + 32 3113 1133 A3 e 3 x3 ]} sin bx1 cos cx2 ,
a
32 = a{b11 3113 A1 e 1
33 =
x3
ac
1133 +1313 [

a
x
1313 1111 + 22 3113 1133 A2 e 2 3

a
+ 1313 1111 + 32 3113 1133 A3 e 3 x3 ]} cos bx1 sin cx2 ,
1
a3
1133 +1313 {2

a
x
2
+ 1133 1313 1111 3333 + 22 3333 3113 A2 e 2 3
1133

a
x
2
+31 1133
+ 1133 1313 1111 3333 + 32 3333 3113 A3 e 3 3 } cos bx1
cos cx2 .
(6.1.75)
Imposing the boundary conditions (6.1.59), we arrive to the following homogeneous algebraic system which must be satisfied by the unknown constants
A1 , A 2 , A 3 :

c11 3113 (1133 + 1313 ) A1 + ab 1313 1111 + 22 3113 1133 A2
371

+ab 1313 1111 + 32 3113 1133 A3 = 0,

b11 3113 (1133 + 1313 ) A1 + ac 1313 1111 + 22 3113 1133 A2

+ac 1313 1111 + 32 3113 1133 A3 = 0,

2
21 1133
+ 1133 1313 1111 3333 + 22 3333 3113 A2

2
+31 1133
+ 1133 1313 1111 3333 + 32 3333 3113 A3 = 0.
Eigenmodes can exist if and only if the determinant of this system is

vanishing. Long and careful computations lead to the following value of :
= a3 (2 3 ) (1 2 3 )
3113 (1133 + 1313 ) ,
(6.1.76)
with

2
+ 1133 1313 1111 3333
= 1313 1111 1133

+ 1313 1111 3333 3113 22 + 32 22 32
1 1
2
2 3
+ 1313 (1133 + 1313 ) 1111 3333 1133
+ 3113 1133 3333 3113 22 32 .
(6.1.77)
Recalling equations (5.6.86) and (5.6.87), we find

12 + 22 =
2
3333 3113
1111 3333 + 1331 3113 (1133 + 1313 ) 2 2
.
, 1 2 =
1111 1331
1111 1331
Introducing these values in (6.1.76), we finally obtain

3
= a (2 3 ) (1 2 3 )
3113 (1133 + 1313 )
1111
,
3333
(6.1.78)
with

2
2
.
+ 1331 3113 1111 3333 1133
1111 3333 1331 3113 1313
(6.1.79)
Since the stress-free reference configuration is locally stable and the prestressed equilibrium state is structurally (internally) stable, from (6.1.78) it follows
that superficial instability can occur if and only if
=
= 0.
(6.1.80)
Introducing the values (6.1.56) of the instantaneous elasticities in this equation, we get the relation which must be satisfied by the critical value of the applied
stresses 11 = 22 producing superficial instability of the prestressed half space

r
r

2
+ C33 11 = 0.
C44 + 11 C44 C11 C33 C13
C11 + 11 C33 C44 11 +
(6.1.81)
372

As before, we introduce the dimensionless ratios
x = 11 /C11 , 0 < = C44 /C11 1.
(6.1.82)
The last inequality is true since, for the fiber-reinforced composite, the longitudinal, axial rigidity C11 is greater than the axial shear rigidity C44 . According
to (6.1.81), the equation which must be satisfied by x is
C33
C11

2
C33
C13
C33
C33
C33
3
1 x2
2 +
2
x +
C11
C11
C11
C11
C11
C2
C33
13
2
C11
C11

C33
C2
C33
+ 2
13
2
C11
C12
C11
x+
C2
C33
13
2
C11
C11
=0
(6.1.83)
The last inequality is true, since for the fiber-reinforced composites the longitudinal, axial rigidity C11 is much bigger than the axial shear rigidity C44 .
The parameters 12 , 22 , 32 are given by the equations (5.6.86) and (5.6.87).
Introducing in these relations the values (6.1.16) of the instantaneous elasticities
we find
v
u
C44 C33
C44
u 2
2
2
,

,
=
c
1 =
tc
2,3
C66 + 11
C44 + 11 C11 + 11
2c =
2
C11 C33 C13
2C13 C44 + (C33 + C44 ) 11

.
C11 + 11 C44 + 11
These relations show that for 11 = 0, the parameters 12 , 22 , 32 are positive,

distinct, real numbers, since the material is transversally isotropic and its stressfree reference configuration is locally stable; i.e. its elasticity tensor c is positive
definite.
Also, from the equations giving 22 and 32 , it confirms that 22 = 32 if and
only if 11 satisfies the equation

n
2
2C13 C44 + (C33 + C44 ) 11
C11 C33 C13

= 4C33 C44 C11 + 11 C44 + 11 .
o2
With the notation (6.1.82), the above equation takes the form

C33
C11
2
x2 + 2

C33
+
C11

C33
C13
C2
C33
(1
+
)
x
2
13
2
C11
C11
C11
C11
373
C13
C2
C33
13
2 2C
C11
C11
11
2
C33 2
= 0.
C11
(6.1.84)
We must analyze the relationship existing between the roots of equations

(6.1.83) and (6.1.84).
We recall now the equations (2.2.88) expressing the elasticities of the material
in terms of the engineering constants, for a transversally isotropic material. Using
these relations, we find
2
13 (1 + 12 ) E3
E3 C13
1 12
C33
=
=
2 (E /E ) E ,
2 (E /E ) E , C
1
13
1 13
C11
1
3
1
11
1
3
1

2
(E3 /E1 ) G13
(1 + 12 ) 1 12 213
C44
.
=
=
2
E1
1 13 (E3 /E1 )
C11
(6.1.85)
Recalling the assumed structure of the composite, reinforced with fibers in

the x3 = const. planes, we can conclude that
G13 E1 and E3 E1 .
(6.1.86)
Also, we assume that 12 and 13 satisfy the restrictions (2.2.84); i.e.

0 < 12 < 1 and 0 < 13 < 1.
Thus, we can conclude that is a small positive quantity satisfying the assumed property (6.1.82). Consequently, to obtain the approximate value of the root
of the characteristic equation (6.1.83), we can apply the iterative procedure used
before. Neglecting terms of order 4 and higher, and observing that the equations
(6.1.46) and (6.1.83) have the same structure, we find
!
2
2
C11
C33
2 C11
.
x = 1
2 )2
C33 (C11 C33 C13
Introducing here the values (6.1.84), we get

2
(E3 /E1 ) G13
(1 + 12 ) 1 12 213
x=
2 (E /E )
E1
1 13
3
1
2

G13
2 E3
2
.
1 13
1 1 12
E1 E1 E3
cs
(6.1.87)
Now, using the expression (2.2.88)1 of C11 , for the critical value 11 for which the
superficial instability occurs, we find
2

G13
cs
2 E3
2
11 = G13 1 1 12
.
(6.1.88)
1 13
E1 E1 E3
374
First of all, let us observe that according to (6.1.86), the quantity in the
parenthesis in the right-hand side of the equation (6.1.88) is positive. Hence, superficial instability can occur only if the applied force is compressive.
cs
At the same time, we can compare the critical compressive stress 11 acting
in fibers direction and producing superficial instability on a loading path 11 = 22

ci
6= 0, 33 = 0, and the critical compressive stress 33 , acting on the fibers direction
and producing internal instability on a loading path 11 = 22 = 0, 33 6= 0. From

equations (6.1.19) and (2.2.88), we get
ci
33 = G13 .
(6.1.89)
Comparing (6.1.88) and (6.1.89), we can conclude that

ci
cs
33 < 11 < 0.
(6.1.90)
Hence, in our fiber-reinforced composite, loaded by compressive forces in the

fibers direction, surface instability occurs before internal (structural) instability.
We have obtained a similar result, analyzing the stability problem concerning the
plane states.
It remains to compare the absolute value of the negative root of equation
cs
(6.1.84) with the absolute value of 11 . Solving equation (6.1.84) by our iterative
procedure and neglecting terms of the order 2 and higher, we find for the negative
root x1 of the equation (6.1.84) the following value:
x1 =
2
2
(E3 /E1 )
1 12 213
1
C11 C33 C13
.
=
2
1 13 (E3 /E1 )
1 12
C11 C33
(6.1.91)
Comparing (6.1.87) and (6.1.91), we get

|x| < |x1 | .
cs
(6.1.92)
Hence, for the critical value 11 , we still have 1 6= 2 . Consequently, our assumption made at the beginning concerning the critical value is fulfilled and our
procedure is consistent.
Summing up, we can conclude that in a fiber-reinforced transversally isotropic
composite, in a transversally isotropic prestressed state, for compressive forces acting in planes containing the fibers, superficial instability actually can occur, if the
cs
compressive pressures reach their critical value 11 . The magnitudes of these critical pressures are of the order of the relatively small axial shear modulus G 13 . As
before, the occurrence of the superficial instability, for relatively small compressive
pressures, producing infinitesimal deformations, is due to the structured character
of the fiber-reinforced composites.
Finally, we observe that for plane states, as well as for spatial states, the
eigenmodes, that is, the possible ways in which the stability is lost, cannot be
6.2. BUCKLING OF FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITE STRIPS
375
completely determined, since the wave-lengths l, l1 and l2 do not enter in the

characteristic equations. As we shall, see such indeterminacy does not occur in
the stability problems concerning infinite strips or bars made up by composite
materials.
6.2
Buckling of fiber-reinforced composite strips
Following again Guz [6.2], let us assume an infinite strip; i.e. a very long
plate, occupying the domain 0 x1 l, h x2 h, < x3 < , as shown
in Figure 6.2.
2
O
l
Figure 6.2: Composite strip acted upon by compressive forces.

We consider a fiber-reinforced composite,the fibers being directed along the
Ox1 axis. We assume that the initial applied loads act along the fibers direction;
hence,
11 6= 0 and 22 = 0.
(6.2.1)
We shall analyze the stability of the strip relative to the plane incremental
states, using Guzs representation theorem.
We suppose that the lateral faces x2 = h2 are stress-free; i.e.
h
21 = 22 = 0 for x2 = .
2
(6.2.2)
Also, we assume that on the ends x1 = 0 and x1 = l of the strip, the following
mixed boundary conditions hold:
u2 = 0 and 11 = 0 for x1 = 0 and x1 = l.
(6.2.3)
Our strip corresponds to a very long plate in a cylindrical state. Recalling the
boundary conditions encountered in the classical plate theory, we can see that the
assumptions (6.2.3), taken into account by us in the framework of the three dimensional linearized theory, correspond to those describing a simply supported plate
in the framework of the classical plate theory. Obviously, our conditions are more
376
exact and more restrictive, and have a local character. If they are fulfilled, those of
the classical theory having global character, are also fulfilled. The converse is not
generally true. Since the boundary conditions of our three-dimensional linearized
theory are more exact than those of the classical theory, the results obtained by
our more exact modelling can be used to get information concerning the domain
of applicability of a less exact modelling; i.e. of the classical plate theory.
As usual, we assume that the stress-free reference configuration of the strip
is locally stable and its prestressed equilibrium configuration is internally stable.
Moreover, we suppose that the parameters 1 , 2 are distinct, real, positive numbers; i.e.
1 , 2 > 0 and 1 6= 2 .
(6.2.4)
In order to analyze the stability problem, we assume that one of the displacement potentials (1) is vanishing, and the other has one of the following forms:

(2) 1 = A1 cosh m 1 x2 + A2 cosh m x2 cos m x1 , (1) 0, (6.2.5)

l
l
l
or

(1)
(2) 2 = A1 sinh m 1 x2 + A2 sinh m x2 cos m x2 , 1 0. (6.2.6)
l
l
l
Here, A1 , A2 are arbitrary constants and m = 1, 2, 3, ... is an arbitrary, positive

integer number.
It is easy to see by direct computation, or by using the results obtained in
the superficial stability analysis, that 1 and 2 satisfy equation (5.6.56). Hence,
these functions can be used as displacement potential.
Using Guzs representation formulas (5.6.53) and equations (6.7.5), (6.7.6),
we get the corresponding incremental displacement fields.
For the first mode, corresponding to (1) 0 and (2) = 1 , we obtain

u1 = a2 1221 + 12 2222 A1 cosh a1 x2

+ 1221 + 22 2222 A2 cosh a2 x2 cos ax1 ,
u2 = a2 (1122 + 1212 ) (A1 1 sinh a1 x2 + A2 2 sinh a2 x2 ) sin ax1 ,

(6.2.7)
with
m
.
(6.2.8)
l
For the second mode, corresponding to (1) 0 and (2) = 2 , we obtain

u1 = a2 1221 + 12 2222 A1 sinh a1 x2
a=

+ 1221 + 22 2222 A2 sinh a2 x2 cos ax1 ,
u2 = a2 (1122 + 1212 ) (A1 1 cosh a1 x2 + A2 2 cosh a2 x2 ) sin ax1 .

(6.2.9)
377
The first mode (if it exists) has the following property:

u2 (x1 , x2 ) = u2 (x1 , x2 ).
(6.2.10)
In this mode, the occurrence of instability leads to necking of the surface of

the strip, as shown in Figure 6.3. We call this mode antisymmetric.
Figure 6.3: Strip instability by necking (antisymmetric mode).
The second mode (if it exists) has the following property:
u2 (x1 , x2 ) = u2 (x1 , x2 ).
(6.2.11)
In this mode, the occurrence of instability leads to bending or buckling of the

strip as shown in Figure 6.4. We call this mode symmetric.
Figure 6.4: Strip instability by bending (symmetric mode).
Now, using the incremental constitutive equation (5.6.43), we determine the

involved incremental nominal stress components.
378

For the symmetric mode, we find
( 2
X

3
1111 1221 + (1111 2222 + 1122 (1122 + 1212 )) 2
11 = a
=1
21
A cosh a x2 } sin ax1 ,

( 2
X

3
=a
2222 2112 2 + (1221 2112 + 1212 (1122 + 1212 ))
=1
22
A sinh a x2 } cos ax1 ,

)
( 2
X

2
3
1212 2222 + 1122 1221 A cosh a x2 sin ax1 .
=a
=1
(6.2.12)
For the antisymmetric mode, it results

( 2
X

11 = a3
(1111 2222 + 1122 (1122 + 1212 )) 2 + 1111 1221
=1
21
A sinh a x2 } sin ax1 ,

( 2
X

3
2222 2112 2 1221 2112 + 1212 (1122 + 1212 )
=a
=1
22
A cosh a x2 } cos ax1 ,

)
( 2
X

3
2
=a
1212 2222 + 1122 1221 A sinh a x2 sin ax1 .
=1
(6.2.13)
From (6.2.7)2 , (6.2.9)2 and (6.2.12)1 , (6.2.13)1 , it results that the boundary
condition (6.2.3) at the ends x1 = 0 and x1 = l of the strip are satisfied.
Imposing the boundary condition (6.2.2) for the symmetric mode, we arrive
at the following homogeneous system for the unknowns A1 , A2 and m:
(1 , m, b) A1 + (2 , m, b) A2 = 0,
(1 , m, b) A1 + (2 , m, b) A2 = 0.
(6.2.14)
where
and

(, m, b) = 2222 2112 2 1221 2112 + 1221 (1212 + 1122 ) sinh mb,

(, m, b) = 1212 2222 2 + 1122 1221 cosh mb,
(6.2.15)
h
b= .
l
(6.2.16)
379
Using the same procedure for the antisymmetric mode, we get the following
homogeneous system for the unknowns A1 , A2 and m:
(1 , m, b) A1 + (2 , m, b) A2 = 0,
(1 , m, b) A1 + (2 , m, b) A2 = 0,
(6.2.17)
where

(, m, b) = 2222 2112 2 1221 2112 + 1212 (1212 + 1122 ) cosh mb,

(, m, b) = 1212 2222 2 + 1122 1221 sinh mb.
(6.2.18)
Using now the expression (5.6.22) of the instantaneous elasticities from (6.2.1),
(6.2.15) and (6.2.18), we obtain

(, m, b) = C66 C22 2 + C12 11 sinh mb,

i

h
(6.2.19)
(, m, b) = C66 C22 2 + C12 C66 + 11 cosh mb,

and

(, m, b) = C66 C22 2 + C12 11 cosh mb,

i

h
(, m, b) = C66 C22 2 + C12 C66 + 11 sinh mb.
(6.2.20)
From (6.2.14), it results that loss of stability by symmetric mode can occur
if and only if the applied stress 11 and the integer positive number m satisfy the
following characteristic equation:
( , m, b) ( , m, b)

1
2
= 0.
(6.2.21)
s = s 11 , m, b =
(1 , m, b) (2 , m, b)
Similarly, from (6.2.17), we can conclude that loss of stability by antisym
metric mode can occur if and only if 11 and m satisfy the characteristic equation
( , m, b) ( , m, b)

1
2
= 0.
(6.2.22)
a = a 11 , m, b =
(1 , m, b) (2 , m, b)
Assuming the height h and the breadth l of the strip fixed, to find the critical
value of the applied (pressure) force, we must find, as a function of m = 1, 2, 3, ...,
the smallest in absolute value root 11 of the characteristic equations (6.2.21) and
of (6.2.22). If these two minimization problems were solved, we can say by which
mode the stability of the strip is lost. For the strip (having two finite dimensions),
beside the critical value of the applied force, we can determine also the wavelength of the mode describing the occurrence of instability. The problem is now
much more complex, as in the case of the half space. The minimization problem
can be solved only numerically, using a computer. Numerical results and their
analysis are reported by Guz and Babitch [6.3]. The obtained results and their
380
examination show that generally stability loss occurs by antisymmetric (bending,

buckling) mode and for m = 1, if b = h/l is relatively small. Loss of stability
by symmetric (necking) mode can occur only if b = h/l is relatively large. The
most frequently encountered situation corresponds to the first possibility. We shall
analyze in great detail only the case in which m = 1, using the results due to Guz
and Babitch [6.3]. Before doing that, we shall discuss an extremal case, which can
be approximatively solved using elementary iterative procedures.
In our asymptotic analysis, following Guz and Babitch [6.3], we assume a very
thin plate, for which
h << l.
(6.2.23)
In this case, the dimensionless parameter b, introduced by equation (2.6.16),
satisfies the restriction
b << 1.
(6.2.24)
We suppose m = 1. That is, we assume that the wave-length of the eigenmode describing the loss of stability, is 2l. Also, taking into account the above
observations, we suppose that this eigenmode is an antisymmetric one. That is,
we assume that the loss of stability occurs by buckling (bending) of the strip. Using
the expressions (6.2.20) of the coefficients, for m = 1 we arrive at the following
form of the involved characteristic equation (6.2.22):

C12
(C
C
x)
(C
+
C
x)
12 22 +
12
11
66
11
2
C66 C22
(1 cosh b1 sinh b2 2 cosh b2 sinh b1 )
C12 C11 x
1 2 (2 cosh b1 sinh b2 1 cosh b2 sinh b1 )
+
C22

C12
(C66 + C11 x) 13 cosh b1 sinh b2 23 cosh b2 sinh b1 = 0,
+
C22 C66
(6.2.25)
with
11
h
(6.2.26)
and b = << 1.
l
C11
To obtain the critical value, we solve approximately the above equation. Since
b = hl << 1, we shall approximate sinh b and cosh b , = 1, 2, by their
6
Taylor polynomials, neglecting terms of order (h/l) and higher. Thus we get
x=
1
1
5
3
(b ) ,
(b ) +
120
6
1
1
4
2
(b ) , = 1, 2.
cosh b = 1 + (b ) +
24
2
sinh b = b +
(6.2.27)
We introduce these expressions in the characteristic equation (6.2.25). Long,

elementary and careful computations, using the same order of approximation, leads
381
to the following approximate form of the characteristic equation:

C12
1 2 2
C11 (C66 + C12 )
2
(C12 C11 x) (C66 + C11 x)
+ 2
x+b
C66
3 1 2 C22
C22 C66

1 C12 C11 x
C12
1 2
2
(C66 + C11 x)
+ 2
+
C22
3
C22 C66
2 1

C
1
12
2 2
2
2
4
(C12 C11 x) (C66 + C11 x)
+ 2 1 2 + 2
+b
C22 C66
30 1

1 C12 C11 x
C12
1
2
2
(C66 + C11 x)
+ 2
+
C22
5
C22 C66
24 1

1 2 2 C11
(C12 + C66 ) x = 0.
(6.2.28)

+
30 1 2 C22 C66
In order to solve this equation, we must use also the relations (5.6.57) and (5.6.58)
giving 12 + 22 and 12 22 . Taking into account the values (6.1.21) of the instantaneous elasticities, we get
2
(1 + x) C11 C22 + (C66 + xC11 ) C66 (C12 + C66 )

,
C22 C66
(1 + x) C11 (C66 + C11 x)
.
(6.2.29)
12 22 =
C22 C66
12 + 22 =
In our asymptotic analysis, we solve equation (6.2.28) by an iterative procedure,

looking for a root of the form
x = x 0 + b2 x1 + b4 x2 .
(6.2.30)
and neglecting terms of order b6 and higher. Introducing (6.2.30) and (6.2.29) into
(6.2.28) after elementary, long and careful computations, we obtain
2
C11 C22 C12
< 0,
(6.2.31)
3C11 C22
2

C11 C22 C12
2
2C12 C66 + 5C66 C22 .
6 C11 C22 C12
x2 =
2
45C22 C11 C66
x0 = 0, x1 =
Hence, from (6.2.30) and (6.2.31), we get

#)
"
(

2
2
2C12 C66
1
1 6 C11 C22 C12
C11 C22 C12
2
2
.
+
b 1b
x=
3
C22 C66
15
3C11 C22
(6.2.32)
Let us introduce now the quantity pE , defined by the equation
382
pE =
2
C11 C22 C12
1 2
.
b C11
C11 C22
3
(6.2.33)
Thus, using also (6.2.26), for the critical value 11 , producing instability by
buckling (bending), we obtain the following expression:
#)
"
(

2
1
c
2 6 C11 C22 C12 2C12 C66
11 = pE 1 + b
.
(6.2.34)
+
3
15C22 C66
c
Before discussing the obtained results, we express pE and 11 in terms of the

engineering constants. Using equation (2.2.85) and (6.2.26)2 , we get
1
pE =
3
2
E1
1 31 13
(6.2.35)
and
c
11
= pE
h
1
l
2
1
15
12 + 32 13
E1
6
2
1 13 31
1 31 13 G12
1
+
3
)
(6.2.36)
We observe that the developments (6.2.27), leading to the above approximate

c
value of the critical pressure 11 , are acceptable if, besides the condition (6.2.26)2
satisfied by b, the following restrictions are also fulfilled:

h
<< 1 for = 1, 2.
(6.2.37)
b =
l
In order to establish the consequences of this requirement, we return to equation (6.2.29) giving the parameters 12 and 22 . Taking into account the relation
(6.2.26)1 and the equation (2.2.85), and using the engineering constants of the
material, we get
12 + 22 =
12 22 =
13 + 32 23
1 13 31 + (G12 /E2 ) 11
E1
1
,
2
+
1 13 31
(1 13 31 ) (G12 /E2 ) E2
1 13 31 G12
(1 23 32 ) (E1 /E2 ) + (G12 /E2 ) 11

1 23 32 E1
+
G12
1 13 31
1 13 31 E2
2
11
1 13 31 E2 G12
with
= 1 12 21 23 32 31 13 221 32 13 .
(6.2.38)
383
The restriction (6.2.38) will be fulfilled if

h
l
2

12 + 22 << 1 and
h
l
4
12 22 << 1.
(6.2.39)
According to the structure of our fiber-reinforced composite, its engineering

constants satisfy the following restrictions:
G12 << E1 and E2 < E1 .
(6.2.40)
c
From(6.2.36) and (6.2.37),

we can conclude that near the critical value 11 ,

2
the ratios 11 /E1 and 11 /G12 are of order hl << 1. Hence, the leading
term in the relation (6.2.39) is the first one. Consequently, both restrictions (6.2.40)
and, hence, the requirements (6.2.39), will be fulfilled if the thickness ratio b = 2 hl
satisfies the restriction
r
E1
1
h
<< 1.
(6.2.41)
l 1 13 31 G12
The classical Love-Kirchhoff plate theory is applicable for composite strips

and plates only if this condition is satisfied. For composite plates, the transverse
strips modulus G12 is much smaller than the axial Young modulus E1 . Hence,
(6.2.40) is a stronger restriction on the thickness ratio b = 2 hl . For an isotropic
strip or plate, G12 and E1 have the same order of magnitude. Consequently, the
domain of applicability of the classical Love-Kirchhoff plate theory is much larger
in this case. The obtained results show how the three-dimensional linearized theory
can be used to obtain information concerning the domain of applicability of the
classical, more approximative, Love-Kirchhoff type plate theory.
Assuming (6.2.41) satisfied, we return now to equation (6.2.34) giving the
c
critical stress 11 . First of all, we observe that the parenthesis in (6.2.41) is positive. Hence, buckling (bending) of the strip can occur only if the applied force
is compressive. As we shall see later, in the Section 7.4, pE given by equation
(6.2.35) is the buckling pressure according to the classical Love-Kirchhoff plate
theory. The relation (6.2.36), obtained using the three-dimensional linearized theory, shows that even for very thin composite strips and plates, the classical result
is only asymptotically true. If the thickness ratio b = hl increases, the classical
value must be corrected, taking into account terms of higher order in b = hl .
This correction can be important for fiber-reinforced composite plates for which
E1 /G12 >> 1, and consequently
c

(6.2.42)
11 < pE .
Neglecting the above criteria can lead to a dangerous situation since the
actual value of the critical pressure can be much smaller than that predicted by
the classical plate theory. This condition is enforced by the detailed analysis due to
384
Guz and Babitch [6.3] which used numerical methods to get the dependence of the
critical buckling pressure on various mechanical and geometrical characteristics of
fiber-reinforced composite strips. The two authors have assumed a transversally
isotropic strip, Ox2 x3 being the plane of isotropy. In this case, 13 = 12 , 31 =
21 , E2 = E3 , 23 = 32 , and the classical buckling pressure pE given by (6.2.33)
becomes
2
E1
h
1
(6.2.43)
pE =
2 (E /E ) .
1 21
l
3
2
1
In order to present the obtained results, we introduce the dimensionless quantity

p =
pc
c
with pc 11
pE
(6.2.44)
c
giving the ratio of the critical buckling pressure pc 11 obtained using the
three-dimensional linearized theory, and the critical buckling pressure pE , obtained
using the classical plate theory.
In Figure 6.5, the dependence of the correction factor p = p (b) on the
thickness ratio b = h/l, for 0 6 b 6 0.32 is given. This dependence was obtained
solving the characteristic equation (6.2.25). The curves 1, 2, ..., 8 correspond to the
following values of the ratio E1 /G12 :
E1
= 6, 8, 10, 20, 30, 50, 70, 100.
G12
Figure 6.5: Dependence of the correction factor p on thickness ratio b.

The presented results show that the critical values obtained by the classical
plate theory are larger than the critical values given by the three-dimensional
linearized theory. The errors can be 50% or even bigger. For composite strips and
plates with glass fibers, for 0.13 6 h/l 6 0.23 and E1 /G12 > 30, the errors due
6.3. BUCKLING OF FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITE BARS
385
to the classical theory can surpass 40%. But for this plate (h/l 6 0.13), and for
E1 /G12 6 10, the errors are less than 10%.
Guzs and Babitchs analysis shows that if we are dealing with fiber-reinforced
composite plates, the use of the three-dimensional linearized theory can avoid the
occurrence of dangerous situations, which may appear if the design is made using
the classical plate theory. However, in the same time, we can see that the classical
formula is asymptotically true and represents a very good approximation, even for
fiber-reinforced composites, if the strip or plate is relatively thin.
6.3
Buckling of fiber-reinforced composite bars
Let us consider a long cylindrical linearly elastic homogeneous bar. Let us

denote by l its length, by S its cross-section and by A the area of this crosssection. We take the origin O of the coordinate system in the centroid of one of
the end cross-sections and we assume that the axes Ox1 and Ox2 are the principal
centroidal axes of the section. We denote by I1 and I2 the corresponding inertia
moments. The axis Ox3 is parallel to the generators of the lateral surface of the
bar, as shown in Figure 6.6.
X1
X3
X2
Figure 6.6: Fiber-reinforced composite cylindrical bar.

According to the chosen geometry made, we have
Z
S
x1 da =
x2 da = 0, I1 =
x22 da, I2 =
Z
S
x21 da,
x1 x2 da = 0.
(6.3.1)
We assume that the bar is a fiber-reinforced composite cylinder, the fibers

being parallel to the generators of the lateral surface.
We assume also that the bar is comprised by compressive forces acting in the
direction of the reinforcing fibers. Hence, the stress state in the internal deformed
and nonbuckled composite bar is characterized by the following relations:
11 = 22 = 0, 33 = p, p = const. > 0.
(6.3.2)
386
As usual, we suppose that the stress-free reference configuration of the bar is

locally stable.
As known for small values of the applied pressure p, the generatrices of the
bar remain parallel to the Ox3 axis and the successively deformed and stressed
equilibrium configuration of the bar are locally stable. However, for some critical
value of the applied pressure, the stability of the bar is lost and a bifurcation of
the equilibrium state occurs on the given (lead) loading path. That is, a buckled
state of the bar can occur, and the generatrices of the lateral surface become curved
lines, ceasing to be parallel to the axis Ox3 . Euler has succeeded in determining the
critical value, using an approximate, genial and wonderful procedure. The threedimensional linearized theory can be used to elucidate the domain of applicability
of Eulers result. To see how this can be done, first of all we present briefly Eulers
procedure. We assume
I2 I m < I 1 I M ,
(6.3.3)
Im and IM being the minimal and maximal centroidal momenta of inertia of the
cross-section. If (6.3.3) is true, the buckling, if it appears, takes place in the Ox 1 x3
plane. In Figure 6.7, we show the initial and the assumed buckled state of the bar,
P being the applied compressive force.
M
N
U1
X1
U1
P
X2
Figure 6.7: Buckled cylindrical bar.

The buckled bar can be in equilibrium only if the following global equilibrium
equations are satisfied:
Z
Z
N 33 da = P, M x1 33 da = u1 P.
(6.3.4)
S
In the Eulers theory, it is assumed that all fields are independent on x2 . It is

also assumed that all material fibers orthogonal to the symmetry axis of the bar
conserve their length if the bar is buckled. Moreover, the theory is founded on the
hypothesis of plane section according to which the transverse section of the bar
387
remain plane and orthogonal to the deformed symmetry axis in the buckled state
of the bar. The above assumption can be expressed by the equations
11 = 0 and 13 = 0.
(6.3.5)
The first relation shows that the transverse displacement u1 depends only on x3
and the second relation leads to the following expression of the axial displacement
u3 :
(6.3.6)
u3 = u3 (x1 , x3 ) = u3 (x3 ) x2 u01 (x3 ) ,
the prim denoting derivation with respect to x3 . Let us observe that the second
term in the right-hand side of the above equation is an incremental displacement,
due to the buckling, the first one corresponds to the underlaying compressed, nonbuckled state of the bar. For the axial deformation 33 , we get the expression
00
33 = 33 (x3 ) x1 u1 (x3 ) , 33 (x3 ) = u3 (x1 ) .
(6.3.7)
The axial stress 33 in the buckled state of the bar is
00
33 = E3 33 = E3 33 (x3 ) E3 x1 u1 (x3 ) ,
(6.3.8)
where E3 is the axial Young modulus of the bar.

Introducing the expression (6.3.8) in the first global equilibrium condition
(6.3.4) and using the relation (6.3.1)1 we get
AE3 33 (x3 ) = P.
(6.3.9)
This result shows that the axial deformation 33 , existing also in the buckled
equilibrium state, is a constant quantity. Hence, the axial stress 33 in this state
is also constant and
33 = E3 33 = P/A.
(6.3.10)
Comparing (6.3.2) and (6.3.10), we get the following obvious result connecting the
compressive force P and the corresponding compressive pressure p:
p = P/A.
(6.3.11)
We return now to the second global equilibrium condition (6.3.4). Introducing

(6.3.8) and using again (6.3.1)1 and (6.3.1)4 , we obtain the equation which must
be satisfied by the incremental displacement u1 = u1 (x3 ), if buckling occurs
u001 +
P
u1 = 0 for 0 < x3 < l, Im = I2 .
I m E3
The general solution of the above equation is

r
r
P
P
x3 .
x3 + B cos
u1 = A sin
I m E3
I m E3
(6.3.12)
(6.3.13)
388
We assume a simply supported bar. In the framework of Eulers theory, this

can be expressed by imposing the following boundary conditions:
u3 (0) = u3 (l) = 0.
(6.3.14)
Thus, from (6.3.13), we get B = 0, and u3 can be nonvanishing; i.e. buckling and
bifurcation of the equilibrium state can occur if and only if
r
P
= m, m = 1, 2, ... .
(6.3.15)
l
I m E3
On the given loading path, bifurcation and buckling occur if the compressive force
reaches its smallest possible critical value
PE =
2
I m E3 .
(6.3.16)
From (6.3.11), we get the critical value pE of the applied pressure

pE =
2 I E
m 3
.
A
l
(6.3.17)
The last result can be expressed in the following equivalent and useful form :
p
Im /A
2
,
(6.3.18)
with = 2
pE = E 3
l
4
the quantity 2/ representing the slenderness ratio.

The famous Eulers formula (6.3.17) gives the value of the compressive pressure for which bifurcation of the prestressed equilibrium configuration occurs. In
this case, for the same value PE of the applied compressive force, there exist
two distinct and neighboring equilibrium states of the bars, characterized by the
following relations:
u1 0 in the underlying equilibrium state,
(6.3.19)
and
u1 = A sin x3 /l 6= 0 in the buckled equilibrium state.
(6.3.20)
The buckled state corresponds to the primary eigenmode u1 6 0 given by

the above approximation and corresponding to the smallest eigenvalue P E /Im E3 .
Obviously, the used theory, as well as the three-dimensional linearized theory, can
tell us nothing about the amplitude of this primary eigenmode.
According to the Eulers theory, the critical buckling force depends only on
the axial Young modulus E3 . The other mechanical characteristics of the material have no influence on the critical value. Particularly, two bars having the
same geometrical characteristics and the same axial modulus, are buckled by the
389
same compressive force PE , even if one bar is isotropic and the other one is fiberreinforced, hence, orthotropic. The fact that the axial shear modulus G13 and the
axial Young modulus E3 have the same order of magnitude in the first case, but
G13 is much smaller than E3 in the second case, has no influence on the buckling
force according to Eulers theory. Since the Eulerian approach is based on the hypothesis of plane cross-section (13 0), the value of the axial shear modulus G13
cannot influence in any way the behavior of the compressed bar. In what follows
we shall use the three-dimensional linearized theory to see more exactly in what
conditions the results of Eulers theory can be accepted and in what circumstances
they must be improved.
For this purpose we suppose that we have a fiber-reinforced composite bar,
the fibers having the direction of the symmetry axis of the bar. In this case, the bar
is orthotropic and its symmetry planes are the coordinates planes. Consequently,
according to (5.6.22) and (6.3.2), the nonvanishing instantaneous elasticities have
the following values:
1111 = C11 , 2222 = C22 , 3333 = C33 p,
1122 = 2211 = C12 , 2233 = 3322 = C23 , 2332 = C44 , 3311 = 1133 = C31 ,
1212 = 2121 = C66 , 2323 = 3232 = C44 , 3131 = 1313 = C55 ,
2112 = 1221 = C66 , 3223 = C44 p, 1331 = C55 , 3113 = C55 p.
(6.3.21)
Using the above results, we can compute the exclusive functional E (u) defined
by equation (5.5.1). Since now the material is linearly elastic and the initial applied
deformation is infinitesimal, the instantaneous elasticity must be replaced in

(5.5.1) by the instantaneous elasticity . Taking into account this fact and using
(6.3.22), we get
Z
E (u) = {C11 u21,1 + C22 u22,2 + (C33 p) u23,3
B
+2 (C12 u1,1 u2,2 + C23 u2,2 u3,3 + C13 u3,1 u1,1 ) + C66 (u1,2 + u2,1 )
+ (C44 p) u22,3 + 2C44 u2,3 u3,2 + C44 u23,2 + (C55 p) u21,3
+2C55 u1,3 u3,1 + +C55 u23,1 }dV.
(6.3.22)
From the general theory of local stability (see Section 5.5), we know that if the
exclusion functional E (u) is positive for any kinematically admissible incremental
displacement field u, with u 6 0, the corresponding equilibrium configuration is
locally stable. If a primary eigenstate appears on the given loading path, it makes
the exclusion functional stationary relative to all admissible variations of the corresponding incremental displacement field. Moveover, in the primary eigenstate,
the exclusion functional has a local minimum (zero) relative to the set of all kinematically admissible incremental displacement fields. To find out the critical value
390
of the loading parameter (p in our case), we must study the above variational and
extreme problem. The solution of this problem can be exact or approximate and,
in the following, we shall illustrate both cases.
First, following Pearson [6.4], we try to solve the buckling problem using simultaneously the three-dimensional linearized theory and the Eulers assumptions
concerning the way on which the buckling takes place. As we know from the relations (6.3.5) and (6.3.6), Eulers hypothesis lead to the following structure of the
admissible incremental displacement fields
u1 = u1 (x3 ) , u2 0, u3 = x1 u01 (x3 )
(6.3.23)
assuming that the buckling takes place in the Ox1 x3 plane.

The unknown function u1 = u1 (x3 ) must satisfy the homogeneous boundary
condition (6.3.14), expressing the fact that the bar is simply supported. Since we
now use the three-dimensional linearized theory, we can, and we must, impose
vanishing incremental nominal stress 33 at the ends of the bar, exactly as we
have done, by analyzing the stability of a simply supported strip or plate. Hence,
we must have
11 = 0 for x3 = 0 and x3 = l.
(6.3.24)
Using (6.3.21), (6.3.23), the incremental constitutive equation (5.6.23) 9 , and
assuming
p < C33 ,
(6.3.25)
it is easy to see that the boundary condition (6.3.24) will be satisfied if and only
if u1 (x3 ) fulfills the following restrictions:
u001 (0) = u001 (l) = 0.
(6.3.26)
We calculate now in u1 , the first variation E of the exclusion functional

(6.3.22) corresponding to the admissible variation u1 of u1 . According to (6.3.14)
and (6.3.26), these variations must satisfy the restriction
u1 (0) = u1 (l) = u001 (0) = u001 (l) = 0.
Since
(6.3.27)

d
E (u1 + u1 )
,
E =
d
=0
simple calculus shows that

E =
Zl
0
00
{(C33 p) Im u0000
1 + pAu1 } u1 dx3 , Im = I2 .
(6.3.28)
Accordingly, if u1 is primary eigenmode, it must satisfy the differential equation

00
(C33 p) Im u0000
1 + pAu1 = 0.
(6.3.29)
391

We denote by 2 the positive quantity
2 =
pA
.
(C33 p) Im
(6.3.30)
Hence, the general solution of equation (6.3.29) is

u1 (x3 ) = C1 sin x3 + C2 cos x3 + C3 x3 + C4 ,
(6.3.31)
where C1, C2 , C3 , C4 are arbitrary real constants. It is easy to see that u1 (x3 )
satisfy the boundary conditions (6.3.14) and (6.3.26) if and only if
C1 sin l = 0, C2 = C3 = C4 = 0.
(6.3.32)
The primary eigenmode can exist if and only if C1 6= 0. Consequently, the

bifurcation condition must be satisfied
l = n, n = 1, 2, 3, ... .
(6.3.33)
From (6.3.30) and (6.3.33), we can now deduce the possible critical values of
the applied axial pressure p
p = C33 Im
n l
2
A + n l
2 , n = 1, 2, 3, ... .
(6.3.34)
The right-hand side of the above equation increases when n increases. Hence,
the primary eigenmode correspond to the critical value
pc =
3 C I
33 m
2 .
l
A+
(6.3.35)
Since C33 = (1 12 21 ) E3 / , the above results can be expressed in terms

of the engineering constants
pc =
2 E I 1
1
12 21
3 m
.
2 I ) / (Al 2 )
1
+
(
A
l
m
(6.3.36)
Also, using the Eulerian value pE given by the equation (6.3.17), we get
pc = p E
1 12 21
{1 + 2 (Im /l2 A)}
(6.3.37)
The above result based on Eulers geometrical assumptions and on the threedimensional linearized theory shows that Eulers theory gives good results if
Im
1,
l2 A
392
that is, if the bar is relatively long. However, it can lead to erroneous results if the
condition is not fulfilled. Again, the main role in the critical value of the applied
pressure is played by the Youngs axial modulus E3 . The Eulerian incremental
displacement field (6.3.23) is too simple, and cannot describe the complex real
state existing in a buckled bar. To eliminate this fact, and to see more exactly the
way in which the internal structure of a fiber-reinforced composite bar influences
its performances, we shall analyze now the problem using the three-dimensional
linearized theory and trying to obtain the exact solution of the problem in a
particular case in which this is possible. As we shall see later on, the results
obtained in this approach can be used also to obtain approximate solutions which
are much more realistic than those based on Eulers hypothesis.
We assume that the fiber-reinforced composite bar has a circular cross-section
with the radius a. We assume also, that it is transversally isotropic, the isotropy
plane being perpendicular to the symmetry axis of the bar. The buckling problem
in this case was solved and analyzed in great detail by Guz and Babitch [6.3].
First, we observe that for a circular cylindrical bar, the Eulerian buckling
presume pE has the following form:
pE = E 3
a
2
with = .
l
4
(6.3.38)
Next, we note that according to (2.2.49) and (6.3.2), the nonvanishing instantaneous elasticities have the following expressions:
1111 = 2222 = C11 , 3333 = C33 p,
1122 = 2211 = C12 , 1133 = 3311 = 2233 = 3322 = C13 ,

1
1221 = 2112 = 1212 = 2121 = (C11 C12 ) ,
2
1313 = 3131 = 2323 = 3232 = 1331 = 2332 = C44 ,
3113 = 3223 = C44 p.
(6.3.39)
Assume the cylindrical symmetry of the initial deformed equilibriums state

are satisfied. Hence, we can use Guzs representation (5.6.102). According to the
relations (5.6.103)1 , (5.6.105) and (5.6.113), the displacement potentials (r, , z),
1 (r, , z) and 2 (r, , z) must satisfy the differential equations

1 2
1
2
2
+ 2 2,
1 + 12 2 = 0, 1 = 2 +
r r r
r
z

2
2
(6.3.40)
1 + 22 2 1 = 0, 1 + 32 2 2 = 0.
z
z
According to (5.6.86)(5.6.88) and (6.3.39), the parameters 12 , 22 and 32 are given

by the equation
(C44 p) (C33 p)
,
C11 C44
12
C44 p
, 2 = c
(C11 C12 ) /2 2,3
2c
C11 (C33 p) + C44 (C44 p) (C13 + C44 )

.
C11 C44
c2
393
(6.3.41)
As before, we assume a simply supported bar. Hence, the boundary conditions at

the two ends of the bar are
u = uz = 0, zz = 0 for z = 0 and z = l.
(6.3.42)
The lateral surface of the bar is stress-free. Thus the following boundary
conditions must be satisfied:
rr = r = rz = 0 for r = a.
(6.3.43)
Let us observe that these conditions are not fulfilled in the Eulers theory and
the situation is the same in all theories based on Eulers geometrical assumption.
If we use the incremental constitutive equations (5.6.120)1,2,3 and the values
(6.3.39) of the instantaneous elasticities, the boundary conditions (6.3.43) become

uz
ur
1 u
ur
= 0,
+ C13
+
+ C12
C11
z
r
r
r
u
1 ur
u
= 0, for r = a,
+
r
r
r
uz
ur
= 0.
(6.3.44)
+
r
z
With the instantaneous elasticities given by the equation (6.3.39), Guzs representation formulas (5.6.114) take the form
1 2
2
1
,
, u =
r z
rz
r

2 r

1 2
1
1
2
+
+
C11
uz =
+ (C44 p) 2 ,
r r r2 2
r2
C13 + C44
z
= 1 + 2 .
(6.3.45)
ur =
As usual, we assume that the stress-free reference configurative of the bar is

locally stable. Also, we suppose that the parameters 12 , 22 and 32 are distinct, real,
positive numbers. To find the critical buckling pressure, we must first select the
solutions of equations (6.3.40) which satisfy the homogeneous boundary conditions
(6.3.42) at the ends of the bar and which describe a buckled state of the bar. Hence,
we must analyze the nature of the possible solution of the equation
2

2
1
1 2
2
+
+
+
f (r, , z) = 0, > 0.
(6.3.46)
r2
r r r2 2
z 2
394
Frequently in a similar situation, we look for solutions having the following

structure:
f (r, , z) = F (r, ) Z (z) .
(6.3.47)
Z 00
1 F
= d2 , d = const. > 0.
=
Z
2F
Since the boundary condition (6.3.42) must be satisfied, the solution corresponding
to +d2 are rejected. Thus we get
1 F 2 d2 F = 0, Z 00 + dZ = 0.
(6.3.48)
Examining again the boundary condition (6.3.42), we take
d = m , m = 1, 2, 3, ...
l
and it results
Z = sin m
z
z
or Z = cos m , m = 1, 2, 3, ... .
l
l
Now the equation (6.3.48)1 becomes

2

F = 0.
1 F m
l
(6.3.49)
(6.3.50)
We try F = F (r, ) with the following structure:

F (r, ) = R (r) () .
(6.3.51)
Introducing (6.3.51) into (6.3.50) and separating the variables, we get

2

r2 R00 + rR0 m l r2 R
00
= e2 , e = const. > 0.
(6.3.52)
=
Since the incremental fields must be a uniform function of the angle , the
solution corresponding to +e2 must be rejected and we must have
e2 = n2 , n = 1, 2, 3, ... .
Hence, the possible expression for are
= sin n or = cos n, n = 1, 2, 3, ... .
The equation which must be satisfied by R becomes
(
2 )

r2 R = 0.
r2 R00 + rR0 n2 + m
l
(6.3.53)
(6.3.54)
395
This is a Bessel type equation and its bounded solution in the domain 0
r a is given by the modified Bessel function of the first kind (for details see, for
instance, the monograph [6.5]). Hence, we have

(6.3.55)
R = In m r , n, m = 1, 2, 3, ... .
l
In the following, we take m = n = 1, and as Guz and Babitch have done

[6.3], we assume that the displacement potentials , 1 , and 2 are given by the
equation
l
1 = A2 I1 (2 r) cos cos z, 2 = A3 I1 (3 r) cos cos z, (6.3.56)
= A1 I1 (1 r) sin sin z, =
A1, A2 , A3 being arbitrary constants.

To show the mechanical meaning of the above choice, we must determine the
corresponding incremental displacement field. Using Guzs representation formulas
(5.6.102) and the relation (6.3.50), we get

ur = A1 1r I1 (1 r) + 2 [A2 2 I10 (2 r) + A3 3 I10 (3 r)] cos sin z,

u = A1 1 I10 (1 r) + 1r [A2 I1 (2 r) + A3 I1 (3 r)] sin sin z,
uz =
C11
2
C13 +C44
n
22
C44 p
C11

A2 I1 (2 r) + 32
C44 p
C11
A3 I1 (3 r)
cos cos z.
(6.3.57)
In order to obtain the above expression for uz , we have used the second order
differential equation satisfied by I1 (2 r) and I1 (3 r) (see[6.5]).
Equation (6.3.57) shows that
ur (r, + , z) = ur (r, , z) .
Hence, all particles in a cross-section having a symmetric position relative to
the centroid of the cross-section, have the same radial displacement. Moreover, this
displacement is vanishing at the ends of the bar, and its maximal value is obtained
for the particle situated in the middle cross-section of the bar. Thus, Guzs and
Babitchs exact solution really describes a buckled state of the bar. This state is
much more complex than that assumed by Euler, but the essential characteristic
of the two states are similar.
Using the last incremental constitutive equation (5.6.120) can determine the
axial component zz of the incremental nominal stress, corresponding to the incremental displacement field (6.3.17). The obtained result, together with the relations
396
(6.3.57)1,2 , show that the homogeneous boundary conditions (6.3.42) at the ends
of the bar are satisfied.
Finally, we must impose the homogeneous boundary conditions (6.3.43) at
the stress-free lateral surface r = a of the bar. Long, but elementary computations
shows that this condition will be satisfied if and only if A1, A2, A3 and p satisfy the
following homogeneous algebraic system:
mkl Al = 0, mkl = mlk , k, l = 1, 2, 3,
(6.3.58)
where the coefficients mkl , depending on p, have the expressions
(C11 C12 ) 1 I2 (1 ) ,
a2

C44 p
C13 C11
l
2
I1 (l ) ,
l2
m1l = 3 C11 l2 I100 (l ) + C12 I2 (l )
C11
C13 + C44
a
l = 2, 3,
2
m21 = 2 2 1 I2 (1 ) 2 l2 I1 (l ) ,
a
a
2
m2l = 2 3 I2 (l ) , l = 2, 3,
a
m31 = 2 I1 (1 ) ,
a
2 C13 + p + l2 C11
, l = 2, 3
m3l = 3 l
C13 + C44
a
m11 =
(6.3.59)
with
a
(6.3.60)
= .
l
The parameter characterizes the relation existing between the transversal
and longitudinal dimensions of the bar.
In order to obtain the coefficients in the form given above, we have used the
well-known equation (see [6.5])

1
d 1
I1 (r) = I2 (r) .
r
dr r
Buckling of the axially compressed bar occurs if and only if the homogenous
algebraic system (6.3.58), for the unknowns A1, A2, A3 , has nonvanishing solutions.
Imposing this condition, we get to the characteristic equation
det M (p) = det [mkl (p)] = 0,
(6.3.61)
M = [mkl ] being a 3 3 symmetric matrix.

The above relation represents a very complicated equation for the unknown
critical presume pc , which is the smallest positive root of the characteristic equation
397
(6.3.61). To obtain preliminary information about pc , Guz and Babitch [6.3] have
used the equations, (see [6.5])
In (r) =
X
j=0
r n+2j
1
j! (n + j)! 2
(6.3.62)
defining the function In (r). Neglecting terms of order (a/l)4 and higher, the two
authors were able to show that

(6.3.63)
pc = p E + O 4 ,
where pE is the Eulerian buckling pressure given by equation (6.3.38). We can see
again that the Eulerian formula is asymptotically exact.
In order to obtain information about the limits of Eulers results, Guz and
Babitch have analyzed the dependence
pc = pc ()
of the buckling pressure on the geometrical parameter = h/l. To find this
dependence, the two authors have introduced the dimensionless ratio or correction
factor
pc()
p = p () =
pE
and have studied its dependence on for various values of the mechanical characteristics of the fiber-reinforced composite bar. For various important combinations
of these characteristics, the characteristic equation (6.3.61) was numerically solved
by Guz and Babitch.
In all analyzed situations taken into account, the following resulted:
12 = 0.3, 31 = 32 = 0.2.
Shown in Figures 6.8, 6.9 and 6.10 are the results obtained by Guz and
Babitch, that in the dependence of the correction factor p () on the geometrical
parameter [0, 0.1], for the following values of the ratio E1 /E3 of the transverse
and axial Youngs moduli:
E1 /E3 = 0.08, 0.20, 0.80.
The curves 1, 2, ..., 7 correspond to the following ratios of the axial Young
modulus E3 and of the axial shear modulus G13 :
E3 /G13 = 6, 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, 100.
These ratios are characteristic for many fiber-reinforced composite bars.
The obtained results show that the critical buckling pressure pc depends
weakly on E1 /E3 , 12 and 31 , but depends strongly on E3 , E3 /G13 and = h/l.
398
Figure 6.8: Variation of correction factor p* vs. geometrical parameter . Transversally isotropic circular bar; E1 /E3 = 0.08.
Figure 6.9: Variation of correction factor p* vs. geometrical parameter . Transversally isotropic circular bar; E1 /E3 = 0.20.
For relatively short bars ( > 0.13) for which the axial shear modulus is relatively
small (E3 /G13 > 20), the errors due to the Eulerian formula cannot be neglected.
However, for relatively long bars ( 0.13) for which E3 /G13 30, the errors
due to the Eulerian formula are less then 10 to 20%. The above results based on
the three-dimensional linearized theory show that for fiber-reinforced composite
bars, there are situations in which the critical buckling pressure pc is strongly
influenced by the shear strains and shear stresses existing in the longitudinal plane
perpendicular to the buckling direction. This fact is reflected by the dependence of
pc on the ratio E3 /G13 . Just the above strains and stresses are neglected in Eulers
theory based on the hypothesis of plane cross-section. Let us observe also that the
numerical results confirm the evaluation (6.3.63) due to Guz and Babitch, since
399
Figure 6.10: Variation of correction factor p* vs. geometrical parameter .

Transversally isotropic circular bar; E1 /E3 = 0.80.
p () converges toward unity when converges toward zero. We can conclude
again that Eulers formula is asymptotically exact, for any possible combination
of the material constants.
Let us stress the fact that analytical, exact solution can be obtained for
transversally isotropic, circular bars only. This fact emphasizes the importance of
variational and extreme principles. These principles can be used in more general
circumstances to get approximate solutions for the buckling problem.
In order to use the variational and extremal principles, we must select appropriate test functions, taking into account the considered mechanical problem. The
assumed set of test functions in a finite dimensional space, and the stationarity
or extremal condition is imposed relative to this set. Thus, we are led to finding
nonvanishing solutions of homogenous linear algebraic systems. The possible roots
of the corresponding characteristic equation give finally the approximate values of
the wanted critical loads. These general ideas were applied in the buckling problem by Capanu and Soos [6.6]. In what follows, we present the results obtained by
these two authors.
Following Guzs and Babitchs idea [6.3], we observe that the exact solution
(6.3.17) can be used to get good test functions. In order to do it, we must utilize
equation (6.3.62) defining Bessels function In (r). Starting with this relation, and
3
neglecting terms of order (r) , from (6.3.57) we get

r 2
r 2
sin sin z,
cos sin z, u = A1 + A3
ur = A1 + A 2
a
a
r
cos cos z,
(6.3.64)
uz = A 4
a
where
, r < a = a/l 1,
l
400
and A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 are arbitrary constants.

It is easy to see that the displacements (6.3.64) describe a buckling state of
the bar and the displacement ur , u satisfy the boundary conditions (6.3.42)1,2
imposed on the two ends of the simply supported bar. Consequently, the equations (6.3.64) furnish good test functions in the buckling problem of circular
cylindrical bars.
Denoting by u1 , u2 , u3 the Cartesian components of the displacement field
(6.3.64) and using equations (5.6.97), we get
x1 x2
x2
x1 2
) A3 ( )2 } sin x3 , u2 = (A2 + A3 )( )( ) sin x3,
a
a
a
a
x1
u3 = A4 ( ) cos x3.
a
u1 = {A1 + A2 (
Starting with this intermediate result, we introduce the following incremental

displacement field:
x1 x2
x2
x1 2
) + A3 ( )2 } sin x3 , u2 = A4 ( )( ) sin x3 ,
b
a
b
a
x1
(6.3.65)
u3 = A5 ( ) cos x3, = /l.
a
u1 = {A1 + A2 (
Here A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 , A5 , a and b are arbitrary real constants.

Now let us assume that we are dealing with a rectangular cylindrical bar, 2a
and 2b are the dimensions of its cross-section. We denote a and b so that
a b.
(6.3.66)
It is easy to see that the displacement field (6.3.65) describes a buckling state
of the bar in the Ox1 x3 plane and satisfies the following boundary conditions at
the ends of the bar:
u1 = u2 = 0 for x3 = 0 and x3 = l.
(6.3.67)
Consequently, equations (6.3.65) furnish good test functions for the buckling problem of rectangular cylindrical bars.
We begin the analysis, based on the incremental variational principle, assuming a circular bar, having cylindrical orthotropy (see, for instance, Lekhnitski
[6.7]). In this case we shall express the exclusion functional E = E(u) given by
equation (5.5.1), using cylindrical coordinates and replacing by . In order to

do this, we express first E(u) in the following equivalent form:
Z
E (u) = (k ue) klmn (n um )dV.
(6.3.68)
B
The components of the differential operator are in this relation k . In Cartesian

coordinates, we have k = x k .
401
Now we must express the components of the second order tensor field u in
cylindrical coordinates, that is, in the tensor basis formed using the orthonormal
set (er , e , ez ). As can be shown (see, for instance, Malvern [6.8]) in the indicated
tensor basis, u has the following components:
u
ur
, r uz =
, r u =
r
r
1 u
u
1 ur
, u =
ur =
r
r
r
u
ur
, z uz =
, z u =
z ur =
z
z
r ur =
uz
,
r
1 uz
ur
,
+ , uz =
r
r
uz
.
z
(6.3.69)
In order to express E(u) using cylindrical coordinate, we make the usual

identification 1 r, 2 , 3 z. Since the material has cylindrical orthotropy,
only the instantaneous elasticities given by equations (6.3.21) are nonvanishing.
Z
E(u) = {C11 (r ur )2 + C22 ( u )2 + (C33 p)(z uz )2
B
+ 2(C12 r ur u + C23 u z uz + C31 z uz u )
+ C66 (r u + ur )2 + C44 ( uz + z u )2 p(z u )2

+ C55 (z ur + r uz )2 p(z ur )2 }dV.
(6.3.70)
If the material is transversally isotropic, the elasticities satisfy the supplementary

relations
C11 = C22 , C23 = C31 , C44 = C55 , 2C66 = C11 C12.
(6.3.71)
As we know, in any situation Eulers buckling pressure pE can be expressed

by equation (6.3.18)1 , the parameters being given by equation (6.3.18)2 .
In their analysis, realized for various cases, Capanu and Soos have used the
correction factor
p = p ()
defined by the equation
pc = p (E3 2 /4) = p pE .
(6.3.72)
The connection factor p = p () must be determined using exact or approximate methods. The possible values of depend on the geometrical characteristics
of the bar, as can be seen examining the relation (6.3.18)2 .
In all numerical tests, Capanu and Soos have assumed the following values
of the Poissons ratio:
12 = 0.3, 31 = 32 = 0.2.
402
First, we consider a circular fiber-reinforced composite bar, as Guz and Babitch

have done for the transversally isotropic case. Applying the incremental variational
principle, Capanu and Soos were able to treat also the case in which the bar is
cylindrically orthotropic. In this case, the nonvanishing instantaneous elasticities
are given by equations (6.3.21) as for a rectangular, orthotropic bar. The appropriate test functions are given by equations (6.3.64). Introducing these relations in
expression (6.3.70) of the exclusion functional E = E(u), we get a quadratic function E = E (A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 ) depending on four real variables A1 , A2 , A3, A4 . The
exclusion functional becomes stationary on the four dimensional space of the assumed test functions, for those values of the variables A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 , for which all
first order partial derivatives of the function E = E (A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 ) are vanishing.
Imposing this stationarity condition, we are led to the following linear, homogeneous algebraic system which must be satisfied by the unknowns A 1 , A2 , A3 , A4
nij Aj = 0, nij = nji , i, j = 1, 2, 3, 4.
(6.3.73)
Long, but elementary, computations based on the relations (6.3.21), (6.3.69)

and (6.3.70) show that the coefficients of the above system are given by the following equations:
n11 = (C44 + C55 p)2 , n12 = 12 (C55 p)2 ,
n13 = 12 (C44 p)2 , n14 = (C44 + C55 ),
n22 = 2(C11 + C12 ) + 12 (C22 + C66 ) + 13 (C55 p)2 ,
n23 = C12 + 12 (C22 C66 ), n24 = (C13 + 12 C23 12 C55 ),
n33 =
1
2
(C22 + C66 ) + 13 (C44 p)2 , n34 = 12 (C23 + C44 ),
n44 = C44 + C55 + 12 (C33 p)2 ,
and
= a/l.
In order to find the critical axial pressure pc , we must find the smallest
positive root of the characteristic equation
det N (p) = det [nij (p)] = 0,
(6.3.74)
where N = [nij ] is a 4 4 symmetric matrix. If the above equation is satisfied, the

homogeneous system (6.3.73) has a nonvanishing solution, hence, the first eigenmode that exists. Obviously, using the variational principle, we get an approximate
value of the critical pressure, since the stationarity condition of the exclusion functional was imposed on a finite dimensional space. To verify the strengths of the
used variational principle and of the used test functions, Capanu and Soos have
403
first determined the dependence of the correction factor p on , using the exact
characteristic equation (6.3.61), due to Guz and Babitch. Afterward, they obtained the dependence of p on using the approximate characteristic equation
(6.3.74). Finally, the two authors have compared the results obtained using the
above mentioned two approaches. The result of this test will be presented in what
follows.
Let us consider now transversally isotropic circular bar.
The results concerning the exact characteristic equation (6.3.61) are given
in Figure 6.11. The curves given in this Figure 6.11 correspond to the following
ratios:
E1 /E3 = E2 /E3 = 0.2,
and few values of the ration E3 /G13 are taken into account
E3 /G13 = 10, 20, 30, ..., 100.
The above rations are characteristic for fiber-reinforced composite bars. It
was assumed that the parameter = h/l varies between 0 and 0.2. The last
value = 0.2 corresponds to l/2a = 7.8. In order to obtain numerical results, only
dimensionless quantities were used, the elastic moduli being normed by E 3 . The
dependence p = p () was obtained using the bisection method, starting with
p = 1, corresponding to the Eulerian value of the critical buckling pressure.
1
G13=G23=G
1
0.9
0.8
p*
3
4
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0
1 : E3/G=10
2 : E3/G=20
3 : E3/G=30
4 : E3/G=40
5 : E3/G=50
6 : E3/G=60
7 : E3/G=70
8 : E3/G=80
9 : E3/G=90
10 : E3/G=100
0.05
5
6
7
8
9
10
0.1
0.15

Transversally isotropic circular bar. Exact solution.
As it is easy to see, there is a very good agreement between the results
obtained by Guz and Babitch and by Capanu and Soos. The conclusions obtained
by the first two authors are confirmed by the second pair of authors. As we can see
again, the errors due to the Eulerian formula can reach 50% for relatively short
bars, corresponding to = 0.2.
404
The dependencies obtained using the approximate characteristic equation

(6.3.74) are represented in Figure 6.12 by the curves 4, 5 and 6. The curves 1, 2 and
3 correspond to the dependencies obtained using the exact characteristic equation
(6.3.61). The curves 1 and 4, 2 and 5, 3 and 6, respectively, correspond to the same
ratio
E3 /G13 = 10, 50, 100.
G13=G23=G
4
0.9
0.8
p*
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0
E3/G= 10: 1=exact sol.;4=variational sol.

E3/G= 50: 2=exact sol.;5=variational sol.
E3/G=100: 3=exact sol.;6=variational sol.
0.05
0.1
6
3
0.15

Transversally isotropic circular bar. Exact and variational solution.
Examining the curves given in the Figure 6.12, it can be seen that the variational method gives accurate results, even if the used test function (6.3.64) has
a relatively simple structure. It can be observed also that the critical values furnished by the approximate method are slightly greater than the corresponding
values obtained with the exact method. However, the relative errors are less than
0.5% for E3 /G13 = 10 and less than 7% for E3 /G13 = 100.
We can conclude that the variational method is able to give accurate results that can be obtained by an appreciable amount of reduced calculus. Using
appropriate test functions, this method became very useful in computing the critical buckling values. Consequently, we can expect that the selected test functions
(6.3.64) and (6.3.65) can lead to good results also for other materials which have
no transverse isotropy, or for those bars which have no circular cross-section.
The following results, due to Capanu and Soos, will illustrate this optimistic
conviction.
We assume now a cylindrically orthotropic circular bar. The dependence of
p on was determined using the approximate characteristic equation (6.3.74).
The results for various combinations of the elastic parameter ratios are shown in
Figure 6.13.
405
1
0.9
1
2
3
4
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0
1:E3/G23=10, E3/G23=10
2:E3/G23=10, E3/G23=10
3:E3/G23=10, E3/G23=70
4:E3/G23=10, E3/G23=100
5:E3/G23=40, E3/G23=40
6:E3/G23=40, E3/G23=70
7:E3/G23=40, E3/G23=100
8:E3/G23=70, E3/G23=70
9:E3/G23=70, E3/G23=100
10:E3/G23=100,E3/G23=100
0.05
6
7
8
9
10
0.1
0.15
0.2

Transversally orthotropic rectangular bar. Variational solution.
Examining the results, we can see that the stability of the bar is equally
influenced by the values of the moduli G13 and G23 . The buckling behavior of the
bar is influenced in the same manner by the shear strains and stresses existing
in the longitudinal cylindrical surfaces and in the radial planes. This fact is not
surprising, since the orthotropy is a cylindrical one. The Eulerian theory cannot
take into account just the influence of the above mentioned strains and stresses on
the critical value of the axial pressure.
Let us assume now a transverse isotropic bar, having a rectangular crosssection. In this case, an exact solution does not exist and only the variational
method can be used to get the dependence of the involved correction factor p ()
on the corresponding geometrical parameter . The exclusion functional E(u) is
given by equation (6.3.22) appropriate to Cartesian coordinates and to rectilinear
orthotropy. The good test functions are given by the relation (6.3.65). Introducing the selected test functions in the expression of the exclusion functional, we obtain a quadratic function E = E(A1 , ..., A5 ) depending on the variables A1 , ..., A5 .
Imposing the stationarity condition on the five-dimensional space of the supposed
test functions, we are led to the following linear, homogeneous, algebraic system
which must be satisfied by the unknowns A1 , ..., A5 :
pij Aj = 0, pij = pji , i, j = 1, 2, ..., 5.
(6.3.75)
406
In these equations, the coefficients pij are given by the following relations:
p11 = 6(C55 p)K2 , p12 = 2(C55 p)K2 ,
p13 = 2(C55 p)K2 , p14 = 0, p15 = 4 3C55 K,

2
6
32
C11 K + (C55 p)K2 , p23 = (C55 p)K2 ,
p22 =
3
5
3
4
16
C12 , p25 = (2C13 C55 )K,
p24 =
3
3
4
16
6
32
C66 , p35 = C55 K,
C66 K + (C55 p)2 , p34 =
p33 =
3
5
3
3
4
1
C22
8
+ (C44 p)K2 }, p45 = C23 ,
p44 = {C66 K +
4
K
3
3
p55 = 8C55 K + 2(C33 p)K2 .
(6.3.76)
In these relations, the geometrical parameter is given by the equation

r
2a
2a
2 Im
(6.3.77)
= = , =
=
l
A
l
3
3l
and
K=
b
1
a
is the aspect ratio of the bar.

The characteristic equation corresponding to the assumed approximation is
det P (p) = det [pij (p)] = 0,
where P = [pij ] is a 5 5 symmetric matrix.
The critical axial pressure pc is the smallest positive root of the above equation.
For transversally isotropic rectangular bars, the dependencies of the correction factor p on the parameter , for various values of the ratio E3 /G13 and for
three values
K = 1, 2, 3
of the aspect ratio are given in Figure 6.14. The correction factor p is obviously
introduced by the general relation (6.3.72), the involved geometrical parameter
being given by equation (6.3.77).
For K = 1, that is, for a transverse isotropic bar, having square cross-section,
the results for the correction factor p are identical with the results obtained for
a transversally isotropic, circular bar, for the same value of the ratio E 3 /G13 and
for the same value of the geometrical parameter a. This result suggests the idea
that the buckling of a transverse isotropic fiber-reinforced composite bar does not
depend on the shape of the cross-section. That is, the curves in Figure 6.14 are
407
1.1
1
1
3
0.9
0.8
p*
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0
4
6
1 : x=3,E3/G=10
2 : x=2,E3/G=10
3 : x=1,E3/G=10
4 : x=3,E3/G=70
5 : x=2,E3/G=70
6 : x=1,E3/G=70
7 : x=3,E3/G=100
8 : x=2,E3/G=100
9 : x=1,E3/G=100
0.05
7
9
0.1
0.15
Figure 6.14: Correction factor p* vs. geometrical parameter . Transversally

isotropic rectangular bar. Variational solution.
universal curves, valid for all transversally isotropic bars, if we assume the following
equations:
r
r
IM
2 Im
,
(6.3.78)
,K =
=
Im
A
l
where Im and IM are the principal centroidal moments of inertia of the crosssection and Im IM . Obviously, this conjecture must be tested by further studies, analyzing, for instance, the buckling behavior of a transversally isotropic bar
having an elliptical cross-section. In this case, the test functions (6.3.65) can be
used to analyze the dependence of the correction factor p on the geometrical
parameters and K defined by the relations (6.3.78).
The curves presented in Figure 6.13 show that if the aspect ratio K = b/a
increases, the behavior of the bar is improved. Moreover, let us observe that when
converges to zero (relatively long bars), the correction factor p () converges
asymptotically toward values greater than 1. The asymptotic value is 1 only for a
rectangular bar for which K = 1.
In Figure 6.14, the transition from the bar to the plate buckling behavior
when the aspect ratio K = b/a becomes steadily greater ( K = 10, 20 and 100 in
Figure 6.14) is shown.
To analyze the results given in Figure 6.14, we recall that in cylindrical buckling of a very long transversally isotropic plate (see Section 7.3 and the equation
(6.2.35) of this Section), the critical pressure pE , given by the classical plate theory
has the following value:
E3
1 a
.
(6.3.79)
pE = ( )2
3 l 1 13 31
As is easy to see, the above relation can be expressed in the following equivalent
408
way, having the form of the general equation (6.3.72):
pE = p
2
E3 = p p E ,
4
(6.3.80)
where the correction factor p is given by the relation

p =
1
1
=
2 (E /E ) ,
1 31
1 13 31
1
3
(6.3.81)
and the geometrical parameter is given by the equation (6.3.77),

2a
= .
3l
In the above equation, 2a is the thickness (height) of the plate, l is its breadth and
the compression force acts in the fibers directions.
For the values
E1 /E3 = 0.2, 31 = 0.2,
the classical critical pressure given by equations (6.3.80) and (6.3.81) become
pE 1.00806
2
E3 = p p E ,
4
(6.3.82)
Hence, for a very long bar ( 0), having very great aspect ratio K = b/a,
the classical plate theory gives the value
p = 1.00806 > 1
for the correction factor.
The numerical results given in Figure 6.15 give, for the correction factor, the
value
p = 1.008.
Thus, we can see that there exists a very good agreement between the theoretical and numerical results even for very great aspect ratios, if we take into
account that, in such cases, the bar is in fact a plate, and consequently behaves as
a plate. The three-dimensional stability theory, founded on the three-dimensional
linearized theory, automatically takes into account the change in the behavior of
the body, due to the changes in its geometrical characteristics.
Capanu and Soos [6.6] have analyzed also the dependence of the correction
factor p on for an orthotropic rectangular bar using the variational method.
The obtained numerical results show that the stability of the bar depends on the
axial shear modulus G13 , but it is independent on the axial shear modulus G23 if
a b. In this case, the buckling takes place in the Ox1 x3 plane, and the mentioned
behavior is due to the fact that the buckling is essentially influenced only by the
shear stresses and strains in those longitudinal planes which are perpendicular to
409
1.1
G13=G23=G
1.00
x=10,50,100;E3/G=10
x=1;E3/G=10
0.9
0.8
x=10,50,100;E3/G=100
p*
0.7
x=1;E3/G=100
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.05
0.1
0.15
Figure 6.15: Variation of correction p* vs. geometrical parameter . Long plate

behavior of rectangular bar.
the buckling direction. We recall that for cylindrically orthotropic circular bars, the
influence of the two axial shear moduli is almost the same. This can be expected
since the material is, in this case, cylindrically orthotropic. On the contrary, in the
case of rectangular bars we have a plane orthotropy and this fact explain why the
modulus G23 has no influence.
Summing up the results presented in this Section, we can say the following.
The classical Eulerian formula is based on the assumption that the crosssections of the buckled bars remain plane and orthogonal to the curved symmetry
axis of the bar. According to this assumption, the critical axial load depends only
on the axial (longitudinal) Young modulus of the bar and the other mechanical
characteristics have no influence on the buckling of the bar.
In contrast, the three-dimensional stability theory can take into account that
the buckling produces also shear strains and stresses in those longitudinal planes,
which are perpendicular to the direction of buckling. The produced shear strains
are greater when the shear moduli in the above planes are smaller. Consequently,
their influence on the buckling can be important when the ratio of the longitudinal
rigidity modulus and of the axial shear modulus has great values. This is the case
if we have a fiber-reinforced composite bar.
The presented results show that the above influences decrease when the length
of the bar increases. Hence, Eulers formula gives very good results for relatively
long bars, but it must be improved for relatively short fiber-reinforced bars, exhibiting strong anisotropy.
The three-dimensional theory of stability can furnish the improved values, using good test functions and the stationarity property of the exclusion functional.
Thus, the potentially dangerous situations can be avoided.
In order to obtain the critical values for strongly anisotropic, relatively short,
410
fibers-reinforced composite bars, the Eulerian value must first be evaluated and
then it must be multiplied by the corresponding correction factor, established by
using the diagrams obtained from the three-dimensional theory and the adequate
numerical methods.
6.4
Problems
P6.1 A graphite/epoxy fiber-reinforced orthotropic composite material has

the following technical constants:
E1 = 190GP a, E2 = E3 = 10GP a, G12 = 7GP a,
G13 = G23 = 6GP a, 12 = 0.3, 13 = 23 = 0.2.
ci
Find the critical compressive stress 11 acting in the fibers direction and producing
the internal (structural) instability of the material.
ci
P6.2 Find the deformations produced by the critical compressive stress 11

determined in P6.1 and analyze the obtained result.
P6.3 An isotropic carbon/steel has the following engineering constants:
E = 206GP, = 0.3.
ci
Find the critical compressive stress 11 acting in the direction of the x1 axis and
producing the internal instability of the material.
ci
P6.4 Find the deformations produced by the critical compressive stress 11

P6.5 A boron/epoxy fiber-reinforced transversally isotropic composite material has the following technical constants:
E3 = 200GP a, E1 = E2 = 20GP a, G13 = G23 = 6GP a, 31 = 32 = 0.2, 12 = 0.3.
ci
Find the critical compressive stress 33 acting in the fibers direction and
producing the internal (structural) instability of the material.
ci
P6.6 Find the deformation produced by the critical compressive stress 33

P6.7 Let us consider again the fiber-reinforced orthotropic graphite/epoxy
cs
composite given in P6.1. Find the critical compressive stress 11 acting in the
fibers direction and producing superficial instability of the composite through plane
incremental states. Compare the results obtained in P6.1 and P6.7.
P6.8 Let us consider the isotropic carbonic steel given in P6.3. Find the criti cs
cal compressive stress 11 acting in the x1 axis direction and producing instability
of the material through plane incremental states.
411
6.4. PROBLEMS
cs
P6.9 Find the deformation produced by the critical compressive stress 11

P6.10 Let us consider a boron/epoxy fiber-reinforced transversally isotropic
composite material having the following technical constants:
E1 = E2 = 200GP a, E3 = 20GP a, G13 = G23 = 6GP a, 13 = 23 = 0.2, 12 = 0.3.
cs
cs
Find the critical compressive stresses 11 = 22 acting in the fibers direction

and producing superficial instability of the material through cylindrically symmetric incremental states. Compare the obtained result with the one determined in
P6.5 and find the meaning of the observed facts.
P6.11 Let us consider a transversally isotropic fiber-reinforced infinite strip
having the thickness h and the breadth l. Let us assume that the strip is acted by
compressive stresses 11 in the fiber direction. We suppose that the engineering

constants of the strip are
E1 = 200GP a, E2 = 40GP a, G12 = 2GP a, 23 = 0.3, 12 = 0.2.
For which values of the thickness ratio b = h/l can we use the classical LoveKirchhoff plate theory to study the buckling behavior of the strip, according to
the three-dimensional linearized theory?
P6.12 Let us assume that the strip given in P6.11 has the following geometrical characteristics:
h = 0.01m, l = 10m.
Find the buckling (bending) pressure pE furnished by the classical plate theory.
P6.13 For the strip given in P6.11 and P6.12, find the correction factor p (b)
furnished by the three-dimensional linearized theory.
P6.14 For the strip given in P6.11, find the correction factor p (b) using Table
6.1 and Figure 6.1, for the following values of the thickness ratio b = h/l:
b = h/l = 0.08, 0.1, 0.12.
P6.15 Let us consider the half space < x1 < , 0 x2 , < x3 < ,
filled by a homogeneous isotropic linearly elastic material. Let us assume that the
boundary x2 = 0 of the half-space is stress-free and the body force acting on
the material is zero. Show that Lames equations of motion has a nonvanishing
solution of the form
u1 = Aex2 sin k(x1 vt), u2 = Bex2 cos k(x1 vt), u3 0,
where A and B are arbitrary constants, and > 0, k > 0 and v > 0 are arbitrary
positive constants. Show that the homogeneous traction boundary conditions can
be satisfied for any k > 0, by adequately determined values of the constants A, B,
and v. Give the mechanical significance of the obtained results.
412
P6.16 Analyzing the superficial instability of a prestressed half space, we

have used the potentials (1) and (2) given by the relations (6.1.30), assuming
(1) 0. Let us change now the role of the functions (1) and (2) , assuming that
(1) = (B1 ea1 x2 + B2 ea2 x2 ) cos ax1 , (2) = (A1 ea1 x2 + A2 ea2 x2 ) sin ax1 .
Supposing (2) 0 and, using Guzs representation formulas (5.6.53), find the
incremental displacement u1 and u2 corresponding to (1) .
P6.17 Find the incremental normal stresses 21 and 22 corresponding to the
incremental displacements determined in P6.16. Find the condition which must
be satisfied by the constants B1 and B2 , if the boundary x2 = 0 of the halfspace must be stress-free. Find the condition which must be satisfied by the initial
applied stress 11 in order to have a nonzero solution of the above homogeneous

traction boundary value problem. Compare the obtained results with those found
in Section 6.1 in the problem surface of instability of a prestressed half space.
Analyze the consequence resulting from this comparison.
P6.18 Analyzing the stability problem of a prestressed strip, we have used
the potential (2) given by equation (6.2.5) or (6.2.6), assuming (1) = 0. Let us
assume now that (2) 0 and (1) is given by one of the following expressions:
(1) = (A1 cosh a1 x2 + A2 cosh a2 x2 ) sin ax1 ,
or
(2) = (A1 sinh a1 x2 + A2 cosh a2 x2) sin ax1.
Here A1 , A2 are arbitrary constants, a = m/l , m = 1, 2, 3, ... .

Show that and satisfies Guzs equation (5.6.56).
P6.19 Using Guzs representative formulas (5.6.53), find the incremental displacements u1 and u2 corresponding to (1) = , (2) 0 and to (1) = ,
(2) 0, respectively. Give the interpretation of the obtained results.
P6.20 Assuming I2 = Im < I1 = IM , suppose that the buckling of a bar
takes place in the Ox2 x3 plane (see Figure 6.6). Using Eulers theory, find the
corresponding buckling pressure. Why, however, can we conclude that the buckling
takes place in the Ox1 x3 plane?
P6.21 Let us consider an isotropic bar having a rectangular cross-section
a x1 a, b x2 b and let l be the length of the bar. Let us assume that
if the bar is in a buckled state, its incremental displacement is described by the
Eulerian relations (6.3.23). Find the corresponding incremental nominal stresses,
assuming that the nonzero instantaneous elasticities are given by equation (6.3.21).
Express the results using Youngs modulus E and Poissons ratio .
P6.22 Find the incremental traction acting on the lateral surface of the bar
and corresponding to the incremental nominal stresses determined in P6.21.
P6.23 Analyze the questions proposed in P6.21 and P6.22 assuming u1 (x3 ) =
A sin x3 /l. Why does Eulers incremental displacement field (6.3.23), not represent even for the above choice of u1 (x3 ), the exact situation of the buckling problem
for the rectangular bar considered in P6.21?
413
6.4. PROBLEMS
P6.24 Find zz = 33 for the incremental displacement field (6.3.57) involved

in the buckling of a transversally isotropic circular bar and prove that zz = 0 for
z = 0 and z = l.
P6.25 Using the equation
1
d 1
( I1 (r)) = I2 (r)
r
dr r
show that the coefficient m11 actually has the value given by equation (6.3.59)1 .
P6.26 Using the relation (6.3.62) defining the function In (r), give the details
leading to the expression (6.3.64) of the test function.
P6.27 Show that the incremental displacement field (6.3.64) describes a buckled state of a circular bar.
P6.28 Give the details leading from the test function (6.3.64) to the test
function (6.3.65).
P6.29 Show that the incremental displacement field (6.3.65) describes a buckled state of a rectangular bar in the Ox1 x3 plane.
P6.30 Assuming an isotropic rectangular bar and supposing that the nonzero
instantaneous elasticities are given by equation (6.3.21), find the incremental nominal stresses corresponding to the incremental displacement field (6.3.65). Express
the result using E and .
P6.31 Find the incremental tractions acting on the lateral surface of the bar
and corresponding to the incremental nominal stresses determined in P6.30.
P6.32 If the traction determined in P6.31 are not zero on the lateral surface
of the bar, can the incremental displacements (6.3.65) be used in the incremental
variational principle corresponding to the buckling problem? Justify your answer!
P6.33 Find Im , IM and the Eulerian buckling pressure pE for the rectangular
bar considered in P6.21.
P6.34 Does any connection exist between the Eulerian buckling field (6.3.23)
and the approximate buckling field (6.3.65)? Why is the second field more appropriate to study the buckling problem?
P6.35 Prove that the last relation (6.3.76) giving the coefficient p55 is true.
P6.36 Let us consider a bar having length l and an elliptical cross-section.
Let us denote by a b the semiaxes of the corresponding ellipse. Find Im , IM and
the Eulerian buckling pressure pE .
P6.37 Find the parameters and K, defined by equation (6.3.78), for the
bar considered in P6.36.
P6.38 The test function (6.3.65) can be used to study the buckling problem
for the bar considered in P6.36. Justify the given answer!
P6.39 Let us consider a transversally isotropic fiber-reinforced circular cylindrical bar. Let us assume that the bar has the following engineering constants:
E3 = 200GP a, E1 = E2 = 0.2E3 , 12 = 0.3, 31 = 32 = 0.2, G13 = G23 = 0.1E3 .

We suppose that the geometrical parameters of the bar are
l = 10m, a = 0.01m.
414
(a) Find the Eulerian buckling force pE given by equation (6.3.17).

(b) Find the parameter = a/l introduced by equation (6.3.60).
(c) Using Figure 6.11, find the correction factor p () and analyze the results
obtained in (a) and (c).
P6.40 For the bar considered in P6.39, find the critical pressure pc given by
equation (6.3.37) and compare the obtained result with the one obtained in (a)
P6.39.
P6.41 Let us consider a fiber-reinforced transversally isotropic circular cylindrical bar and let us assume that the bar has the engineering constants E 3 ,
E1 = E2 , 12 , 31 = 32 given in P6.39. We suppose that the geometrical parameters of the bar are
l = 10m, a = 0.5m.
(a) Find the Eulerian buckling pressure.
(b) Find the parameter = a/l.
(c) Using Figure 6.11, find the correction factor p () assuming that the
transverse shear moduli G13 = G23 of the bar have the following values:
G31 = G32 = 0.1E3 , 0.02E3 , 0.01E3 .
(d) Analyze the results obtained in (a) and (c).
P6.42 Let us consider again a transversally isotropic fiber-reinforced circular
cylindrical bar and let us assume that its engineering constants E3 , E1 = E2 , 12 ,
31 = 32 are those given in P6.39. Let us suppose that the transverse shear moduli
G31 = G32 of the bar have the value
G31 = G32 = 0.02E3 .
We assume that l = 10m and the radius a of the bar can have the following values:
a = 0.01m, 0.1m, 0.5m.
(a) Find the Eulerian buckling forces pE corresponding to the given data.
(b) Find the parameters = a/l for the given data.
(c) Using Figure 6.6, find the correction factor p () corresponding to the
given data.
(d) Compare and analyze the results obtained in (a) and (c).
P6.43 For the data given in P6.42, find the critical buckling pressure pc given
by the equation (6.3.37) and compare the obtained results with those found in (a)
and (c) of P6.42.
P6.44 Let us consider a cylindrical transversally isotropic fiber-reinforced bar
having square cross-section (a = b). We assume that the engineering constants of
the bar are those given in P6.39. Also we suppose that the geometrical parameters
of the bar are
l = 10m, a = b = 0.01m.
415
6.4. PROBLEMS
(a) Find the Eulerian buckling force pE .

(b) Find the parameter defined in equation (6.3.77) and find the aspect
ratio K = b/a of the bar.
(c) Using Figure 6.9, find the correction factor p () and analyze the results
obtained in (a) and (c).
P6.45 Let us consider a transversally isotropic fiber-reinforced composite bar,
having rectangular cross-section. Let us assume that its engineering constants
E3 , E1 = E2 , 12 , 31 = 32 are those given in P6.39. We suppose that the
geometrical characteristics of the bar are
l = 10m, a = 0.5m, b = 1.5m.
(a) Find the Eulerian buckling pressure pE .
(b) Find the parameter and the aspect ratio K.
(c) Using Figure 6.9, find the correction factors p () assuming that the axial
shear moduli G13 = G23 of the bar have the following values:
G31 = G32 = 0.1E3 , 0.01E3 .
(d) Analyze the results obtained in (a) and (c).
P6.46 Let us consider again a transversally isotropic fiber-reinforced composite bar having rectangular cross-section, and let us assume that its engineering
constants are those given in P6.42. We suppose also that
l = 10m, a = 0.5m,
and b can have the following values:
b = 1m, 1.5m.
(a) Find the Eulerian buckling forces pE corresponding to the given data.
(b) Find the parameters and K, for the given data.
(c) Using Figure 6.14, find the correction factor p () corresponding to the
given data.
(d) Compare and analyze the results obtained in (a) and (c).
P6.47 Let us consider a fiber-reinforced cylindrical composite bar having elliptical cross-section. Let us denote, by a b, the semiaxes of the ellipse and
let l be the length of the bar. To solve approximately the buckling problem, we
assume that the test functions are given by equation (6.3.65). Using equation
(6.3.22) giving the exclusion functional E(u), find the expression of the function
E(A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 , A5 ) corresponding to the assumed test functions.
P6.48 Using the incremental variational principle given in Section 5.4, show
that the unknown constants A1 , ..., A5 must satisfy the following homogeneous
linear algebraic system:
qij Aj = 0, qij = qji , i, j = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
416
where the coefficients qij are given by the following relations (see Capanu [6.9]):
q11 = 2(C55 p)2 K, q12 = 12 (C55 p)2 K, q13 = 12 (C55 p)2 K,
q14 = 0, q15 = 2C55 K, q22 = 2C11 K + 14 (C55 p)2 K,
q23 =
1
12 (C55
p)2 K, q24 = C12 , q25 = C13 K + C55 K,
q33 = 2C66 K 1 + 14 (C55 p)2 K, q34 = C66 , q35 = 12 C55 K,
q44 =
1
2

C66 K + C22 K 1 +
1
12 (C44
p)2 K, q45 = 12 C23 ,
q55 = 2C55 K + 12 (C33 p)2 K,
with
=
a
a
and K = 1.
b
l
Bibliography
[6.1] Biot, M. A., Mechanics of incremental deformation, Wiley, New York, 1965.
[6.2] Guz, A.N., Fundamentals of the three-dimensional theory of stability of
deformable bodies, Wisha Schola, Kiev. 1986 (in Russian).
[6.3] Guz, A.N., Babitch, I. In., The three-dimensional theory of stability of bars,
plates and shells, Wisha Schola, Kiev, 1980 (in Russian).
[6.4] Pearson, C.E., General theory of elastic stability, Q. Appl. Math., 14, 133144, 1956.
[6.5] Gray, A., Mathews G.R., A treatise in Bessel functions and their applications to physics, MacMillan Co. Ltd., London, 1952.
[6.6] Capanu, M., Soos, E., The three-dimensional theory of buckling of composite elastic bars. The influence of a lateral hydrostatic pressure, Rev. Roum.
Sci. Techn.-Mèc. Appl., 41, 193-209, 1996.
[6.7] Lekhnitski, S.G., Theory of elasticity of anisotropic elastic body, Holden
Day, San Francisco, 1963.
[6.8] Malvern, L.E., Introduction to the mechanics of continuous medium, PrenticeHall Inc., London, 1969.
[6.9] Capanu, M., Buckling of composite elastic tubes and elliptic bars. The plate
effect, Rev. Roum. Sci. Techn.-Mèc Appl., 42, 151-173, 1997.
Chapter 7
STABILITY OF
COMPOSITE LAMINATES
7.1
Constitutive equations for incremental fields
Some elements on stability theory of composite laminates are presented, for

instance, in the monographies due to Ashton and Whitney [7.1], Jones [7.2], Whitney [7.3] and Gibson [7.4]. The stability theory of composite laminates, presented
in this chapter, is founded on the classical Love-Kirchhoff plate theory and on the
three-dimensional linearized theory. The theory obtained in this way also takes
into account the influence of the initial applied bending moment on the behavior
of composite laminates and is due to Capanu and Soos [7.5] and Capanu [7.6].
In most studies concerning stability of composite laminates, the influence of the
initial applied bending moment is neglected and this can lead to dangerous circumstances.
The equilibrium theory of laminated composite, in the framework of LoveKirchhoff plate theory, was presented in Chapter 3. For convenience, and using the
notations of Chapter 3, we recall here the simplifying assumptions, on which the
Love-Kirchhoff theory of equilibrium of composite plates is based (see Section 3.3
and Figure 3.10):
(1) The plate consists of orthotropic laminae bounded together, with the
principal material axes of the orthotropic laminae oriented at arbitrary directions
with respect to the x1 ,x2 axes.
(2) The thickness h of the plate is much smaller then the length of the plate
edges a and b.
(3) The displacements u1 , u2 , u3 are small compared with the plate thickness
h.
(4) The in-plane strains 11 , 22 , 12 are small compared with unity.
(5) Transverse shear strains 13 and 23 are negligible.
418
CHAPTER 7. STABILITY OF COMPOSITE LAMINATES
(6) The transverse normal strain 33 is negligible.

(7) The normal stress 33 is small in comparison with the other stress components.
(8) The transverse shear stresses 13 and 23 vanish on the plate surfaces
x3 = h2 .
(9) Each laminae obeys the reduced stressstrain relation corresponding to
planestress state.
In order to study the local stability of the composite laminates, we assume
that the laminate is initially deformed. We suppose that the obtained equilibrium
o
o
configuration B is known. We assume that the configuration B is perturbed by
small external forces and we denote by B 0 the neighboring new equilibrium configo
uration of the laminate. All quantities related to B will be denoted by a superposed
and all fields related to B 0 will be designed by a superposed 0 . We denote by
o
o
o
0
the nominal stresses in B 0 .
kl = kl the Cauchys stresses in B , and by kl
According to the adopted notation, we have
o
0
0
= kl + kl .
= kl + kl ; kl
u0k = uk + uk ; 0kl = kl + kl , kl
(7.1.1)
In these relations, uk , kl , kl and kl are the incremental displacement, the deformation, the Cauchys stress and the nominal stress, respectively. Other incremental
fields (perturbations) are introduced in a similar manner.
Since the initial applied deformations and rotations are assumed to be infinitesimal, the incremental fields kl , kl and uk,l are related by the following
relations:
o
(7.1.2)
kl = klmn um,n with klmn = cklmn + kn lm .
The above incremental constitutive equation can be written in the following
equivalent form:
o
kl = kl + km ul,m with kl = cklmn mn .
(7.1.3)
Also, as we already know, for vanishing body forces, the incremental nominal stress
kl satisfies the following incremental equilibrium equation:
kl,k = 0.
(7.1.4)
We assume that the hypothesis (1)(9) are satisfied in the initial deformed
o
configuration B , as well as the neighborhood perturbed equilibrium configuration

B0.
As we already know, from the assumptions (5) and (6) we get the followo
ing structure of the initial applied displacement field uk and of the incremental
displacement field uk :
o
o
U 3 (x1 , x2 )
o
uk = U (x1 , x2 ) x3
, = 1, 2, u3 = U 3 (x1 , x2 ) ,
x
o
(7.1.5)
7.1. CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS FOR INCREMENTAL FIELDS
419
and
u = U (x1 , x2 ) x3
o
U3 (x1 , x2 )
, = 1, 2, u3 = U 3 (x1 , x2 ) .
x
(7.1.6)
Thus, from the straindisplacement relations, we get

o
= e +x3 k ; , = 1, 2,
where
o
e =
(7.1.7)
o
o
o
o
1o
U , + U , , k = k = U 3, .
2
(7.1.8)
Similarly, for the incremental fields, we obtain

= e + x3 k
with
e =
(7.1.9)
1
(U, + U, ) , k = k = U3, .
2
(7.1.10)
In these equations and in all that follows, Greek indices take the values 1, 2.
Also, from the hypotheses (7) and (8), it results

h
o
o
3
(7.1.11)
= 0 and 33 0.
2
Thus, taking into account equations (7.1.1)2,3 , (7.1.3) and (7.1.11), for the
incremental stress fields, we obtain

h
= 0, 33 0, 33 0.
(7.1.12)
3
2
From (7.1.11), we can conclude that the resultant forces and moments
o
N = N =
h
2
h
2
dx3 , M = M =
h
2
h
2
x3 dx3
(7.1.13)
corresponding to the initial deformed equilibrium configuration B , are expressed

o
o
in terms of e and k by relations of type (3.3.21). Thus we have
o
N = A e +B k , M = B e +D k .
(7.1.14)
The way in which the coefficients A , B and D are expressed in

terms of the material and geometrical characteristics of the laminate was presented
in Chapter 3.
420

o
Also, as before, we can conclude that the resultant forces N and the resulo
tant moments M must satisfy the global equilibrium conditions
o
N , = 0, Q, + q = 0, M , + Q = 0,
(7.1.15)
where the resultant shear forces Q , corresponding to the initial deformed equio
librium configuration B , are defined by

o
Q =
h
2
h
2
3 dx3 .
(7.1.16)
Now we take into account equations (3.1.15). These equations and the relations (7.1.1)2,3 tell us that in the k th lamina, the incremental stress and strain
fields and are related by the formula

Q11 Q12 Q16

11
11
22 = Q21 Q22 Q26 22 , zk1 < x3 < zk ; k = 1, 2, ..., N.
12 k
Q61 Q62 Q66 k 212 k
(7.1.17)
From (7.1.17) we can conclude that the incremental resultant forces and moments
N = N =
h
2
h
2
dx3 , M = M =
h
2
h
2
x3 dx3
(7.1.18)
are expressed in terms of the incremental fields e and k , by equations of type

(7.1.14). Thus, we have
N = A e + B k , M = B e + D k .
(7.1.19)
Now we are ready to calculate the perturbations N and M of the resultant forces and moments, defined by equations
N =
h
2
h
2
dx3 , M =
h
2
h
2
x3 dx3
(7.1.20)
According to (7.1.3)1 , we have

o
= + u, + 3 u,3 .
(7.1.21)
u, = U, + x3 k , u,3 = U3, .
(7.1.22)
From (7.1.6), we get
7.1. CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS FOR INCREMENTAL FIELDS
421
Now, from (7.1.13), (7.1.16), (7.1.18)1 and (7.1.20)1 , it results

o
N = N + N U, + M k Q U3, .
(7.1.23)
Using again equations (7.1.21) and (7.1.22), we get

o
x3 = x3 + x3 U, + x23 k x3 3 U3, .
(7.1.24)
Taking into account the hypothesis (2), to calculate M we shall neglect in

o
(7.1.24) the term containing x23 . According to the hypotheses (5) and (8), 3 are
o
much smaller than . Consequently, to determine M we shall neglect also the
last term in (7.1.24). With this approximation, from equations (7.1.18) 2 , (7.1.20)2
and (7.1.24), we get
o
M = M + M U, .
(7.1.25)
For a later use, we shall introduce the incremental shear force resultants R
and P defined by
R =
h
2
h
2
3 dx3 and P =
h
2
h
2
3 dx3 .
(7.1.26)
In order to evaluate R , we return to (7.1.3)1 . We have

o
3 = 3 + u3, + 33 u,3 .
(7.1.27)
Taking into account the hypothesis (7), we replace this equation by the approximate relation
o
(7.1.28)
3 = + u3, .
Thus, from (7.1.13)1 , (7.1.18)1 and (7.1.26)1 , we obtain
o
R = Q + N U3, ,
(7.1.29)
the incremental field Q being defined by

Q =
h
2
h
2
3 dx3 .
(7.1.30)
In order to evaluate P , we use again (7.1.3)1 . We have

o
3 = 3 + 3 u, + 33 u,3 .
(7.1.31)
Using again the hypothesis (7), we replace the last equation with the appropriate
one
o
(7.1.32)
3 = 3 + 3 u, .
422
Now, using (7.1.22)1 , we get

o
3 = 3 + 3 U, + x3 3 k .
(7.1.33)
In evaluating P , we neglect the last term, as we have done to obtain equation

(7.1.25). In this way, using (7.1.16), (7.1.26)2 and (7.1.30), finally we get
o
P = Q + Q U, .
(7.1.34)
The incremental fields N and M generally are not symmetric, and R

and P are generally different.
To get the final form of the global incremental constitutive equations, we
observe that the equations (7.1.23) and (7.1.25) can be written in the following
equivalent form:
o
N = U + k Q U3,
(7.1.35)
M = U, + D k ,
where the global instantaneous elasticities are given by the equations
o
= A + N , = B + M .
(7.1.36)
These quantities are not symmetric in (, ) and (, ).

However, as it is easy to see, the above coefficients have the following essential
symmetry property:
= , = .
(7.1.37)
Also, the resultant shear forces R and P according to equations (7.1.24)
and (7.1.34), are related by the relation
o
R = P + N U3, Q U, .
7.2
(7.1.38)
Equilibrium equations. Boundary conditions

o
We recall that in the initial deformed configuration B , the corresponding

o
stresses kl satisfy the Cauchys equilibrium equations
o
kl,l = 0.
(7.2.1)
Consequently, as in Section 3.5, we obtain the global equilibrium equations satisfied

o
by N , M and Q
o
N , = 0, Q, + q = 0, M , Q = 0.
(7.2.2)
7.2. EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS. BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
423
In order to obtain the equilibrium equations which must be satisfied by the global
incremental fields N , M , R and P , we recall that the incremental nominal
stress kl satisfy in each lamina the equilibrium equations (7.1.4). Hence, we have
, + 3,3 = 0, 3, + 33,3 = 0.
(7.2.3)
Using the same procedures as before, taking into account the boundary conditions (7.1.12)1 , and the definitions (7.1.20) and (7.1.26), we get the following
global incremental equations:
N, = 0, R, + q = 0, M, P = 0.
(7.2.4)
In equations (7.2.4)2 , q = q (x1 , x2 ) is the given perturbation of the external normal

surface force acting on the face x3 = h2 of the laminate.
From the equations (7.2.2)2 and (7.2.4)3 , we get the relations which must be
satisfied by the second derivatives of the resultant incremental moments M
M, + (R P ) , +q = 0.
(7.2.5)
In order to obtain an incremental work theorem, we use the global equilibrium

conditions (7.2.4). As in Section 3.5, we denote by D the plane domain occupied
by the middle surface of the laminate in its reference configuration. Let D be the
boundary of D. We denote by n the components of the external unit normal to
D and by the components of the unit tangent vector to D, as in Figure 3.19.
We have
n1 = 2 and n2 = 1 .
(7.2.6)
Also, we introduce the two-dimensional vectors N n and Mn , and the scalar

field Rn defined on D by equations
Nn = n N , Mn = n M , Rn = n R .
(7.2.7)
The normal and tangential components of the incremental fields are given by
equations
Nnn = n Nn , Nn = Nn , Mnn = n Mn , Mn = Mn .
In an obvious way from the equilibrium equations (7.2.4), we get
Z
Z
Nn U ds =
U, N da.
D
where
Un = n U and U = U
(7.2.9)
This relation can be written in the equivalent form

Z
Z
(Nnn Un + Nn U ) ds =
U, N da,
D
(7.2.8)
(7.2.10)
424
are the normal and tangential components of the in-plane incremental displacement field.
In the same way, from the equilibrium equations (7.2.4)2 , we obtain
Z
Z
Z
qU3 da +
Rn U3 ds =
R U3, da.
(7.2.11)
D
In order to transform the right hand side term, we use the obvious identity
Z
Z
Z
P U3, da.
(7.2.12)
(R P ) U3, da +
R U3, da =
D
Using the equation (7.2.4)3 , we can express the last term in (7.2.12), in the following form:
Z
Z
P U3, da =
M, U3, da.
(7.2.13)
D
Now, using Greens formula and the equations (7.2.7)2 , we obtain

Z
Z
Z
P U3, da =
Mn U3, da +
M k da.
D
(7.2.14)
To obtain the last relation, we have used k = U3, .

Now, from (7.2.11), (7.2.12) and (7.2.14), it results
Z
Z
Z
Z
qU3 da+
Rn U3 ds =
Mn U3, ds+
{M k + (R P ) U3, } da.
D
(7.2.15)
Let us transform now the first term in the right-hand side of the last equation.
For this purpose, we denote by
U3,n = n U3, and U3, = U3,
(7.2.16)
the normal and tangential derivatives of the normal incremental displacement field
U3 along the curve D.
From (7.2.6) and (7.2.16)2 , we get
U3,1 = 2 U3,n + 1 U3, , U3,2 = 1 U3,n + 2 U3, .
(7.2.17)
Using the above equations, we get

Mn U3, = (1 Mn1 + 2 Mn2 ) U3, + (2 Mn1 1 Mn2 ) U3,n .
(7.2.18)
Taking into account (7.2.6) and (7.2.8)3,4 , we can conclude that

Mn U3, = (Mn U3 ), Mn, U3 + Mnn U3,n ,
where Mn, is the tangential derivative of Mn along the curve D.
(7.2.19)

Since
finally, we get
Z
(Mn U3 )1 ds = 0,
Mn U3, ds =
(Mnn U3,n Mn, U3 ) ds.
425
(7.2.20)
(7.2.21)
Adding (7.2.11), (7.2.15) and using the equality (7.2.21), we obtain the following incremental work relation:
Z
{U, N + k M + (R P ) U3, } da =
D
qU3 da +
D
{Nnn Un + Nn U + (Rn + Mn, ) U3 Mnn U3,n } ds. (7.2.22)
We denote by 2w quadratic form from the left-hand side of the above equation; i.e.
2w (U)
U, N + k M + (R P ) U3,
= U, U, + 2U, k + k D k
o
+ U3, N U3, 2U, Q U3, .
(7.2.23)
In this relation, U is three-dimensional with the components (U , U3 ).

The work relation (7.2.22) shows that the perturbation W (U) of the elastic
energy stored in the laminate is given by the equation
Z
w (U) da.
(7.2.24)
W (U) =
D
At the same time, the relation (7.2.22) tells us that on the boundary D of D, the
following incremental fields can be given:
Un or Nn , U or Nn , U3 or Rn + Mn, and U3,n orMnn .
(7.2.25)
Accordingly, at least 16 different incremental boundary value problems can exist.

The same equation (7.2.22) shows that the various incremental boundary
value problems can have no more than one regular solution (modulo a rigid displacement), if the quadratic form w = w (U) is positive definite.
Let us denote by W the first variations of the functional W = W (U) in U
and in the direction U = (U , U3 ). We have
W =
being a real variable.
d
W (U + U) |=0 ,
d
(7.2.26)
426
In order to evaluate this variation, we take into account the constitutive

equations (7.1.35), (7.1.38) and the symmetry relations (7.1.37), together with
equation (7.2.4), considered as a constitutive relation, expressing P in terms of
M , hence, as functions of U, and U3, . In this way, we get
W =
{N U, M U3, + (R P ) U3, } da.
(7.2.27)
Using Greens formula, we obtain

Z n
o
i
h
N, U + M, + (R P ), U3, da
W =
D
{U N U + n (R P + M, ) U3 n M U3, } ds.
(7.2.28)
We have also
n N U = Nnn Un + Nn U , Un = n U , U = U ,
(7.2.29)
n M U3, = (Mn U3 ), Mn, U3 + Mnn U3,n .
(7.2.30)
and
Hence, taking into account also the relation (7.2.4), from (7.2.28)(7.2.30),
we get
Z n
h
o
i
N, U + M, + (R P ), U3 da
W =
D
{Nnn Un + Nn U + (Rn + Mn, ) U3 Mnn U3,n } ds.
(7.2.31)
This relation can be used to obtain various incremental variational principles, corresponding to different boundary value problems. We shall illustrate the
procedure by analyzing only two possibilities.
First, let us assume that on the boundary curve D are given Nnn , Nn ,
Rn + Mn, and Mnn
Nnn = , Nn = , Rn + Mn, = , Mnn = on D,
(7.2.32)
,, and being known external perturbations on D.

In this case, we shall introduce the functional (incremental potential energy)
I (U) defined by equation
Z
Z
I (U) = W (U)
(Un + U + U3 U3,n ) ds
qU3 da.
(7.2.33)
D
427

Taking into account (7.2.31), we get
Z n
h
o
i
I =
N U + M, + (R P ), U3 da
ZD
{(Nnn ) Un + (Nn ) U + (Rn + Mn, ) U3
+
D
(Mnn ) U3,n } ds.
(7.2.34)
Now assume that U is a regular solution of the considered incremental boundary value problem. Hence, the global equilibrium equations (7.2.4)2 , (7.2.5) and
boundary conditions (7.2.32) are satisfied. From (7.2.34), we can see that, in this
case, the first variation I of I (U) in U is vanishing, for any variation U.
Conversely, assuming that
I = 0
(7.2.35)
in U for any variation U, from (7.2.33) we can conclude that U is a regular
solution of the considered incremental boundary value problem.
Next, let us suppose that on the boundary line D are given Un , U , U3 and
U3,n ; i.e.
Un = , U = , U3 = , U3,n = on D,
(7.2.36)
, , and being given functions on D. In this case, we shall introduce the
functional (incremental potential energy)
Z
J (U) = W (U)
qU3 da.
(7.2.37)
D
We shall calculate the first variation J of this functional in a direction U satisfying homogeneous boundary conditions; i.e.
Un = U = U3 = U3,n = 0 on D.
From (7.2.34), it results
Z n
o
h
i
J =
N, U + M, + (R P ), + q U3 da.
(7.2.38)
(7.2.39)
The last equation shows that if U is a regular solution of the considered incremental
boundary value problem, the first variation J of J in U is vanishing for any
variation U satisfying the homogeneous boundary conditions (7.2.38).
Conversely, assuming that
J = 0
(7.2.40)
in U, for any variation U satisfying (7.2.38), we can conclude that U, satisfying
the given boundary conditions (7.2.36), is a regular solution of the considered
incremental boundary value problem.
428
Using the potential energy I = I (U) and J = J (U), introduced above,

and assuming that the specific internal energy w = w (U) is a positive definite
quadratic form, appropriate principles of minimum potential energies can be formulated and proved. This statement is true also for other possible incremental
boundary value problems and appropriate potential energies. The procedure to
formulate and to prove the corresponding extremal principles is similar to the one
used in the classical three-dimensional case.
Also, to discuss stability problems, concerning composite laminates, we must
introduce the corresponding exclusion functional E = E (U) defined analogously to
the procedure used in the general three-dimensional case (see Section 5.5 Equation
(5.5.1)). Thus, we have
Z
E (U) = 2
w (U) da,
(7.2.41)
where w = w (U) in the quadratic form introduced by equation (7.2.23).

All problems concerning local stability, eigenstates and eigenmodes, primary
eigenstates and primary eigenmodes, appropriate to the composite laminates, can
be discussed and analyzed as in the general three-dimensional case. Obviously,
in all reasonings, the exclusion functional E = E (U) introduced by the equation
(7.2.41) appears. We shall not repeat here the analysis made in Section 5.5.
As before, we shall consider only stability problems concerning dead loads.
Hence, we suppose always that the perturbation of the external normal surface
force is vanishing; i.e.
q = 0.
(7.2.42)
We end this subsection presenting the most frequently encountered boundary
conditions which must be satisfied by the incremental fields in problems concerning
(local) stability of composite laminates:
-free boundary
Nnn = Nn = Rn + Mn, = Mnn = 0 on D;
(7.2.43)
-simply supported boundary (prefix S)

(S1) U3 = 0, Mnn = 0, Un = U = 0 on D,
(S2) U3 = 0, Mnn = 0, Nnn = 0, U = 0 on D,
(S3) U3 = 0, Mnn = 0, Un = 0, Nn = 0 on D,
(S4) U3 = 0, Mnn = 0, Nnn = Nn = 0 on D;
(7.2.44)
-clamped boundary (prefix C)

(C1) U3 = 0, U3,n = 0, Un = U = 0 on D,
(C2) U3 = 0, U3,n = 0, Nnn = 0, U = 0 on D,
(C3) U3 = 0, U3,n = 0, Un = 0, Nn = 0 on D,
(C4) U3 = 0, U3,n = 0, Nnn = Nn = 0 on D.
(7.2.45)
429
Let us observe that the boundary conditions could be different for each edge
of the laminate, so the number of combinations of possible boundary conditions is
huge. However, all possible variants have a common characteristic: all incremental
boundary conditions and equilibrium equations are homogeneous. Hence, as in the
general three-dimensional case, analyzing various stability problems concerning
composite laminates, we are led to study and to solve various eigenvalue problems,
to obtain the critical loads for which the stability of the stressed laminate is lost.
Solving buckling problems for composite laminates is a very difficult task. To
o
realize it, let as assume nonvanishing normal surface forces q 6= 0, acting in the
o
initial deformed configuration B . Examining the equilibrium equations (7.1.15)2 ,
o
we can see that Q cannot be constant in that case. Consequently, as the relao
tion (7.1.15)3 shows, M cannot be constant quantities. Hence, according to the

o
global constitutive equations (7.1.19), N will also be varying fields. Accordingly,
from the relations (7.1.36), we can conclude that the instantaneous elasticities will
also be point dependent quantities. Hence, the incremental equilibrium equations,
describing the buckling of the laminate will be partial differential equations with
variable coefficients. To solve the eigenvalue and eigenvector problems, characterized by such field equations, numerical methods and powerful computers must be
used. To avoid this difficulty, in the following, we suppose that the exterior normal
o
surface force q is vanishing; i.e.
o
q = 0 in D.
(7.2.46)
o
Moreover, we suppose that the initial deformed equilibrium state B is homogenous. That can be expressed by assuming that
o
N = const. and M = const.,
(7.2.47)
or supposing that
o
e = const. and k = const.,

o
(7.2.48)
where N , M or e , k are given constant quantities.

The constitutive equations (7.1.14) show that (7.2.48) takes place, then conversely (7.2.47) is also true.
Also, from the above assumptions we can see that the equilibrium conditions
(7.1.15) are satisfied and, moreover,
o
Q = 0.
(7.2.49)
Consequently, the assumed homogenous state is possible in the composite laminate,

if condition (7.2.46) is fulfilled.
430
As usual, we assume that the stress-free reference configuration BR of the

laminate is locally stable. Hence, the corresponding quadratic form
o
2 w = e A e +2 e B k + k D k
is positive definite. Therefore the global elasticity matrix

A B
E =
B D
(7.2.50)
(7.2.51)
is positive definite.
For a later use, we shall repeat here the incremental field equations involved
in the stability problems of composite laminates, in the cases in which the initial
o
deformed equilibrium configuration B of the laminate is homogenous; i.e. the
restrictions (7.2.46) and (7.2.49) are satisfied together with the hypotheses (7.2.47)
or equivalently (7.2.48). In this case, the incremental behavior of the laminate is
governed by the following equations:
- the geometrical relations
u = U (x1 , x2 ) x3 U3, , = 1, 2, u3 = U3 (x1 , x2 ) ;
(7.2.52)
- the equilibrium conditions

N, = 0, R, = 0, M, P = 0;
(7.2.53)
- the constitutive equations

N = U, + k ,
M = U, + D k ,
(7.2.54)
R = P + N U3, ;
- the instantaneous elasticities
o
= A + N , = B + M .
(7.2.55)
As follows from (7.2.53)2,3 and (7.2.54)3 , the following equation must also be
satisfied:
o
M, + N U3, = 0.
(7.2.56)
Now we use the geometrical relations (7.2.52) and the constitutive equations
(7.2.54). Thus, from (7.2.53)1 and (7.2.56), we get the differential equations which
must be satisfied by the incremental displacement fields:
U, U3, = 0,
U, D U3, + N U3, = 0.
(7.2.57)
431
Finally, taking into account the expressions (7.2.55) of the instantaneous

elasticities, the above equations become
o
A U, B U3, + N U, M U3, = 0,
o
B U, D U3, + M U3, + N U3, = 0.

o
(7.2.58)
In these equations, N and M are assumed to be constant, fixed quantities.

The most frequent encountered boundary conditions are given by equations
(7.2.43)(7.2.45).
In order to study stability problems concerning composite laminates, we must
o
o
find the critical values of the initial applied forces N and moments M for
which the homogenous boundary value problem described by the field equations
(7.2.58) and by one of the possible boundary conditions (7.2.43)(7.2.45), has for
the first time, nonvanishing solutions on a given loading path.
As it is easy to see, the system (7.2.58) is generally coupled. Without further assumptions concerning the nature of the analyzed composite and the initial
applied in-plane deformations and curvatures on the initial applied forces and
moments, the above system cannot be simplified.
Generally, it is assumed that the initial applied resultant moments are vanishing; i.e.
o
(7.2.59)
M = 0.
In this case, the system (7.2.58) takes the following simplified form:
o
A U, B U3, + N U, = 0,
(7.2.60)
B U, D U3, + N U3, = 0.
First, we observe that even if the initial applied moments M are vanishing, the differential system describing the behavior of the incremental displacement
o
o
o
field rests coupled. Also, if M = 0, but N 6= 0, generally k , that is, the curvature of the initial stressed equilibrium configuration will be nonvanishing. On the
o
contrary, if we assume that this curvature is vanishing; i.e. k = 0, then the inio
tial applied moments M cannot be vanishing, if for the analyzed laminate there
exists bendingextensional coupling; i.e. if not all coupling coefficients B are
vanishing. This fact is usually ignored in studies concerning the buckling of general
composite laminates. This problem will be later analyzed, assuming for simplicity
a very long laminate in the cylindrical state. We shall see that the error made,
o
neglecting the influence of M in this case, is negligible. However, as we shall
see, an initial applied moment can influence the essential value of the compressive
force, by which cylindrical buckling occurs in composite laminates.
Considerable simplifications occur if we consider composite laminate without
bendingextensional coupling; i.e. if we suppose that
B = 0,
(7.2.61)
432
and, at the same time, we assume that the initial applied moments are vanishing;
i.e. the condition (7.2.59) is satisfied. In this case, the system (7.2.60) becomes
o
A U, + N U, = 0, D U3, N U3, = 0.
(7.2.62)
Now we can see that if the conditions (7.2.59) and (7.2.61) are satisfied, the
system describing the incremental behavior of the composite becomes decoupled.
In this case, in order to study the buckling problem of the laminate, we can assume
that
U = 0 for = 1, 2,
(7.2.63)
since, as it is easy to see, that with this choice, equations (7.2.62)1 are satisfied
o
for any value of the initial applied resultant forces N .

o
In order to obtain the critical values of the applied forces N for which the
buckling of the composite laminate occurs for the first time, we can concentrate our
attention on equation (7.2.62), looking for its nonvanishing solutions, corresponding to various homogenous boundary conditions imposed on the boundary of the
laminate. In the following Section, we shall analyze this problem for rectangular
laminates.
7.3
Buckling of rectangular composite laminates
We assume that the initial applied resultant moments are vanishing; i.e. equation (7.2.59) is satisfied. We also suppose that the bendingextensional coupling
does not exist; i.e. the condition (7.2.61) is fulfilled. Moreover, we assume that the
incremental in-plane displacements are vanishing; i.e. the restrictions (7.2.63) is
o
satisfied. In this case equations (7.2.62)1 are satisfied for any N . Consequently,
the buckling behavior of the laminate is described by equation (7.2.62) 2 . If we use
the relations connecting D to the components D11 , ..., D66 of the matrix [D],
we can see that this equation has the following form:
D11
4 U3
4 U3
4 U3
4 U3
4 U3
+
D
+
4D
+
2
(D
+
2D
)
+
4D
22
26
12
66
16
x42
x1 x32
x21 x22
x31 x2
x41
o
N 11
o
o
2 U3
2 U3
2 U3
= 0.
2
N
N
22
12
x22
x1 x2
x21
(7.3.1)
In order to obtain this equation, we have used the following relations:

D1111 = D11 , D1122 = D2211 = D12 = D21 , D2222 = D22 ,
D1112 = D1121 = D1211 = D2111 = D16 = D61 ,
D2212 = D2221 = D1222 = D2122 = D26 = D62 ,
D1212 = D2112 = D1221 = D2122 = D66 .
(7.3.2)
433
7.3. BUCKLING OF RECTANGULAR COMPOSITE LAMINATES
Taking into account these relations, for the components of the incremental
resultant moments, we obtain the following expressions:
2 U3
2 U3
2 U3
,
2D
D
16
12
x1 x2
x22
x21
2 U3
2 U3
2 U3
,
2D
D
= M21 = D16
66
26
x1 x2
x22
x21
2 U3
2 U3
2 U3
.
2D
D
= D12
26
22
x1 x2
x22
x21
M11 = D11
M12
M22
(7.3.3)
Now let us consider a composite laminate with the sides a and b simply supported
o
o
along the edges and compressed by uniform resultant forces N 11 and N 12 as shown
in Figure 7.1.
X2
O
X3
-N22
-N11
X1
Figure 7.1: Rectangular composite laminate under biaxial compression.

o
We would like to find the critical values of the loads N 11 and N 22 such that
the initially flat form of the laminate ceases to be a unique equilibrium solution,
that is, the values of the loads for which the laminate is buckled. The incremental
equation of equilibrium, in this case, is given by the relation (7.3.1).
Also, the deflection U3 must satisfy the following boundary conditions corresponding to simply-supported composite plate:
U3 = 0, M11 = D11
U3 = 0, M22 = D12
2 U3
2 U3
2 U3
= 0 for x1 = 0, a,
+
2D
+
D
16
12
x1 x2
x22
x21
2 U3
2 U3
2 U3
= 0 for x2 = 0, b. (7.3.4)
+ D22
+ 2D26
2
x22
x1 x2
x1
We seek a nonzero solution of the system (7.3.1) and (7.3.4). Even in this
case, after making all simplifying assumptions, the problem remains difficult. That
434
is the reason for which we shall first introduce a new hypothesis supposing that
stress-twist curvatures coupling does not exist; i.e. we assume that
D16 = D26 = 0.
In this case, the incremental equilibrium equation (7.3.1) becomes
o
o
2 U3
2 U3
4 U3
4 U3
4 U3
= 0,
N 22
N 11
+ 2(D12 + 2D66 ) 2 2 + D22
2
2
4
x22
x1
x2
x1 x2
x1
(7.3.5)
since we have assumed that
o
o
(7.3.6)
N 12 = N 21 = 0.
D11
Also, the boundary conditions (7.3.4) take the following simplified form:
U3 = 0, D11
2 U3
2 U3
= 0 for x1 = 0, a,
+
D
12
x22
x21
U3 = 0, D12
2 U3
2 U3
= 0 for x2 = 0, b.
+
D
22
x22
x21
(7.3.7)
Looking for various buckled forms of the biaxially compressed composite laminate,
we observe that the function
U = Amn sin
mx2
mx1
,
sin
b
a
(7.3.8)
where Amn are arbitrary constants, and m = 0,1,2,..., n = 0,1,2,... are positive
integers, satisfies the homogeneous boundary conditions (7.3.7).
Substituting (7.3.8) in (7.3.5), we obtain

n 4
mn 2
m 4
2
+ D22
+ 2 (D12 + 2D66 )
D11
b
ab
a
o
+ N 11
m 2
+ N 22
n 2
Amn = 0
(7.3.9)
Consequently, the characteristic equation corresponding to our buckling problem

has the following form:
2 [D11 (
o
o
n
m
n
mn 2
m 4
) + D22 ( )4 ]+ N 11 ( )2 + N 22 ( )2 = 0,
) + 2(D12 + 2D66 )(
b
a
b
ab
a
(7.3.10)
To find the values N 11 and N 22 satisfying this equation, we introduce the ratio
o
N 22
o
N 11
(7.3.11)
435

Thus, from equation (7.3.10), we get
o
2
N 11 =
n 4 a 2
n 2
2
) (m)
D11 ( m
a ) + 2(D12 + 2D66 )( b ) + D22 ( b
, m, n = 1, 2, ....
a n 2
1 + ( b m )
(7.3.12)
This equation gives the critical values of the resultant forces N 11 and N 22 for a
given ratio , for all possible combinations of m and n. We recall that equation
(7.3.12) was obtained from the relation (7.3.9) such that more than one (the trivial)
solution exists. Therefore, each combination of m and n is a buckling load and
buckling mode such that more than one solution for U 3 exists. As in any eigen
problem, infinite solutions for U 3 exist, for each combination of m and n, since
the constants Amn remain undetermined.
From all the possible values of m and n, the critical buckling load; i.e. the
primary eigenstate, can be determined by selecting that particular combination
o
of m and n that gives the smallest absolute value of N 11 . Let us analyze several
o
cases. As a first case, let us assume that N 22 = 0; i.e.
= 0.
(7.3.13)
On this loading path, the plate is compressed only in the x1 direction and equation
(7.3.12) becomes
o
2
N 11 = [D11 (
a
n
n
m 2
) + 2(D12 + 2D66 )( )2 + D22 ( )4 ( )2 ].
m
b
b
a
(7.3.14)
o
Since the value in the above bracket increases as n increases, the smaller N 11
occurs always when n = 1. Hence, the buckling load is given by the smallest value
(in module) of the following expression when m is allowed to vary
o
2
N 11 = [D11 (
1 a
1
m 2
) + 2(D12 + 2D66 ) 2 + D22 4 ( )2 ].
b m
b
a
(7.3.15)
For given values of D11 , D12 , D22 , D66 , a and b, we must determine the value
o
of m which yields the smallest absolute value of N 11 . This value is the critical
buckling load.
For example (see Ashton and Whitney[7.1]), we consider a fiber-reinforced
laminate in the x1 direction with
D11 /D22 = 10,
(D12 + 2D66 )/D22 = 1.
The compressive force acts in the fibers direction. For the above values, equation
(7.3.15) becomes
o
2
N 11 = D22 [10(
a 1
2
m 2
) + 2 + ( )2 4 ].
m b
b
a
(7.3.16)
436

o
The absolute value of N 11 for the aspect ratio

a
K = 1.78
b
(7.3.17)
has a minimum when m = 1.

In particular, for a square plate (K = 1), the critical buckling load in
o
N c 11 = 13 2
D22
.
a2
Other plate dimensions can also be considered when analyzing equation

(7.3.17).
o
c
are plotted vs. the aspect ratio K =
In Figure 7.2 the values of N11
Ashton and Whitney [7.1]).
a
b
(see
24
22
O
N 11 b2
2
D22
20
18
16
a=1
14
12
10
a=2
8
6
4
2
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
a/b
Figure 7.2: Variation of the critical load N c 11 with aspect ratio K = ab .
Note that at certain values of K = ab , two possible buckled shapes are possible. That is when
r
p
D11
a p
(7.3.18)
= 1.78 m(m + 1),
K = = m(m + 1) 4
D22
b
the two buckled shapes
U3 = Am1 sin
and
U3 = Am+1,1 sin
o
give identical values for N c 11 .
x2
mx1
sin
b
a
x2
(m + 1)x1
sin
b
a
(7.3.19)
(7.3.20)
437
Also, the absolute minimum buckling load occurs for m = m such that
r
D11
a
4
(7.3.21)
= 1.78m,
=m
D22
b
and, in this case, is given by

o
N c 11 = 8.32 2 D22 /b2 .
(7.3.22)
These results reveal the complexity of stability analysis, when more parameters are involved, and only one of them can have positive integer values.
Let us analyze now the case in which
= 1 and a = b.
(7.3.23)
This is the case of a square laminate under biaxial compression. Equation

(7.3.22) now becomes
4
N 11 = N 22 =
n
2 D11 m2 + 2(D12 + 2D66 )n2 + D22 m
2
.
n 2
)
1 + (m
a2
(7.3.24)
If this equation is examined for the particular values of m and n, we can

o
o
conclude that the smallest absolute value of N 11 = N 22 will occur with m = 1 as
long as D11 > D22 . In this case,
o
N 11 = N 22 =
D11 /D22 + [2(D12 + 2D66 )/D22 ]n2 + n4

2
.
D
22
1 + n2
a2
(7.3.25)
For the numerical values of the parameters D11 , D12 , D22 and D66 , considered
o
o
in the first case, the critical value of N 11 = N 22 is obtained for n = 1:
o
N c 11 = N c 22 = 6.5
2
D22 ,
a2
(7.3.26)
but if
D11 /D22 = 15,
(D12 + 2D66 )/D22 = 1,
the critical value corresponds to n = 2 and we have

o
N c 11 = N c 22 = 7.8
2
D22 .
a2
(7.3.27)
Finally, we assume that

o
= N 22 / N 11 < 0.
o
(7.3.28)
o
In this case, N 11 or N 22 is a tensile load. We suppose that N 22 is tensile; i.e.

o
N 22 > 0.
(7.3.29)
438
Since is negative, from (7.3.12) we can conclude that the critical compressive
o
load will be greater than that for the case N 22 = 0. For the particular numerical
example, considered in the first case and with a = b and = 0.5 (tension equal
one-half the compression), we find
o
N c 11 = 26
2
D22 .
a2
(7.3.30)
o
That is, the critical compressive load is twice that obtained for N 22 = 0.
Following also Ashton and Whitney [71], let us analyze now the buckling of a
rectangular laminate simply supported along the edges x1 = 0, a and uniformly
compressed in the x1 direction as shown in Figure 7.3.
X1
O
O
N11
O
X3
-N11
X2
Figure 7.3: Rectangular composite laminate under uniaxial compression.

Until now, the edges x2 = 0, b have not fixed boundary conditions yet. Assuming
o
(7.3.31)
N 22 = 0,
we seek the solution of equation (7.3.5) in the form
U3 = Y (x2 ) sin
mx1
, m = 1, 2, ...,
a
(7.3.32)
which satisfies the imposed boundary condition on the edges x1 = 0, a; i.e. we have
U3 = 0, M11 = D11
2 U3
2 U3
= 0 for x1 = 0, a.
D12
2
x22
x1
(7.3.33)
Introducing (7.3.32) in (7.3.5), we get the equation which must be satisfied by the
function Y (x2 ):
D22 Y
0000
2(
o
00
m 2
m 4
m 2
) Y = 0, (7.3.34)
) Y + N 11 (
) (D12 + 2D66 )Y + D11 (
a
a
a
439
where the prime denotes differentiation with respect to x2 .

The general solution of this equation is
Y2 (x2 ) = A1 esx2 + A2 esx2 + A3 cos rx2 + A4 sin rx2,
(7.3.35)
where A1 , A2 , A3, A4 are arbitrary constants, and
and
vs
u
o
u
D12 + 2D66 2 D11
m t
N 11 a 2 D12 + 2D66
,
) +
(
)
(
s=
D22
D22 m
D22
D22
a
(7.3.36)
vs
u
o
u
D12 + 2D66 2 D11
m t
N 11 a 2 D12 + 2D66
.
)
(
)
(
r=
D22
D22 m
D22
D22
a
(7.3.37)
We suppose that s and r are positive numbers.

The constants A1 , A2 , A3 and A4 must be determined from the four conditions
on the edges x2 = 0, b. Thus, we are led to four homogeneous linear algebraic
equations for the unknown constants. The critical buckling load is determined by
setting the determinant of this system at zero and determining the lowest possible
o
absolute value of N 11 for the given boundary conditions.
Ashton and Whitney [7.1] illustrate the method by assuming that the edges
x2 = 0, b are clamped. Then the boundary conditions are
U3 = 0 and
U3
= 0 for x2 = 0, b.
x2
(7.3.38)
Using (7.3.35), we get the conditions which must be satisfied by A1 , A2 , A3 and

A4 :
A1 + A2 + A3 = 0,
sA1 + sA2 + rA4 = 0,
esb A1 + esb A2 + cos rbA3 + sin rbA4 = 0,
sesb A1 + sesb A2 r sin rbA3 + r cos rbA4 = 0.
In order to obtain buckling, i.e. U3 6= 0, the determinant of this system must
vanish. Imposing this condition, we get the following characteristic equation
r s
2(1 cos rbcoshsb) = ( ) sin rbsinhsb.
s r
o
(7.3.39)
The critical value of N 11 can be determined from this equation since s and r
o
involve N 11 .
440

Consider a square laminate; i.e. a = b, with
D11 /D22 = 10 and (D12 + 2D66 )/D22 = 1.67.
Then
m
s=
a
sr
m
P
7.22 + 2 + 1.67, r =
a
m
where
sr
7.22 +
P
1.67,
m2
(7.3.40)
P =
N 11 a2
.
D22
(7.3.41)
For this case, equation (7.3.39) is

sr
sr
P
P
7.22 + 2 + 1.67)
7.22 + 2 1.67)cosh(m
2 2 cos(m
m
m
v q
v q
u
u
P
u 7.22 + P2 1.67 u
7.22 + m2 + 1.67
u
u
m
u rq
= tq
t
7.22 + mP2 + 1.67
7.22 + P2 1.67
m
sin(m
sr
7.22 +
P
1.67)sinh(m
m2
sr
7.22 +
P
+ 1.67).
m2
The minimum value of P occurs when m = 1 and may be found by interactively solving the above equation. The critical buckling load is found to be
o
N c 11 = 19.1 2
D22
.
a2
(7.3.42)
Other boundary condition on the edges x2 = 0, b can be handled in similar

manner. The previous examples concern the buckling behavior of specially orthotopic laminates for which D16 = D26 = 0. Such laminates are special cases of more
general composite laminates, and occurs for plates laminated of laminae that are
orthotopic or isotropic, and which are laminated in such a way that the principal
material axes are parallel to the laminate axes.
We shall assume now that
D16 6= 0 are D26 6= 0.
(7.3.43)
These and the terms which couple twisting curvatures to the normal moment
resultants will be included in the analysis. However, we assume that the membranebending coupling terms are absent; i.e. B11 = ..... = B66 = 0. Laminate plates for
which the membrane-bending coupling does not exist, but which exhibit nonzero
441
D16 or D26 terms are an important class of plates. As we know, such plates occur
when the laminate possesses midplane symmetry; i.e. when there exists a lamina
above the geometrical midplane at the same distance from the midplane and having
identical orientation and properties with a lamina below the midplane. For such a
symmetrical stacking sequence, the membrane-bending coupling terms are zero.
The occurrence of the normal stress-twist coupling terms D16 , D26 in the
governing equation increases the complexity of the analysis by a significant manner.
One approach, which is sometimes taken in the analyzes of such laminates, is
simply to neglect these coupling terms. Following Ashton and Whitney (7.1), we
present some solutions to indicate the nature of the error that is introduced when
this is done.
The governing equation is now the relation (7.3.1). As before, we assume that
the rectangular laminate is simply supported. Hence, on the edges of the laminate,
the boundary condition (7.3.4) must be satisfied. To obtain the answer concerning
the buckling problem for a specially orthotopic laminate, for which D16 = D26 = 0,
we have assumed that the incremental normal displacement U3 is given by the
equation (7.3.8). Now this form for U3 does not satisfy the boundary conditions
(7.3.4)2 and (7.3.4)4 , due to the presence of the coupling terms. Moreover, for the
same reason, the field equation (7.3.1) cannot be satisfied if U3 has the simple
form given by the relation (7.3.8). The mentioned difficulties can be avoided if
we look for an approximate solution of the buckling problem, using, to this end,
the corresponding incremental variational or extremal principle and taking into
account appropriate test functions, satisfying the imposed boundary conditions
for the incremental normal displacement field U3 . We recall, and this is essential if
we use variational or extremal principles, that the boundary conditions concerning
tractions must not be exactly satisfied!
Taking into account the above observations, we choose for U3 the following
expression:
n
m X
X
jx2
ix1
(7.3.44)
sin
U3 =
Aij sin
b
a
i=1 j=1
which satisfies the imposed displacement boundary conditions (7.3.4) 1 and (7.3.4)2
for the normal displacement U3 , and hence, represents an admissible displacement
field in our problem.
We return now to the exclusion functional E = E(U) defined by equations
(7.2.23) and (7.2.41). Since (7.2.61) and (7.2.63) take place, from (7.2.23) and
(7.2.41), we can conclude that the appropriate exclusion functional has the following form:
E = E(U3 )
a
0
b
0
2
2
2
+ 4D66 U3,12
+ 2D12 U3,11 U3,22 + D22 U3,22
(D11 U3,11
o
+ 4D16 U3,11 U3,12 + 4D26 U3,22 U3,12 + N 11 U3,1

o
2
+ 2 N 12 U3,1 U3,2 )dx1 dx2 .
+ N 22 U3,2
(7.3.45)
442
Introducing (7.3.44) in (7.3.45), the functional E = E(U3 ) becomes a function

E = E(Aij ) defined on the m n dimension space of the selected test functions.
To obtain approximate solution for one buckling problem, we must impose the
stability condition for this function; i.e., we must impose the conditions
E
= 0 for i = 1, ...., m, j = 1, ...., n.
Aij
(7.3.46)
Introducing (7.3.44) in (7.3.45) and imposing the above conditions, we are lead to
the following linear and homogeneous algebraic system that must be satisfied by
the unknown constants Aij :
aklij Aij = 0; k, i = 1, ..., m; l, j = 1, ..., n,
(7.3.47)
aklij = bijkl + cijkl + dijkl
(7.3.48)
where
with
Z
ij 2 2
i 4
)
) + 2(D12 + 2D66 )(
ab
a
0
0
lx2
kx1
jx2
ix1
j
dx1 dx2 ,
sin
sin
sin
+D22 ( )4 ]sin
b
a
b
a
b
Z aZ b
i j
cijkl =
[4D16 ( )3
b
a
0
0
lx2
kx1
jx2
ix1
i j 3
dx1 dx2
sin
sin
cos
+4D26 ( ) ]cos
b
a
b
a
b
a
Z a
kx1
ix1
i j l
dx1
sin
cos
4D26
a
a
b
b
a
0
Z b
lx2
jx2
i j k
sin
cos
dx2 ,
4D16
b
b
a b a
0
Z aZ b
o
i
ix1
jx2
kx1
lx2
dijkl =N 11
( )2 sin
sin
sin
sin
dx1 dx2.
a
a
b
a
b
0
0
bijkl =
[D11 (
The relations (7.3.47) provide mn homogeneous simultaneous equations for

the unknown coefficients Aij . To obtain buckling, the determinant of the coefficient
matrix must vanish.
The results are presented in Figure 7.4 (see Ashton and Whitney [7.1]) for
laminates with properties typical for boron-epoxy composite materials:
E22 /E11 = 0.1,
E12 /E11 = 0.03,
12 = 0.3.
The aspect ratio K = a/b considered is K = 1.13.
443
The results are presented in terms of the buckling coefficient P , defined as

o
N 11 a2
.
P =
E11 h3
2.4
(7.3.49)
Orthotropic solution
2.2
20 alternate plies
at +
-
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
all +
1.0
0.8
Experimental points
20 Plies +
20 Plies +
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Orientation,
Figure 7.4: Compressive buckling coefficient. Simply supposed plies.

The bottom curve in Figure 7.4. represents the results calculated with m =
n = 7 in equation (7.3.47) for the case of unidirectional laminate with the material axes oriented at degrees to the plate edges. The curves correspond to the
orthotopic solution obtained by neglecting the D16 and D26 terms, respectively,
the orthotopic solution obtained for laminates made of 10 plies at alternately plus
and minus degrees followed by 10 plies laminated at minus plus degrees. The
D16 and D26 terms are smaller for the case of alternating plies and, as evidenced
in Figure 7.4, such interspaced 20-layer plates behave essentially in a specially
orthotropic manner. Also shown in Figure 7.4 are experimentally determined buckling loads obtained on boron-epoxy plates. These experimental results follow the
analytical predictions quite acceptably. This fact indicates that the variational
approach allows accurate prediction of the buckling load of composite laminates.
Furthermore, examining Figure 7.4 we can see that the use of specially orthotropic
analyzes, assuming D16 = D26 = 0, can lead to appreciable inaccuracies. Various
examples, stressing the last two observations, are presented in the monograph [7.1]
by Ashton and Whitney.
444
7.4
Buckling of antisymmetric cross-ply laminates
In what follows, we assume a very long rectangular laminate (a composite

strip), occupying the spatial domain in its stress-free reference configuration:
a x1 a,
b x2 b,
h/2 x3 h/2.
(7.4.1)
Here a is the breadth of the laminate, b is its length and h is the height of the
strip, and we suppose that
h << a and a << b.
(7.4.2)
Also, in what follows, we assume that the global constitutive coefficients

A16 , B16 , and D16 are vanishing; i.e.
A16 = B16 = D16 = 0.
(7.4.3)
This restriction is fulfilled by many types of laminates. For instance, (7.4.3) is satisfied by a single specially orthotopic or by isotropic layers, by symmetric laminates
with isotropic or specially orthotopic layers, by regular symmetric cross-ply laminates, by nonsymmetric laminates with multiple isotropic or specially orthotopic
layers and by antisymmetric cross-ply laminates.
o
Also, we suppose that the initial applied transverse load q is vanishing
o
q = 0.
(7.4.4)
o
We assume that the initial deformed equilibrium configuration B of the laminate is a homogeneous cylindrical state relative to the x2 direction; more exactly,
we suppose that
o
o
o
o
o
(7.4.5)
U 1 = U 1 (x1 ), U 2 = 0, U 3 = U 3 (x1 ),
and
o
e11 = const. , k 11 = const. , e22 = e12 = 0, k 22 = k 12 = 0.
(7.4.6)
Now taking into account the global constitutive equations (7.3.14), we get
o
N 11 = A11 e11 +B11 k 11 ,

o
M 11 = B11 e11 +D11 k 11 ,
N 22 = A12 e11 +B12 k 11 ,

M 22 = B12 e11 +D12 k 11 ,
o
N 12 = 0,
o
M 12 = 0.
(7.4.7)
(7.4.8)
According to the assumption (7.4.6), N 11 ...., M 12 are constant quantities.

Consequently, from (7.1.15)2 , we get
o
Q1 =Q2 = 0.
(7.4.9)
7.4. BUCKLING OF ANTISYMMETRIC CROSS-PLY LAMINATES
445
Thus, taking into account the hypotheses (7.4.4), we can see that the equilibrium conditions (7.1.15) are satisfied in the initial deformed homogeneous cono
figuration B . Hence, assuming cylindrical state (7.4.5), (7.4.6) is possible in the

laminate.
For simplicity, we shall use the following notations:
A = A11 , B = B11 , D = D11 ,
o
e = e11 ,
o
N = N 11 ,
k = k 11 ,
o
(7.4.10)
(7.4.11)
M = M 11 .
(7.4.12)
Now the global constitutive equations(7.4.7)1 and (7.4.8)1 become

o
N = A e +B k , M = B e +D k .
(7.4.13)
o
From equations (7.2.23) and (7.4.13) it follows that the quadratic form w,
corresponding to the homogeneous and cylindrical initial deformation of the laminate, has the following simple form:
o
w=
D o2
A o2
oo
e +B ek + k .
2
2
(7.4.14)
We assume that the stress-free reference configuration of the laminate is

o
locally stable. Hence, w is a positive definite quadratic form. Accordingly, the
constitutive constants A, B and D satisfy the following restrictions:
A > 0, D > 0, AD B 2 > 0.
(7.4.15)
We suppose that the incremental normal load q is vanishing

q = 0.
(7.4.16)
Concerning the incremental state of the laminate, we assume that it is also a

cylindrical one, relative to the x2 direction. That is, the incremental displacement
field, which satisfies the following restrictions:
U1 = U1 (x1 ), U2 = 0, U3 = U3 (x1 ).
(7.4.17)
e11 = e11 (x1 ), k11 = k11 (x1 ), e22 = e12 = 0, k22 = k12 = 0.
(7.4.18)
Now, taking into account the notations (7.4.3), (7.4.7), (7.4.9) and the relations
(7.4.10), we can see that the incremental global constitutive equations (7.1.35)
become
o
N 11 = (A+ N )e11 + (B+ M )k11 , N22 = A12 e11 + B12 k11 , N12 = N21 = 0,
(7.4.19)
446
and
o
M11 = (B+ M )e11 + Dk11 , M22 = B12 e11 + D12 k11 , M12 = M21 = 0. (7.4.20)
get
Obviously, N11 , .....M21 depend only on x1 . Consequently, from (7.2.4), we

P1 = M11,1 and P2 = 0.
(7.4.21)
Now, taking into account (7.4.7), (7.4.9), (7.4.17) and the notations (7.4.12),
from the incremental relations (7.1.38), we obtain
o
R1 = M11,1 + N U3,1 , R2 = 0.
(7.4.22)
We also observe that the second incremental equilibrium equation (7.2.4) 1 is

identically satisfied, and the first one becomes
N11,1 = 0.
(7.4.23)
Analogously, according to (7.4.16) and (7.4.22), the incremental equilibrium

condition (7.2.4)2 takes the form
R1,1 = 0.
(7.4.24)
For simplicity we shall use the notations

e = e11 = U1,1 , k = k11 = U3,11 ,
(7.4.25)
N = N11 , M = M11 , R = R1 .
(7.4.26)
Thus, equations (7.4.19)1 , (7.4.20)1 and (7.4.22)1 take the form

o
N = (A+ N )e + (B+ M )k, M = (B+ M )e + Dk, R = M1 + N U3,1 . (7.4.27)

The equilibrium equations (7.4.23) and (7.4.24) become
N,1 = 0, R,1 = 0.
(7.4.28)
We note also that in the assumed incremental cylindrical state, the quadratic
form (7.2.23) takes the following simplified form:
o
w=
o
D
A+ N 2
N 2
.
e + (B+ M )ek + k 2 + U3.1
2
2
2
(7.4.29)
As we already know, if w is positive definite, the initial deformed homogeo

neous cylindrical equilibrium state B is locally stable.
447
According to (7.4.29), w has the above property if and only if the constitutive
o
coefficients A, B, D and the initial applied homogeneous loads N , M satisfy the

following inequalities:
o
A+ N > 0, D > 0, (A+ N )D (B + M )2 > 0, N > 0.

o
(7.4.30)
Instability, that is, bifurcation (buckling) of the initial deformed configuration
B can occur only when one of these inequalities is violated.

o
In what follows, we shall assume that the initial applied external load N
o
can violate the last restriction (7.4.30). In other words, we suppose that N is a
compressive force; i.e.
o
(7.4.31)
N = P > 0.
At the same time, we assume that the restrictions (7.4.30)1 and (7.4.30)3 are
o
satisfied by the initial applied compressive force P and bending moment M ; i.e.
o
A P > 0, (A P )D (B + M )2 > 0 with M = M .
(7.4.32)
Obviously, the second condition (7.4.32) can be satisfied only if the initial
o
applied bending moment M = M satisfies the restriction

AD (B + M )2 > 0.
(7.4.33)
In what follows, we suppose that M = M satisfies this inequality.

Now we return to the incremental equilibrium conditions (7.4.28). According
to these relations, we must have
N = C1 , R = C2, for a x1 a,
(7.4.34)
C1 and C2 being arbitrary real constants.

Taking into account equations (7.4.27)1 , (7.4.34)1 and the simplified notations, we get
(A P )e + (B + M )k = C1 .
(7.4.35)
Hence, we have
C1
B+M
.
k+
AP
AP
Introducing this relation into (7.4.27)2 , we get
e=
M=
B+M
D(A P ) (B + M )2
C1 .
k+
AP
AP
(7.4.36)
(7.4.37)
Also, equations (7.4.27)3 , (7.4.31) and (7.4.32)2 give

M,1 P U3,1 = C2 .
(7.4.38)
448

Hence, we have
M P U3 = C2 x + C3 with x = x1 ,
(7.4.39)
C3 being an arbitrary real constant.

Now, taking into account the relations (7.4.25)3,4 , (7.4.37) and (7.4.39), we
get the differential equation, which must be satisfied by the incremental normal
displacement field U3
B+M
D(A P ) (B + M )2
C1 .
U3,11 P U3 = C2 x C3
AP
AP
(7.4.40)
It is easy to see that this equation can be written in the following equivalent form:
U3,11 + 2 U3 =
2 B + M
2
C1 C3 ).
(
C3 x +
P AP
P
(7.4.41)
In this equation, is defined by the following relation:

2 =
(A P )P
.
(A P )D (B + M )2
(7.4.42)
Since we have assumed that P and M satisfy the inequalities (7.4.32) and
(7.4.33), is a real number. For simplicity, we assume that
> 0.
(7.4.43)
The general solution of the equation (7.4.41) is

U3 = K sin x + L cos x
1 B+M
C2
C1 C3 ),
x+ (
P AP
P
(7.4.44)
where K and L are arbitrary real constants.

According to (7.4.44), we have
k = U3,11 = 2 (K sin x + L cos x).
(7.4.45)
Now, by using (7.4.36), we can find e and the incremental in-plane displacement
U1 . We get
U1 =
C1
B+M
x + C4 ,
(K cos x L sin x) +
AP
AP
(7.4.46)
where C4 is an arbitrary real constant.

Thus, from (7.4.37) and (7.4.42), we obtain
M = P (K sin x + L cos x) +
B+M
C1 .
AP
(7.4.47)
449
We recall that according to equations (7.4.34), the incremental fields N and R

have constant values.
The obtained results can be used to get the critical values of the compressive
force P for which bifurcation (buckling) of cylindrical type of the initial deformed
o
homogeneous equilibrium state B can occur. At the same time, we can study the
influence of the initial applied bending moment M on the critical values of the
compressive force P . This influence is usually ignored in analyzes concerning stability of composite laminates. However, as we shall see, there are critical values of
the bending moment for which dangerous cases can occur. Also, there exist situations in which an initial applied bending moment can improve the performances
of a compressed composite laminate.
As a first example, we shall analyze the case of free boundary, assuming
that the incremental external loads, acting on the boundaries x = a of the
laminate, are vanishing. According to the general relations (7.2.43), we shall have
the following boundary conditions in the considered case:
N = R = M = 0 for x = a.
(7.4.48)
In this case, from (7.4.33), we get

C1 = C2 = 0.
(7.4.49)
Consequently, from (7.4.41) and (7.4.46), we obtain

1
C3 ,
P
B+M
(K cos x L sin x) + C4 .
(7.4.50)
AP
Obviously, C3 and C4 describe a rigid translation of the laminate, which will be
neglected; i.e. we take
C3 = C4 = 0.
U1 =
Hence, for the incremental displacements, we get

U3 = K sin x + L cos x, U1 =
Also (7.4.47) gives
B+M
(K cos x + L sin x).
AP
M = P(Ksinx + L cos x).
(7.4.51)
(7.4.52)
Now the third boundary condition tells us that the following restriction must
be satisfied:
K sin a + L cos a = 0.
(7.4.53)
Hence, we can have nonvanishing incremental solutions, that is, eigenstates and
o
bifurcation (bending) of the prestressed equilibrium configuration B , if and only
if one of the following conditions is satisfied:
cos a = 0 and K = 0
(7.4.54)
450
or
sin a = 0 and L = 0.
(7.4.55)
The first condition will be satisfied if

1
a = ( + k), k = 0, 1, 2, ...,
2
(7.4.56)
and the second condition will be fulfilled if

a = k, k = 1, 2, ...
(7.4.57)
In order to detect the occurrence of the primary eigenstate, we must determine the smallest possible positive critical value of the initial applied compressive
force P . To do this we first observe that according to equation (7.4.42), the possible
critical values of P must satisfy the following second order algebraic equation:
h
i
2
P 2 (A + 2 D)P + 2 AD (B + M ) = 0.
(7.4.58)
o
Taking into account the restriction (7.4.33) satisfied by M =M , it is easy to

see that this equation has two real positive roots. The root which satisfies for any
real number the restriction (7.4.32)1 is given by the equation
2P = F (, M ) A + 2 D
(A 2 D) + 42 (B + M )2 .
(7.4.59)
Taking into account again the restriction (7.4.33), after some elementary computations, we can see that P given by equation (7.4.59) satisfies also the restriction
(7.4.32)2 .
Also, taking into account the condition (7.4.33), it is easy to see that the
function F = F (, M ) increases when increases. Consequently, the smallest
possible critical value Pc of P , for which local instability or bifurcation (buckling)
can occur, corresponds to the smallest possible critical value c of . Inspecting
the conditions (7.4.54) and (7.4.55), we can see that this critical value is given by
c =
.
2a
(7.4.60)
Hence, according to equation (7.4.59), the critical value Pc of the applied

compressive force is given by equation.
r
2 D 2 2
2 D
) + 2 (B + M )2 . (7.4.61)
(A
2Pc = F (c , M ) G(M ) = A +
2
a
4a2
4a
We determine now the corresponding initial and incremental displacement

fields neglecting infinitesimal rigid translations and rotations.
451
After elementary computations, taking into account (7.4.13) and the notations (7.4.31), (7.4.36), we get
o
U 1 = (Pc D + M B)x, U 3 = (Pc B + M A)
with
x2
,
2
(7.4.62)
1
.
AD B 2
Similarly, from (7.4.51), (7.4.54) and (7.4.60), we obtain
=
U1 =
x
x
B+M
.
; U3 = L cos
sin
L
a
2a
2a A Pc
(7.4.63)
The last two equations describe the way in which the buckling takes place when
the applied compressive force reaches its critical value Pc in the presence of the
bending-extensional coupling (B 6= 0) and of an initial applied bending moment
(M 6= 0).
Now we shall study the influence of the initial applied bending moment M
on the critical value Pc .
Using elementary computations from (7.4.61), it follows that the function
G = G(M ), that is, the critical value Pc reaches its maximal value P c when the
applied bending moment M has the value M given by equation
M = B.
(7.4.64)
According to (7.4.61) and (7.4.64), the corresponding maximum value is given

by the equation:
2 D
).
(7.4.65)
P c = min(A,
4a2
From (7.4.63), we get the corresponding incremental displacement fields
U 1 = 0 and U 3 = L cos
x
.
2a
(7.4.66)
The obtained result shows that in the presence of the bending-extensional

coupling, an initial applied bending moment M , having values in a neighborhood
of the optimal value M , can improve the buckling behavior of the laminate.
Also, according to (7.4.61), the function g = g(M ), hence, the critical value
Pc , converge to zero, if the initial applied bending moment M converges to some
well defined critical values Mc1 or Mc2 . It is easy to see that we have
(7.4.67)
Pc = 0 if M = Mc1 = B AD or if M = Mc2 = B + AD.
As it follows from (7.4.63), the corresponding incremental displacement fields

are given by equations
r
x
x
D
if M = Mc1 ,
(7.4.68)
; U3 = L cos
sin
U1 = L
2a
2a
2a A
452
and
U2 = L
2a
x
x
D
if M = Mc2 .
; U3 = L cos
sin
2a
2a
A
(7.4.69)
The above results show that an initial applied bending moment M , having
values in a neighborhood of the critical values Mc1 or Mc2 , can lead to very small
values of the critical compressive force and dangerous situations can occur. A
little later on, we shall analyze in detail this problem for a particular laminate,
characterized by bending-extensional coupling.
We remark that in stability analysis of composite laminates, usually it is
o
assumed that the prestressed equilibrium configuration B has a plane shape; that
is, if it is supposed that
o
k = 0.
(7.4.70)
For the constitutive equation (7.4.13), it results that, in order to satisfy the
restriction (7.4.70), it is necessary to apply a bending moment
o
M =M = B e .
(7.4.71)
Consequently, the relation (7.4.59), giving the possible critical values of the
compressive force P , takes the form
q
o
2
(7.4.72)
2P = A + D (A 2 D)2 + 42 B 2 (1+ e)2 .
But according to the assumption made concerning the initial deformation of

the laminate, we have
o

(7.4.73)
e << 1.
Hence, if the initial applied bending moment is used only to satisfy the usual
assumption (7.4.70), the exact relation (7.4.59) can be replaced by the approximate
equation
p
(7.4.74)
2P = A + 2 D (A 2 D)2 + 42 B 2 .
Our result shows that in the above mentioned case, the stability analysis
based on the use of the approximate relation (7.4.72) is justified.
Also this relation shows that the presence of the bending-extensional coupling
(B 6= 0) diminishes the value of the critical buckling force.
We stress the fact that at the beginning, we have assumed that the prestressed
o
equilibrium configuration B is characterized by the homogeneous initial deformations (7.4.6). Obviously, the stability analysis concerning the critical values of the
initial applied compressive force and bending moment remains unchanged if we
assume from the beginning that
o
N 11 = P < 0,
N 22 = N 12 = 0,
M 11 = M,
M 22 = M 12 = 0,
(7.4.75)
453
where P and M are given constant quantities. Obviously, in this new situation,
o
o
o
o
o
o
nonvanishing initial deformations e11 , e22 , e12 , k 11 , k 22 , k 12 having constant values
also will exist. These values can be obtained using the global constitutive equations
and the relations (7.4.75). Also, the initial displacement field will be changed and
can be determined using the geometrical relations connecting displacements, inplane deformations and curvatures.
In practice, the above mentioned alternative is most frequently encountered.
In the following, we assume a regular antisymmetric cross-play laminate and
we shall investigate in great detail the influence of various mechanical and geometrical behaviors of the laminate, following the analysis made by Capanu and Soos
[7.5].
As it is known, the use of a symmetric laminate about the middle surface is
often desirable in order to avoid coupling between bending and extension. However, many physical applications of the laminate composites require nonsymmetric
ones to achieve design requirements. We recall that an antisymmetric cross-play
laminate consists of an even number of orthotopic laminae laid superposed on each
other, having their principal material directions alternating at 0o and 90o with respect to the laminate axes. According to equations (3.4.26), in this case, only the
following constitutive constants are nonvanishing:
A = A11 , A22 , A12 , B = B11 = B22 , D = D11 , D22 , D12 .
(7.4.76)
Hence, any antisymmetric cross-play laminate satisfies the restrictions (7.4.3).

We recall that a regular antisymmetric cross-play laminae is defined to have
identical laminae and it is a common procedure because of its simplicity in manufacturing.
According to the relation (3.4.26), the stiffnesses A, B and D are given by
the following equations:
h2
1 f 1
1
1
A.
hA, D =
(f 1)h2 Q =
(1 + f )hQ, Q = Q11 , B =
12
2N f + 1
4n
2
(7.4.77)
In these equations
E2
Q22
(7.4.78)
=
f=
E1
Q11
A=
and n is the total even number of layers, having values 2, 4, 6, ... .

According to equations (7.4.77)2,3 , the coupling stiffness B converges to zero;
if the number of layers increases, the thickness h of the laminate remains fixed.
As before, in the relations (7.4.77) and (7.4.78), we use a right coordinate system Ox1 x2 x3 for which the fiber direction of odd-numbered layers corresponds to
the Ox1 direction, and the fiber direction of the even-numbered layers corresponds
to the Ox2 direction. Consequently, we have
0 < f 1 and B < 0.
(7.4.79)
454
Taking into account equations (7.4.59) and the relations (7.4.77), (7.4.78), we
can conclude that the critical compression force Pc depends on the parameters
Q, f, a, h, n, M characterizing the material and geometrical properties of the laminate and the applied bending moment; i.e.
p
2Pc = A + 2 D (A 2 D)2 + 42 (B + M )2 = (Q, f, a, h, n, M ). (7.4.80)
In this equation, is given by the relation (7.4.56) or (7.4.57), and we always
have
1
.
(7.4.81)
a
In what follows, we shall analyze the influence of the parameters Q, f, a, h, N
and M on the critical force Pc , assuming that only one of these parameters changes,
the other having fixed values.
The influence of the bending moment M on Pc was established before. Now
we study the influence of the ratio f on the critical bending moments Mc1 and
Mc2 for which Pc vanishes. For these values, buckling can take place without any
compressive load. Taking into account equations (7.4.67) and (7.4.77), (7.4.78), we
get

1
1
1
1
h2 Q
,
f+
+
Mc1 =
n
n
4
3
3

1
1
1
1
h2 Q
.
(7.4.82)
+
f+
Mc2 =
n
n
4
3
3
From these equations, it results that Mc1 and Mc2 , respectively, are vanishing
if f takes the following values:

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
/
+
, f2 =
+
/
.
(7.4.83)
f1 =
n
n
n
n
3
3
3
3
Since n = 2, 4, 6, ..., f1 and f2 are always negative. Consequently, according

to (7.4.79)1 , the critical values Mc1 and Mc2 cannot vanish. Hence, without compressive force and bending moment, buckling cannot take place. This is a natural
result, indicating the consistency of the used stability theory.
Let us analyze now the influence of n on the critical value Pc.
According to (7.4.77)2 where the number n of the laminate increases, the
coupling stiffness B decreases (in module), and converges to zero. We recall now
that the plate reaches the best stability state when the applied bending moment
M reaches its optimal value M , given by equation (7.4.64). According to this
relation, M converges toward zero, when n increases. Consequently, when the
applied bending moment M is negative or zero, the stability of the composite
plate is improved when more laminae are involved, that is, when n is increasing, h
being fixed. If the applied bending moment M is positive and n increases, the plate
stability is improved until Pc reaches the maximum value P c given by (7.4.65).
After this limit, the critical value Pc decreases asymptotically toward the critical
455
value, which corresponds to a symmetric plate (B = 0). Obviously, our conclusions

are based on the equation (7.4.79) and on the inequality (7.4.78)2 , according to
which B < 0.
In what follows, we analyze the influence of Q, that is, if E1 (Youngs modulus
of fibers!) on Pc . To do this, we observe that according to (7.4.77) and (7.4.80),
we have
q
2
2
2Pc = a0 Q + 2 d0 Q (a0 2 d0 ) Q2 + 42 (b0 Q + M ) = 1 (Q), (7.4.84)
with
h2
f 1 2
1+f
a0 ,
h , d0 =
h, b0 =
12
4n
2
a0 =
(7.4.85)
and
A = a0 Q, B = b0 Q, D = d0 Q.
(7.4.86)
According to (7.4.15), a0 , b0 and d0 satisfy the inequalities

a0 > 0, d0 > 0, a0 d0 b20 > 0.
(7.4.87)
Now, by elementary computations, we can conclude that

d1 (Q)
> 0,
dQ
(7.4.88)
for any Q > 0. Consequently, when Q(E1 ) increases, Pc also increases and the plate
stability is improved.
Next, we study the influence of the plate breadth a when other parameters
are fixed. To do this, according to (7.4.80) we must analyze the behavior of the
critical value Pc as a function of . Again, by elementary computations using the
equation (7.4.59), we get
F (, M )
>0
(7.4.89)
for any , since A,B,D and M satisfy the restrictions (7.4.30). Hence, taking into
account (7.4.81), we can conclude that when the plate breadth a decreases, that
is when increases, and the plate stability is improved.
2
In order to study the influence of the ratio f = E
E1 on Pc , we introduce the
following notations
2 2
h
h
hQ
.
, = , q=
, =
48
a
12
2
(7.4.90)
Now from (7.4.77) and (7.4.78), we get

A = (1 + f ), B =
h2 A
h(f 1)
,
, D=
12
2n
(7.4.91)
456
and taking into account the critical value (7.4.60) of , from the equation (7.4.80),
we get
r
2
+ M )2 2 (f ).
2Pc = (1+f )(1+q) 2 (1 + f ) (1 q)2 + ( f
a
2n
2n
(7.4.92)
Elementary computations show that
d2 (f )
> 0,
df
(7.4.93)
if and only if
(f 1) + M }2 {(1 + q)2 2 2 }
4n
a
2n
(7.4.94)
2 (1 q)2 (1 + f ){ (f 1) + M } > 0.
a
2n
2n
In order to simplify this relation, we recall that according to the assumptions
(7.4.2)1
<< 1 and q << 1.
(7.4.95)
4q(1 q)2 (1 + f )2 {
Hence, we can take
2 2
1.
4n2
In this way, the condition (7.4.94) takes the following simplified form:
(1 q)2 1, 1 + q 2
(f + 1)2 2 (4q 2
2 2
) > 0.
)+( M
n
4n2
(7.4.96)
(7.4.97)
According to (7.4.90)3,4 , we have

4q 2
1
2 2 1
2 2
( ) > 0, for n = 2, 4, 6, ... .
=
2
3 n
4
4n
(7.4.98)
Consequently, the restriction (7.4.97) is fulfilled. Hence, the inequality (7.4.93)

takes place for any f (0, 1]. That is, the critical value Pc is an increasing function
2
of the ratio f = E
E1 . The other parameters being fixed, Pc reaches its maximal value
for f = 1, that is, if E1 = E2 .
Finally, we analyze the influence of the hight h on Pc . To do this, we introduce
the following quantities:
A0 =
1
1f
1+f
A0 .
Q, D0 =
Q, B0 =
12
4n
2
(7.4.99)
According to (7.4.77) and (7.4.78), we get

A = hA0 , B = h2 B0 , D = h3 D0 ,
(7.4.100)
457
and the critical value Pc , given by equation (7.4.80) becomes

q
2
2Pc = A0 h + 2 D0 h2 (A0 h 2 D0 h3 ) + 42 (B0 h2 + M )2 3 (h).
(7.4.101)
2
We recall again that ha2 << 1. Taking into account this fact and neglecting ha2 with
respect to 1 in the expression of (d3 /h)/dh, long but elementary computations
shows that
d3 (h)
>0
(7.4.102)
dh
if and only if
B2
A4
(7.4.103)
h4 0 (1 12 02 ) 2h2 A20 B0 M + A20 M 2 > 0.
A0
4
According to (7.4.79) and (7.4.10), we have
1
1
1 (f 1)2
B02
for n = 2, 4, 6, ... and 0 < f 1.
< 2
=
2
2
2
16
4n
4n (f + 1)
A0
(7.4.104)
Taking into account the last conclusion, it is easy too see that (7.4.103),
and, hence, (7.4.101) take place. We can conclude that the stability of the plate
is improved if its thickness h is increased, for any fixed value of the initial applied
bending moment M.
Summing up, we can say that for a fixed value of the bending moment M,
the stability of a regular antisymmetric cross-ply laminate can be improved by
1
2
increasing one of the parameters Q(E1 ), f ( E
E1 ), a , h or n, the other ones being
fixed. Taking into account the mechanical and geometrical significance of these
parameters, we can see that the above conclusion is plausible, proving again the
consistency of the applied stability theory.
As the second example, we consider now a simply supported laminate of type
(S4), According to equations (4.2.44), we have the following boundary conditions:
U3 = 0, M = M11 = 0, N = N11 = 0 for x = a.
(7.4.105)
Taking into account the third condition and the relation (7.4.34), we can conclude
that
C1 = 0.
(7.4.106)
Using (7.4.106) and neglecting in (7.4.46) the rigid translation; i.e. taking
C4 = 0, we obtain
U1 =
B+M
(K cos x L sin x).
AP
(7.4.107)
Using again (7.4.106) from (7.4.44), we get

C3
C2
.
x
P
P
(7.4.108)
458
Now we recall that M is given by the equation (7.4.52). Using this equation,
we can conclude that the second boundary condition (7.4.105) will be satisfied if
and only if
cos a = 0 and K = 0
(7.4.109)
or
sin a = 0 and L = 0.
The first situation occurs when

1
+ k , , k = 0, 1, 2, ...
a =
2
(7.4.110)
(7.4.111)
and the second occurs if

a = k, k = 1, 2, ... .
(7.4.112)
As we already know, the possible critical values of the compressive force P

are given by equation (7.4.59). Also we know that f = f (, M ) is an increasing
function of > 0. Consequently, the critical value c for which buckling occurs for
the first time is given again by equation (7.4.60). Hence, K = 0 and the incremental
displacements U1 and U3 , given by (7.4.107) and (7.4.108), become
U1 =
x
B+M
,
L sin
2a
2a A Pc
(7.4.113)
x C2
x + C3 ,
Pc
2a
(7.4.114)
and
U3 = L cos
where Pc is given by equation (7.4.61).

Imposing now the first boundary condition (7.4.105), we get
C2 = C3 = 0.
Accordingly U3 becomes
U3 = L cos
x
.
2a
(7.4.115)
Taking into account the obtained results, we can see that the cylindrical buckling
behavior of the composite laminate (strip) in the case of free boundary (see Equations (7.4.49)) and in the case of simply supporting one (see Equations (7.4.105))
is the same.
We shall end this Section analyzing the simplest possible case. We assume
that the initial applied bending moment is vanishing and the extension-bending
coupling is missing; i.e.
M = 0 and B = 0.
(7.4.116)
As we know for the considered simply supported laminate, the critical value
Pc of the applied compressive force is given by equation (7.4.61).
459
Accordingly, from (7.4.112), we get

Pc = min(A,
2 D
).
4a2
(7.4.117)
Also, from (7.4.113) and (7.4.115), we obtain the corresponding incremental

displacement fields
U1 = 0,
U3 = L cos
x
.
2a
(7.4.118)
We assume now that our laminate actually is a single specially orthotropic

layer. As results from the equations (3.4.4) in this case, we have
A = hQ11 , D =
E1
h3
.
Q11 , and Q11 =
1 12 21
12
(7.4.119)
Consequently, from (7.4.117), we can conclude that

Pc = min(Q11 h,
2 h 2
( ) Q11 h).
48 a
(7.4.120)
Since (h/a) << 1, we finally obtain

Pc =
2
48
2
h
Q11 h.
a
(7.4.121)
Denoting by
pE = Pc /h
(7.4.122)
the critical pressure producing the buckling of the simply specially orthotropic
layer; i.e. of an usual orthotropic (long) plate, we obtain
pE =
E1
1 h 2
.
( )
48 a 1 12 21
(7.4.123)
This is just the classical formula, well known in the classical Love-Kirchhoff plate
theory, founded on the Eulerian assumption of plane sections. We already have
used two times the above equation, in analyzing the stability of a fiber-reinforced
composite strip and in studying the buckling of a fiber-reinforced composite bar.
It is easy to see that equations (6.2.43), (6.3.79), and (7.4.123) express the same
thing, if the involved coefficients are accordingly changed, taking into account their
mechanical and geometrical meanings.
460
7.5
Problems
P7.1 Using the global incremental constitutive equations (7.1.35) and (7.1.38)
together with the expression (7.2.23)2 of the global specific internal strain energy
w = w(U), prove the validity of equations:
N =
w
w
w
.
, R P =
, M =
U3,
k
U,
P7.2 Assuming that the incremental in-plane deformations and the incremental curvatures are vanishing; i.e. supposing that e = 0 and k = 0, find the
corresponding incremental displacements U , U3 , u , u3 and give the interpretation
of the obtained result.
P7.3 Assuming w = w(U) a positive definite quadratic form prove the uniqueness theorem for the incremental traction boundary value problem (7.2.32).
P7.4 In the same conditions as in P7.2, prove the uniqueness theorem for the
incremental displacement boundary value problem (7.2.36).
P7.5 Let us consider the following mixed incremental boundary value problem
for a prestressed composite laminate:
Un = V, Nn = S, U3 = R, Mnn = T on D,
where V ,S,W and T are given functions on D. Assuming w = w(U) positive definite show that there exist at most one regular solution modulo a rigid displacement
and find this displacement.
P7.6 Formulate and prove the principle of minimum potential energy, appropriate to the incremental traction boundary value problem (7.2.32).
P7.7 Formulate and prove the principle of minimum potential energy, appropriate to the incremental displacement boundary value problem (7.2.36).
P7.8 Formulate and prove the variational principle appropriate to the incremental mixed boundary value problem given in P7.5.
P7.9 Formulate and prove the principle of minimum potential energy appropriate to the incremental mixed boundary value problem given in P7.5.
o
P7.10 Let us consider the possible critical compressive force N 11 defined by
o
equation (7.3.15). Show that N 11 as a function of b and the aspect ratio K = a/b,
is given by the following relation:
o
N 11 =
where
(K, m) =
2 D22
(K, m)
b2
2(D12 + 2D66 ) K 2
D11 m2
+ 2 , m = 1, 2, 3, ... .
+
m
D22
D22 K 2
P7.11 Analyze the behavior of the function = (K, m), assuming m fixed
and K > 0 variable.
461
7.5. PROBLEMS
P7.12 Analyze the behavior of the function = (K, m), assuming K fixed
and m variable.
P7.13 Show that there exist values of the aspect ratio K = a/b for which
there are possible two buckled shapes corresponding to m and m+1 and to the
o
same value of the possible buckling force N 11 , considered in P7.10.
o
P7.14 For what values K and m, the minimum buckling load N 11 , considered
in P7.10, is reached? Find this minimum value.
P7.15 Find the values of the coefficients aklij defined by equations (7.3.47)
and (7.3.48).
P7.16 Let us consider a rectangular composite laminate and let a, b, h be its
breadth, width and thickness, respectively. Let us assume that the plate is biaxially,
uniformly compressed. More exactly, let us assume that the initial applied load is
characterized by the following relations:
o
N 11 = P, N 22 = P, N 12 = N 21 = 0, M 11 = M 22 = M 12 = M 21 = 0, q = 0.
Here P > 0 is given and > 0 is also a known quantity.
o
(a) Show that the obtained initial deformed configuration B is a possible

equilibrium state of the plate.
o
(b) Find the initial in-plane deformations e and initial curvatures k .

o
(c) Find the initial in-plane displacements U 1 , U 2 and the initial nominal
o
displacement U 3 .
o
o
o
(d) Find the initial displacement fields u1 , u2 , u3 of the prestressed laminate.
P7.17 Find the global incremental constitutive equations of the prestressed
laminate considered in P7.16.
P7.18 Find the global incremental equilibrium equations satisfied by the incremental displacement field in the case of the prestressed laminate considered in
P7.16 assuming vanishing incremental normal load.
P7.19 Assuming that the laminate considered in P7.16. is simply supported
of type (S2) (see Equations (7.2.44)), write the appropriate boundary conditions.
P7.20 Let us assume now that the plate considered in P7.16. is an antisymmetric cross-ply laminate. Find the answers to (a) to (d) of P7.16. in this special
case.
P7.21 For the laminate considered in (P7.16) and (P7.20), find the answer to
the question formulated in P7.17.
P7.22 Taking into account again the laminate of (P7.16) and (P7.20) and
using the results of P7.18, find the corresponding global incremental equilibrium
equations.
P7.23 Solve the problem (P7.19) for the laminate considered in (P7.16) and
(P7.20).
462

P7.24 Let us consider the following incremental displacement fields:
nx2
mx1
,
sin
b
a
nx2
mx1
,
cos
U2 = a2 sin
b
a
mx2
nx1
,
sin
U3 = a3 sin
b
a
U1 = a1 cos
where a1 , a2 , a3 are arbitrary real constants and m, n = 1, 2, 3, ... are arbitrary

positive integers. Show that the above incremental displacement field satisfies the
boundary conditions obtained in P7.23.
P7.25 Assuming the incremental displacement field considered in P7.24, find
the relations which must be satisfied by the constants a1 , a2 , a3 to satisfy the
incremental equilibrium conditions obtained in P7.22.
P7.26 Using the result obtained in P7.25, find the characteristic equation
corresponding to the eigenvalue problem involved in the buckling problem of the
laminate considered in P7.16 and P7.20.
P7.27. Find the exclusion functional E = E(U) corresponding to the laminate
considered in P7.16.
P7.28 Using the result obtained in P7.26, find the exclusion functional E =
E(U) corresponding to the laminate considered in P7.20.
P7.29 Taking into account the result obtained in P7.27, find the expression of
the exclusion functional E = E(U) assuming the admissible incremental displacement field considered in P7.24.
P7.30 (a) Find the stationarity conditions of the exclusion functional E =
E(U) obtained in P7.28.
(b) Compare the result obtained in (P7.23) and in (a), and comment on the
obtained result.
P7.31 Let us assume that in the initial deformed equilibrium configuration
o
B of a composite laminate, the applied load is characterized by the following
relations:
o
N 11 = const., N 21 = N 12 = 0, M 11 = const., M 22 = M 12 = 0.
o
Find the resulting shear forces Q1 , Q2 and the normal load q .

P7.32 For the laminate considered in P7.30, find the corresponding in-plane
o
o
deformations e and curvatures k , assuming that the global constitutive coefficients A16 , B16 and D16 of the laminate are vanishing; i.e. the restrictions (7.4.3)
are satisfied.
o
o
o
o
o
o
P7.33 Find the displacement fields U 1 , U 2 , U 3 and u1 , u2 , u3 corresponding
to the deformation state obtained in P7.31. o
o
P7.34 Assuming in P7.32. that u3 = U 3 = 0, find the relation which must
o
o
exist between N 11 and M 11 to have vanishing normal displacement.
463
7.5. PROBLEMS
P7.35 Let us consider the composite strip analyzed in Section 7.4. Show that
the function F = F (, M ) defined by the relation (7.4.58) increases, if > 0
increases.
P7.36 For the same composite strip, show that the function 1 = 1 (Q)
defined by the relation (7.4.83) increases if Q > 0 increases.
P7.37 We consider again the composite strip studied in Section 7.4. But now
we suppose that the strip is clamped at its edges x = a. More exactly (see
Equations (7.2.45)) we assume that U3 = 0, U3,1 = 0 and N11 = 0 for x = a.
(a) Find the critical value Pbc of the composite force producing cylindrical
buckling of the strip.
(b) Compare the obtained result with that found for the simply supported
strip.
P7.38 Find the incremental displacement fields U1 and U3 corresponding to
the problem P7.37 and compare the obtained results with that obtained for the
simply supported strip.
P7.39 Let us assume now that the clamped strip of P7.36. is a regular antisymmetric cross-play laminate. Study the dependence of the critical buckling force
Pbc on Youngs modulus E1 of the fibers and on the breadth a of the strip.
P7.40 Assume now that the clamped strip is a simple specially orthotropic
layer. Assuming M = 0, find the critical compressive force Pbc and the critical
compressive pressure pbE = Pbc /h for this case. Compare the obtained results with
that corresponding to the simply supported case.
P7.41 We consider again the composite strip analyzed in Section 7.4, assuming now that the strip is simply supported on the edge x = a and clamped on
the edge x = a. Hence, we have the following boundary conditions: U3 = 0, N11 =
0, M11 = 0, for x = a and U3 = 0, N11 = 0, U3,1 = 0, for x = a.
(a) Find the critical compressive force Pc producing cylindrical buckling.

(b) Compare the obtained result with that corresponding to the simply supported and clamped strip, respectively.
P7.42 Find the incremental displacement fields U1 and U3 corresponding
to P7.41, and compare the obtained results with that obtained for the simply
supported and clamped strip, respectively.
P7.43 Assuming the strip of P7.41 is an antisymmetric cross-ply laminate,
determine the dependence if Pc on E1 and a.

P7.44 Suppose now that the strip considered in P7.40 is a single specially
orthotropic layer. Assuming M = 0, find the critical compressive force Pbc and the
critical compressive pressure pbc =Pc /h in this case. Compare the obtained results
with that corresponding to the simply supported and clamped cases, respectively.
P7.45 (a) Find the exclusion functional E = E(U1 , U3 ) corresponding to the
cylindrical incremental state of the strip considered in the Section 7.4.
(b) Find the Euler-Lagrange equation corresponding to the exclusion functional E = E(U1 , U3 ).
464
(c) Find the differential equation satisfied by the incremental displacement

field U3 and compare the obtained result with that obtained in Section 7.4 (see
Equation (7.4.41)).
P7.46 Let us consider a composite strip consisting of a Boron/Epoxy specially
orthotropic layer. The material properties of this composite are given in Table 3.1.
If the strip is simply supported, the critical value Pc of the buckling compressive
force is given by the relation (7.4.121). According to the relations (3.1.6) and
(3.4.4), the global constitutive coefficient A66 of the strip is given by the equation
A66 = hG2 .
Find the ratio Pc /A66 and comment on the obtained result taking into account the differential system obtained in P7.22, describing the incremental equilibrium conditions of an antisymmetric cross-ply laminate.
P7.47 The critical buckling pressure pE of fiber-reinforced composite plate,
acted upon by compressive forces along the fibers directions, is given by the equation (6.2.36), (6.3.79) and (7.4.123), respectively. Even if these three relations give
the same critical pressure, they are apparently different. Examining these equations, and considering also the cases to which they correspond, prove that all
equations are true and (6.2.36) and (6.3.79) can be obtained from (7.4.123) by
appropriate changes.
Bibliography
[7.1] Ashton, J.E., Whitney, J.M., Theory of laminate plates, Technomic Publishing Co. Inc., 1970.
[7.2] Jones, R.M., Mechanics of composite materials, Scripta Book Company,
1975.
[7.3] Whitney, J.M., Structural analysis of laminated anisotropic plates, Technomic Publishing Co. Inc., 1987.
[7.4] Gibson, R.F., Principles of composite materials mechanics, McGraw-Hill,
Inc. New York, 1994.
[7.5] Capanu, M., Soos, E., Stability of composite laminates. The influence of
bending moment. Cylindrical buckling, Rev. Roum. Sci. Techn. Mèc. Appl.
42, 1998.
[7.6] Capanu, M., Stability of rectangular composite antisymmetric laminates,
Rev. Roum. Sci. Techn. Mèc. Appl. 42, 1998.
Chapter 8
FRACTURE MECHANICS
8.1
Elements of complex function theory
The basic elements of complex function theory, used in fracture mechanics,

are presented in Muskhelishvilis fundamental monograph [8.1].
We denote by
z = x + iy and z = x iy, i =
1,
(8.1.1)
a complex variable and its conjugate in the complex plan C, x and y are real
variables, representing the real and imaginary parts of z.
Let us consider an analytic function depending on z and having complex
values
f = f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y),
(8.1.2)
where
u = u(x, y) = Ref (z) and v = v(x, y) = Imf (z)
(8.1.3)
are real valued functions, representing the real and imaginary parts of f. As in
(8.1.1), the operation of complex conjugation will be denoted by a superposed
bar; i.e.
f (z) = u(x, y) iv(x, y).
(8.1.4)
An analytic function can have regular and singular points and can be univalued or multivalued. An univalued branch, having only regular points, of an
analytic function, is a holomorphic function.
If f = f (z) is a holomorphic function, it has derivatives of any order in its
domain of definition. The real and imaginary parts of f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y)
satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann conditions
v
u
,
=
y
x
v
u
= .
x
y
(8.1.5)
466
CHAPTER 8. FRACTURE MECHANICS
The derivative f 0 = f 0 (z) of a holomorphic function can be calculated using

the equations
f 0 (z) =
u
v
v
u
(x, y) i (x, y).
(x, y) + i (x, y) =
x
y
x
x
(8.1.6)
The relations (8.1.5) show that the real and imaginary parts of a holomorphic
function are harmonic functions; i.e.
u = v = 0,
2
2
+ 2.
2
y
x
The converses of the above properties are also true. If the real and imaginary
parts of a function f = f (z) satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann conditions, that function
is holomorphic. Also, any harmonic real valued function u = u(x, y) can be the
real or the imaginary part of a holomorphic function f = f (z).
Any holomorphic function f = f (z) is integrable on any regular curve L, and
is path independent. If
Z
z
F = F (z) =
f (t)dt,
(8.1.7)
z0
then F = F (z) is a holomorphic function and

F 0 (z) = f (z).
(8.1.8)
Also, if f = f (z) is a holomorphic function and L is a closed regular curve in

its domain of definition, according to Cauchys well-known theorem
Z
f (z)dz = 0.
(8.1.9)
L
Let us consider now a complex valued function

f = f (z, z) = Ref (z, z) + iImf (z, z),
(8.1.10)
depending on z and z, considered as independent variables. Using (8.1.1), we can

express the real and imaginary parts of f = f (z, z) as functions of x and y; i.e.
f = f (z, z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y).
(8.1.11)
Assuming that f = f (z, z) has continuous derivatives with respect to z and

z, from (8.1.1), (8.1.11) and the chain rule, we get

u
i v
1 u v
f
,
+
+
=
2 x y
2 x y
z

1 u v
i v
f
u
=
+
+
.
(8.1.12)
2 x y
2 x y
z
8.1. ELEMENTS OF COMPLEX FUNCTION THEORY
467
If f = f (z, z) is a holomorphic function, its real and imaginary parts satisfy

the Cauchy-Riemann condition (8.1.5). Hence,
f
(z, z) = 0.
z
(8.1.13)
The last relation shows that f = f (z, z), being holomorphic, actually does
not depend on z.
Conversely, let us assume that the function f = f (z, z) does not depend
z.
In this case, (8.1.13) takes place. Hence, according to (8.1.12)2 , the real
on
and imaginary parts of f = f (z) satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann condition (8.1.5).
Accordingly, f = f (z) is a holomorphic function.
Let us consider now the real valued function
F = F (x, y)
(8.1.14)
depending on the real variables x and y. Using (8.1.1), we get

x=
1
(z+ z),
2
y=
1
(z z).
2i
(8.1.15)
Taking into account the above equations, we can express F = F (x, y) as a

function of z and z; i.e.
F = F (x, y) = F (
z+ z z z
) f (z, z).
,
2i
2
(8.1.16)
Now, assuming that F = F (x, y) has continuous second order partial derivatives,
from (8.1.16) we get:
F =
1 2f
2F
2F
(z, z).
=
+
2
2
4 z z
y
x
(8.1.17)
Let us assume now that F = F (x, y) is a harmonic function; i.e.

F (x, y) = 0.
(8.1.18)
According to (8.1.17), in this case f = f (z, z) must satisfy the equation
2f
(z, z) = 0.
z z
(8.1.19)
F (x, y) = f (z, z) = (z) + (z),
(8.1.20)
From the above relation, we get
where = (z) and = (z) are complex valued functions, depending only on
z and z, respectively. Moreover, since F = F (x, y) is a real valued function, from
(8.1.20) we can conclude that (z) = (z).
468

Hence, if F = F (x, y) is a harmonic function, then
F (x, y) = (z) + (z) = 2Re(z),
(8.1.21)
where = (z), depending only on z, is a holomorphic function.

The above result shows again that any harmonic function is the real part of
a holomorphic function.
An important analytic function is f (z) = ln(z c) defined by the rule
f (z) = ln(z c) = ln |z c| + i arg(z c)
(8.1.22)
where c is a fixed complex number (see Figure 8.1).

y
z
r
r = z-c
=arg z-c
c
x
Figure 8.1: The definition of the logarithmic function.

As is known, z = c is a singular point of this analytical, multivalued function,
having an unbounded number of branches.
Let us assume now that a and b are two real numbers and z is a complex
number which is not situated in the real interval (a, b). Then we have (see Figure
8.2)
Z
b
a
dt
tz
|b z|
bz
= ln
|a z|
az
+ i {arg(b z) arg(a z)} .
ln(b z) ln(a z) = ln
(8.1.23)
As a second example, let us consider the analytic function f (z) = z 2 a2 ,

where a > 0 is a fixed real number. This function is defined by the relation (see
Figure 8.3):
p
i
(8.1.24)
f (z) = z 2 a2 = r1 r2 e 2 (1 +2 )
where
r1 = |z1 a| , r2 = |z2 + a| ,
469
x
O
Figure 8.2: Example of complex integration.
r1
r2
y=0
2
-a
O y=0
Figure 8.3: The definition of the function f (z) =
1 = arg(z a), 2 = arg(z + a).
z 2 a2 .
(8.1.25)
As is known, z = a and z = a are singular points of this analytical function

which is multivalued and has two branches. To select a branch, which is holomorphic, we must introduce a cut in the complex plane C. This cut is represented by
the segment [a, a] having two faces, as in Figure 8.3. We have y = 0+ on the
upper face of the cut, and y = 0 at the corresponding point of the lower face of
the cut. In what follows, we denote by L this cut.
We choose that branch of the function f (z) = z 2 a2 which satisfies the
relation
p
x2 a2 = +.
(8.1.26)
lim
x
Using this choice and the relation (8.1.24) defining the function f (z) =
z 2 a2 , we can see that the selected branch has the following properties:
p
p
if a < x, y = 0,
(8.1.27)
f (z) = z 2 a2 = x2 a2
p
p
f (z) = z 2 a2 = i a2 x2 if a < x < a, y = 0+ ,
470
(i.e. on the upper face of the cut)

p
p
f (z) = z 2 a2 = x2 a2 if x < a, y = 0,
p
p
f (z) = z 2 a2 = i a2 x2 if a < x < a, y = 0
(i.e. on the lower face of the cut).

Let us denote by C 0 = C L the complex plane without the cut L. Let us
assume that F = F (z) is an arbitrary complex valued function defined in C 0 . Let
t L, t 6= a and t 6= a, be an arbitrary point on the cut L (see Figure 8.4).
z
x
-a
z
Figure 8.4: Limit values.
We denote by F + (t) and by F (t) the following limit values of F = F (t):

F + (t) =
F (t) =
lim
lim
zt,y>0
zt,y<0
F (z),
F (z), z = x + iy.
(8.1.28)
If the above limits exist and are path independent, we name F + (t) and F (t)
the upper and the lower limits of F (z) in the point t of the cut. We stress the fact
that the above limits are not defined at the end point t = a and t = a of the cut.
According to (8.1.27), the Plemelj type function
p
(8.1.29)
Y = Y (z) = z 2 a2 ,
satisfying the property (8.1.26), fulfills the relations
p
t2 a 2 )+ = i a 2 t 2 ,
p
p
Y (t) = ( t2 a2 ) = i a2 t2 ,
Y + (t) = (
(8.1.30)
on the cut L. Hence, we have
X + (t) + X (t) = 0
on L (t 6= a, t 6= a).
(8.1.31)
471

Let us consider now a complex valued function
f = f (t) = f1 (t) + if2 (t)
(8.1.32)
defined on the cut L; i.e. on the real segment (a, a). For the moment, we assume
that f = f (t) is absolutely integrable on L in the usual Riemannian sense. Using
this function, we define in C 0 = C L the complex valued function
Z a
f (t)
1
dt,
z
/ L.
(8.1.33)
F = F (z) =
2i a t z
The above function represents Cauchys integral corresponding to the function f = f (t) and to the cut L.
In the domain C 0 representing the complex plane C without the cut L,
Cauchys integral F = F (z) is a holomorphic function. Moreover, as it is easy
to see from (8.1.32),
lim F (z) = 0.
(8.1.34)
z
Until now, we have assumed that z

/ L. Let us assume now that z = t0
L, t0 6= a, as in Figure 8.5.
y
l
-a
t0
t0-
x
a
t0+
Figure 8.5: Cauchys principal value.

If f (t0 ) 6= 0, lim f (t)/(t t0 ) is unbounded and
tt0
1
2i
a
a
f (t)dt
t t0
is an improper integral, which is generally not convergent.

Let us assume that the function f = f (t) satisfies H olders condition or the
H condition; i.e.
|f (t2 ) f (t1 )| A |t2 t1 | , t1 , t2 L,
(8.1.35)
where A and are positive constants, and

0 < 1.
(8.1.36)
472
In this case, we can give a well-defined sense to the above presented improper
integral. To do this, we consider a small positive number > 0 (see Figure 8.5)
and consider the integral
1
2i
Z
t0
f (t)dt
+
t t0
a
t0 +
f (t)dt
t t0
1
2i
Ll
f (t)dt
,
t t0
(8.1.37)
defined on the set (a, t0 ) (t0 + , a) L l. The integral (8.1.37) is well

defined, since, for t L l, we have |t t0 | > 0, being a positive number.
We suppose now that converges to 0. If in this case, the integral (8.1.37)
converges to a well-defined finite value, we call this limit Cauchys principal value
of the improper integral presented above. If this improper integral is convergent
in the usual sense, its principal value also exists and is the integral itself. But the
converse is not true. The principal value of the considered improper integral, if it
exists, will be denoted by
Z a
f (t)dt
.
(8.1.38)
(P V )
a t t0
We shall prove now that the principal value exists, if f = f (t) satisfies the H
condition (8.1.35). We have
1
2i
Ll
1
f (t)dt
=
2i
t t0
and
Ll
f (t0 )
f (t) f (t0 )
dt +
2i
t t0
Ll
dt
t t0

f (t) f (t0 )
A |t t0 |1 with > 0.

t t0
(8.1.39)
(8.1.40)
Hence, according to the well-known convergence criterion, the improper integral

Z a
f (t) f (t0 )
dt
(8.1.41)
t t0
a
is convergent, and

f (t) f (t0 )
dt .
t t0
t0 +
a
a
(8.1.42)
According to (8.1.23) for the second integral in the right-hand side of equation
(8.1.39), we successively get
Z
f (t) f (t0 )
dt = lim
0
t t0
Ll
dt
t t0
Z
t0
f (t) f (t0 )
dt +
t t0
Z a
dt
dt
+
t
t0
t
t
0
t0 +
a
(a t0 )
a t0
.
= ln
+ ln
ln
(a t0 )
a t0
t0
(8.1.43)

Hence,
Ll
a t0
dt
.
= ln
a + t0
t t0
473
(8.1.44)
The obtained result shows that the above integral does not depend on !
Returning now to the definition of the principal value, from (8.1.39), (8.1.42)
and (8.1.44), we get
1
(P V )
2i
a
a
1
f (t)
dt =
2i
t t0
a
a
f (t0 ) a t0
f (t) f (t0 )
,
ln
dt +
a + t0
2i
t t0
t0 (a, a).
(8.1.45)
The above relation proves the existence of Cauchys principal value and, at
the same time, gives its value. In equation (8.1.45), the first integral in the righthand side is taken in the usual Riemannian sense.
It is easy to see that even if f = f (t) satisfies the H condition, our improper
integral generally is not convergent. Indeed,
lim
1 0,2 0
Z
t0 1
a
dt
+
t t0
a
t0 +2
dt
t t0
= ln
a t0
1
+ ln
a t0
2
(8.1.46)
generally does not exist!

We return now to Cauchys integral F = F (z) defined by equation (8.1.33).
First of all, we observe that for z
/ L, this integral can be expressed as
Z a
Z a
f (t) f (a)
1
dt
f (a)
dt
+
F (z) =
tz
2i a
2i a t z
Z a
f (t) f (a)
1
az
f (a)
dt,
+
ln
=
tz
2i a
a z
2i
or
F (z)
Z a
Z
f (t) f (a)
1
f (a) a dt
dt
+
tz
2i a
2i a t z
Z a
az
f (a)
1
f (t) f (a)
ln
+
dt.
2i
a z
2i a
tz
The above equations can be written also in the form

F (z) =
f (a)
ln(a z) + F1 (z)
2i
or
F (z) =
f (a)
ln(a z) + F2 (z),
2i
(8.1.47)
474
with
Z a
f (t) f (a)
1
f (a)
dt,
ln(a z) +
tz
2i a
2i
Z a
f (t) f (a)
1
f (a)
dt.
ln(a z) +
F2 (z) =
tz
2i a
2i
F1 (z) =
(8.1.48)
Since f = f (t) satisfies the H condition, F1 = F1 (z) converges to a welldefined finite limit when z converges to a; similarly, F2 = F2 (z) converges to
a well-defined limit when z converges to a. Hence, the singular behavior of F =
F (z) in the neighborhood of z = a is characterized by the behavior of the
function 1 (z) = ln(a z); similarly, the singular behavior of F = F (z) in the
neighborhood of z = a is characterized by the behavior of the function 2 (z) =
ln(a z). Moreover we have
lim (a z) ln(a z) = lim (a z) ln(a z) = 0, for any > 0.
za
za
Consequently, in the neighborhood of the singular points z = a and z = a,

the Cauchys integral F = F (z) satisfies the following inequalities:
|F (z)| <
A
A
,
and |F (z)| <
|a z|
|a z|
(8.1.49)
where A and are positive constants. The above important inequalities characterize the singular behavior of Cauchys integral in the neighborhood of the end
points a of the cut L.
Now we present and prove for our particular case the following basic theorem
due to Sohockii and Plemelj. If the function f = f (t) given on the cut L satisfies
the H condition, the limit values F + (t0 ) and F (t0 ), t0 L, of Cauchys integral
(8.1.33) exist and are given by the following equations:
Z a
f (t)dt
1
1
+
,
(P V )
F (t0 ) = f (t0 ) +
2i
2
a t t0
Z a
f (t)dt
1
1
, t0 L, t0 6= a.
(8.1.50)
(P V )
F (t0 ) = f (t0 ) +
2i
2
a t t0
To prove (8.1.50), we first suppose that z = x + iy is in the upper half plane

(y > 0) and z t0 L. We have
Z a
Z
Z a
f (t) f (t0 )
1
f (t0 ) a dt
f (t)dt
1
dt.
(8.1.51)
+
=
F (t) =
tz
2i a
2i a t z
2i a t z
We have (see Figure 8.6)

Z a
az
az
dt
+ i {arg(a z) arg(a z)}
= ln
= ln
a z
a z
a t z

a z
+ i(1 2 ).
(8.1.52)
= ln
a + z
475
y
z
-a
t0
Figure 8.6: Plemelj-Sohockii theorem.
It is easy to see that when z t0 , 1 2, 2 . Hence, according to

(8.1.52),
Z a
a t0
dt
+ i.
(8.1.53)
= ln
lim
zt0 a t z
a + t0
Let us consider now the integral

I(z) =
a
a
f (t) f (t0 )
dt
tz
a
a
f (t) f (t0 )
dt =
t t0
a
a
f (t) f (t0 ) z t0
dt.
tz
t t0
(8.1.54)
We have
I(z) =
t0
a
f (t) f (t0 ) z t0
dt +
tz
t t0
a
t0 +
t0 +
t0
f (t) f (t0 ) z t0
dt+
tz
t t0
f (t) f (t0 ) z t0
dt.
tz
t t0
(8.1.55)
We observe that in the first and the third integral |t t0 | > 0, being a
positive number. Hence, for any > 0 there exists a positive number K1 () > 0
such that

Z t0
Z a

f (t) f (t0 ) z t0
f (t) f (t0 ) z t0

< , if |z t0 | < K1 ().
dt
dt
+

tz 2
t t0
tz
t t0
t0 +
a
(8.1.56)
To evaluate the second integrals in (8.1.55), we assume that z converges to t 0 on
the normal to the cut L in t0 (see Figure 8.6). In this case, |z t0 | |t z| for
any t (a, a). Hence, since f = f (t) satisfies the H condition, we get

f (t) f (t0 ) z t0 f (t) f (t0 )
A |t t0 |1 , 0 < 1.

t t0
t z t t0
476
Accordingly, the proper integral analyzed here is convergent. Hence, for > 0
there exists K2 () > 0 such that

Z t0 +

f (t) f (t0 ) z t0

(8.1.57)
dt if K2 ().

tz 2
t t0
t0
From (8.1.56) and (8.1.57) it follows that for any positive number > 0 there
exists K() > 0 such that
|I(z)| < if |z t0 | < K() with K() = min {K1 (), K2 ()} .
(8.1.58)
The above result shows that lim I(z) = 0.

zt0
Hence, according to (8.1.54),

Z a
Z a
f (t) f (t0 )
f (t) f (t0 )
dt.
dt =
lim
zt0 a
t t0
tz
a
(8.1.59)
We recall that we have proved (8.1.59) assuming that z converges to t0 on a

particular path. It can be shown that (8.1.59) is true for any path in the upper
half plane.
Using (8.1.51), (8.1.53) and (8.1.59), we get
Z a
f (t) f (t0 )
1
a t0
1
1
dt.
(8.1.60)
+
ln
F + (t0 ) = f (t0 ) +
t t0
2i a
2i a + t0
2
Comparing (8.1.45) and (8.1.60), we get the first Plemelj-Sohockii formula

(8.1.50).
To prove the second relation (8.1.50), we suppose that z = x + iy is in the
lower half plane (y < 0) and z t0 L. This case is shown in Figure 8.7.
-a
z
Figure 8.7: Plemelj-Sohockii theorem, in the lower half plane (y < 0).
We have again
Z
a
a

a z
dt
+ i(1 2 ),
= ln
a + z
tz
(8.1.61)
477
but now 1 and 2 are the angles given in Figure 8.7.

As is easy to see, when z t0 , 1 0 and 2 . Hence, according to
(8.1.61),
Z a
a t0
dt
i.
(8.1.62)
= ln
lim
zt0 a t z
a + t0
Using the above equation and repeating the reasoning made in the first case,
we get the second Plemelj-Sohockii formula (8.1.50).
Let us observe that these formulas can be written in the following equivalent
and useful form:
F + (t0 ) F (t0 ) = f (t0 )
Z a
f (t)dt
1
+
.
F (t0 ) F (t0 ) = (P V )
i
a t t0
(8.1.63)
Let us assume now that F = F (z) is a function given in C 0 = C L and has

the following properties:
(1) F = F (z) is holomorphic in C 0 = C L.
(2) For any t (a, a) there exist the limit values F + (t) and F (t) and
they are path independent.
(3) In the neighborhood of the end points a of the cut L, the function
F = F (z) satisfies the inequality
|F (z)| <
A
, A > 0, 0 < 1,
|z c|
(8.1.64)
where c can be a or a, and A, are given positive constants.

We can formulate the Riemann-Hilbert or the conjugation problem for the
cut L in the following way:
Find the function F = F (z) having the properties (1)(3) and which satisfies,
on the cut L, the following boundary condition:
F + (t) + F (t) = f (t) on L, t 6= a,
(8.1.65)
where f = f (t) is a function given on L and which satisfies the H condition.

First, we try to solve a more simple problem.
Find the function F = F (z) having the properties (1)(3) and which satisfies,
on the cut L, the following boundary condition:
F + (t) F (t) = f (t) on L.
(8.1.66)
This problem can be solved using Cauchys integral. Let us consider the
function
Z a
f (t)dt
1
.
(8.1.67)
F0 = F0 (z) =
2i a t z
478
As we already know, F0 = F0 (z) is a holomorphic function in C 0 and, according to (8.1.49), satisfies the restriction (8.1.64). Also, according to the PlemeljSohockii theorem and to the first equation (8.1.63), F0+ (t), F0 (t) exists and satisfies the condition (8.1.66). Consequently, the Cauchy integral (8.1.67) represents
a solution of our boundary value problem (8.1.66). Let us consider the function
F1 (z) = F (z) F0 (z),
(8.1.68)
where F = F (z) is the searched general solution of the boundary value problem
(8.1.66). According to (8.1.66) and (8.1.68), we must have
F1+ (t) F1 (t) = 0 on L.
(8.1.69)
Hence, the upper and lower boundary values of the function F = F1 (z) are
equal on the cut. Consequently, if we assume that the function F1 = F1 (z) is
defined on the cut by its boundary values, the function obtained in this way will
be holomorphic in the whole complex plane C, except in the end points a of the
cut.
We recall now the condition (8.1.64). Since F0 = F0 (z) satisfies this restriction, F1 = F1 (z) must have the same property; i.e. we must have
|F (z)| <
A
, 0 < 1.
|z c|
(8.1.70)
According to this inequality, (z c)F1 (z) is bounded in the neighborhood

of the end points. Hence, in these points, the product (z c)F1 (z) has only an
apparent singularity which can be eliminated. Consequently, we can assume that
the function F2 (z) = (z c)F1 (z) is holomorphic in the whole complex plane
C. Accordingly, F1 = F1 (z) can have, at most, a first order pole in C. But,
according to (8.1.70), this pole actually is missing since (z c)F1 (z) 0 if z c.
Consequently, we can conclude that F1 = F1 (z) is holomorphic in the whole
complex plane. But in this case, according to Liouvilles theorem, F1 = F1 (z)
must be a complex constant K.
Accordingly, the general solution of the boundary value problem (8.1.66) is
Z a
f (t)dt
1
+ K,
(8.1.71)
F (z) =
2i a t z
where K is an arbitrary complex number.

If we assume that
lim F (z) = 0,
z
(8.1.72)
we must take K = 0.
Hence, the solution of the boundary value problem (8.1.66) and (8.1.72),
having the properties (1)(3) is unique and is given by Cauchys integral
Z a
f (t)dt
1
.
(8.1.73)
F (z) =
2i a t z
479
We return now to the Riemann-Hilbert problem (8.1.65). We try to find a

particular solution of this problem using Plemelj function
X(z) =
1
1
.
=
2
Y (z)
z a2
(8.1.74)
As we already have done, we select that branch of the square root that satisfies
the property (8.1.26). In this case, according to (8.1.29)(8.1.31), we get
1
,
X + (t) =
2
i a t2
X (t) =
and
on L
i a2 t2
X + (t) + X (t) = 0 on L.
(8.1.75)
(8.1.76)
At the same time, we can see that X = X(z) satisfies the property
|X(z)| <
A
, A > 0, 0 < 1
|z c|
(8.1.77)
in the neighborhood of the point c, which can be a or a, the end points of the
cut L.
Using the property (8.1.76), we can replace the boundary condition (8.1.65)
by the equivalent restriction
f (t)
F (t)
F + (t)
on L.
= +
+
X (t)
X (t) X (t)
(8.1.78)
If we introduce the function

(z) =
F (z)
,
X(z)
(8.1.79)
we can see that = (z) is holomorphic in C 0 = C L and satisfies the jump

condition
+ (t) (t) =
f (t)
on L.
X + (t)
Comparing this relation with equations (8.1.66) and using (8.1.71), we can
conclude that the general solution of the boundary value problem (8.1.78) is
(z) =
1
2i
a
a
f (t)
dt + K.
X + (t)(t z)
(8.1.80)
480
Returning now to the relation (8.1.79), we get the general solution of the
Riemann-Hilbert problem (8.1.65):
Z
f (t)
X(z) a
dt + KX(z),
(8.1.81)
F (z) =
+
2i a X (t)(t z)
where K is an arbitrary complex constant.

From the expression (8.1.74) of Plemelj function, X = X(z), it follows that
F = F (z) satisfies the relation
lim F (z) = 0.
Without additional conditions, the constant K cannot be determined.

Let us observe that the function
Z
p
G(z) = X(z)dz = ln(z + z 2 a2 )
(8.1.82)
(8.1.83)
converges to when z converges to .

Let us denote by = (z) the indefinite integral of the function F = F (z);
i.e.
Z
(z) =
F (z)dz
(8.1.84)
and let us assume that
lim (z) = 0.
(8.1.85)
If we require this supplementary restriction, the above results show that it

can be satisfied if and only if K = 0.
Thus, we can conclude that the unique solution of the Riemann-Hilbert problem, satisfying the supplementary condition (8.1.84), (8.1.85), is given by the relation
Z
f (t)
X(z) a
dt.
(8.1.86)
F (z) =
2i a X + (t)(t z)
In problems concerning the behavior of an infinite elastic solid containing a

right crack, we shall use just the above obtained solution.
We shall show now that if f = f (t) is a polynomial of degree m, the integral
in (8.1.86) can be evaluated. To see how this can be done, we consider a regular
closed curve containing the cut L, such that point z is in the domain B , the
unbounded region limited by , as in Figure 8.8. The bounded region limited by
will be designed by B + . The sense of integration on is also indicated in Figure
8.8.
Let us consider the integral
Z
f (t)dt
1
,
(8.1.87)
=(z) =
2i X(t)(t z)
481
-a
x
a
Figure 8.8: The cut L and the closed curve .
where X(z) = 1/ z 2 a2 is the Plemelj function; i.e. that holomorphic branch

which satisfies the restriction (8.1.26) and f = f (z) is a polynomial of degree m
given in C.
In the unbounded domain B , the function f (z)/X(z) can be developed in
the following form:
b2
b1
f (z)
+ 2 + ...,
= am+1 z m+1 + am z m + ... + a0 +
z
z
X(z)
(8.1.88)
where am+1 , am , ..., a0 , b1 , b2 , ... are complex numbers. Let us consider the function
h = h(z) =
b2
b1
+ 2 + ... .
z
z
(8.1.89)
This function is holomorphic in the unbounded domain B and

h() = lim h(z) = 0.
z
(8.1.90)
Also, from (8.1.87), we get

f (z)
= am+1 z m+1 + am z m + ... + a0 + h(z).
X(z)
Thus, from (8.1.87), it results

Z
Z
h(t)dt
1
am+1 z m+1 + am z m + ... + a0
1
.
dt +
=(z) =
2i t z
tz
2i
(8.1.91)
(8.1.92)
Obviously, p = p(z) = am+1 z m+1 + am z m + ... + a0 is a holomorphic function

in the bounded domain B + . Hence, according to Cauchys fundamental theorem
(see Equation (8.1.9)), we have
Z
am+1 z m+1 + am z m + ... + a0
1
dt = 0 for z B .
(8.1.93)
tz
2i
482
Also, we know that h = h(z) is holomorphic in the unbounded domain B

and is zero at infinity. Hence, according to Cauchys fundamental formula,
Z
h(t)dt
1
= h(z) for z B .
(8.1.94)
2i t z
Now, from (8.1.91)(8.1.94) we can conclude that

Z
f (z)
f (t)dt
1
am+1 z m+1 am z m ... a0 , for z B .
=
=(z) =
X(z)
2i X + (t)(t z)
(8.1.95)
Let us assume now that the closed curve converges to the cut L (see Figure
8.8). In this way, we obtain

Z a
Z a
f (t)dt
f (t)dt
1
.
+
=(z) =
+
X (t)(t z)
2i
a
a X (t)(t z)
We use now the relation (8.1.76) and the above equation becomes
Z a
f (t)dt
1
.
=(z) =
+
i a X (t)(t z)
Comparing (8.1.95) and the last equation, finally, we get

Z a
1 f (z)
f (t)dt
1
m+1
m
am+1 z
am z ... a0 .
=
2 X(z)
2i a X + (t)(t z)
(8.1.96)
Let us suppose now that

f (t) = c = const. for a < t < a.
(8.1.97)
As is easy to see in this special case, m = 0, a1 = c, a0 = 0 and from (8.1.96),

we get

Z a
1
c
dt
c
z .
(8.1.98)
=
2 X(z)
2i a X + (t)(t z)
Hence, if (8.1.97) takes place, the solution F = F (z) of the Riemann-Hilbert

problem, which also satisfies the supplementary restriction (8.1.84), (8.1.85) is
given by the following equation:

z
c
,
(8.1.99)
1
F (z) =
2
z 2 a2
since X(z) = z21a2 .

Ending this Section, let us consider a complex valued function f = f (z) given
in C = C L and let us define the function f = f (z) by the following relation:
f (z) = f (z).
(8.1.100)
483
8.2. REPRESENTATION OF THE INCREMENTAL FIELDS
We suppose that, on the cut L, there exist the limits f + (t) and f (t). In
+
this case, we can conclude that there exist also the limits f (t) and f (t) on L.
Moreover, as can be seen using (8.1.100), we have
+
f (t) = f (t)
and
f (t) = f + (t) on L.
(8.1.101)
Finally, let us assume that the real valued function F = F (x, y) is defined in
C 0 = C L by the equation
F (x, y) = 2Ref (z) = f (z) + f (z).
(8.1.102)
According to (8.1.101) for the limit values F + (t) and F (t) on L, we get
F + (t) = f + (t) + f (t)
and
F (t) = f (t) + f (t) on L.
(8.1.103)
The above relations are useful to solve boundary value problems concerning
a crack and if we look for the solution by representation of the elastic fields by
complex potentials.
8.2
Representation of the incremental fields
The representation of elastic fields by complex potentials in the classical

case of anisotropic elastic bodies was given by Leknitskii [8.2]. This representation
was used, for instance, by Sih and Leibowitz [8.3] to analyze problems concerning
the existence of a crack in an anisotropic elastic solid. The results obtained by
Leknitskii were generalized for the case of a prestressed material by Guz [8.4],[8.5],
who also has analyzed the influence of the initial stresses on the behavior of a solid
body containing cracks. In what follows, we present Guzs representation of the
incremental fields by complex potentials.
We assume that the orthotropic, initial deformed composite material is in
plane state relative to the x1 x2 plane. As we already know in this case, the incremental displacement field can be expressed by two real potentials (1) , (2) ,
using Guzs formulas (5.6.53). These potentials must satisfy equations (5.6.56).
The parameters 12 , 22 , appearing in equations (5.6.56), are the roots of the algebraic equation (5.6.57) and are given by the relation (5.6.59). We assume 12 6= 22 .
The quantities A and B in (5.6.59) depend on the instantaneous elasticities and
are given by the relation (5.6.58). The instantaneous elasticities at their term, are
expressed by the elasticities and initial stresses by equations (5.6.47).
484
In what follows, we assume (2) (x1 , x2 ) 0 and, in order to simplify the

writing, we use the notation (1) (x1 , x2 ) = (x1 , x2 ).
According to (5.6.56), = (x1 , x2 ) must satisfy equation

2
2
2
2
2
2
(8.2.1)
+ 2 2 = 0, 12 6= 22 .
+ 1 2
x1
x22
x1
x22
According to (5.6.53), the incremental displacement fields u1 and u2 are expressed in terms of = (1) by the relations
u1 = (1122 + 1212 ) ,12 u2 = 1111 ,11+ 2112 ,22 .
(8.2.2)
Let us introduce now the quantities 1 and 2 defined by

1 = 12 ,
2 = 22 .
(8.2.3)
Now, the differential equation (8.2.1) becomes

2
2
2
= 0.
1 2
2
x21
x22
x1
x22
(8.2.4)
Also, from (5.6.57) and (8.2.3), it follows that 1 and 2 satisfy the following
algebraic equation:
2 + 2A + B = 0.
(8.2.5)
Hence,
1 = A
A2 B, 2 = A +
A2 B.
(8.2.6)
Also, it can be seen that the differential equation (8.2.4) can be written in
the following equivalent form:

= 0.
+ 2
2
+ 1
1
x1
x2
x1
x2
x1
x1 x2
x2
(8.2.7)
Let us introduce now the parameters 21 and 22 defined by equations
21 = 1 , 22 = 2 .
(8.2.8)
From (8.2.5), we can conclude that 1 and 2 satisfy the algebraic equation
4 + 2A2 + B = 0.
(8.2.9)
We assume that the initial deformed equilibrium configuration of the body is

locally stable. Also, we compare equation (8.2.9) with the relation (5.6.70). Thus,
we can conclude that equation (8.2.9) cannot have real roots (see Theorem given
in Section 5.6). Consequently, from (8.2.8) we can conclude that the roots 1 and
2 must satisfy one of the following two conditions:
(1) Im j 6= 0 or (2) Im j = 0 and Re j < 0, j = 1, 2.
(8.2.10)
485
We denote by 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , the complex roots of the equation (8.2.9). These

roots are determined by the following rule:
If Im j 6= 0, we have 1 = 2 and we take
(8.2.11)
1 = 1 , 2 = 2 , 3 = 2 = 1 , 4 = 1 = 2 .
If Im j = 0 and Re j < 0, we take
1 = 1 , 2 = 2 , 3 = 1 = 1 , 4 = 2 = 2 .
(8.2.12)
Using (8.2.11) and (8.2.12), we can see that in both situations, equation (8.2.7)
can be expressed in the following equivalent form:

1
x1
x2

1
x1
x2

2
x1
x2

2
x1
x2
1 6= 2 .
= 0,
(8.2.13)
We introduce now the independent complex variables

z1 = x 1 + 1 x 2 , z 2 = x 1 + 2 x 2 .
(8.2.14)
From these relations, we get
z 1 = x 1 + 1 x2 , z 2 = x 1 + 2 x2 .
(8.2.15)
Since 1 6= 2 , we can see now that the differential equation (8.2.13) can be
expressed in the following equivalent form:
4
= 0.
z1 z 1 z2 z 2
(8.2.16)
The general solution of this equation is

= (x1 , x2 ) = f1 (z1 ) + g1 (z 1 ) + f2 (z2 ) + g2 (z 2 ),
(8.2.17)
where fj = fj (zj ) and gj = gj (z j ), j = 1, 2, are arbitrary analytic functions of the

complex variables zj and z j , respectively.
We recall now that = (x1 , x2 ) is a real valued function. Hence, according
to (8.1.17), we must have gj (z j ) = fj (zj ), j = 1, 2.
Thus, we can conclude that the real displacement potential = (x1 , x2 ),
satisfying the differential equation (8.2.1) can be expressed in terms of two arbitrary analytic functions f1 = f1 (z1 ) and f2 = f2 (z2 ), by the following relation due
to Guz [8.4]:
= (x1 , x2 )
f1 (z1 ) + f1 (z1 ) + f2 (z2 ) + f2 (z2 )
2Re {f1 (z1 ) + f2 (z2 )} .
(8.2.18)
486

Following Guz [8.3], let us introduce now the analytical functions
Fj (zj ) = (1122 + 1212 ) fj (zj ), j = 1, 2.
(8.2.19)
Thus, from (8.2.18), we get

= (x1 , x2 ) = 2 (1122 + 1212 )
Re {F1 (z1 ) + F2 (z2 )} .
(8.2.20)
We denote, by a prime, the derivative of a function with respect to the variable

on which that function depends; i.e.
Fj0 (zj ) =
dFj
(zj ), j = 1, 2.
dzj
(8.2.21)
We return now to the relations (8.2.2) expressing u1, u2 through , given by

equation(8.2.20). Using the chain rule from (8.2.2) and (8.2.20), we get
u1 = 2Re {1 F100 (z1 ) + 2 F200 (z2 )} ,

2
Re 1111 + 21 2112 F100 (z1 ) + 1111 + 22 2112 F200 (z2 ) .
(1122 + 1212 )
(8.2.22)
Now, we introduce the functions j = j (zj ), j = 1, 2, by the following rule:
u2 =
j (zj ) = uj Bj (1122 + 1212 )
Fj00 (zj ),
(8.2.23)
where
Bj
=
=
2222 2112 2j + 1111 2222 1122 (1122 + 1212 )
1111 1221 2
j 2112 1221 + 1212 (1122 + 1212 ). (8.2.24)
In order to obtain the second expression of Bj , we have used the fact that j
satisfy the algebraic equation (8.2.9), A and B being given by the relation (5.6.58).
Now, taking into account the relation (8.2.22) and the incremental constitutive equations (5.6.43), after long but elementary computations, we get the representation of the incremental fields by two arbitrary analytic complex potentials
j = j (zj ), j = 1, 2 :
22 = 2Re {01 (z1 ) + 02 (z2 )} ,
(8.2.25)
21 = 2Re {a1 1 01 (z1 ) + a2 2 02 (z2 )} ,
(8.2.26)
aj =
2112 1122 2j 1111 1212

,
Bj 2j
(8.2.27)
12 = 2Re {1 01 (z1 ) + 2 02 (z2 )} ,

11 = 2Re a1 21 01 (z1 ) + a2 22 02 (z2 ) ,
u1 = 2Re {b1 1 (z1 ) + b2 2 (z2 )} ,
bj =
1122 + 1212
,
Bj
u2 = 2Re {c1 1 (z1 ) + c2 2 (z2 )} ,

cj =
2112 2j + 1111
.
B j j
487
(8.2.28)
(8.2.29)
(8.2.30)
(8.2.31)
(8.2.32)
(8.2.33)
These relations were first given by Guz [8.4].

Let us assume now that orthotropic initial deformed composite material is
in an antiplane state relative to the x1 x2 plane. In this case, the incremental
displacement field u3 = u3 (x1 x2 ) must satisfy the differential equation (5.6.28)2 .
We assume that the initial deformed equilibrium configuration of the composite is
locally stable. Hence, the involved instantaneous elasticities 1331 and 2332 must
satisfy the restrictions
1331 , 2332 > 0.
Consequently, the equilibrium equation (5.6.28)2 can be expressed in the equivalent
form
u3,22 +
1331
u3,11 = 0.
2332
Let us introduce the parameter 3 defined by the equation

r
1331
.
3 = i
2332
(8.2.34)
(8.2.35)
According to the assumed properties of the involved instantaneous elasticities, 3 is an imaginary number and
r
1331
.
(8.2.36)
3 = i
2332
Accordingly, the differential equation (8.2.34) can be written in the following

equivalent form:
488

3
x1
x2

3
x1
x2
u3 = 0.
(8.2.37)
Let us introduce the complex variable z3 defined by the equation

z3 = x 1 + 3 x 2 .
(8.2.38)
Using this variable, we can write equation (8.2.37) in the following equivalent
form:
2 u3
= 0.
(8.2.39)
z3 z 3
Accordingly,
u3 = u3 (x1 , x2 ) = f3 (z3 ) + f3 (z3 ) = 2Ref3 (z3 ),
(8.2.40)
where f3 = f3 (z3 ) is an arbitrary analytic function of the complex variable z3 .

To express the involved incremental nominal stresses 23 and 13 , we use the
incremental constitutive equations (5.6.27). In this way, from (8.2.38) and (8.2.40),
we get
23 = 22332 Re3 f30 (z3 ),
13 = 21331 Ref30 (z3 ).
(8.2.41)
We introduce now the function

3 (z3 ) = 2332 3 f3 (z3 ).
(8.2.42)
Thus, from (8.2.40) and (8.2.41), we get

23 = 2Re03 (z3 ),
13 = 2Re3 03 (z3 ),
1
u3 = 22332
Re1
3 3 (z3 ).
(8.2.43)
(8.2.44)
The above relations, due to Guz [8.4], express the incremental fields corresponding to the antiplane state, by a single complex potential 3 = 3 (z3 )
depending on the complex variable z3 = x1 + 3 x2 .
The above representation reduces to that given by Lekhnitski [8.2] if the
initial applied deformations and stresses are vanishing.
In what follows, we shall use Guzs results to study the incremental elastic
state in an infinite, prestressed composite containing a crack.
489
8.3. THE OPENING, SLIDING AND TEARING MODES
8.3
The opening, sliding and tearing modes
We assume that the whole space is occupied by an initial deformed orthotropic

material. We suppose that the composite contains a crack of length 2a > 0 situated
on the x1 axis and has infinite extent in the direction of the x3 axis. As usual in
continuum mechanics, we suppose that the crack is represented as a cut having
two faces.
We assume that the initial deformed equilibrium configuration of the body
is homogeneous and locally stable.
As was stressed by Guz [8.4] to ensure homogeneity of the initial deformed,
prestressed equilibrium configuration, we must suppose that the initial applied
stress satisfies the following restriction (see Figure 8.9):
21 = 22 = 31 = 0.
(8.3.1)
Indeed, as is well known from the classical fracture mechanics (see for instance
[8.2]), if the above restriction is not fulfilled, that is, if nonvanishing surface forces
act on the faces of the crack, a nonhomogeneous elastic state is produced in the
material!
With the above given conditions, we shall analyze successively three possible
cases, corresponding to the three modes, known in classical fracture mechanics.
These problems were analyzed first by Guz [8.4]. The method to obtain the corresponding incremental elastic states is that due to Soos [8.6].
First we formulate and solve the crack problem corresponding to the first,
opening mode.
We assume that on the two faces of the crack, the incremental tangential
forces are vanishing. We assume also that on the upper face of the crack |x 1 | <
a, x2 = 0+ is given an incremental normal force, and on the lower face |x1 | <
a, x2 = 0 , a symmetrically applied incremental normal force acts as shown in
Figure 8.9.
x2
x1
-a
x3
Figure 8.9: Crack acted by symmetrical normal load.
490
According to the assumptions made, the incremental state of the body is

a plane state relative to the plane x1 x2 . The involved nominal stresses 21 and
22 must satisfy the following boundary conditions on the two faces of the crack
(represented as a cut):
21 (x1, 0+ ) = 21 (x1, 0 ) = 0 for |x1 | < a,
22 (x1, 0+ ) = 22 (x1, 0 ) = g(x1 ) for |x1 | < a.
(8.3.2)
(8.3.3)
In (8.3.3), g = g(x1 ) is the given value of the incremental normal force. We

assume that this function satisfies the H condition.
The incremental displacement and nominal stresses are vanishing at large
distances from the crack. Hence, the following conditions must be satisfied:
lim {u (x1 , x2 ), (x1 , x2 )} = 0
for r =
x21 + x22 and , = 1, 2.
In order to find the incremental state, we use Guzs representation (8.2.25)

(8.2.33).
First, we analyze the consequences of the above restrictions which must be
satisfied at large distances from the crack.
According to the relations (8.2.30) and (8.2.32), the complex potentials j =
j (zj ) must satisfy the condition
lim j (zj ) = 0, j = 1, 2.
(8.3.4)
|zj |
For further use, we introduce the potentials

j (zj ) = 0j (zj ), j = 1, 2.
(8.3.5)
Using again the condition imposed at large distances from the crack and taking into account the relations (8.2.25), (8.2.26), (8.2.28), (8.2.29), we can conclude
that the function j = j (zj ) must satisfy the restriction
lim j (zj ) = 0, j = 1, 2.
(8.3.6)
|zj |
Now we return to the condition (8.3.2) and (8.3.3) imposed on the faces
of the crack. We use the complex representations (8.2.25) and (8.2.26) of the
incremental nominal stresses 22 and 21 . Also, we take into account the general
relations (8.1.100)(8.1.103) concerning the properties of the limit values. In this
way, we can see that, on the two faces of the crack, the following conditions must
be satisfied:
+
a1 1 +
1 (x1 ) + a2 2 2 (x1 ) + a1 1 1 (x1 ) + a2 2 2 (x1 ) = 0,

+
a1 1
1 (x1 ) + a2 2 2 (x1 ) + a1 1 1 (x1 ) + a2 2 2 (x1 ) = 0, |x1 | < a,
and
491
(8.3.7)
+
+
1 (x1 ) + 2 (x1 ) + 1 (x1 ) + 2 (x1 ) = g(x1 ),
1 (x1 ) + 2 (x1 ) + 1 (x1 ) + 2 (x1 ) = g(x1 ), |x1 | < a.
(8.3.8)
First, we shall establish the consequences of the boundary condition (8.3.7).

Adding and subtracting, we get
a1 1 1 + a 2 2 2 + a 1 1 1 + a 2 2 2
+

+ a1 1 1 + a 2 2 2 + a 1 1 1 + a 2 2 2 = 0
+
a1 1 1 + a 2 2 2 a 1 1 1 a 2 2 2

a1 1 1 + a2 2 2 a1 1 1 a2 2 2 = 0.
(8.3.9)
The above relations must be satisfied for |x1 | < a, but this argument was
omitted for simplicity.
The second equation shows that the analytic function
a1 1 1 (z) + a2 2 2 (z) a1 1 1 (z) a2 2 2 (z),
depending on the complex variable z = x + iy, has a null-jump across the cut L
representing the crack. Hence, for this function, we have a homogeneous boundary
value problem of type (8.1.66), corresponding to f (t) 0 on L. The general
solution of this problem, which also satisfy the condition (8.3.6), is given by the
relation (8.1.73). Consequently, we shall have
a1 1 1 (z) + a2 2 2 (z) a1 1 1 (z) a2 2 2 (z) = 0 for any z = x + iy. (8.3.10)
The first boundary condition (8.3.9) represents a homogeneous RiemannHilbert problem for the analytic function
a1 1 1 (z) + a2 2 2 (z) + a1 1 1 (z) + a2 2 2 (z),
depending on the complex variable z = x + iy. To see this, we must compare
(8.3.9) and equation (8.1.65). In this way we can see that, indeed, f (t) 0 on L in
our Riemann-Hilbert problem. The general solution of our problem, which satisfies
also the condition (8.3.4), is given by the equation (8.1.86). Hence, we must have:
a1 1 1 (z) + a2 2 2 (z) + a1 1 1 (z) + a2 2 2 (z) = 0 for any z = x1 + ix2 .
(8.3.11)
From the equations (8.3.10) and (8.3.11), we get
a1 1 1 (z) + a2 2 2 (z) = 0, a1 1 1 (z) + a2 2 2 (z) = 0 for any z = x1 + ix2 .
(8.3.12)
492

Particularly, we shall have
a1 1 1 (x1 , 0) + a2 2 2 (x1 , 0) = 0, a1 1 1 (x1 , 0) + a2 2 2 (x1 , 0) = 0
for any < x1 < .
(8.3.13)
Hence, in our case, the involved upper and lower limits have the same values
on the cut L (representing the cut).
The above equations can be used to eliminate 2 = 2 (z2 ) from the boundary
conditions (8.3.8). In this way, we get
+
1 (x1 ) + 1 (x1 ) = g(x1 ),
+
1 (x1 ) + 1 (x1 ) = g(x1 ), |x1 | < a,
(8.3.14)
a2 2 a 1 1
.
a2 2
(8.3.15)
with
=
Adding and subtracting in (8.3.14) lead to

+
1 (x1 ) + 1 (x1 ) + 1 (x1 ) + 1 (x1 ) = 2g(x1 ),

+
1 (x1 ) 1 (x1 ) 1 (x1 ) 1 (x1 ) = 0, |x1 | < a.
(8.3.16)
The first relation represents a nonhomogeneous Hilbert-Riemann problem.

The general solution, satisfying the conditions imposed at large distances from the
crack, is given by the relation (8.1.86). Thus, we get
Z
g(t)dt
X(z1 ) a
.
(8.3.17)
1 (z1 ) + 1 (z1 ) =
+ (t)(t z)
X
i
a
The second relation represents a homogeneous jump problem. The general

solution, satisfying the condition imposed at large distances from the crack is
given by the relation (8.1.73). Thus, we get
1 (z1 ) 1 (z1 ) = 0.
(8.3.18)
Now, from the system (8.3.17) and (8.3.18), we can obtain the complex potential 1 = 1 (z1 ). Then, using equation (8.3.12)1 , we get the second complex
potential 2 = 2 (z2 ). Thus, after elementary computations, we can conclude
that the complex potentials are given by the following relations:
Z
a2 2 X(z1 ) a
g(t)dt
,
+ (t)(t z )
2i
X
1
a
Z
a1 1 X(z2 ) a
g(t)dt
2 (z2 ) = 02 (z2 ) =
,
+ (t)(t z )
2i
X
2
a
1 (z1 ) = 01 (z1 ) =
(8.3.19)
493

where is given by the equation
= a 2 2 a 1 1 .
(8.3.20)
If we use the expression (8.1.74) of the Plemelj function X = X(z) and the
relation (8.1.75) giving its limit value X + (t), we can express the relations (8.3.19)
in the following equivalent form:
Z a
g(t) a2 t2
a2 2
0
p
dt,
1 (z1 ) = 1 (z1 ) =
t z1
2 z12 a2 a
Z a
g(t) a2 t2
a1 1
0
p
dt.
(8.3.21)
2 (z2 ) = 2 (z2 ) =
t z2
2 z22 a2 a
In the next Section, we shall analyze the most important properties of the
obtained solution.
For the moment, we shall formulate and solve the crack problem corresponding to the second, sliding mode. More exactly, we assume that the incremental
normal forces acting on the two faces of the crack are vanishing. Also, we suppose that on the two faces of the crack, antisymmetrically applied incremental
tangential forces act in the direction of the x1 axis, as shown in Figure 8.10.
x
-a
Figure 8.10: Crack acted by antisymmetrical tangential load.

According to the assumptions made, the incremental state of the body is
again a plane state relative to the plane x1 x2 . Now the involved incremental nominal stresses 21 and 22 must satisfy the following boundary conditions on the two
faces of the crack:
21 (x1 , 0+ ) = 21 (x1 , 0 ) = h(x1 ) for |x1 | < a,
22 (x1 , 0+ ) = 22 (x1 , 0 ) = 0 for |x1 | < a.
(8.3.22)
(8.3.23)
Here, h = h(x1 ) is the given incremental tangential force. We assume that

this function satisfies the H conditions.
494
We assume again that the incremental displacement field and the incremental
nominal stress is vanishing at large distances from the crack. Hence, the involved
complex potentials must satisfy the restrictions (8.3.4) and (8.3.6).
In order to solve the problem, we use again Guzs representation (8.2.25)
(8.2.33). According to (8.2.25), (8.2.26) and (8.3.22), (8.3.23), we can conclude
that the complex potentials j = j (zj ), j = 1, 2, 3 must satisfy the following
boundary conditions:
+
+
1 (x1 ) + 2 (x1 ) + 1 (x1 ) + 2 (x1 ) = 0,
1 (x1 ) + 2 (x1 ) + 1 (x1 ) + 2 (x1 ) = 0, |x1 | < a,
(8.3.24)
and
+
a1 1 +
1 (x1 ) + a2 2 2 (x1 ) + a1 1 1 (x1 ) + a2 2 2 (x1 ) = h(x1 ),
a1 1
1 (x1 ) + a2 2 2 (x1 ) + a1 1 1 (x1 ) + a2 2 2 (x1 ) = h(x1 ), |x1 | < a.
(8.3.25)
As before, from the conditions (8.3.24), we can conclude that

1 (z) + 2 (z) = 0,
1 (z) + 2 (z) = 0, for any z = x + iy.
(8.3.26)
Particularly, we shall have

1 (x1 , 0) + 2 (x1 , 0) = 0,
1 (x1, 0) + 2 (x1 , 0) = 0, for < x1 < .
(8.3.27)
The above equations can be used to eliminate 2 = 2 (z2 ) from the boundary
conditions (8.3.26). Thus, we get
+
1 (x1 ) + 1 (x1 ) = h(x1 ),
+
1 (x1 ) + 1 (x1 ) = h(x1 ), |x1 | < a,
being given by equation(8.3.20).

Using the same approach as before, finally, we get
Z
h(t)dt
X(z1 ) a
1 (z1 ) =
,
2i a X + (t)(t z1 )
Z
X(z2 ) a
h(t)dt
2 (z2 ) =
.
2i a X + (t)(t z2 )
(8.3.28)
(8.3.29)
Using again (8.1.74) and (8.1.75), the obtained solution can be expressed in
the following equivalent form:
Z a
1
h(t) a2 t2
0
p
1 (z1 ) = 1 (z1 ) =
dt,
t z1
2 z22 a2 a
Z a
1
h(t) a2 t2
0
p
2 (z2 ) = 2 (z2 ) =
dt.
(8.3.30)
t z2
2 z12 a2 a
495
In the next Section, we shall analyze the most important properties of the
obtained solution.
Now we shall formulate and solve the crack problem corresponding to the
third tearing mode.
We assume that on the two faces of the crack only tangential forces act,
antisymmetrically distributed relative to the plane x2 = 0 and having the direction
of the x3 axis.
According to the assumptions made, the incremental state of the composite
will be an antiplane state relative to the x1 x2 plane. The involved nominal stress
23 must satisfy the following boundary condition on the two faces of the crack:
23 (x1 , 0+ ) = 23 (x1 , 0 ) = k(x1 ) for |x1 | < a.
(8.3.31)
In (8.3.31), k = k(x1 ) is the given value of the applied incremental tangential

surface force. We suppose that this function satisfies the H condition.
At large distances from the crack, we must have
lim {u3 (x1 , x2 ), 13 (x1 , x2 ), 23 (x1 , x2 )} = 0,
r=
x21 + x22 .
(8.3.32)
In order to obtain the solution, we use Guzs representation formulas (8.2.43)

and (8.2.44) corresponding to the antiplane state.
From these relations and from (8.3.31), we can conclude that on the two faces
of the crack the complex potential
3 (z3 ) = 03 (z3 )
(8.3.33)
must satisfy the following boundary conditions:
+
3 (x1 ) + 3 (x1 ) = k(x1 ),
+
3 (x1 ) + 3 (x1 ) = k(x1 ), for |x1 | < a.
(8.3.34)
Also, from (8.3.32), we can see that at large distances from the crack the
following condition must be satisfied:
lim {3 (z3 ), 3 (z3 )} = 0.
|z3 |
(8.3.35)
Adding and subtracting in (8.3.34), we get the equivalent conditions

+
3 + 3 (x1 ) + 3 + 3 (x1 ) = 2k (x1 ) ,

+
(8.3.36)
3 3 (x1 ) 3 3 (x1 ) = 0, |x1 | < a.
From the second condition, we get
3 (z3 ) = 3 (z3 ) for any z3 = x1 + 3 x2 .
(8.3.37)
496

Thus, the first condition (8.3.36) gives
Z
k(t)
X(z3 ) a
0
dt.
3 (z3 ) = 3 (z3 ) =
2i a X + (t)(t z3 )
(8.3.38)
Obviously, the obtained result can be expressed in the following equivalent

form:
Z a 2
a t2 k(t)
1
0
p
dt.
(8.3.39)
3 (z3 ) = 3 (z3 ) =
t z3
2 z32 a2 a
An analysis of the properties of the obtained solution will be made in the

next Section.
8.4
Asymptotic behavior of the incremental fields
We begin our analysis with the case of symmetrically, distributed normal

forces, on the face of the crack; i.e. with the first mode. In this case, the involved
complex potentials are given by the relation (8.3.19) or (8.3.21).
From equations (8.2.26) and (8.3.19)(8.3.21), we can conclude that
21 (x1 , 0) = 0 for < x1 < .
(8.4.1)
That is, the incremental tangential nominal stress 21 vanishes on the whole
x1 axis containing the crack. A similar result is valuable for an orthotropic material
without initial stresses.
In order to determine the incremental normal displacement u2 (x1 , x2 ) on the
x1 axis for |x1 | > a, we shall use Guzs representation (8.2.30) and the solution
(8.3.21). Thus, we get
u2
(x1 , x2 ) = 2Re{c1 01 (z1 ) + c2 02 (z2 )};
x1
hence,
1
c 2 a1 1 c 1 a2 2
u2
) p 2
(x1 , 0) = Re(
x1
x1 a 2
Za
g(t) a2 t2
dt.
t x1
(8.4.2)
2
According to (8.4.2), the value of u
x1 for |x1 | > a and x2 = 0 depends on
c1 a2 2
.
the nature of the number c2 a1 1
Consequently, we must evaluate this number. To this end, we use the relations
(8.2.24), (8.2.27), (2.2.33) and (2.3.20). After elementary but long manipulations,
we get
(2 1 )f
2 1
.
f= 2 2
1 2 B 1 B 2
21 22 B1 B2
(8.4.3)
8.4. ASYMPTOTIC BEHAVIOR OF THE INCREMENTAL FIELDS
497
with
f
1122 2112 [1111 2222 1122 (1122 + 1212 ) 2222 2112 1 2 ]21 22 +
1111 1212 {1111 1221 + [1212 (1122 + 1212 ) 2112 1221 ]1 2 }.
(8.4.4)
By using the relations (8.2.27) and (8.2.33), we obtain

c 1 a2 2 c 2 a1 1 =
(2 1 )l
(1 2 )l
=
1 2 B 1 B 2
1 2 B 1 B 2
(8.4.5)
where
l = 1111 2112 (1122 + 1212 )(1 + 2 ).
(8.4.6)
Now, from (8.4.3) and (8.4.5), it results
l
c 1 a2 2 c 2 a1 1
= 1 2 .
f
(8.4.7)
To determine the value of this number, we must analyze the two possibilities
(8.2.11) and (8.2.12).
If Imj = 0, we have 2 = 1 and according to (8.2.11), we get

1 =
1 , 2 = 2 = 1 .
(8.4.8)
Consequently,
Re(1 + 2 ) = 0 and Im1 2 = 0.
(8.4.9)
Thus from (8.4.4) and (8.4.6), we get

Imf = 0 and Re l = 0.
(8.4.10)
Now, equation (8.4.7) gives

Re
c 1 a2 2 c 2 a1 1
= 0.
(8.4.11)
If Imj = 0 and Rej < 0, according to (8.2.12)

Rej = 0.
(8.4.12)
Consequently, the relations (8.4.9) are again satisfied. Thus the relation
c2 a1 1
is always an imaginary number.
(8.4.11) is true, and we can see that c1 a2 2
Hence, according to (8.4.2),
u2
(x1 , 0) = 0 for |x1 | > a.
x1
(8.4.13)
498
Accordingly, u2 (x1 , 0) = const. for |x1 | > a. Since u2 (x1 , x2 ) must vanish at
large distances from the crack, we can conclude that
u2 (x1 , 0) = 0 for |x1 | > a.
(8.4.14)
Thus, we can see that the incremental normal displacement is zero on the
line containing the crack, ahead and behind the crack, that is, for |x1 | > a and
x2 = 0. Clearly this result is due to the high symmetry of the material, as well as
to the high symmetry of its initial stressing and its incremental loading. A similar
result holds for an orthotropic material without initial stresses.
We continue our analysis with the case of antisymmetrically, distributed tangential forces on the faces of the crack; i.e. with the second mode, when these forces
have the direction of the x1 axis. In this case, the involved complex potentials are
given by the relations (8.3.24) or (8.3.30).
From the equations (8.2.25) and (8.3.29), we can conclude that
22 (x1 , 0) = 0 for < x1 < .
(8.4.15)
Hence, the incremental normal nominal stress 22 vanishes on the whole x1

axis containing the crack. A similar result is valuable for an orthotropic material
In order to determine the tangential displacement u1 (x1 , x2 ) on the axis x1
for |x1 | > a, we shall use the representation (8.2.30) and the solution (8.3.30). In
this way, we get
u1
(x1 , x2 ) = 2Re{b1 01 (z1 ) + b2 02 (z2 )};
x1
hence,
1
b2 b 1
u1
) p 2
(x1 , 0) = Re(
x1
x1 a 2
Za
h(t) a2 t2
dt.
t x1
(8.4.16)
According to (8.2.24) and (8.2.31), we have

b2 b 1 =
(2 1 )m
,
B1 B2
(8.4.17)
where
m = (1122 + 1212 )2222 2112 (1 + 2 ).
(8.4.18)
Thus, the relation (8.4.9)1 and (8.4.18) show that

Re m = 0.
(8.4.19)
499
Using (8.4.5) and (8.4.17), we get
m
b2 b 1
= 21 22 .
f
(8.4.20)
Hence, using (8.4.9)2 , (8.4.10)1 and (8.4.19), we can conclude that

Re
Consequently,
(8.4.16),
b2 b1
b2 b 1
= 0.
(8.4.21)
is always an imaginary number. That is, according to

u1
(x1 , 0) = 0 for |x1 | > a.
x1
(8.4.22)
Accordingly, u1 (x1 , 0) = const. for |x1 | > a. Since u1 (x1 , 0) must vanish for
a large distance from the crack, we must have
u1 (x1 , 0) = 0 for |x1 | > a .
(8.4.23)
Thus, we can see that the tangential displacement is vanishing on the whole
line containing the crack, ahead and behind the crack, that is, for |x1 | > a and
x2 = 0. As before, the above result is due to the high symmetry of the material,
of its initial deformation and of its incremental loading. A similar result is true for
an orthotropic material without initial stresses.We finish our analysis considering
the case of antisymmetrically distributed tangential forces on the face of the crack,
when these forces have the direction of the x3 axis; i.e. with the third mode. The
involved complex potential is given in this case by the relations (8.3.38) or (8.3.39).
From (8.3.44), we can conclude that
1
1
u3
Re p 2
(x1 , 0) =
2332
x1
3 x 1 a 2
Za
k(t) a2 t2
dt.
t x1
(8.4.24)
At the same time, equation (8.2.35) shows that 3 is an imaginary number.

Accordingly, from (8.4.24), we conclude that
u3
(x1 , 0) = 0 for |x1 | > a.
x1
(8.4.25)
Hence, u3 (x1 , 0) = const. for |x1 | > a. Since u3 must vanish at large distances
from the crack, it results that
u3 (x1 , 0) = 0 for |x1 | > a.
(8.4.26)
Thus, the tangential displacement is vanishing on the whole line containing

the crack, ahead and behind the crack, that is, for |x1 | > a and x2 = 0. A similar
result holds for an orthotropic material without initial stresses. In both cases, the
500
result is due to the high symmetry of the material, of its initial deformation and
of its initial loading.
In the following, we shall analyze the asymptotical behavior of the incremental
field in the neighborhood of the crack tips. This analysis is important since, in this
way, the relationship between the stresses and the input energy rates in crack
extension may be established; hence, the crack stability can be examined (see Sih
and Leibowitz[8.3], and Guz[8.4]).
The incremental fields distribution around the (right) tip can be obtained by
letting
x1 = a + r cos , x2 = r sin
(8.4.27)
and by assuming that r is small in comparison with the half crack length a.
The polar coordinate r and designate, respectively, the radial distance from the
considered crack tip and angle between the radial line and the line extending the
crack, as shown in Figure 8.11.
x2
(x1,x2)
r
x1
-a
Figure 8.11: Asymptotic behavior.

As the first case, we consider the first mode. The solution is given by equations
(8.3.21) and the Guzs representation formulas (8.2.25)(8.2.32) hold.
In a small neighborhood of the crack tip, x1 a, x2 0, we have
z1 = z 2 a
(8.4.28)
and Plemelj functions may be approximated by

q
zj2 a2 =
where
j () =
2arj (), j = 1, 2,
cos + j sin , j = 1, 2.
(8.4.29)
(8.4.30)
501
Taking into account these relations for the asymptotic values of the complex
potentials (8.3.21), we get the following expressions:
KI a 2 2 1
,
1 (z1 ) =
2 2r 1 ()
KI a 1 1 1
.
2 (z2 ) =
2 2r 2 ()
In the above relations,
1
KI =
a
Za
g(t)
a+t
dt
at
(8.4.31)
(8.4.32)
is the stress intensity factor, corresponding to the first mode. This quantity has the
same expression as in the classical theory of brittle fracture of elastic materials
Now, by using the relations (8.4.31) and Guzs representation formulas (8.2.25)
(8.2.32), we get the asymptotic expressions of the incremental fields corresponding to the first mode,
a1 1
1 a2 2
KI
},
Re {
22 =
1 () 2 ()
2r
1
1
a1 a2 1 2
KI
},
{
Re
21 =
()
2r
2 ()
1
a2
1 2
a1
KI
{
Re
12 =
},
1 () 2 ()
2r
KI
a1 a2 1 2
1
2
11 =
Re
{
},
1 () 2 ()
2r
r
r
1
u1 = 2
KI Re {b1 a2 2 1 () b2 a1 1 2 ()},
2
r
r
1
u2 = 2
KI Re {c1 a2 2 1 () c2 a1 1 2 ()}.
2
To get the last two relations, we have used the equations

r
r a2 2
1 (z1 ) = KI
1 (),
2
r
r a1 1
2 (z2 ) = KI
2 (),
2
(8.4.33)
(8.4.34)
(8.4.35)
(8.4.36)
(8.4.37)
(8.4.38)
(8.4.39)
that follow from (8.4.27) and (8.4.31), since 0j (zj ) = j (zj ) and
dzj = dr2j (), j = 1, 2.
(8.4.40)
502
The asymptotic expressions (8.4.33)(8.4.38) show that the incremental fields

in a prestressed body have the same asymptotic behavior as the corresponding
fields in an elastic body without initial stresses. This important result was obtained using different approaches by Guz [8.5] and by Soos [8.6].
Particularly, since the incremental nominal stress behaves like 1r in the
neighborhood of the crack tip, the total incremental elastic energy is bounded
in any finite domain containing the crack. This fact is essential in crack stability
analysis based on Griffiths type criterion of crack propagation.
As a second case, we consider the second mode. In this case, the solution
given by equations (8.3.30) and the representation formulas (8.2.31) and (8.2.32)
hold. Using again the relations (8.4.28)(8.4.30) for the asymptotic values of the
complex potentials (8.3.30), we get the following expressions:
KII 1 1
,
(8.4.41)
1 (z1 ) =
2 2r 1 ()
KII 1 1
,
2 (z2 ) =
2 2r 2 ()
where
r
Z a
a+t
1
dt
(8.4.42)
h(t)
KII =
at
a a
is the stress intensity factor, corresponding to the second mode. Again, this quantity has the same expression as that encountered in the theory of brittle fracture
of elastic materials without initial stresses.
Now, using the representation formulas (8.2.25)(8.2.32), we obtain the asymptotic expression of the incremental fields corresponding to the second mode:
1
1
1
KII
},
Re {
22 =
1 () 2 ()
2r
a2 2
1 a1 1
KII
},
Re {
21 =
1 () 2 ()
2r
KII
1
1
2
12 =
Re {
},
()
2r
1
2 ()
KII
1 a1 21
a2 22
11 =
Re {
},
2r 1 () 2 ()
r
r
1
u1 = 2
KII Re {b1 1 () b2 2 ()},
2
r
r
1
u2 = 2
KII Re {c1 1 () c2 2 ()}.
2
To get the last two relations, we used equations

r
r 1
1 (z1 ) = KII
1 (),
2
(8.4.43)
(8.4.44)
(8.4.45)
(8.4.46)
(8.4.47)
(8.4.48)
(8.4.49)

2 (z2 ) = KII
503
r 1
2 (),
2
which follows from (8.4.27) and (8.4.41).

The asymptotic expressions (8.4.43)(8.4.48) show again that the incremental fields in the prestressed body have the same asymptotic behavior as the corresponding fields, in an elastic body without initial stresses.
As the third and last case, we consider the situation corresponding to tangential loading perpendicular to the crack direction, named also the third mode.
In this case, the solution is given by equations (8.3.39) and the representation
formulas (8.2.43), (8.2.44) hold.
From (8.3.39) and (8.4.28)(8.4.30), we get the following asymptotic expression of the involved complex potential:
1
KIII
,
3 (z3 ) =
2 2r 3 ()
where
3 () =
and
KIII
1
=
a
cos + 3 sin
Za
k(t)
a+t
dt
at
(8.4.50)
(8.4.51)
(8.4.52)
is the stress intensity factor corresponding to the third mode. This quantity has
the same expression as in the classical theory of brittle fracture of elastic materials
Now, from (8.2.43) and (8.2.44), we obtain the asymptotic expressions of the
incremental fields corresponding to the third mode:
1
KIII
,
Re
23 =
3 ()
2r
3
KIII
,
Re
13 =
3 ()
2r
r
()
r
2
.
KIII Re 3
u3 =
3
2332 2
To get the last equation, we have used the relation

r
r
3 (),
3 (z3 ) = KIII
2
(8.4.53)
(8.4.54)
(8.4.55)
(8.4.56)
which follows from (8.4.28), (8.4.29) and (8.4.51).

Again, from (8.4.53)(8.4.55), we can see that the asymptotic behavior of
the incremental fields in the prestressed material is the same as in a body without
initial stresses.
504
Until now, we tacitly have assumed that the quantity , defined by the
relation (8.3.20), is not vanishing. Certainly, this is the case if the body is not
initially deformed since we assume the stress-free reference configuration to be
locally stable. However, if the material is initially deformed, some critical values
of the initial stress 11 for which can be zero may exist. If the initial applied
stress 11 converges to this critical value, all incremental fields increase unbounded.
This phenomenon was investigated by Guz [8.4]. Taking into account known results
from the Eulerian theory of the elastic string excited by periodical force, we say
that when
0
(8.4.57)
the resonance phenomenon occurs.
Following Guz [8.4], we shall analyze now if the occurrence of the resonance
is possible for a fiber-reinforced composite material. We assume that the crack has
the direction of the reinforcing fibers which are supposed to be parallel to the x 1
axis. Also, in accordance with the basic hypothesis (8.3.1), we suppose that on the
considered loading path
22 = 0.
(8.4.58)
Hence, the initial applied loading forces are in the fibers direction, being parallel
to the crack. We consider only the first and the second mode, since, for the third
mode, the occurrence of the resonance is not possible, as it can be seen examining
equation (8.3.39).
We recall that in the considered case, the involved instantaneous elasticities
are given by equations (5.6.47). Thus, taking into account (8.4.58), we get
1111
C11 + 11 , 2222 = C22 ,
1122
1212
=
=
2211 = C12 ,
2121 = 2112 = C66 ,
1221
C66 + 11 .
(8.4.59)
Hence, according to (5.6.58), the coefficients A and B of equation (8.2.9) are
(C11 + 11 )C22 + (C66 + 11 )C66 (C12 + C66 )2

,
2A =
C22 C66
(8.4.60)
(C11 + 11 )(C66 + 11 )
.
B=
C22 C66
We recall that for the considered fiber-reinforced composite, we have

0<
C66
<< 1.
C11
(8.4.61)
505
In what follows, we assume that the prestressed composite is internally stable.

Hence, we have (see Section 6.1)
C11 + 11 , C66 + 11 > 0.
(8.4.62)
Consequently, according to (8.4.60)2 ,

B > 0.
(8.4.63)
We suppose also that the quantity A is positive; i.e.

A > 0.
(8.4.64)
A2 > B.
(8.4.65)
and the restriction is satisfied:
For an isotropic material, the inequalities (8.4.62)(8.4.65) are certainly ful

filled if 11 = 0 and the stress-free reference configuration is locally stable! Hence,
we can assume that they are true also in the neighborhood of 11 and, for the
most part, orthotropic composites.
Examining the relations (8.2.6), we can see that if the restrictions (8.4.63)
(8.4.65) are satisfied, the roots 1 and 2 of equation (8.2.5) are real, distinct, and
negative numbers. Consequently, the distinct roots 1 and 2 of equation (8.2.9)
must be selected in accordance with the rule (8.2.12). Thus, we shall have
1
p
A + A2 B,
q
p
i A A2 B.
(8.4.66)
From (8.4.60)2 and (8.4.66), we get
1 2 = B =
(C11 + 11 )(C66 + 11 )
.
C22 C66
(8.4.67)
cr
We try to find the critical value 11 of the applied load for which resonance
can occur. To do this, we recall equation (8.4.3) giving the quantity . Since
1 6= 2 , can vanish if and only if
f = 0,
(8.4.68)
the expression of f being given by equation (8.4.4). Using the relations (8.4.59)
and (8.4.67), we can see that the relation (8.4.68) can be true if and only if 11
506
satisfies the following equation:

0
where
2
C12
C12
C12
+ )
(
C11 C22 C11

C11
C12 p
(1 + x)( + x)}(1 + x)( + x)
+
C11 C22
+(1 + x){(1 + x)( + x)
r
C12 p
C11
) (1 + x)(1 + x)},
(x
+
C11
C22
{(1 + x)
11
.
x=
C11
(8.4.69)
(8.4.70)
Since has the property (8.4.61), we solve the above equation using our
iterative method and looking for a root x having the following form:
x = x0 + x1 + 2 x2 + 3 x3 .
(8.4.71)
Introducing (8.4.71) in (8.4.64) and neglecting terms of order 4 and higher,

we get
x0 = 0, x1 = 1, x2 = 0, x3 =
2
2
C11
C22
C11
2 )2 .
C22 (C11 C22 C12
(8.4.72)
cr
Introducing (8.4.72) in (8.4.70) and using (8.4.61), for the critical value 11
leading to resonance, we get the following value:
cr
11 = C66 {1
2
2
2
C11
C22
C66
2 )2 }.
C11 C22 (C11 C22 C12
(8.4.73)
We compare now this equation with the relation (6.1.51) giving the critical
cs
stress 11 for which surface instability of the fiber-reinforced composite occurs.
Thus, we have
cs
cr
11 = 11 .
(8.4.74)
Thus, we have established the following important result due to Guz [8.4]: in
a fiber-reinforced composite, surface instability and resonance occur for the same
critical value of the compressive force 11 acting in the direction of the reinforcing
fibers. As for an elastic spring, the occurrence of the resonance phenomenon leads
to dangerous situations which must be avoided limiting drastically the magnitude
of the applied compressive force. We recall that in a fiber-reinforced composite,
cs
cr
material stress, having magnitude corresponding to 11 = 11 , produce infinitesimal deformations; hence, the occurrence of resonance is really possible! Concerning
507
8.5. GRIFFITHS CRITERION AND CRACK PROPAGATION
the case of surface instability, the actual possibility of the resonance for a fiberreinforced composite is a direct consequence of the existing internal structure of
such kind of materials! In a linearly elastic isotropic material, the occurrence of
resonance, for infinitesimal deformations, is not possible.
In the next Section, we shall analyze the strong connection existing between
resonance and crack propagation discovered by Guz [8.4].
8.5
Griffiths criterion and crack propagation
In the preceding Section, we have introduced the stress intensity factors

KI , KII and KIII corresponding to the three modes also named opening, sliding and tearing modes, respectively, and shown in Figure 8.12.
Sliding
Opening
Tearing
Figure 8.12: Basic crack models and extensions.

The mechanical and physical interpretations of the concept of the stress intensity factor become more clear when the mathematical relationships between
the rate of input work (or strain energy release rate) into the fracture process and
the singular (asymptotic) elasticity solution in the neighborhood of the crack tip
are established. To this end, following Sih and Leibowitz [8.3], let us suppose that
our crack of length 2a in a plate of unit thickness is extended by the increment
a at both ends of the crack. This extension creates new surfaces of the crack
with 4a as a gain in area and, hence, the surface energy is increased by 4a,
representing the specific surface energy of the body. Let us denote by U (a) the
elastic energy of the body when the length of the crack is 2a, and let U (a + a) be
its elastic energy when the length of the crack is 2(a + a). According to Griffiths
criterion, a necessary condition for the crack to propagate is that the change in
strain energy must satisfy the inequality
U (a) U (a + a) 4a.
(8.5.1)
The function U (a + a) may be expanded in Taylors series. Neglecting terms

of order higher than a, we get
508
U
(a)a.
a
The strain energy release rate G(a) is defined by the equation
U = U (a) U (a + a) =
(8.5.2)
1 U
(a).
2 a
(8.5.3)
G(a) =
U = U (a) U (a + a) = 2G(a)a,
(8.5.4)
and Griffiths crack propagation or crack instability condition (8.5.1) takes the
form
G(a) 2.
(8.5.5)
The above inequality represents Griffiths energy criterion for brittle fracture.
The energy release rate G(a) may by regarded as the force tending to open the
crack. As we shall see, its evaluation requires only the knowledge of the incremental
nominal stress and displacements near the crack tips. In the sequel, the U and
G(a) values for the three basic modes of crack extension will be distinguished by
the subscripts I, II and III as we had in the case of the stress intensity factors.
We begin our analysis with the first opening mode (see Sih and Leibowitz
[8.3]). In this case, the problem is symmetric about the crack along the x 1 axis.
As we already know, only normal nominal stresses shall be present in elements on
the x1 axis as shown in Figure 8.13.
x2
CRACK OPENING
22
u2
u2
x1
o
22
t
a
t
da
Figure 8.13: Segment of crack opening.

Let the crack be extended by an amount a. Conceptually, it may be visualized that the elastic body has been cut along the segment from x1 = a up
509
to x1 = a + a without releasing the stresses along the cut and then reducing
their intensity by infinitesimally small increments until the segment of length a
is stress-free and is represented by the dotted shape in Figure 8.13. The strain
energy released is the work done in this process by the incremental nominal stress
22 (at0 , 0) acting by incremental displacement u2 (t, 0+ ), provided that a is very
small such that in the limit as a 0, the conditions u2 (t, 0+ ) u2 ( t0 , 0+ )
and t t0 are fulfilled.
The variation UI of the elastic energy is due to the work done at both ends
of the crack. Hence, we get
UI = 2
Za
0
22 (a t, 0)u2 (t, 0+ )dt.
(8.5.6)
In the above relation, the factor 2 appears since the crack has two faces
and the minus sign is present because the segment a is relaxed!
Comparing the general relation (8.5.4) and the last equation, we obtain the
following relation which must be satisfied by the strain energy release rate G I (a)
corresponding to the first mode:
GI (a)a =
Za
0
22 (a t, 0)u2 (t, 0+ )dt.
(8.5.7)
In order to evaluate this integral, we use the asymptotic expressions of the

incremental fields obtained in the preceding Section.
The incremental nominal stress 22 (a t, 0) can be obtained using equations
(8.4.30) and (8.4.33) and taking r = a t > 0, = 0. We obtain
22 (a t, 0) = p
KI
.
2(a t)
(8.5.8)
The incremental normal displacement u2 (t, 0+ ) of the upper face of the crack
can be obtained using equations (8.4.30) and (8.4.38), and taking r = t > 0, =
(see Figure 8.13). Thus, we obtain
r
c 1 a2 2 c 2 a1 1
t
+
).
(8.5.9)
Re(i
u2 (t, 0 ) = 2KI
We use now the relation (8.4.7) and get

r
l
t
+
Re(i1 2 ).
u2 (t, 0 ) = 2KI
f
2
(8.5.10)
According to equations (8.4.9)2 and (8.4.10), 1 2 and f are real numbers

and l is an imaginary number. Consequently, (8.5.10) becomes
510
1 2
u2 (t, 0 ) = 2KI
f
+
t
Re(il).
2
(8.5.11)
Let us introduce now the real number

b
l = il.
Thus, for u2 (t, 0+ ), we get
(8.5.12)
b
l
u2 (t, 0 ) = 2KI 1 2
f
+
t
.
2
(8.5.13)
Consequently, with (8.5.8) and (8.5.13), equation (8.5.7) becomes
Z
l
KI2 1 2b
GI (a)a =
f
Za r
0
t
dt.
a t
a
t
.
dt =
2
a t
(8.5.14)
(8.5.15)
Thus, from (8.5.14) and (8.5.15), finally, we get

GI (a) =
l
KI2 1 2b
.
f
2
(8.5.16)
Using a similar approach, we can conclude that the strain energy release rate
GII (a) corresponding to the second mode must satisfy the following equation:
GII (a)a =
Za
0
21 (a t, 0)u1 (t, 0+ )dt.
(8.5.17)
The incremental nominal tangential stress 21 (at, 0) can be obtained using

equations (8.4.30) and (8.4.44), and taking r = a t > 0, = 0. We get
21 (a t, 0) = p
KII
.
2(a t)
(8.5.18)
The incremental tangential displacement u1 (t, 0+ ) of the upper face of the

crack can be obtained using equations (8.4.30), (8.4.40) and taking r = t > 0, =
. Thus, we obtain
r
b1 b 2
t
+
).
(8.5.19)
Re(i
u1 (t, 0 ) = 2KII

We use now the relation (8.4.20) and get
r
m
t
+
Re(i21 22 ).
u1 (t, 0 ) = 2KII
f
2
511
(8.5.20)
According to equations (8.4.9)2 , (8.4.10) and (8.4.19), 21 22 and f are real

numbers and m is an imaginary number. Consequently, (8.5.20) becomes
u1 (t, 0+ ) = 2KII
21 22
Re(im).
f
(8.5.21)
Let us introduce the real number

m
b = im.
Thus, for u1 (t, 0+ ), we get

+
u1 (t, 0 ) =
(8.5.22)
m
b
2KII 21 22
t
.
2
(8.5.23)
Consequently, with (8.5.18) and (8.5.23), (8.5.17) becomes
b
K 2 2 2 m
GII (a)a = II 1 2
f
Za r
0
t
dt.
a t
(8.5.24)
Using again (8.5.7) and (8.5.15), from (8.5.24), we obtain

GII (a) =
2
21 22 m
b
KII
.
f
(8.5.25)
Finally, let us analyze the third mode. Similar reasoning leads to the conclusion that the involved strain energy release rate GIII (a) must satisfy the equation
GIII (a)a =
Za
0
23 (a t, 0)u3 (t, 0+ )dt.
(8.5.26)
The incremental nominal tangential stress 23 (at, 0) can be obtained using

(8.4.51) and (8.4.53) and taking r = a t > 0, = 0. We get
23 (a t, 0) = p
KIII
.
2(a t)
(8.5.27)
The incremental tangential displacement u3 (t, 0+ ) of the upper face of the

cut can be obtained using (8.4.51) and (8.4.55) and taking r = t > 0, = . It
results
r
1
t
KIII
+
(8.5.28)
Re( ).
u3 (t, 0 ) = 2
3
2332 2
512
The root 3 is given by equation (8.2.36). Using this relation from (8.5.28),
we get
r
t
2KIII
+
.
(8.5.29)
u3 (t, 0 ) =
2332 1331 2
Now, (8.5.26), (8.5.27) and (8.5.29) jointly give

K2
GIII (a)a = III
2332 1331
Za r
0
t
dt.
a t
(8.5.30)
Taking into account again equation (8.5.15), finally, we obtain

K2
.
GIII (a) = III
2 2332 1331
(8.5.31)
The total strain energy release rate G(a) is the sum of the release rates
corresponding to the three basic modes. Hence, according to (8.5.16), (8.5.25) and
(8.5.31), we get
G(a) =
1
1 2
1 2 2 2
1 2
(2332 1331 ) 2 .
1 2 mf
b 1 + KIII
K 1 2 b
lf 1 + KII
2
2
2 I
(8.5.32)
The above result was first obtained by Guz [8.4].

According to Griffiths criterion (8.5.5), crack instability occurs and crack
propagation starts if the applied incremental forces satisfy the propagation condition:
2
2 2 2
(2332 1331 ) 2 = 4.
b 1 + KIII
1 2 mf
KI2 1 2b
lf 1 + KII
1
(8.5.33)
We recall that the stress concentration factors KI , KII , KIII depend on the
crack length and the normal and tangential incremental forces applied on the two
faces of the crack. The roots 1 , 2 and the coefficients f, b
l, m,
b 2332 , 1331 depend
on the elastic properties of the material and on the initial applied stresses. In a
prestressed material, the specific surface energy of the material > 0 can depend
also on the initial applied stresses. This dependence is not known at present. In all
that follows, we assume that the dependence of the specific surface energy > 0
on the initial applied stresses is negligible, and depends only on the considered
material. Clearly, this is a relatively strong assumption, and its validity must be
checked by further research.
To simplify the analysis of the consequences of the Griffiths propagation
criterion (8.5.33), we suppose in the following that the applied external incremental
forces have constant values; i.e.:
g(x1 )
p = const. > 0,
h(x1 )
k(x1 )
=
=
= const. > 0,
= const. > 0 for |x1 | < a.
(8.5.34)
513
The assumed case is frequently encountered in a practical application of fracture mechanics. In the considered case, the stress concentration factors can be
easily evaluated using the relation
Za r
a+t
dt = a.
(8.5.35)
at
a
Using equations (8.4.32), (8.4.42) and (8.4.52), we get
ap,
KI =
a,
KII =
a.
KIII =
(8.5.36)
Introducing these values in equation (8.5.33), Griffiths propagation criterion takes

the following form:
1
p2 1 2 b
b 1 + 2 (2332 1331 ) 2 = 4(a)1 .
lf 1 + 2 21 22 mf
(8.5.37)
Also, we suppose that on the given loading path only 11 is nonvanishing; i.e. we
assume that
22 = 33 = 0.
(8.5.38)
We recall that in this case the instantaneous elasticities involved in the crack
propagation problem and concerning the first and the second modes are given
by equation (8.4.59). Also, according to the equation (5.6.22) and (8.5.38), the
instantaneous elasticities involved in the crack propagation problem, concerning
the third mode, are given by the relations
1331
2332
=
=
C55 + 11 ,
C44 .
(8.5.39)
As usual, we suppose that the stress-free reference configuration of the material is locally stable and its initial deformed equilibrium configuration is internally
(structural) stable.
Let us assume that the applied incremental tangential forces are vanishing;
i.e.
= = 0.
(8.5.40)
In this case, Griffiths propagation criterion (8.5.37) becomes
p2 =
4f
.
a1 2b
l
(8.5.41)
We suppose that the conditions (8.4.64)(8.4.65) are fulfilled. Hence, the

roots 1 and 2 are given by the relation (8.4.66). Consequently, 1 2 satisfies
equation (8.4.67) and
q
q
p
p
2
(8.5.42)
1 + 2 = i{ A + A B + A A2 B},
514
or, equivalently,
1 + 2 = i 2
Now, from (8.4.6) and (8.5.12), it follows
A+
B.
b
l = 21111 2112 (1122 + 1212 )
Thus, using (8.4.59), we get
b
l = 2(C11 + 11 )C66 (C12 + C66 )
(8.5.43)
A+
A+
B.
(8.5.44)
B.
(8.5.45)
Thus, from (8.4.66), (8.5.41) and (8.5.45) for the critical value pc for which the
crack propagation starts in the first mode, we get the following expression:
p2c = p2c ( 11 ) =
4f
.
p
2a(C11 + 11 )C66 (C12 + C66 ) B A + B
(8.5.46)
We recall that A and B depend on 11 and their expressions are given by the
relations (5.6.59). Also, f depends on 11 , its expression being given by the relation
(8.4.4). Thus, the relation (4.5.46) shows that the critical value p c = pc ( 11 ) of
the incremental normal critical stress for which the crack propagation starts in the
first mode, depends on the material parameters and on the initial applied stress
11 . Also, as it results from (8.5.46)
pc ( 11 ) 0 when f ( 11 ) 0.
(8.5.47)
cp
Let us denote by 11 the critical value of the initial applied stress 11 for
which f = f ( 11 ) vanishes; i.e. for which we have

cp
f ( 11 ) = 0.
(8.5.48)
cp
According to (4.5.46), for the critical value 11 , we have also

cp
pc ( 11 ) = 0.
(8.5.49)
cp
Hence, if the initial applied stress 11 reaches its critical value 11 , the crack
becomes completely unstable and its propagation can start without any incremental
normal force applied at the two faces of the crack!
Comparing equations (8.4.68) and (8.5.48), we can conclude that the critical
cp
value 11 really exists. Moreover, as equation (8.4.74) shows, we have
cp
cr
cs
11 = 11 = 11 .
(8.5.50)
515
Hence, complete instability of the crack, resonance phenomenon and surface

instability of a fiber-reinforced composite material occur for the same critical value
of the initial applied compressive force, acting in the direction of the reinforcing
fibers. This fundamental result is due to Guz [8.4].
To avoid the dangerous situations leading to a completely unstable crack,
the initial applied compressive force acting in the direction of the reinforcing fibers
must be drastically limited. Again, as in the case of surface instability or in the case
of the resonance, the occurrence of a completely unstable crack in a prestressed
fiber-reinforced composite is due to the existing internal structure of such a material. As is easy to see, complete instability of a crack in a prestressed isotropic
material cannot appear in stress domains leading to infinitesimal deformations.
We have encountered similar situations analyzing surface instability or resonance
for prestressed isotropic material.
We observe that in presenting the above important result, we have taken into
account that the quantity standing in the denominator of the expression (8.5.46)
cp
of pc ( 11 ) is now vanishing
cp for 11 = 11 . This can be seen using the relation

(8.4.73) telling us that 11 < C66 << C11 .
Let us assume now that the applied incremental normal stress and the applied
incremental tangential stress, corresponding to the second mode, are vanishing; i.e.
p==0.
(8.5.51)
In this case, the propagation condition (8.5.37) becomes

2 =
4f
.
a21 22 m
b
(8.5.52)
Again 21 22 is given by equation (8.4.67) and, from (8.4.18), (8.5.22) and

(8.5.43), it results
q
(8.5.53)
m
b = 22222 2112 (1122 + 1212 ) A + B.
or using (8.4.59),
m
b =
2C22 C66 (C12 + C66 )
A+
B.
(8.5.54)
Thus, from (8.4.67) and (8.5.52) for the critical value c for which the crack
propagation starts in the second mode, we get the following expression:
4f
c2 = c2 ( 11 )
We can see again that
2aC22 C66 (C12 + C66 )B
c ( 11 ) 0 if f ( 11 ) 0.
A+
.
B
(8.5.55)
(8.5.56)
516
Hence, when the initial applied compressive stress 11 reaches its critical
value
cp
cr
cs
11 = 11 = 11 ,
(8.5.57)
the crack becomes completely unstable and its propagation can start without any
incremental tangential force applied at the two faces of the crack and in the direction of the crack.
As equations (8.5.50) and (8.5.57) show, the critical value of the compressive
force leading to a complete instability of the crack is the same for the first and for
the second mode. This important result was established by Guz [8.4].
Finally, let us assume that only the applied incremental tangential stresses
corresponding to the third mode are nonvanishing; i.e.
p = = 0.
(8.5.58)
In this case, the propagation condition (8.5.37) becomes
4 1331 2332
.
2 =
a
(8.5.59)
Taking into account the relation (8.5.59) and denoting by c = c ( 11 ) the critical
value of the applied tangential stress leading to crack propagation, from (8.5.59),
we get
q
4
(8.5.60)
C44 (C55 + 11 ).
2c = 2c ( 11 ) =
a
Let us denote by
c the critical value corresponding to 11 = 0; i.e.
2c = 2c (0) =
Obviously, we have
2c
2c ( 11 ) =
Hence,
4 p
C44 C55 .
a
(8.5.61)
C55 + 11
.
C55
c ( 11 ) >
bc if 11 > 0
c ( 11 ) <
bc if 11 < 0.
(8.5.62)
(8.5.63)
Consequently, an initial applied extensional force 11 > 0 acting in the direction of the reinforcing fibers improves the crack stability and an initial applied
compressive force 11 < 0 acting in the fibers direction diminishes the stability of
the crack.
517
We believe that these predictions are in accordance with our ideas concerning the influence of initial applied stress on the behavior of a prestressed fiberreinforced composite.
These results due to Guz [8.4] show again the internal consistency and the
great power of the linearized threedimensional theory.
Also, equation (8.5.62) shows that
cp
c ( 11 ) 0 if 11 11 = C55 .
(8.5.64)
Hence, when the initial applied compressive stress 11 reaches the critical
value,
cp
11 = C55 ,
(8.5.65)
the crack becomes completely unstable and its propagation by the third mode can
start without any incremental tangential force applied at the two faces of the crack.
We recall that, for a fiber-reinforced composite, we have
C55 = G13 and G13 << E1 .
(8.5.66)
Hence, using (8.5.65) and (8.5.66), we have

cp
cp

11 = G13 and 11 << E1 .
(8.5.67)
Complete instability of the crack can occur in a fiber-reinforced composite

material if the condition (8.5.67) is fulfilled. The corresponding deformations rest
infinitesimal, as can be seen, taking into account the inequality (8.5.67) 2 .
At the same time, from (8.2.36), (8.5.39)1 and (8.5.64), it can be seen that
cp
3 = 0 if 11 = 11 . Hence, if the compressive force 11 reaches its critical value,
the differential equation (8.2.34) losses its ellipticity. In other words, internal instability of the prestressed fiber-reinforced composite occurs.
The simultaneous appearance of internal instability and complete instability
of the crack are direct consequences of the internal structure of a fiber-reinforced
composite. Neither complete crack instability nor internal instability can occur in
the case of an isotropic material in the frame-work of validity of linear elasticity.
The analysis made in this Section reveals again the way in which a phenomenological continuum theory can take into account and predict macroscopic
effects due to the internal structure of a composite material.
At the same time, we can see that due to its internal structure in a fiberreinforced composite material, a dangerous situation can occur if the initial applied
forces are not adequately limited. The three-dimensional linearized theory is able
to reveal the involved critical situations and can be successfully used to avoid the
occurrence of dangerous situations.
518
8.6
Problems
P8.1 Let us consider the function
u = u(x1 , x2 ) = x21 x22 .
(a) Prove that u = 0.
(b) Find the holomorphic function f = f (z) and g = g(z) such that
x21 x22 = Ref (z)
and
x21 x22 = Img(z).
P8.2 Let f = f (z) be a holomorphic function and let L be a regular closed
curve in the domain of definition B of f = f (z).
Prove that
I
Z
f (t)dt
1
f (z)dz = 0 and f (z) =
tz
2i
L
where, in the second relation (Cauchys formula), z is a point in the finite domain
bounded by the curve L.
P8.3 Let L be a regular closed curve as in Figure 8.14. Let B + be the finite
domain bounded by L and let B be the infinite domain bounded by L as in
Figure 8.14.
BB+
t2
t1
t0
l= t 1t2
Figure 8.14: Integral theorems.

+
Let us assume that
S f = f (z) is a holomorphic function in domain B and it
+
L.
is continuous on B
Prove that
Z
f (t)dt
1
f (z) if z B
={
.
0 if z B +
tz
2i
519
8.6. PROBLEMS
P8.4 Let us assume that f = f (z) isSa holomorphic function in the unbounded
domain B and it is continuous on B L.
Prove that
Z
f (t)dt
1
f (z) + f () if z B
.
={
f () if z B +
tz
2i
L
The first equality is named Cauchys formula for an unbounded domain.

P8.5 Let L be a regular closed curve as shown in Figure 8.14. Let f = f (t)
be a complex valued function defined and absolute integrable on L. The function
Z
f (t)dt
1
,z
/L
F = F (z) =
tz
2i
L
is named Cauchys integral corresponding to f and L.

Let us denote as before
F + (t0 ) =
lim
zB + ,zt0
F (z)
and
F (t0 ) =
lim
zB ,zt0
F (z), t0 L
the interior and the exterior limits of F = F (z) is a point t0 L.

As is known, F = F (z) is a holomorphic function in the open finite domain
B + bounded by L. Also, f = f (z) is a different holomorphic function in the infinite
domain B bounded by L. Moreover, lim F (z) = 0.
z
For a point t0 situated on the curve L (see Figure 8.14),

Z
f (t)dt
1
, t0 L
t t0
2i
L
is generally a nonconvergent improper integral and the limit values F + (t0 ) and
F (t0 ), even if they exist, are distinct.
Let us select on L (see Figure 8.14) two points t1 and t2 and let us consider
the little arc l = td
1 t2 containing t0 . We assume that it satisfies the following
restriction:
|t1 t0 | = |t2 t0 | .
We consider also the integral
1
2i
Ll
f (t)dt
, t0 L
t t0
defined on the complementary part Ll of L. This is usually a well-defined integral,

since |t t0 | > 0 for any t L l, being a positive number.
520
Let us assume now that t1 , t2 L converge toward t0 L such that |t1 t0 | =

|t2 t0 |. If, in this case, the above integral converges to a well-defined finite value,
the corresponding limit is named Cauchys principal value of our improper integral.
As in Section 8.1, we denote this value by
Z
f (t)dt
.
(P V )
t t0
L
Let us suppose now that the function f = f (t) satisfies Holders condition or
the H condition; i.e.
|f (t1 ) f (t2 )| A |t1 t2 | , A > 0, 0 < 1, t1 , t2 L,

A and being positive numbers.
Prove that, in this case, the Cauchys principal value exists and
Z
Z
f (t) f (t0 )
1
1
f (t)dt
1
dt.
= f (t0 ) +
(P V )
t t0
2i
2
t t0
2i
L
Moreover, in the assumed conditions, it can be shown that the limit values
F + (t0 ) and F (t0 ) exist and are satisfied by the Plemelj-Sohockii formulas:
Z
f (t)dt
1
1
,
(P V )
F + (t0 ) = f (t0 ) +
t t0
2i
2
L
1
1
(P V )
F (t0 ) = f (t0 ) +
2i
2
Z
L
f (t)dt
.
t t0
P8.6 Let us consider the function

Za 2
t a t2
dt.
I(z) =
tz
a
Using the relation (8.1.96), find the value of the above integral.
P8.7 Find the limit values I + (t) and I (t) for t (a, a).
P8.8 Let f = f (z) be a holomorphic function of the complex variable z =

x1 + x2 , where is a complex number.
Let us assume that
u = u(x1 , x2 ) = 2Ref (z) = f (z) + f (z).
Prove that
u
= f 0 (z) + f 0 (z)
x1
521
8.6. PROBLEMS
and
u
= f 0 (z) + f 0 (z).
x2
P8.9 Show that equation(8.2.13) can be written in the equivalent form (8.2.16).
P8.10 Assume that 1 = 2 = . Show that, in this case, equation (8.2.13)
becomes
4
=0
z 2 z 2
and its general solution is
= (x1 , x2 ) = 2Re{zf1 (z) + f2 (z)},
where
z = x1 + x2
and
f1 = f1 (z), f2 = f2 (z)
are two arbitrary analytic functions.
P8.11 Assuming antiplane incremental state and using the representation
(8.2.44) of the incremental displacement u3 = u3 (x1 , x2 ) in terms of the complex
potential 3 = 3 (z3 ), express the incremental stresses 31 and 32 by 3 (z3 ).
P8.12 Let us consider a holomorphic function F = F (z) defined in the upper
half plane x2 > 0, denoted by B + . Let us define in the lower half plane x1 > 0,
denoted by B , the function F = F (z) using the following rule:
F = F (z), z = x1 + ix2 B .
Let U (x1 , x2 ) and V (x1 , x2 ) be the real and the imaginary part of F = F (z); i.e.
F (z) = U (x1 , x2 ) + iV (x1 , x2 ), z = x1 + ix2 B + .
Let U1 (x1 , x2 ) and V1 (x1 , x2 ) be the real and the imaginary part of F = F (z); i.e.
F (z) = U1 (x1 , x2 ) + iV1 (x1 , x2 ), z = x1 + ix2 B .

Show that
U1 (x1 , x2 )
V1 (x1 , x2 )
for < x1 < and x2 < 0.
= U (x1 , x2 ),
= V (x1 , x2 )
P8.13 Show that F = F (z) is a holomorphic function in the lower half plane
B.
522

P8.14 Let t be an arbitrary point on the real axis.
(a) Prove that if the upper limit exists
F + (t) =
lim
zB + ,zt
F (z)
of the function F = F (z), then there exists also the lower limit
F (t) =
of the function
lim
zB ,zt
F (z),
F = F (z) and F (t) = F + (t).
(b) Changing the role of B + and B , prove that if the lower limit exists,
F (t) =
lim
zB ,zt
F (z),
of the function F = F (z), then the upper limit also exists

+
F (t) =
of the function
lim
zB + ,zt
F (z)
F = F (z) and F (t) = F (t).
P8.15 Assume that

F = F (z) = a0 z n + a1 z n1 + ... + an z + an+1 ,
where n is a positive integer and a0 , ..., an+1 are complex constants. Find the
function F (z) = F (z).
P8.16 Let us consider the crack problem for the first mode and let us assume
that the symmetrically applied normal forces have a constant value; i.e.
g(x1 ) = g = const.
for a < x1 < a.
Find the complex potentials j (zj ) and j (zj ), j = 1, 2 in this case.
P8.17 Let us consider the crack problem for the second mode and let us
assume that the antisymmetrically applied tangential forces have a constant value;
i.e. h(x1 ) = h = const. for a < x1 < a.
Find the complex potentials j (zj ) and j (zj ), j = 1, 2 in this case.
P8.18 Let us consider the crack problem for the third mode. Using the results
of P8.11, find the asymptotic values of the incremental nominal stresses 31 and
32 near the crack tip x1 = a.
523
8.6. PROBLEMS
P8.19 Let us consider again the crack problem for the third mode and let us
assume that the antisymmetrically applied tangential forces have a constant value;
i.e. k(x1 ) = k = const. for a < x1 < a.
Find the complex potentials 3 (z3 ) and 3 (z3 ) in this case.
P8.20 In the condition of the problem P8.16, find the normal displacements
u2 of the crack face and determine the jump of these displacements across the
crack.
P8.21 In the condition of the problem P8.17, find the tangential displacements
u1 of the crack faces and determine the jump of these displacements across the
crack.
P8.22 In the condition of the problem P8.19, find the tangential displacements
u3 of the crack faces and determine the jump of these displacements across the
crack.
P8.23 The instantaneous elasticities 1331 and 2332 are given by equations
(8.5.39). Find the dependence of the tangential displacement u3 = u3 (x1 , x2 ) on
the initial applied stress 11 if the conditions of the internal stability are fulfilled.
P8.24 Let us assume that the considered material is isotropic. Let us assume
also that, on the considered loading path,
22 = 33 = 0.
Using the general relations (5.6.22), express the instantaneous elasticities in
terms of Lames constants , and of the initial applied stress 11 .

P8.25 In the conditions of P8.24, find the roots 1 and 2 of the algebraic
equation (8.2.6).
P8.26 Find the roots 1 and 2 of the algebraic equation(8.2.9) corresponding
to the problem P8.25.
P8.27 Let us assume that, in the conditions of P8.23, the initial applied stress
11 is vanishing. Find the stress energy release rates GI (a), GII (a) and GIII (a) in
this case.
P8.28 Write Griffiths crack propagation criterion corresponding to the case
considered in P8.27.
P8.29 Let us assume that the conditions of problem P8.27 are fulfilled. Let
us suppose also that the normal and tangential forces applied on the two faces of
the crack have constant values.
(a) Give the form of Griffiths propagation criterion in this case.
(b) Find the critical values of the applied forces for which crack propagation
takes place by the first, second and third mode, respectively.
P8.30 Let us consider a linearly elastic monoclinic material, the x1 , x2 plane
being its plane of symmetry. Let us assume that the initial stresses in the material
are zero. We suppose also zero body forces.
524
(a) Show that the considered material can be in a plane strain equilibrium
state, relative to the x1 x2 plane.
(b) Give the equilibrium equations satisfied by the plane displacements.
(c) Give the equations of motion satisfied by the plane displacements.
P8.31 Using the results obtained in P8.30 (b), give the Guzs type representation of the plane displacements u1 , u2 in terms of two real displacement potentials
(1) , (2) and find the differential equations satisfied by these potentials.
2
P8.32 (a) Assuming C22 C66 C26
6= 0, give the explicit form of the differential
equation satisfied by the displacement potential introduced in P8.31.
(b) Show that the obtained equation can be factorized in the form
)() = 0,
4
)(
3
)(
2
)(
1
x1
x1 x2
x1 x2
x1 x2
x2
where 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 are the roots of the algebraic equation

0
2
2
l() = (C22 C66 C26
)4 + 2(C22 C16 C12 C26
)3
2
2C12 C66 + 2C16 C26 )2
+(C11 C22 C12
2
+2(C11 C26 C12 C16 ) + (C11 C66 C16
).
P8.33 (a) Study the propagation of harmonic plane waves in the conditions
assumed in P8.30.
(b) Assuming that the stress-free reference configuration of the considered
monoclinic material is locally stable; i.e. its specific strain energy is positive definite, give the interpretation if the result obtained in (a).
(c) Using the conclusions of (a), find the restrictions which must be satisfied
by the elasticities of the material, if the assumption made in (b) is true.
P8.34 Show that if the stress-free reference configuration of the considered
monoclinic material is locally stable, the algebraic equation found in P8.32 cannot
have real roots.
P8.35 In what follows, we suppose
1 6= 2 .
Assume (2) = 0 and use the notation (1) = .
(a) Show that the differential equation given in P8.31 (b) and satisfied by the
displacement potential = 0 can be written in the following equivalent form:
4
=0
z1 z 1 z2 z 2
where the complex variables z1 and z2 are defined by

z1 = x1 + 1 x2 and z2 = x1 + 2 x2 ,
525
8.6. PROBLEMS
1 and 2 being nonreal roots of the algebraic equation l() = 0 given in P8.32.
(b) Find the general solution of the above equation.
P8.36 Using the results obtained in P8.30, P8.31 and P8.35, and the reasoning
of Section 8.2, give the Leknitskii-Guz type representation of the elastic state in
terms of two complex potentials supposing
(1) = and (2) = 0.
P8.37 Let us assume that the whole space is occupied by a monoclinic material without initial stresses. We suppose (see Section 8.3) that the material contains
a crack of length 2a > 0 situated in the x1 axis and having an infinite extent in the
direction of the x3 axis. We recall that the symmetry plane of the material is the
x1 x2 plane. We suppose that on the two faces of the crack, the tangential stresses
are zero. We assume also that on the upper face of the crack a distributed normal
stress is given, and a symmetrically distributed normal stress acts on the lower
face (see Figure 8.9). Find the complex potentials (z ) and (z ) describing
the elastic state of the body according to the representation obtained in P8.36.
P8.38 Assuming that the symmetrically applied normal stress has constant
value; i.e. g(x1 ) = p = const. for |x1 | < a, find the expressions of the complex
potentials (z ) and (z ).
P8.39 Assuming the conditions of problem P8.38, determine the asymptotic
behavior of the stress 22 (x1 , x2 ) in a small neighborhood of the right crack tip
x1 = a, x2 = 0.
P8.40 We assume again the conditions of problem P8.38.
(a) Find the normal displacement u2 of the line containing the crack, behind
and ahead of the crack.
(b) Find the normal displacements of the two faces of the crack.
(c) Give the graphical representation of the obtained results and compare the
behavior of the normal displacement with that obtained in Section 8.4 concerning
a prestressed orthotropic material.
P8.41 Let us consider again a linearly elastic monoclinic material, the x1 x2
plane being its symmetry plane. Let us assume as before, that the initial stresses
in the material are zero. We suppose also zero body forces.
(a) Show that the considered material can be in antiplane strain equilibrium
state relative to the x1 x2 plane.
(b) Give the equilibrium equations satisfied by the antiplane displacement
field.
P8.42 Give the expression of the specific strain energy of a monoclinic material in antiplane strain state and, assuming that the reference configuration of the
material is locally stable, find the restrictions imposed on the elasticities C 44 , C45
and C55 by this property.
P8.43 In the conditions of P8.42, give the Leknitskii-Guz type representation
of the elastic state by a complex potential.
526
P8.44 We suppose that the whole space is occupied by a monoclinic material

with locally stable reference configuration. We assume that the material contains
a crack as in P8.37. We suppose that on the two faces of the crack tangential
stresses antisymmetrically distributed acts only relative to the plane x 2 = 0 and
having the direction of the x3 axis. Find the complex potential 3 (z3 ) describing
the corresponding antiplane elastic state of the material.
P8.45 Assuming that the antisymmetrically applied tangential stress has a
constant value; i.e. k(x1 ) = k = const. for |x1 | < a, find the expressions of the
complex potentials 3 (z3 ) and 3 (z3 ).
P8.46 In the condition of P8.45, find the antiplane displacement u3 and the
tangential stresses 13 and 23 .
P8.47 Analyze the asymptotic behavior of the tangential stress 23 and of
the displacement u3 found in P8.46, near the right crack tip.
P8.48 Analyze the displacement u3 of the lines x2 = 0 behind and ahead of
the crack, find the displacements u3 of the two faces of the crack and compare the
obtained results with that corresponding to an orthotropic material.
P8.49 Using Griffiths energetic criterion and, in conditions of P8.45, find the
critical tangential stress c for which crack propagation starts by the third tearing
mode.
Bibliography
[8.1] Muskhelishvili, N.I., Some basic problems of mathematical theory of elasticity, Nordhoff, Groningen, Holland, 1953.
[8.2] Lekhnitski, S.G., Theory of elasticity of aniosotropic elastic body. Holden
Day, San Francisco, 1963.
[8.3] Sih, G.C., Leibowitz, H., Mathematical theories of brittle fracture, in Fracture - An advanced treatise, Vol.II, Mathematical fundamentals, Editor H.
Lebowitz, pp 68-191, Academic Press, New York, 1968.
[8.4] Guz, A.N., Mechanics of brittle fracture of prestressed materials, Visha Shcola,
[8.5] Guz, A.N., Brittle fracture of materials with initial stress, Vol. 2 of Nonclassical problems of fracture mechanics, Ed. A.N. Guz, Naukova Dumka,
[8.6] Soos, E., Resonance and stress concentration in a prestressed elastic solid
containing a crack. An apparent paradox. Int. J. Engng. Sci., 34, pp 363374, 1996.
SOLUTIONS TO SOME
PROBLEMS
Chapter 1
P1.1 Let us assume that two vectors 0 and 01 exist, which have the following
property: u + 0 = u and u + 01 = u for any u in V. Taking u = 01 in the first equation,
and u = 0 in the second one, results in 01 + 0 = 01 and 0 + 01 = 0. From these two relations, we can conclude that 01 = 0 and, thus, the uniqueness of the null vector is proved.
P1.2 Using the property (V9), we get (0 + 0)u = 0u + 0u. On the other hand, we
have also (0 + 0)u = 0u. From the equation obtained, we get 0u = 0, taking into account
P1.1. In order to prove the second property, we observe that (0 + u) = 0 + u. But
(0 + u) = u. Hence, again P1.1 leads to 0 = 0 for any real number .
P1.3 Let us consider the system u1 , u2 , u3 , ..., up1 , 0; we consider also the set
1 = ... = p1 = 0 and p 6= 0. We get 1 u1 + 2 u2 + ... + p1 up1 + p 0 =
0u1 + 0u2 + ... + 0up1 + p 0 = 0 + ... + 0 + p 0 = p 0 = 0. Hence, our system
u1 , u2 , u3 , ..., up1 , 0 is linearly dependent, since p 6= 0.
P1.6 In order to prove the properties (N1)(N3), we start with equation (1.1.1)
defining the magnitude kuk of a vector u V. Also, we use the properties (S1)(S5)
of an Euclidean scalar product. From (S4) and (S5), it follows that (N1) is true. From
(1.1.1) and (S2), it results that (N2) takes place. To prove (N3) now, let us consider
two vectors u, v from V and an arbitrary real number, . According to (S4), we have:
(u + v)(u + v) 0. Using (S1),(S2) and (S3), it results: 2 kuk2 +2u v +kvk2 0
for any real number . Hence, we must have
(u v)2 kuk2 kvk2 or |u v| kuk kvk
for any vectors u and v from V. At the same time, we have ku + vk2 = (u + v)(u + v) =
u u + 2u v + v v = kuk2 + 2u v + kvk2 . Taking into account the above inequality,
we get:ku + vk2 kuk2 + 2 kuk kvk + kvk2 = (kuk + kvk)2 . The last result shows that
the property (N3) is also true.
P1.7 We must show that the operation hP, Qi =
Rb
a
P (x)Q(x)dx introduced in Pn+1
528
has the properties (S1)(S5). In order to do this, we must take into account some
well-known properties of the usual integrals. Since P (x)Q(x) = Q(x)P (x), the property
Rb
Rb
(S1) is obviously true. Also, since P (x)Q(x)dx = P (x)Q(x)dx, the property (S2)
a
takes place. We have also
Rb
a
P (x) {Q(x) + R(x)} dx =
Rb
P (x)Q(x)dx +
Rb
P (x)R(x)dx for
P, Q, R Pn+1 . Consequently, the validity of the property (S3) was proved. In the same
Rb
way we get that P (x)P (x)dx 0, and this inequality shows that the property (S4)
a
is true. Let us assume now that hP, P i =
Rb
P 2 (x)dx = 0. Obviously, if P (x) = 0, then
hP, P i = 0. Let us assume now that hP, P i = 0; hence,
Rb
a
P 2 (x)dx = 0. Since P 2 (x) 0
and taking into account the fact that any polynomial P (x) is a continuous function, a
well-known theorem of the integral calculus tells us that P (x) = 0. Consequently, (S5) is
proved.
P1.11 Let us consider an arbitrary vector w V. Taking into account the equation
(1.1.11), defining the tensor product of two vectors and the properties of a scalar product,
we get
{(u) v} (w) = u (v w) ,
{u (v)} (w) = u (v w) = u (v w) = u (v w) ,
{ (uv)} (w) = u (v w) .
The above equations show that the first properties given in P1.11 are true, since w is an
arbitrary vector from V.
Analogously, let us assume that a is an arbitrary vector from V. We get:
{(u + v) w} (a) = (u + v) (w a) = u (w a) +v (w a)
= (u w) (a) + (v w) (a)
and
{u (v + w)} (a)
=
=
u {(v + w) a} = u {v a + w a}
u (v a) +u (w a) = (u v) (a) + (u w) (a) .
Since these equations hold for any vector a from V, we can conclude that the last
properties given in P1.11 are also true.
P1.14 To prove the given property, we use the relation defining the tensor product
of two vectors and the equation giving the components of a tensor. Thus, we obtain
successively
(uv)km = ek {uv} em = ek {u (v em )} = (u ek ) (v em ) = uk vm ,
since u ek =uk and v em =vm .
529
P1.15 To show that the tensor product is not commutative, it is sufficient to give a
particular case, proving this property. Let us take u = ek and v = em , ek and em being
two different elements of an orthonormal basis in Vn . For an arbitrary vector w, we get
(ek em ) (w) = ek (em w) = ek wm = wm ek ,
(em ek ) (w) = em (ek w) = em wk = wk em ,
where wk and wm are the corresponding components of w in the considered orthonormal
basis. Since ek and em are linearly independent, obviously
wm ek 6= wk em ,
if wm or wk are not vanishing. Hence, ek em 6= em ek , m 6= k.
P1.17 Using again the definition of the product of two tensors and considering an
arbitrary vector v, we obtain
{(TU) V} (v) = {TU} (Vv) = T {U (Vv)} ,
{T (UV)} (v) = T {(UV) (v)} = T {U (Vv)} ,
hence,
(TU) V = T (UV)
since the above equation are true for any vector v.
The distributivity relative to tensor addition can be proved in a similar way.
If 1 is the unit tensor, we have 1v = v for any vector v. Hence, we get
(1T) (v) = 1 (Tv) = Tv and (T1) (v) = T (1v) = Tv,
for any vector v. Hence, we have
1T = T1 = T
for any second order tensor T.
P1.19 In order to prove that the transposed tensor TT is a linear function, we must
use the relation defining TT and the properties of a scalar product. Thus, we obtain
the following chain of relations, in which , are arbitrary real numbers and u, v, w are
arbitrary vectors:
n
o
TT (u + v) w = (u + v) Tw = u Tw + v Tw

= TT u w + TT v w = TT u + TT v w.
Since the above equations are true for any vector w, from the property proved in P1.9,
TT (u+v) = TT u + TT v;
hence, the transposed tensor TT is a linear function.
530
P1.21 Let w be an arbitrary vector from Vn . Using the corresponding definition,

we get successively the following equalities:
{(Tu) (Uv)} (w) = Tu (Uv w)
and
T (uv) UT

n

o
n
o
(w) = T (uv) UT w = T (uv) UT w = T u v UT w
= T {u (Uv w)} = Tu (Uv w) .
Since the above relations are true for any vector w, we can conclude that
(Tu)(Uv) = T(uv)UT .
P1.23 To prove that the scalar product of two tensors, defined by the equation
(1.1.18), satisfies the properties (S1)-(S5) of an Euclidean scalar product, we must use
the linearity of the trace of a second order tensor and the properties of the product of
two second order tensors together with the properties of the transposed tensor. First of
all, we have
n
oT
= trUTT = U T.
T U = trTUT = tr TUT
Hence, (S1) takes place. We have also

(T) U = tr (T) UT = tr TUT = tr TUT = (T U) .
Consequently, (S2) is true. Analogously, we get

n
o
T (U + V) = trT (U + V)T = trT UT +VT = tr TUT + TVT
= trTUT + trTVT = TU + TV.
Thus, (S3) takes place.

In a similar way, we get:
T T = trTTT = Tkm Tkm ,
where Tkm are the components of T in a basis {ek , em } . The last result shows that (S4)
and (S5) are satisfied.
P1.25 The tensor T is defined by the equation
Te1 = e1 +e2 ; Te2 = e2 +e3 ; Te3 = e3 +e1 .
(a) According to the equation (1.1.13), its components Tkm are given by the relation
Tkm = ek Tem , k, m = 1, 2, 3.
In this way, we get
T11 = e1 Te1 = e1 (e1 + e2 ) = e1 e1 + e1 e2 = 1 + 0 = 1
T12 = e1 Te2 = e1 (e2 + e3 ) = e1 e2 + e1 e3 = 0 + 0 = 0
T13 = e1 Te3 = e1 (e3 + e1 ) = e1 e3 + e1 e1 = 0 + 1 = 1.
531
Using the same procedure, we can see that the matrix of the components of T is given
by the following relation:
1 0 1
[Tkm ] = 1 1 0 .
0 1 1
Hence, the tensor T in the basis {ek, em } , k, m = 1, 2, 3 has the following expression:
T = e1 e1 +e1 e3 +e2 e1 +e2 e2 +e3 e2 +e3 e3 .
(b) We have
Tv = T(e1 + e2 + e3 ) = Te1 + Te2 + Te3 = 2(e1 + e2 + e3 ) = 2v.
T
of the components of the transposed tensor TT is the transposed
(c) The matrix Tkm
matrix of the matrix [Tkm ] of the components of T; hence,
1 1 0
h
i
T
Tkm = 0 1 1 .
1 0 1

The matrix TTT km of the components of the product TTT is the
T
; hence,
product of the matrixes [Tkm ] and Tkm
1 0 1
1 1 0
2 1 1
h
i
T
TT
= 1 1 0 0 1 1 = 1 2 1 .
km
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 2
The tensor TS is defined by the relation
TS =

1
T + TT .
2
In this way, we can see that the matrix of the components of 2TS and that of the
components of TTT are equal; hence,
2TS = TTT .
The tensor TA is defined by the equation

1
T TT ;
TA =
2
A
hence, the matrix Tkm of the components of TA is given by the following equation:
0
1/2
1/2
h
i
A
0
1/2 .
Tkm = 1/2
1/2
1/2
0
Consequently, the tensor TA has the following expression in the basis {ek em } ,
k, m = 1, 2, 3:
TA =
1
(e1 e2 + e2 e1 + e1 e3 e3 e1 e2 e3 + e3 e2 ) .
2
532
(d) From the expression of the matrix of the components of the tensor T, we get
trT = T11 + T22 + T33 = 3,
1 0 1
det T = 1 1 0 = 2.
0 1 1
Using the same matrix, we obtain
Tkm Tkm = 6.
1
(e) Since det T = 2, T is a nonsingular tensor. The matrix Tkm
of the components of
the tensor T1 is the inverse matrix of the matrix [Tkm ] . In this way, we get
1
1 1
1
1
1
1
1 ,
Tkm =
2
1 1
1
kTk = (T T)1/2 =
trTTT =
and the expression of T1 in the given basis is:

T1 =
1
(e1 e1 + e1 e2 e1 e3 e2 e1 + e2 e2 + e2 e3 + e3 e1 e3 e2 + e3 e3 ) .
2
P1.28 Let us denote by Sk , k = 1, ..., 6, the following second order tensors:

S 1 = e 1 e1 , S 2 = e 2 e2 , S 3 = e 3 e3 ,
1
1
1
S4 = (e1 e2 + e2 e1 ) , S5 = (e2 e3 + e3 e2 ) , S6 = (e3 e1 + e1 e3 ) .
2
2
2
Using the result proved in P1.20, it is easy to see that these tensors are symmetric; i.e.
STk = Sk , k = 1, ..., 6.
Hence, S1 , ..., S6 are the elements of LS , the vector space of the symmetric second order
tensors.
Also, using the result proved in P1.24, it is easy to see that these tensors form an
orthonormal system in LS ; i.e.
Sk Sl = kl for k, l = 1, ..., 6.
Since the set S1 , ..., S6 is an orthonormal system, it is obviously also a linearly
independent system.
Let us consider now an arbitrary symmetric tensor T from LS . Since {ek em } ,
k, m = 1, 2, 3 form a basis in L, we have
T = Tkm ek em ,
and, since T is symmetric, its components satisfy the relations
Tkm = Tmk .
533
Using this restrictions, it is easy to see that T can be expressed in the following equivalent form:
T = T11 S1 + T22 S2 + T33 S3 +
2T12 S4 +
2T23 S5 +
2T31 S1 .
Consequently, any symmetric tensor T can be expressed as a linear combination of

the symmetric tensor S1 , ..., S6 and these tensors form a linearly independent orthonormal
system. Hence, according to the general definition of an orthonormal basis in a vector
space, these six tensors S1 , ..., S6 form an orthonormal basis in LS .
At the same time, we can conclude that dimLS = 6.
Let us denote now by Ak , k = 1, 2, 3, the following second order tensors:
1
1
1
A1 = (e1 e2 e2 e1 ) , A2 = (e2 e3 e3 e1 ) , A3 = (e3 e1 e1 e3 ) .
2
2
2
Using again P1.20, we can see that these tensors are antisymmetric; i.e.
ATk = Ak , k = 1, 2, 3.
Hence A1 , A2 , A3 are elements of LA , the vector space of the antisymmetric second order
tensors.
Taking into account the property proved in P1.24, we can see without difficulty
that the above tensors verify the relations
Ak Al = kl , k, l = 1, 2, 3.
Hence, the tensors A1 , A2 , A3 form an orthonormal system. This property shows also
that our antisymmetric tensors A1 , A2 , A3 form a linearly independent system.
Let us consider now an arbitrary antisymmetric tensor T from LA . We have
T = Tkm ek em ,
and the components of T satisfy the restrictions
Tkm = Tmk .
Using these equations, we can easily conclude that T can be written in the following
equivalent form:
T = 2T12 A1 + 2T23 A2 + 2T31 A3 .
Consequently, any antisymmetric tensor can be expressed as a linear combination of the

antisymmetric tensors A1 , A2 , A3 and these three tensors form a linearly independent
orthonormal system. Hence, A1 , A2 , A3 represent an orthonormal basis in LA .
At the same time, we get dimLA = 3.
P1.30 Let u1 and u2 be two vectors from Vn , which satisfy the equations
Tu1 = u1 and Tu2 = u2 .
Let 1 and 2 be two real numbers and let us consider the linear combination
u = 1 u1 +2 u2 . We have, taking into account the linearity of T and the above equations,
Tu = T (1 u1 + 2 u2 ) = 1 Tu1 + 2 Tu2 = 1 u1 + 2 u2 = (1 u1 + 2 u2 ) .
534
Hence, u satisfies the equation

Tu = u.
We conclude that the set of all vectors u Vn , which satisfies the above relation,
is a subspace vectorial of Vn .
P1.32 As we have seen, the matrix of the components of the symmetric part TS , if
the tensor T given in P1.25, has the following form:
1
1/2 1/2
h
i
S
1/2 .
Tkm
= 1/2 1
1/2 1/2 1
The principal invariants of this tensor can be obtained using the general formulas (see
Section 1.1). Thus, we get
I TS = 3
IITS =
9
4
IIITS =
1
.
2
Hence, according to the relation (1.1.28), the characteristic equation corresponding to

TS is
1
9
3 32 + = 0.
2
4
Consequently, the eigenvalues of the tensor TS are
1 = 2,
2 = 3 =
1
.
2
To get the eigendirection n1 corresponding to the eigenvalue 1 = 2, we must solve

the system determined by equations (1.1.29)1 and (1.1.30)1 , where 1 , 1 , 1 are the
components of n and satisfy the restriction 12 + 12 + 12 = 1. An elementary computation
shows that
1
1 = 1 = 1 = .
3
Consequently, the eigendirection n1 , corresponding to the eigenvalue 1 = 2 is
n1 = (e1 + e2 + e3 ) / 3.
Let us denote by , , the components of an eigenvector v, corresponding to the

double eigenvalue 2 = 3 = 12 . According to the general relations (1.1.29)1 and (1.1.30)1 ,
, , must satisfy the following system of algebraic equations:

1
1
1
+ + = 0,
1
2
2
2

1
1
1
+ = 0,
+ 1
2
2
2

1
1
1
= 0.
+ + 1
2
2
2
In the above algebraic system, only one is independent, and has the following form:
+ + = 0.
535

Hence, we get
= ( + ) ,
and v must have the following form:
v = e1 + e2 ( + ) e3 ,
where and are arbitrary real numbers. Consequently, the eigendirections n corresponding to the double eigenvalue 2 = 3 = 1/2 have the following expression:
n = (e1 + e2 ( + ) e3 ) /
2 (2 + 2 + ).
It is easy to see that n1 and n are reciprocally orthogonal and, concluding, we can
say that any unit vector orthogonal to n1, the eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue
1 = 2, is an eigendirection corresponding to the double eigenvalue 2 = 3 = 1/2.
Let us denote now by n2 and n3 , two eigendirections corresponding to the double
eigenvalue 2 = 3 = 1/2, which are reciprocally orthogonal. Consequently, according to
the general spectral representation theorem (1.1.25), the tensor TS can be expressed in
the following form:
1
1
TS = 2n1 n1 + n2 n2 + n3 n3 .
2
2
We observe now that the system n1 , n2 , n3 forms a basis in V. Let us consider a vector
v = vk nk . Then we have vk = (v nk ) . Consequently, the following relations are true:
(n1 n1 +n2 n2 +n3 n3 ) v = n1 (n1 v) +n2 (n2 v) +n3 (n3 v)

= v1 n1 +v2 n2 +v3 n3 = v.
Hence, we have the following important result: if n1 , n2 , n3 is an orthonormal basis, then

n1 n1 +n2 n2 +n3 n3 = 1,
where 1 is the unit tensor. Using this equation, we get the spectral representation of the
tensor TS in the following form:
1
TS = 2n1 n1 + (1 n1 n1 ) .
2
P1.33 In order to prove the theorem of spectral representation if 1 6= 2 = 3 ,

let us denote by n1 the eigendirection corresponding to the eigenvalue 1 , and by n2 an
eigendirection corresponding to the eigenvalue 2 = 3 6= 1 . Hence, we have
Tn1 = 1 n1 , Tn2 = 2 n2 = 3 n2 .
Let us consider also an unit vector n3 such that the system n1 , n2 , n3 be an orthonormal
basis in V . Let us denote by Tkm , the components of the tensor T in the tensor basis
(nk nm ) , k, m = 1, 2, 3. According to the general relation (1.1.13), we have
Tkm = nk Tnm .
536
Hence,
T11 = n1 Tn1 = n1 1 n1 = 1 n1 n1 = 1 ,
T12 = n1 Tn2 = n1 2 n2 = 2 n1 n2 = 0,
T22 = n2 Tn2 = n2 2 n2 = 2 n2 n2 = 2 ,
T31 = n3 Tn1 = n3 1 n1 = 1 n3 n1 = 0,
T32 = n3 Tn2 = n3 2 n2 = 2 n3 n2 = 0.
Since T is a symmetric tensor, we have also
T21 = T13 = T32 = 0.
Thus, the matrix of the components of T in the considered basis has the following form:
1 0
0
.
2 0
[Tkm ] = 0
0
0
T33
Consequently, the characteristic equation becomes
(1 ) (2 ) (T33 ) = 0.
Since, according to the made assumption 2 = 3 , is a double eigenvalue, we must have
T33 = 2 = 3 .
Consequently, we must also have
Tn3 = 2 n3 = 3 n3 .
Hence, n3 is an eigendirection corresponding to the double eigenvalue 2 = 3 .
Moreover, it is easy to see that if n is a unit vector situated in the plane determined
by n2 and n3 , it is also an eigendirection corresponding to the double eigenvalue 2 = 3 .
Indeed, if
n = n2 +n3 , , R
then
Tn = T (n2 + n3 ) = Tn2 +Tn3 = 2 n2 +2 n3 = 2 (n2 + n3 ) = 2 n.

In other words, if 1 6= 2 = 3 , any unit vector orthogonal to n1 is an eigendirection
corresponding to the double eigenvalue.
Summing up the obtained results, we obtain, for the matrix of the components of
T in our basis, the following simple diagonal form:
1 0
0
2 0 .
[Tkm ] = 0
0
0
2
Consequently, the tensor T in the basis {nk nm } has the following expression:
T = 1 n1 n1 +2 n2 n2 + 2 n3 n3 .
537

Using again the relation
n1 n1 +n2 n2 +n3 n3 = 1,
we get the spectral representation of T in the following form:
T = 1 n1 n1 +2 (1 n1 n1 ) .
In order to prove the spectral representation if 1 = 2 = 3 , we denote by n1 the

eigendirection corresponding to 1 ; i.e.
Tn1 = 1 n1 .
Let us consider two unit vectors n2 , n3 such that the system n1 , n2 , n3 is an orthonormal
basis in V ; i.e.
nk nm = km , k, m = 1, 2, 3.
Using again the general formula (1.1.13) and the symmetry of T, we can see that the
matrix of components of T in the basis {nk nm } becomes
1
[Tkm ] = 0
0
0
T22
T23
0
T23 .
T33
Consequently, the characteristic equation (1.1.28) becomes

2
(1 ) {2 (T22 + T33 ) + T22 T33 T23
} = 0.
Since we must have 1 = 2 = 3 , the components T22 , T33 and T23 must satisfy the
relations
T22 = T33 = 1 and T23 = 0.
Thus, the matrix of the components takes the form
1 0
0
1 0 ,
[Tkm ] = 0
0
0
1
and, hence, T can be expressed by the relation
T = 1 n1 n1 +1 n2 n2 +1 n3 n3
or
T = 1 1.
It is easy to see now that any unit vector n is an eigendirection of the tensor T,
corresponding to the triple eigenvalue 1 = 2 = 3 .
P1.34 Since the characteristic equation (1.1.28) has real coefficients and is of degree
three, any tensor has a real eigenvalue. Let us denote by this real eigenvalue of the
orthogonal tensor Q and let n1 be the corresponding eigendirection; we have
Qn1 = n1 .
538
From this equation, we get

Qn1 Qn1 = 2 n1 n1 = 2 ,
since n1 is an unit vector. Using the definition of the transposed tensor, we obtain
Qn1 Qn1 = n1 QT Qn1 .
Since Q is an orthogonal tensor QT Q = 1, hence,
Qn1 Qn1 = n1 1n1 = n1 n1 = 1.
Consequently, the real eigenvalue of any orthogonal tensor Q must satisfy the equation
2 = 1.
Hence, we must have
= +1
or
= 1.
Let us consider now two unit vectors n2 , n3 , such that the system n1 , n2 , n3 is an
orthonormal basis in V. Thus, we have
nk nm = km ,
k, m = 1, 2, 3.
Moreover, since n1 is an eigendiretion of Q, corresponding to the eigenvalue 1 = 1 or

1 = 1, we must have
Qn1 = n1 .
Let us denote by Qkm the components of Q in the tensor basis {nk nm } . We get
Q11 = n1 Qn1 = n1 (n1 ) = 1,
Q21 = n2 Qn1 = n2 (n1 ) = 0,
Q31 = n3 Qn1 = n3 (n1 ) = 0.
We observe now, that from the equation satisfied by n1 , we obtain

QT Qn1 = QT n1 .
But QT Q = 1, since Q is an orthogonal tensor. Hence, n1 satisfies also the equation
QT n1 = n1 .
Using this result and the definition of the transposed tensor, we get
Q12 = n1 Qn2 = n2 QT n1 = n2 (n1 ) = 0,
Q13 = n1 Qn3 = n3 QT n1 = n3 (n1 ) = 0.
The obtained results lead to the following form of the matrix of the components Q km of
the orthogonal tensor Q:
1
0
0
[Qkm ] = 0 Q22 Q23 .
0 Q32 Q33
539
We recall again that Q is an orthogonal tensor, hence, satisfies the equation QQ T =

1. Consequently, its components Qkm in any basis must satisfy the following six equations:
Qkl Qml = km , k, m = 1, 2, 3.
In our special basis {nk nm }, the above system takes the following simplified form:
Q222 + Q223 = 1,
Q22 Q32 + Q23 Q33 = 0,
Q232 + Q233 = 1.
The general solution of the first equation can be written in the form
Q22 = cos , Q23 = sin
[0, 2),
with
and the general solution of the third equation can be expressed in the form
Q32 = sin , Q33 = cos
with
[0, 2).
It is easy to see that the second equation can be satisfied taking

= .
Hence, the matrix of the components of an orthogonal tensor in the chosen special basis
takes the special form
1
0
0
[Qkm ] = 0 cos sin with [0, 2).
0 sin
cos
Consequently, the characteristic equation becomes

cos
sin
(1 )
sin
cos
or, equivalently,

= 0,

(1 ) 2 2 cos + 1 = 0.
Hence, the eigenvalues of an orthogonal tensor Q are given by the following relations:
1 = 1,
2 = cos + i sin ,
3 = cos i sin ,
i=
1.
Thus, generally, an orthogonal tensor has two complex-conjugate eigenvalues if and

only if = 0 or = ; all eigenvalues of Q are real numbers. Obviously, in these specials
cases, Q is also a symmetric tensor as it is easy to see evaluating its components for = 0
or = . For all other values of from the domain [0, 2), Q is not symmetric.
P1.35 First we must prove that the system {ek el em } , k, l, m = 1, 2, 3, of 27 tensor
product is linearly independent. In order to do this, let us assume that the real numbers
klm , k, l, m = 1, 2, 3 exist such that
klm ek el em = 03 ,
k, l, m = 1, 2, 3,
540
where 03 is the third order null-tensor. Using the definition of this tensor, the definition
of the tensor product of three vectors and the above relation, we successively get
02 = 03 es = (klm ek el em ) (es ) = klm ek el (em es )
= klm ek el ms = kls ek el ,
k, l, s = 1, 2, 3.
Hence, if our assumption is made, we can conclude that the following system:
kls ek el = 02 , for s = 1, 2, 3,
must be verified, where 02 = 0 is the second order null-tensor. But the system {ek el } ,
k, l = 1, 2, 3, is a basis in the vector space of the second order tensors, consequently it is
a linearly independent system. Consequently, the above equations can be satisfied if and
only if
kls = 0 for k, l, s = 1, 2, 3.
Our result proves the linear independence of the system {ek el em } .
Let us consider now a third order tensor . In this case, according to the definition
of a third order tensor, em is a second order tensor. Consequently, it can be expressed
in the following form:
em = klm ek el .
Let us consider now an arbitrary vector v = vs es . Using again the definition of the
tensor product of three vectors, as well as the linearity of , we successively obtain
(klm ek el em ) v = (klm ek el em ) (vs es )
= vs {es klm ek el (em es )}
= vs {es klm ek el ms } = vs {es kls ek el } .

Taking into account the equation defining the quantities klm and the above result, we
can conclude that
(klm ek el em ) v = 02
for any vector v. Consequently,
klm ek el em = 03 ,
and the last equation shows that
= klm ek el em .
Hence, any third order tensor is a linear combination of the 27 tensor products
{ek el em } , k, l, m = 1, 2, 3, which form a linearly independent system. Taking into account
the general definition of a basis in a vector space, we can conclude that the system
{ek el em } is a basis in the vector space L3 of the third order tensors.
At the same time, it follows that dimL3 = 27.
The quantities klm , k, l, m = 1, 2, 3, are the components of the tensor in the
basis {ek el em } .
i.e.
b 4 is positive definite;
P1.41 Let us assume that the fourth order tensor from L
T T 0
541

for any symmetric second order tensor from LS
2 and
T T = 0
if and only if
T 6= 0.
Let us assume also that a second order tensor T 6= 0 exists, such that
T = 0 and T 6= 0.
In this case, we will have also
T T = 0 and T 6= 0.
However, such a situation cannot occur, since we have assumed that the tensor is
positive-definite. Consequently, the equation T = 0 can have only the solution T = 0.
In other words, if U is a symmetric second order tensor, the equation
T = U
or, equivalently, the linear algebraic system
klmn Tmn = Ukl ,
k, l = 1, 2, 3,
has a unique solution and this solution depends linearly on U. Let us denote this solution
T in the following manner
T = 1 U.
b 4 and we have
Obviously, 1 L

1 U = 1 (U) = U
for any symmetric second order tensor U. Consequently,

1 = b
I,
b 4 . Also, from the above equation, it follows

where b
I is the fourth order unit tensor in L
that
1 = b
I.
Hence, the fourth order tensor 1 is the inverse of , consequently, is nonsingular.

Let us consider now an arbitrary symmetric tensor U and let T be given by the
relation T = 1 U. Since is positive definite, we have

0 T T = 1 U 1 U = 1 U 1 (U)
Consequently,
= 1 U b
IU =
U 1 U 0
U U = U 1 U.
for any symmetric second order tensor U.

U 1 U =0.
542
Accordingly, we will have also

T T = 0,
and, hence, T = 0, since is positive definite. But U = T, and thus U = 0.

These results show that the inverse tensor 1 is positive definite if is positive
definite.
P1.42 (a) It is easy to see that the components cklmn of the tensor c satisfy the
following symmetry properties:
cklmn = clkmn = cklnm = cmnkl ,
b4 .
hence, c is an element of the vector space L
(b) Let us denote by the fourth order tensor defined by the equation
= ck.
According to the property given in P1.39, we have

klmn = cklrs krsmn ,
or taking into account the expression of cklrs and krsmn
klmn = {kl rs + (kr ls + ks lr )}

1
(rm sn + rn sm )
rs mn +
4
2(3 + 2)
1
= (km ln + kn lm ).
2
Consequently, according to the equation (1.1.48),

klmn = Ibklmn,
b4 .
where Ibklmn are the component of the unit tensor Ib in the vector space L
Hence
ck = b
I4 ,
b 4 is invertible, and its inverse
and we can conclude that the fourth order tensor c from L
b 4 ; i.e.
tensor is the fourth order tensor k from L
c1 = k.
(c) To establish the condition in which the tensor c is positive definite, let us consider an arbitrary symmetric second order tensor and let us denote by the symmetric
second order tensor defined by the equation
= c.
If nl and mn are the components of and , respectively, it is easy to see that
nl are expressed in terms of mn by the following equation:
kl = mm kl + 2kl .
543

Since we have
c = = kl kl ,
from the above results, we obtain
c = kk mm + 2kl kl .
Let us denote by the trace of and let e be the deviatoric part of ; i.e.
= tr, e =
1
1
1 and = 1 + e with tre = 0.
3
3
From the last two equations, we get

kl =
1
kl + ekl and ekk = 0,
3
where ekl are the components of e. Introducing the above results in the equation giving
c, we obtain
2 2
) + 2e e.
c = ( +
3
If we introduce the number k defined by the relation
k =+
2
,
3
the last result takes the following form:

c = k 2 + 2e e.
Since and e are reciprocally independent quantities, the last equation shows that
the tensor c is positive definite if and only if the numbers and satisfy the inequalities
k =+
2
and > 0.
3
Chapter 2
P2.2 Let us assume now that the infinitesimal strain field

u (x) + u (x)T
(x) =
2
are identically zero on B. Hence, we have

11 = u1,1 = 0, 22 = u2,2 = 0, 33 = u3,3 = 0
and
212 = u1,2 + u2,1 = 0, 223 = u2,3 + u3,2 = 0, 231 = u3,1 + u1,3 = 0.
From the first three equations, it follows that u1 (x1 , x2 , x3 ) does not depend on x1 ,
u2 (x1 , x2 , x3 ) does not depend on x2 and u3 (x1 , x2 , x3 ) does not depend on x3 . Hence,
we have
u1 = f1 (x2 , x3 ), u2 = f2 (x3 , x1 ) and u3 = f3 (x1 , x2 ),
544
where f1 (x2 , x3 ), f2 (x3 , x1 ) and f3 (x1 , x2 ) are arbitrary functions.

Using the fact that 12 , 23 and 31 are also vanishing, we conclude that these
functions must satisfy the following differential equations:
f2 (x3 , x1 )
f1 (x2 , x3 )
+
x1
x2
f3 (x1 , x2 )
f2 (x1 , x3 )
+
x2
x3
f1 (x2 , x3 )
f3 (x1 , x2 )
+
x3
x1
0,
0,
0.
Differentiating the first equation with respect to x3 and the third equation with respect
to x3 , we get
2 f1 (x2 , x3 )
2 f1 (x2 , x3 )
= 0.
= 0 and
2
x23
x2
From the first equation, we obtain
f1 (x2 , x3 )
= g1 (x3 ) ,
x2
hence,
f1 (x2 , x3 ) = g1 (x3 ) x2 + h1 (x3 ) ,
where g1 (x3 ) and h1 (x3 ) are arbitrary functions, depending only on x3 . Consequently,
dh1 (x3 )
dg1 (x3 )
f1 (x2 , x3 )
x2 +
=
dx3
dx3
x3
and
d2 h1 (x3 )
d2 g1 (x3 )
2 f1 (x2 , x3 )
.
x2 +
=
2
2
dx23
dx3
x3
Introducing the last result in the second equation satisfied by f1 (x2 , x3 ), we get
d2 h1 (x3 )
d2 g1 (x3 )
= 0.
x2 +
2
dx23
dx3
Since the functions g1 (x3 ) and h1 (x3 ) depend only on x3 , we must have
d2 h1 (x3 )
d2 g1 (x3 )
= 0.
= 0 and
2
dx23
dx3
Hence, g1 (x3 ) and h1 (x3 ) are linear functions of x3 and we have

g1 (x3 ) = 1 x3 + a1 and h1 (x3 ) = 1 x3 + b1 ,
where, 1 , a1 , 1 and b1 are arbitrary constant numbers. From the above relations, it
follows that the function f1 (x2 , x3 ) has the following expression:
f1 (x2 , x3 ) = 1 x2 x3 + a1 x2 + 1 x3 + b1 .
Consequently, u1 (x1 , x2 , x3 ) becomes
u1 (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = 1 x2 x3 + a1 x2 + 1 x3 + b1 .
545

Thus, by circular permutations, we obtain
u1 = 1 x2 x3 + a 1 x2 + 1 x3 + b 1 ,
u2 = 2 x3 x1 + a 2 x3 + 2 x1 + b 2 ,
u3 = 3 x1 x2 + a 3 x1 + 3 x2 + b 3 ,
where 1 , ..., b3 are arbitrary constants.

We recall now that the obtained functions must satisfy the relations 12 = 23 =
31 = 0. From this fact, after elementary computations, we can conclude that the following
condition for any x1 , x2 and x3 , must be satisfied:
1 x3 + a1 + 2 x3 + 2 = 0,
2 x1 + a2 + 3 x1 + 3 = 0,
3 x2 + a3 + 1 x2 + 1 = 0.
These equations can be satisfied for any x1 , x2 and x3 if and only if 1 , ..., b3 satisfy the
following restrictions:
1 + 2 = 0,
2 + 3 = 0,
3 + 1 = 0,
a1 + 2 = 0,
a2 + 3 = 0,
a3 + 1 = 0.
and
From the above equations, it follows that we must have
1 = 2 = 3 = 0.
At the same time, if we take
1 = 2, 2 = 3 , 3 = 1 ,
we get
a1 = 3 , a2 = 1 , a3 = 2 ,
1 , 2 and 3 being arbitrary constants. Consequently, we get for the components u1 ,
u2 , u3 of the displacement field, the following expressions:
u1 = 2 x3 3 x2 + b 1 ,
u2 = 3 x1 1 x3 + b 2 ,
u3 = 1 x2 2 x1 + b 3 .
Introducing the constant vectors and b, with components 1 , 2 , 3 and b1 ,
b2 , b3 , respectively, we can express now the displacement field u (x) in the following
equivalent vectorial form:
u (x) = x + b.
The last result shows that if the infinitesimal strain tensor is vanishing, the corresponding displacement field corresponds to an infinitesimal rigid displacement.
546
P2.9 Let us assume that the orthogonal tensor Q is a symmetry transformation.

Hence, according to the relation (2.2.1), Q satisfies for every symmetric tensor the
following equation:

c QQT = Q (c) QT .
Consequently, the following relation also is true:

QT c Q QT Q = QT Q (c) QT Q,
for every symmetric tensor . We recall now that Q is an orthogonal tensor; hence, it
satisfies the restrictions
QT Q = QQT = 1.
Consequently, the above relation becomes

QT c Q QT Q = c,
for every symmetric tensor . Hence, we can conclude that if the orthogonal tensor Q is
a symmetry transformation, and if it satisfies the equation (2.2.1), then it satisfies also
the restriction (2.2.2).
The converse of this affirmation can be proved in an analogous manner, using again
the orthogonality of Q.
P2.12 Let us assume that P (e1 , e2 ) is a plane of symmetry of the material at
x. According to equations (2.2.7), in this case, there exists a symmetry transformation
Q Sx such that,
Qe1 = e1 and Qe2 = e2 .
Let us introduce now the orthonormal basis {e1 , e2 , e3 }, where e3 is a unit vector orthogonal to e1 and to e2 . Since, according to the definition of a symmetry plane, the unit
vectors e1 and e2 are mutually orthogonal, we shall have
ek el = kl for k, l = 1, 2, 3.
Let us denote by Qkm the components of Q in the tensor basis {ek , em }, k, m =
1, 2, 3. As we know, these components are given by the equations
Qkm = ek Qem .
Using these relations, we get
Q11 = e1 Qe1 = e1 e1 = 1, Q12 = e1 Qe2 = e1 e2 = 0,
Q21 = e2 Qe1 = e2 e1 = 0, Q22 = e2 Qe2 = e2 e2 = 1,
Q31 = e3 Qe1 = e3 e1 = 0, Q32 = e3 Qe2 = e3 e2 = 0.
We recall now, that Q is an orthogonal tensor, that is, QQT = QT Q = 1. Consequently,

Q, e1 and e2 satisfy also the following equations:
QT e1 = e1 and QT e2 = e2 .
547

This way, using also the definition of the transposed tensor, we get
Q13 = e1 Qe3 = e3 QT e1 = e3 e1 = 0,
Q23 = e2 Qe3 = e3 QT e2 = e3 e2 = 0.
Thus, we can conclude that the matrix

has the following simple form:
1
[Qkm ] = 0
0
of the components of Q in the chosen basis

0
1
0
0
0 .
Q33
Moreover, since Q is an orthogonal tensor, as we know, its components must satisfy the
restrictions Qkl Qml = kl . From here, we can conclude that Q33 = 1.
Consequently, the matrix of the components becomes
1 0
0
0 .
[Qkm ] = 0 1
0 0 1
In particular, the transformation Q having the components,
1 0
0

0
Qkm = 0 1
0 0 1
is an element of the symmetry group Sx . But any symmetry group contains the transformation 1 and since Q Sx , the composition (1) Q is also a symmetry trans this transformation, it is easy to see that its
formation of the material. Denoting by Q
components are given by the following equation:
1
0
0
h
i
km = 0
1 0 .
Q
0
0
1
Also, taking into account equation (2.2.3), we can conclude that the matrix of the components of the transformation R (e3 , ) has the following form in our tensor basis:
1
0
0
1 0 .
[Rkm (e3 , )] = 0
0
0
1
= R (e3 , ). Hence, if P (e1 , e2 ) is a symmetry transformation of

Accordingly, Q
the material at x, then R (e3 , ) is a symmetry transformation of the material at the
point x.
Let us assume now that R (e3 , ) Sx . Then, taking into account the properties
of the symmetry group Q = (1) R (e3 , ) Sx , it is easy to see that Q , e1 and e2
satisfy the equations
Q e1 = e 1
and
Q e2 = e 2 .
Since, as we have seen, Q is a symmetry transformation of the material at the
location x, from the above equations, we can conclude that the plane P (e1 , e2 ) spanned
548
by the two mutual orthogonal unit vectors e1 and e2 is a plane of symmetry of the
material at the same location, and our proof is complete.
P2.14 Let us denote by G the set formed by the orthogonal transformations 1,
R (e1 , ) , R (e2 , ) and R (e3 , ). The matrix of the components of these transformations in the tensor basis {ek , el }, k, l = 1, 2, 3, are given by the following equations:
1 0 0
1
0
0
1
0 ,
[1km ] = 0 1 0 , [1km ] = 0
0 0 1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1 0 0
0 , [Rkm (e1 , )] = 0
1 0 ,
[Rkm (e1 , )] = 0 1
0
0
1
0
0 1
1 0
0
1
0
0
1
0 , [Rkm (e2 , )] = 0 1 0 ,
[Rkm (e2 , )] = 0
0
0 1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1 0
0
1 0 , [Rkm (e3 , )] = 0 1
0 .
[Rkm (e3 , )] = 0
0
0
1
0 0 1
We must show that the product of any two of these 8 transformations is also an element
of G. Using the above matrix representations, it is easy to verify that
R (e1 , ) R (e2 , ) = R (e2 , ) R (e1 , ) = R (e3 , ) ,
R (e2 , ) R (e3 , ) = R (e3 , ) R (e2 , ) = R (e1 , ) ,
R (e3 , ) R (e1 , ) = R (e1 , ) R (e3 , ) = R (e2 , ) .
Now, the desired result follows immediately since, according to the assumption made
R (ek , ) as well as R (ek , ), k = 1, 2, 3, are elements of the set G.
P2.17 Let [u, , ] be the elastic state of a homogenous body. According to the
general definition (2.1.20), the mean stress corresponding to this state is given by the
equation
Z
1
dv,
=
v
B
where v is the volume of the domain B occupied by the body in its reference configuration.
Since [u, , ] is an elastic state, the stress and the strain are connected by the
constitutive equation = c, c representing the elasticity of the material. Consequently,
Z
1
c dv.
=
v
B
According to the assumption made, the body is homogenous; hence, its elasticity c is a
constant tensor and the relation giving the mean stress takes the form,
Z
1
= c dv.
v
B
549
We recall now that according to the general definition (2.1.13), the mean strain E
corresponding to the elastic state [u, , ] is given by the equation
Z
1
dv.
E=
v
B
Taking into account this fact for the mean stress , we get the expression
= cE.
We recall also the mean strain theorem, according to which the mean strain E depends
only on the boundary values of the displacement u and is given by the following equation:
E=
1
2v
(un + nu) dv.
From the last two equations, we can conclude that

=
1
c
2v
(un + nu) dv.
b 4 . Consequently, its
As we know, the elasticity c is an element of the vector space L
components cklmn satisfy the relations cklmn = cklnm . Using this property, finally we
obtain
Z
1
= c unda,
v
B
and the deduction is complete.

P2.20 To prove the generalized reciprocal theorem, we observe that according to
the definition of an elastic state, we have
= c and
=
c.
Consequently,
= c and
=
c.
Recalling now the definition (1.1.42) of the transposed tensor of a tensor from the
b 4 , we obtain
vector space L
= cT .
According to the assumption made,

c = cT , and we obtain =
c. Taking into
account the obtained results, we can conclude that
=
.
Hence, we have
dv =
dv.
550
Also, we know that

=
and

1
1
u + uT
u +
uT , =
2
2
= 0, div + b = 0.
div
+b
Using these equations and the divergence theorem (1.2.30), we can conclude that
Z
Z
Z
sn u
da + b u
dv
dv =
B
and
dv =
sn uda +
udv,
b
with
sn = n and
sn =
n on B.
Comparing the last three integral relations, we obtain the desired result; i.e.
Z
Z
Z
Z
udv.
sn uda + b
sn u
da + b u
dv =
B
P2.21 Let us assume that the traction problem (2.3.16) has a solution. Hence, there
exists an elastic state [u, , ] corresponding to [b, b
s] which satisfies the equilibrium
equation
div + b = 0 in B
and the boundary condition,
sn = n = b
s on B,
the body force field b and the traction b

s being given in B and on B, respectively.
Integrating the first equation on B, we obtain
Z
Z
div dv + bdv = 0.
B
Using the Gauss-Ostrogradsky theorem, we get

Z
Z
nda + bdv = 0.
B
Taking into account the boundary condition, we can conclude that if the traction problem
has a solution, the given external force b and b
s must satisfy the restriction
Z
Z
b
sda + bdv = 0.
B
To prove the second, necessary condition, we use the component force of the field
equation and use the Riccis symbols eklm defined by the following equations:
for klm = 123, 231, 312,

1
1
for klm = 132, 321, 213
eklm =
0
if at least two indices have the same value.
551

Let us assume that u and v are two vectors from V and
w = u v.
It is easy to see that the components wk of the vector w can be expressed in terms of
the components ul and vm of u and v, respectively, by the relations,
wk = eklm ul vm , k, l, m = 1, 2, 3.
As we know, according to the assumption made, the equilibrium equation and the traction
boundary condition are satisfied. The component form of these relations are
mp,p + bm = 0 in B and mp xp = sbm on B.
From the equilibrium equation, it results that the above equations are also satisfied on
B,
eklm xl mp,p + eklm xl bm = 0.
Hence, we have also
eklm (xl mp ),p eklm xl,p mp + eklm xl bm = 0 on B.
As we know xl,p = lp , we get
eklm xl,m mp = eklm lp mp = eklm ml .
From the definition of the Riccis symbols, it follows that
eklm = ekml .
We recall now that the Cauchys stress tensor is symmetric; i.e. T = and
ml = lm .
The last two properties show that
eklm ml = 0.
eklm (xl mp ),p + eklm xl bm = 0 on B.
Integrating these equations on B and using the Gauss-Ostrogradsky theorem, we obtain
Z
Z
eklm xl mp np da + eklm xl bm dv = 0, k = 1, 2, 3.
B
Using the traction boundary condition satisfied on B these relations become

Z
Z
eklm xl sbm da + eklm xl bm dv = 0, k = 1, 2, 3.
B
These three scalar equations can be written in the following equivalent vector form:
Z
Z
xb
sda + x bdv = 0.
B
552
Now the proof is complete.

P2.28 According to equations (2.2.73), the Youngs moduli E1 , E2 , E3 > 0 and the
Poissons ratios 12 , 21 , 32 , 23 , 13 and 31 must satisfy the following restrictions:
31
23 13
21 32
12
.
=
,
=
,
=
E3
E2 E1
E2 E3
E1
Since E1 , E2 , E3 > 0, from these equations it follows without any difficulty that
12 23 31 = 21 32 13 .
We observe that the inequality (2.2.79) can be expressed in the following equivalent
form:
E1
2 E3
2 E2
221 13 32 > 0.
13
32
E1
E3
E2
In turn, this relation can be written as

2 E1
2 2 E2
2 E3
2 E2
221 13 32 > 0,
21
32
13
1 13
1 32
E2
E1
E1
E3
2
1 21
or, equivalently,

2
1 32
E2
E1

2
1 13
E3
E1
21
E1
E2
1
+ 32 13
E2
E1
1 )2
2
> 0.
From this inequality, we can conclude that
1
1

2
2
2 E3
2 E2
1 13
1 32
E1
E1
<
21
<
E1
E2
1
2
1 32
E2
E1
+ 32 13
1
2
E2
E1
2
1 13
1
E3
E1
<
1
2
Finally, after elementary computations, we get

(

1
1 1 )
2
2
E2 2
E2
2 E2
2 E3
+ 1 32
1 13
32 13
<
E1
E1
E1
E1
< 21 <

1
1 1 )
2
2
E2 2
E2
2 E2
2 E3
1 32
1 13
.
32 13
E1
E1
E1
E1
(
The last inequalities give a constraint on one Poissons ratio 21 , in terms of two others,
32 and 13 .
P2.32 As we already know, the elasticity tensor c of a material is positive definite
if and only if its rigidity matrix [C] is positive definite. In turn, this matrix is positive
definite if and only if its inverse, that is, the compliance matrix [S] of the material
is positive definite. To find the restrictions that must be fulfilled by the engineering
constants of the material, to ensure the positive definiteness of [S], we must use the
553
Sylvesters criterion and the equation (2.2.87) expressing [S] in terms of the technical
constants. Thus, we are led to the following restrictions:
E1 , E3 , G13 > 0,
r
|12 | < 1, |13 | <
and
E1
,
E3
2
1
2
2
(1 + 12 ) 13
> 0,
1 12
E1
E3
or
2 2
1
13 > 0.
(1 12 )
E1
E3
Taking into account the reciprocity relation
31
13
,
=
E3
E1
we can rewrite the last inequality in the following equivalent form:

1 12 213 31 > 0.
Moreover, we can see that 31 must satisfy the restriction
r
E3
.
|31 | <
E1
If we assume that a traction tensile stress acting in the isotropy plane of the material
produces elongation in the direction of its action, and contraction in the perpendicular
direction situated in the isotropy plane, and suppose also that a traction tensile stress
acting perpendicular to the isotropy plane produces elongation in the direction of its
action and contraction in any perpendicular direction, we can conclude that 12 , 13 and
31 are positive; i.e.
12 , 13 , 31 > 0.
Hence, if our supplementary hypothesis are fulfilled, the Poissons ratios 12 , 13 and 31
must satisfy the following inequalities:
r
r
E3
E1
.
, 0 < 31 <
0 < 12 < 1, 0 < 13 <
E1
E3
P2.33 Let us assume that the material is isotropic. In this case, according to equation (2.2.54), the stress-strain relation in component form can be expressed by the following relations:
ij = kk ij + (ij + ji ) .
Obviously, we have
kk = kl kl , ij = ik jl kl , ji = il jk kl ,
and the stress-strain relation becomes
ij = {ij kl + (ik jl + il jk )} kl .
554

We recall that the component form of the general stress-strain relation is
ij = cijkl kl ,
and the elasticities cijkl satisfy the symmetry relations

cijkl = cjikl = cijlk = cklij .
Comparing the general stress-strain relations and those corresponding to an isotropic
material, and taking into account the above symmetry relations, we can see that for an
isotropic material, the elasticities cijkl are given by the following equations:
cijkl = ij kl + (il jk + ik jl ) .
Similarly, according to equation (2.2.59), the strainstress relation for an isotropic
material can be expressed in component form by the following equations:
ij =
1+
(ij + ji ) .
kk ij +
2E
E
Obviously, we have
kk = kl kl , ij = ik jl kl , ji = il jk kl
and the strain-stress relation becomes

1+
(ik jl + il jk ) kl .
ij = ij kl +
E
E
The component form of the general strainstress relation is

ij = kijkl kl ,
and the compliances kijkl satisfy the symmetry relations
kijkl = kjikl = kijlk = kklij .
Comparing the general strainstress relations and those corresponding to an isotropic
material and taking into account the above symmetry relations, we can see that for an
isotropic material, the compliance kijkl are given by the following equations:
kijkl =
1+
(ik jl + il jk ) .
ij kl +
2E
E
P2.40 (a) In component form, the equation (2.5.37), giving the displacement produced by a concentrated force, becomes
1
1
16 (1 ) uk = (3 4) Pk + 3 (Pm xm ) xk ,
r
r
1
where r = x21 + x22 + x23 2 . To obtain the components uk,l of the gradient u (x), we
use the well known relations,
xk,l = kl and r,l =
xl
.
r
555

In this way, after elementary computations, we get

3
1
16 (1 ) uk,l = 3 (Pm xm ) kl (3 4)Pk xl 2 (Pm xm ) xk xl .
r
r
Since 2kl = uk,l + ul,k , the above equation gives

3
1
8 (1 ) kl = 3 (Pm xm ) kl (1 2) (xk Pl + Pk xl ) 2 (Pm xm ) xk xl .
r
r
Now it is easy to see that the above relation is just the component form of the tensor
equation given in (a).
(b) As we know, the constitutive equation of an isotropic material has the form
= (tr) 1 + 2.
We know also that the Lames coefficients and can be expressed in terms of Youngs
modulus E and Poissons ratio , by the relations
=
E
E
.
, =
2 (1 + )
(1 + ) (1 2)
Hence, we also have
2
,
(1 2)
and the stress-strain relation can be expressed in the following equivalent form,

(tr) 1 + .
= 2
1 2
=
After elementary computations, from the expression of , and taking into account the
equations tr (x P) = tr (Px) = P x, we obtain
tr = 2 (1 2)
1
P x.
r3
Using again the expression of obtained in (a) and taking into account the above
form of the stress-strain relation, we obtain the expression of the stress field in the
following form:

1
3
1 2 1
(P
x)
xx
.
(P
x)
1
+
Px
+
xP
+
(x) =
1 2 r2
8 (1 ) r3
Hence, the validity of the relation (2.5.38) is proved.

(c) The above tensor relation has the following component form:
1
3
1
1
1
8 (1 )
(Pm xm ) xk xl .
kl (x) = 3 (Pm xm ) kl + 3 Pk xl + 3 xk Pl +
1 2 r5
r
r
r
1 2
To evaluate kl,l (x), we use the relations xk,l = kl , r,l =

a long but elementary computation, we obtain
kl,l (x) = 0 for any x 6= 0.
xl
r
and xl xl = r2 . Thus, after
556
Hence, the Cauchys equilibrium equations are satisfied in any point x 6= 0 and the statement made in (c) is proved.
(d) Taking into account the expression of (x) obtained in (b) for the traction
sn = n, we obtain
sn = n =

1
3
1 2 1
(P
x)
x(x
n)
.
(P
x)
n
+
P
(x
n)
+
x(P
n)
+
1 2 r2
8 (1 ) r3
We recall now that n is the inward unit normal to the sphere and observe that
on this surface the following relations are fulfilled:
r = , n =
x
and x x = 2 .
Taking into account these equations, we get

sn = n =
1 2 1
8 (1 ) 2
P+
1
3
(P x) x
1 2 2
on . Let us denote by R the following force resultant:

Z
R=
nda.
According to the above expression of sn = n on , we get

Z
1
3
1 2 1
(P
x)
x
da.
P
+
R=
1 2 2
8 (1 ) 2
To evaluate this integral, we shall use a spherical coordinate system indicated in Figure
S.1.
X3
O
j
h
X2
X1
Figure S.1: The spherical coordinate system.
557

Accordingly, we have for x on
x1 = sin cos , x2 = sin sin , x3 = cos , [0, ), [0, 2),
da = 2 sin dd,
P1 = 0, P2 = 0, P3 = P , P x = P cos .
Hence, the components of R become
R1
R2
R3
3P
8 (1 )
3P
8 (1 )
(1 2) P
8 (1 )
Z
sin cos d
Z2
cos d,
Z2
sin d,
sin cos d
1+

Z2
3
cos2 sin d d.
(1 2)
0
We have
Z2
0
d = 2,
Z2
cos d =
Z2
sin d = 0,
sin d = 2,
cos2 sin d =
2
3
and, finally, we get

R1 = R2 = 0, R3 = P.
Consequently, the force resultant R is just the applied concentrated force P and we have
Z
Z
sn da =
nda = P.
i.e
In the same way, you can try to prove that the moment resultant M is vanishing;
Z
Z
M=
x sn da =
x nda = 0.
P2.41 To prove the reciprocal theorem for singular elastic states, let us assume that
Let us
are two systems of concentrated loads with disjoint domains D and D.
P and P
denote by s = [u, , ] and s = [
u, , h
] two singular
elastic
states,
corresponding
to the
i
external force systems [b, sn , P] and b,

sn , P , respectively. Let us introduce the set
B = B
x0 D
[

x0 ,
x0
x0 D
and take sufficiently small, such that the balls,

x0 = x : x x0 , x0 D or x0 D
558
and the boundary B of the body, be mutually disjoint. This is possible since D and D
0
0
are disjoint sets, and x D, x D are points in B, which is an open set. According to
the definition of singular states, s and
s are regular elastic states on B and, according
to the Bettis reciprocal theorem for regular elastic states, we have
Z
Z
Z
Z
udv =
sn
uda + b u
sn uda + b
dv
B
dv
dv.
the
Since s is a regular elastic state on B D and s is a regular elastic state on B D,
property (ii) and (iii) and the mean value theorem of the integral calculus imply that
Z
Z

sn uda = 0 if x0 D,
x0 , lim
lim
sn u
da = P x0 u
0
(x0 )
0
(x0 )
and
lim
0
(x0 )
sn u
da = 0, lim
0
(x0 )
Also we have obviously,

Z
... =
... +

x0 u x0 if x0 D.
sn uda = P
Z
... +
x0 D (x0 )
...,
x0 D
(x0 )
and using the above evaluations, we get

Z
Z
X

x0 u x0
sn uda =
sn uda +
P
lim
0
B
and
lim
0
B
x0 D
sn u
da =
sn u
da +
x0 D

x0 .
P x0 u
(x) are continuous functions on B, and u and u

We recall that b (x) and b
have the

u are O r1 near their singularities. Consequently,
and b
property (ii). Hence, b u
Z
Z
udv = b
udv
lim b
0
B
and
lim
0
B
bu
dv =
bu
dv.
Also,
since c is invertible, we can conclude from the property (ii) that and are

O r2 as the distance r from any of their singularities tends to zero. Thus, since D and
559

are disjoint, the property (ii) implies that and
D
are also O r2 near their
singularities. Hence,
Z
Z
dv =
dv,
lim
0
B
and
lim
0
B
dv =
dv.
Taking into account the obtained evaluation, we can conclude that if 0, Bettis
reciprocal relations, written for the domain B , have the following form:
Z
Z
Z
X

dv =
sn u
da + b u
dv +
P x0 u
x0
B
dv
x0 D
sn uda +
udv +
b
x0 D
0

x0 u x ,
P

P2.42 To prove that the reciprocal theorem for singular elastic states is still valid
for an infinite media with finite boundary, provided that

u (x) , u
(x) = O r1 ,

(x) ,
(x) = O r2 ,

(x) = O r3 , as r = kxk ,
b (x) , b
we consider the ball SR = {x : kxk R} centered in the point x = 0, having the radius
are
R > 0, and such that the finite boundary B of the body, and the sets D and D
contained in SR . In these conditions, for the finite domain bounded by the boundary B
of the body and by the boundary SR of the ball SR , we can use the reciprocity theorem
proved in P2.41. In this way, we obtain the equations
Z
Z
Z
Z
X

P x0 u
x0
dv =
sn u
da +
sn u
da +
bu
dv +
BDR
BDR
SR
dv =
sn uda +
SR
x0 D
BDR
sn uda +
udv +
b
BDR
x0 D

x0 u x0 .
P
Let us denote, as usual, by sn = n and

sn =
n the traction on the spherical
surface SR . From the assumptions made, we can conclude that

sn (x) = O r2 ,
sn (x) = O r2 as r = kxk .
Accordingly, we get
lim
R
SR
sn u
da = lim
R
SR
sn uda = 0,
560

since u (x) , u
(x) = O r1 as r = kxk . Also, we obtain
Z
Z
Z
Z
dv =
dv =
lim
dv, lim
dv,
R
BDR
lim
R
BDR
R
BDR
bu
dv
bu
dv, lim
R
BDR
udv =
b
udv,
b
where B is the unbounded domain occupied by the body, having finite boundary B.
The assumptions made on the behavior of the involved fields at large distances
assure the convergence of the above improper integral. Hence, assuming that R ,
the reciprocity relations written for the finite domain B DR , take the following final
form:
Z
Z
Z
X

dv =
sn u
da + b u
P x0 u
dv +
x0
B
dv
x0 D
sn uda +
udv +
b
x0 D

x0 u x0 .
P
The obtained result can be used to obtain representation theorems for infinite elastic
media, containing holes having finite boundaries.
P2.43 Suppose that the field w (x) exists and let
w (x) = u0 + 0 (x )
where
=
1
a
xda
is the position vector of the centroid of the boundary B, a representing the area B.
Obviously, we have
Z
(x ) da = 0,
B
and for the rigid displacement field w (x), we get

Z
w (x) da = au0 .
B
Also, it is easy to see that

Z
Z
(x ) w (x) da =
(x ) { 0 (x )} da.
B
Using the well known properties of the vector product, we can express the last
result in the following equivalent form:
Z
Z
{(x ) (x ) 0 (x ) [(x ) 0 ]} da.
(x ) w (x) da =
B
561
We introduce now the centroidal inertia tensor J of the boundary B, defined by

the following equation:
Z
J=
{(x ) (x ) 1 (x ) (x )} da.
B
The components of J are given by the equation

Z
{(xl l ) (xl l ) km (xk k ) (xm m )} da.
Jkm =
B
The centroidal inertial tensor J is symmetric and positive definite. Hence, its inverse
J1 exists and is unique.
Using the tensor J, we obtain
Z
(x ) w (x) da = J 0 .
B
As we have assumed, w (x) satisfies the equations

Z
Z
wda = f and (x ) wda = m,
B
f , m being given vectors.

The obtained results show that if w (x) satisfies the above equations, u0 and 0
must satisfy the relations
au0 = f and J 0 = m.
Hence, the unknown constant vectors u0 and 0 must be given by the following equations:
u0 =
1
f and 0 = J1 m.
a
Our results show that the rigid displacement field w (x), having the desired properties,
exists and is uniquely determined by f and m.
P2.44 Let us assume that s = [u, , ] is the regular solution of the traction problem,
in the absence of body forces and concentrated loads. According to the relation (2.5.25),
the components of the displacement field u (x) are given by the equations
Z

b
up (x) =
s u(p) x0 ; x da x0 .
B
We suppose that the given traction b

s (x0 ) is a continuous function on B. In this case,
we can obtain an integral representation theorem for the displacement gradient u (x),
and, hence, for the strain and stress fields (x) and (x) by differentiating the above
relations under the integral sign. The possibility of this operation can be proved in a
manner analogous to that used in the classical theory of Newtonian potentials.
562

Particularly, for the strain field (x), we get
)
(
Z
(q)
(p)

u
k (x0 ; x)
u
k (x0 ; x)
1
0
da x0 .
+
sbk x
pq (x) =
xp
xq
2
B
Let us assume now that homogenous traction boundary conditions are given; i.e.
b
s (x) = (x) n (x) = n, = T = const. on B,
where is a given symmetric constant tensor.

sbk (x) = kl nl (x) on B,
and the expression for pq (x) becomes
Z

pqkl x0 ; x da x0
kl
pq (x) =
where
pqkl x0 ; x
1
4
!
(q)
(p)

u
k (x0 ; x)
u
k (x0 ; x)
n l x0
+
xp
xq
B
)
!
(q)
(p)

u
l (x0 ; x)
u
l (x0 ; x)
0
da x0 .
nk x
+
xp
xq
Z (
Obviously, we have the following symmetry properties

pqkl x0 ; x =
qpkl x0 ; x =
pqlk x0 ; x ,
and to obtain the above results, we have taken into account the symmetry of the given
tensor .
Since rs (x) = crspq pq (x), for the components of the corresponding stress field
(x), we obtain the following expressions:
rs (x) = Brskl (x) kl ,
where
Brskl (x) = crspq

pqkl x0 ; x da x0 .
pqkl (x0 ; x) imply the

The symmetries of the elasticities crskl and of the functions
following symmetries of the function Brskl (x):
Brskl (x) = Bsrkl (x) = Brslk (x) .
In tensor form, the obtained result can be expressed in the following concentrated form:
(x) = B (x) .
563
The fourth order tensor field B (x) is named the influence function corresponding
to the homogenous traction problem, and we have just proved its existence together with
the symmetry properties given above.
P2.47 According to equation (2.7.2), we have
Z
Z
t

t
uci (x) = Gij x x0 jk
nk x0 da x0 = jk
Gij x x0 nk x0 da x0 .
Using the Gauss-Ostrogradsky theorem, we obtain

Z

Gij (x x0 )
t
dv x0 .
uci (x) = jk
x0k
D
We recall now equation (2.7.4) to obtain

(xi x0i ) xj x0j
(3 4) ij

.
+
16 (1 ) Gij x x0 =
x x0
kx x0 k3
Since
xk x0k
1
,
=
0
0
xk kx x k
kx x0 k3
it results
16 (1 )
Gij (x x0 )
x0k
xj x0j
xk x0k
3 ik
0
kx x0 k3
kx x k

(xi x0i ) xj x0j (xk x0k )
xi x0i
.
+
3
jk
kx x0 k5
kx x0 k3
(3 4) ij
Denoting by r = kx x0 k and by l = (l1 , l2 , l3 ) the length and the direction of the

line drawn from the volume element dv (x0 ) at x0 D toward the point of observation x,
we will have
xi x0i
xi x0i
= li ,
=
0
r
kx x k
and, in this way, we get

16 (1 )
1
Gij (x x0 )
= 2 {(3 4) ij lk ik lj jk li + 3li lj lk } .
0
r
xk
Hence, we obtain
t
16 (1 ) uci (x) = jk
1
{(3 4) ij lk ik lj jk li + 3li lj lk } dv.
r2
We observe now that

t
jk
{(3 4) ij lk ik lj }
=
=
t
t
t
(3 4) ik
lk ij
lj = 2 (1 2) ik
lk
t
(1 2) jk
(ij lk + ik lj ) .
564
Consequently, uci (x) can be expressed in the following equivalent form:

Z
1
t
fijk (l) dv,
16 (1 ) uci (x) = jk
r2
D
where
fijk (l) = (1 2) (ij lk + ik lj ) jk li + 3li lj lk .
Hence, the Eshelbys formula (2.7.22)1 is proved.
To prove the relation (2.7.22)2 , we take into account that

t
tmm jk + tjk .
jk
= 2
1 2
Taking into account this form of the stressstrain relation, elementary computations
show that uci (x) can be expressed also by the equation (2.7.22), the coefficients gijk (l)
being given by the relation (2.7.24).
P2.57 Let u be an admissible displacement field for the above composite and let
(u+uT )
be the corresponding strain field. Let be an admissible self = (u) =
2
equilibrated stress field corresponding to the same composite. Since u and are admissible fields, the necessary null-jump conditions are satisfied, hence, various divergence
theorems are true in their usual forms. Moreover, since is self-equilibrated, it satisfies the Cauchys homogeneous equilibrium equation; i.e. we have div = 0, in B ,
= 0, 1, ..., N . Let us evaluate now the mean value of the scalar product . Taking
into account the general definition of the mean value, and using the component representation of the field u, and , we successively get
Z
1
(
) ( ) dv
) ( ) =
= (
v
B
1
v
1
v
(kl
kl ) (kl kl ) dv =
1
v
(kl
kl ) (uk km xm ),l dv
{(kl
kl ) (uk km xm )},l dv
1
v
(kl
kl ),l (uk km xm ) dv.
Since is self-equilibrated, we have kl,l = 0; since

kl are constant quantities, we
have also
kl,l = 0. Hence, the above formula becomes
Z
1
{(kl
kl ) (uk km xm )},l dv.
=
v
B
Since u and are admissible fields for the composite, the Gauss-Ostrogradsky theorem
can be applied in its usual form and we get
Z
1
(kl
kl ) (uk km xm ) nl da.
=
v
B
565

Obviously, this equation can be expressed in the following equivalent tensor form:
Z
1
(u x) (n
n) da.
=
v
B
We have also
(u
x)
nda
(uk km xm )
kl nl da
kl
(uk km xm ) nl da.
Using again the Gauss-Ostrogradsky theorem, we get

Z
Z
(u
x)
nda =
kl (uk km xm ),l dv
B
kl
(uk,l km ml ) dv.
Since
kl =
lk , the above result can be expressed in the following equivalent form:
Z
Z
Z
(u x)
nda =
kl (kl kl ) dv =
( ) dv.
B
As we know,
1
v
dv = ,
and in this way we can conclude that

Z
(u x)
nda = 0.
B
Hence, we have:
1
v
(u x) nda.
In the same way, it can be shown that

Z
x (n
n)da = 0,
B
and this result leads us to the following equation:

Z
1
u (n
n)da.
=
v
B
566
Chapter 3
P3.6 Since xy = 2xy , we have
x
x
y = [R] y .
xy
xy
Using now the equation (3.1.12), we obtain
x
1
1
1
y = [R][T ()] 2
= [R][T ()][R] 2 .
xy
6 /2
6
In this way, taking into account the equation
x
y = [R][T ()][R]1
xy
(3.1.12), we get
S11
S12
0
Now, the relation (3.1.18)1 leads us to the following
S11 S12
x
y = [R][T ()][R]1 S12 S22
xy
0
0
S12
S22
0
0
1
2 .
0
6
S66
equation:
0
x
[T ()] y .
0
xy
S66
We recall now the last result, proved in P3.5. According to the equation obtained,
we have
[T ()]T = [R][T ()][R]1 .
Hence, finally, we get
x
x
y = [S()] y
xy
xy
where the matrix [S()] is given by the following equation:
[S()] = [T ()]T [S][T ()].
Using the above equation, by direct and elementary computations, it can be shown that
equation (3.1.21), expressing the components of the matrix [S()] in terms of the compliances S11 , S12 , S22 , S66 and of the angle , holds.
P3.8 In order to plot Ex /E2 as functions of [00 , 900 ], we use the result obtained
in P3.7. In this way, we get
1

E2
E2
E2
Ex
cos4
f ().
sin2 cos2 +
212
= sin4 +
E1
E1
G12
E2
For the considered boron-epoxy composite, we have

E1 = 10E2 , G12 =
1
E2 , 12 = 0.3 , E2 = 18.5GP a.
3
567
Consequently, the function f () giving Ex /E2 as a function of [00 , 900 ] becomes

1

1
.
cos4
f () = sin4 + 2.94 sin2 cos2 +
10
Taking the derivative of this function, we obtain

f 0 () = sin cos 1.88 sin2 + 5.48 cos2 f 2 ().
From this result, we can see that for [00 , 900 ], f 0 () is vanishing if = 00 , or
= 600 , or = 900 . Moreover, we have
f 0 () < 0 if 00 < < 600 ,
f 0 () > 0 if 600 < < 900 .
Consequently, f () is a decreasing function in the domain [00 ,600 ], and it is an increasing
function in the domain [600 ,90 ]. Thus we can see that for [00 , 900 ], f () has a
minimum for =600 . Elementary computations show that

f 00 = 10, f (600 ) = 0.89, f (900 ) = 1.
Obviously, the first and the last results are not surprising since for = 900 , Ex = E1
and for = 900 , Ex = E2 .
Reasoning in similar manner and using equation (3.1.13), we can plot Gxy /G12 , xy
and xy,x as functions on [00 , 900 ] for the given boron-epoxy composite.
The results that can be obtained are presented in the Figure S.2.
Figure S.2: Normalized moduli for a boron/epoxy composite.

It is interesting to observe that Ex is slightly smaller then E2 in the neighborhood
of = 600 . This example shows that the extreme (largest and smallest) material properties do not necessarily occur in principal material directions. Therefore, nothing should
be taken for granted with a new composite material and its moduli as a function on
should be carefully examined to truly understand its character.
568
P3.10 To analyze the behavior of E1 /Ex we must study the behavior of the function
() obtained in P3.9, for [00 , 900 ]. To do this, first of all, we must obtain the
derivative 0 () of this function. Elementary computations show that

0 () = 4 sin cos (1 + a 4b) cos2 + (2b a) .
It is clear that 0 () = 0 if = 00 or = 900 . But we can have 0 () = 0 also if

cos2 =
a 2b
.
1 + a 4b
Obviously, this equation can have real roots in the open interval (0,900 ) if and only if a
and b satisfy the following inequalities:
a 2b
< 1.
1 + a 4b
0<
Since we have an orthotropic (fiber reinforced) composite, we assume that

a=

a 2b
and
1 + a 4b
Since a > 1, we have obviously
E1
> 1.
E2
>0
<0
>0
<0
if b <
if b >
if b <
if b >
a
,
2
a
,
2
1+a
,
4
1+a
.
4
a
1+a
< .
2
4
Consequently,
a
1+a
a 2b
or if b > .
> 0 if b <
2
4
1 + a 4b
Let us assume first that
1+a
.
b<
4
As we know, in this case,
1 + a 4b > 0
hence,
1
a 2b
< 1 if b < .
2
1 + a 4b
Thus, we have
0<
But a > 1, hence
1+a
1
a 2b
.
and b <
< 1 if b <
4
2
1 + a 4b
1+a
1
,
4
2
thus,
0<
1
a 2b
< 1 if b < .
2
1 + a 4b
569

b>
a
.
2
As we know, in this case,

1 + a 4b < 0,
hence,
1
a 2b
< 1 if b > .
2
1 + a 4b
Thus, we have
a
1
a 2b
and b > .
< 1 if b >
2
2
1 + a 4b
But a > 1, hence a/2 > 1/2; hence,
0<
0<
a
a 2b
< 1 if b > .
2
1 + a 4b
Summing up the obtained results, we can say that

0<
1
a 2b
< 1 if and only if b <
2
1 + a 4b
or b >
a
.
2
Hence, there exists (0, 900 ) such that
0 () = 0, (0, 900 ) if and only if b <

Now it is easy to see that for 0, 900 ,

>0
(1 + a 4b) cos2 + (2b a)
<0
and
2
(1 + a 4b) cos + (2b a)
<0
>0
a
1
or b > .
2
2
for
for
<
<
if b <
for
for
<
<
if b >
1
,
2
a
.
2
Returning now to the expression of the derivative

0 () and taking into account

0
0
the above results, we can say that for 0 , 90 ,

1
< 0 for <
if b < ,
0 ()
> 0 for <
2
and
0 ()
Hence,
if b <
1
2
if b >
a
2
and
We recall now that
>0
<0
for
for
<
<
if b >
a
.
2

() has a minimum in 00 , 900 ,

() has a maximum in 00 , 900 .
E1
= () .
Ex
570

and, consequently, we can see that, for 00 , 900 ,
if b <
and
1
2
Ex () has a maximum in 00 , 900

a
Ex () has a minimum in 00 , 900 .
2
Moreover, it is easy to see that
if b >

=
hence,
a 4b2
,
1 + a 4b

Ex
1 + a 4b
.
=
a 4b2
E1
Since 0 < a < 1, elementary computations show that
1
1 + a 4b
> 1 if b < ,
2
a 4b2
and
a
1
1 + a 4b
if b > .
<
2
a
a 4b2
Thus, we have

1
Ex > E1 if b < ,
2
and
Ex () <
a
E1
if b > .
2
a
As we have seen in P3.9,

a=
1
E1
and b =
4
E2

E1
212 .
G12
Introducing these values in the last inequalities, we get
and

Ex > E 1

Ex < E 2
if G12 >
if G12 <

E1
, 00 , 900
2 (1 + 12 )
E2
E1
E2
+ 12

, 00 , 900 .
Summing up the obtained results and taking into account that E2 < E1 , we can say
that if the engineering constants of the considered fiber reinforced orthotropic composite

satisfy the first restriction, given above, then their exists an angle 00 , 900 such

that Ex is greater than both E1 and E2 ; on the contrary, if the engineering constants
of the composite
satisfy the second restriction, given above, then there exists an angle

00 , 900 such that Ex is less than both E1 and E2 .
We observe that in P3.8, the second of these conditions is fulfilled.
571
P3.11 We shall prove the validity of the first equation (3.1.24). The validity of the
other five equations (3.1.24) can be proved in a similar manner. We start with the first
equation (3.1.17), according to which
Q11 () = Q11 cos4 + 2 (Q12 + 2Q66 ) sin2 cos2 + Q22 sin4 .

We use now the following trigonometrical identities:
1
1
1
(1 cos 2) , cos2 = (1 + cos 2) , sin2 2 = (1 cos 4) ,
2
2
2
1
1
4
4
sin = (3 4 cos 2 + cos 4) , cos = (3 + 4 cos 2 + cos 4) .
8
8
sin2 =
Introducing these relations in the above expression of Q11 (), after elementary computations, we get
Q11 () =
1
1
(3Q11 + 3Q22 + 2Q12 + 4Q66 ) + (Q11 Q22 ) cos 2
2
8
1
+ (Q11 + Q22 2Q12 4Q66 ) cos 4.
8
Hence, if
1
(3Q11 + 3Q22 + 2Q12 + 4Q66 ) ,
8
1
U2 = (Q11 Q22 ) ,
2
1
U3 = (Q11 + Q22 2Q12 4Q66 ) ,
8
U1 =
then Q11 () takes the form
Q11 () = U1 + U2 cos 2 + U3 cos 4,

and the first equation (3.1.24) is proved, the constant quantities U1 , U2 , U3 being given
by the first three equations (3.1.25).
To obtain the other five equations (3.1.24) also, the following trigonometrical identities must be used:
1
cos3 sin = (2 sin 2 + sin 4) ,
8
1
cos sin3 = (2 sin 2 sin 4) .
8
P3.15 The considered boron/epoxy reinforced composite lamina has the following
engineering constants:
E1 = 206.85GP a , E2 = 20.68GP a , 12 = 0.3 , G12 = 6.86P a.
From the reciprocity relation recalled in P3.14, we get
21 = 0.03.
572
Also, the formulas used in P3.14 lead to the following values of the reduced stiffnesses:
Q11 = 204.99GP a , Q22 = 20.87GP a , Q12 = 6.26GP a , Q66 = 6.89GP a.
Taking into account again the relations (3.1.25) for the constants U 1 , ..., U5 , we obtain
U1 = 97.05GP a , U2 = 92.06GP a , U3 = 23.22GP a ,
U4 = 29.48GP a , U5 = 30.11GP a.
(a) To plot the reduced transformed stiffnesses Q11 () for this lamina and for
00 , 1800 , we use equation (3.1.24)1 ; we have

Q11 () = U1 + U2 cos 2 + U3 cos 4 f () , 00 , 1800 .
The first derivative of this function has the following expression:

f 0 () = 2 (U2 + 4U3 cos 2) sin 2.

For 00 , 1800 , this derivative is vanishing for = 00 , 900 , 1800 and if
cos 2 =
U2
.
4U3
Obviously, this equation has real solution if and only if

U2

4U3 1.
For the given boron/epoxy composite, we have:
Q11 () = f () = 97.05 + 92.06 cos 2 + 23.22 cos 4,

f 0 () = 2 (92.06 + 92.88 cos 2) sin 2,
and
cos 2 = 0.991.

0
0
For 0 , 180 , this equation has two solutions close to 900 :
1 = 86.20 and 2 = 93.80 .

From the obtained results, it is easy to see that for 00 , 1800 ,
< 0 if 00 < < 86.20 ,
> 0 if 86.20 < < 900 ,

f 0 ()
<
0 if 900 < < 93.80 ,
> 0 if 93.80 < < 1800 .

Hence,
for 00 , 1800 , f () = Q11 () is a decreasing

function in the interval
00 , 86.20 , an increasing function on the interval 86.20 , 900 , a decreasing function on
0
0
the interval (900, 93.80 ) and
an increasing function on the interval (93, 8 ,180 ). Consequently, for 00 , 1800 , Q11 () has a relative maximum

Q11 00 = U1 + U2 + U3 = 212.33 for = 00 ,
573

a relative minimum
Q11 (1 ) = U1 0.991U2 + 0.965U3 = 27.63 for = 1 = 86.20 ,

a relative maximum
a relative minimum

Q11 900 = U1 U2 + U3 = 28.21 for = 900 ,
Q11 (1 ) = U1 0.991U2 + 0.965U3 = 27.63 for = 2 = 93.80 ,

a relative maximum

Q11 1800 = U1 + U2 + U3 = 212.33 for = 1800 .
The obtained results show that the minimum values of Q11 (), obtained for =
1 = 86.20 and = 2 = 93.80 , are very close to its relative maximum value, obtained
for = 900 .
In the Figure
S.3,
the function Q11 () for the considered boron/epoxy laminate

and for 00 , 1800 is plotted. The little flashes directed down show the minimum
values of Q11 () and the little flashes directed up show its maximum values.
Q11
200
U3
U2
100
U1
86.2 93.8
180
90
o
Figure S.3: Variation of Q11 with .

Using equation (3.1.24)3 and the obtained values for U1 , ..., U5 , we get

Q22 () = 99.05 92.06 cos 2 + 23.22 cos 4, 00 , 1800 .
574
Using the same method as before, we can see that Q22 () has relative maximum for
= 00 , = 900 , = 1800 , and minimum for 1 = 3.80 and 2 = 176.20 . The minimum
values of Q22 () are very close to its relative maximum value corresponding to = 00
and to = 1800 .

Function Q22 () for 00 , 1800 is plotted in the Figure S.4.
Q
22
3.8
176.2
90
180
o

Now using equation (3.1.24)2 , we obtain

Q12 () = U4 U3 cos 4 = 29.48 23.22 cos 4, 00 , 1800 .
This function has the same minimum value for = 00 , 900 , 1800 , and the same maximum
value for = 450 , 1350 . We have

Q12 00 = Q12 900 = Q12 1800 = U4 U3 = 6.26,

Q12 450 = Q12 1350 = U4 + U3 = 52.70.

In Figure S.5, the function Q12 () for 00 , 1800
is shown. Taking into account now equation (3.1.14)6 , we obtain

Q66 () = U5 U3 cos 4 = 30.11 23.22 cos 4, 00 , 1800 .
This function has the same minimum value for = 00 , 900 , 1800 and the same
maximum value for = 450 , 1350 , and we have

Q66 00 = Q66 900 = Q66 1800 = U5 U3 = 6.89,
575

Q66 450 = Q66 1350 = U5 + U3 = 53.33.
Q12
U3
40
U4
20
0
90
180

In Figure S.6, the function Q66 () for 00 , 1800 is plotted.
Q66
40
U5
20
GXy
90
180
o

(b) To plot the reduced transformed stiffness Q16 (), we start with equation (3.1.24)4 ;
we have

1
Q12 () = U2 sin 2 U3 sin 4 g () , 00 , 1800 .
2
The first derivative of this function is
g 0 () = 8U3 cos2 2 U2 cos 2 + 4U3 .
576

This derivative is vanishing for 00 , 1800 if the equation
p
U2 U22 + 128U32
cos 2 =
16U3

0
0
has a real solution in the interval 0 , 180 . For the considered composite, we get
Q12 () = 10.435 sin 2 23.22 sin 4,
and the above equation

takes the following form: cos2 = 0.22 or cos2 = 0.99.
For 00 , 1800 , the first equation has the following solutions 1 = 29.950
and 2 = 150.05, and in the same interval, the solutions of the second equation are
3 = 87.80 and 4 = 92.20 .
It is easy to see that for 1 , Q16 () has its maximal value, for 4 it has a local
maximum, and for 2 , Q16 () has its minimal value, while for 2 it has a local minimum.
However, the extremal values corresponding to 3 and 4 are very close to 0, the value
of Q16 () for = 900 . Also, it is easy to see that in = 900 ,Q16 has an inflexion point.
In Figure S.7, the function for Q16 () for 00 , 1800 is plotted.
Q16
60
29.95
87.8
150.05
0
180
92.2
-60

Finally, using equation (3.1.24)5 , for the given composite we get

1
Q26 () = U2 sin 2 + U3 sin 4 = 10.435 sin 2 + 23.22 sin 4, 00 , 1800
2
577
In order to analyze the behavior of this function, we must use the same method as
before. The results of this analysis are presented in Figure S.8.
Q26
60
90
o 180
-60

(c) Summing up the obtained results, we can observe that
(1) The reduced transformed stiffnesses Q11 () , Q22 () , Q12 () and Q66
() for the
considered boron/epoxy composite lamina have only positive values for 00 , 1800 .
(2) The minimal values of Q11 () do not correspond generally to = 900 , and the
minimal values of Q22 () do not correspond generally to = 00 and to = 1800 .
(3) The reduced transformed stiffnesses Q16 () and Q26 () can have positive, as
well as negative values. These stiffnesses are vanishing for = 00 , 900 , 1800 .
P3.16 We start with the first equation (3.1.21)
S 11 () = S11 cos4 + (2S12 + S66 ) sin2 cos2 + S22 sin 4.

Using the trigonometrical identities given in P3.11, we obtain
S 11 () =
1
1
(3S11 + 3S22 + 2S12 + S66 ) + (S11 S22 ) cos 2 +
2
8
1
+ (S11 + S22 2S12 S66 ) cos 4.
8
Denoting
V1 =
1
1
1
(3S11 + 3S22 + 2S12 + S66 ) , V2 = (S11 S22 ) , V3 = (S11 + S22 2S12 S66 ) ,
8
2
8
578
we can express S 11 () in the following form:
S 11 () = V1 + V2 cos 2 + V3 cos 4.
Using the other equations (3.1.21) and the trigonometrical identities given in P3.11,
in a similar manner it can be proved that
S 22 () = V1 V2 cos 2 + V3 cos 4,
S 12 () = V4 V3 cos 4,
S 66 () = V5 4V3 cos 4,
S 16 () = V2 sin 2 + 2V3 sin 4,
S 26 () = V2 sin 2 2V3 sin 4,

where
1
1
(S11 + S22 + 6S12 S66 ) , V5 = (S11 + S22 2S12 + S66 ) .
2
8
Now, the validity of the matrix equation given in this problem can be proved directly using the above obtained results and the well-known rules of the matrix calculus.
V4 =
P3.21 According to equations (3.3.4) and (3.3.5), the in-plane deformations e and
the curvatures k of a laminate, are given by the following geometrical relations:

2 U3
U
1 U
, , = 1, 2,
, k =
+
e =
x x
x
2 x
where U = U (x1 , x2 ) are the components of the in-plane displacement of the middle surface and U3 = U3 (x1 , x2 ) is the normal displacement of the same surface. If
the in-plane deformations and curvatures are vanishing, the displacement components
U1 , U2 , U3 , depending only on x1 , x2 must satisfy the following equations:
U2
U1
U2
U1
= 0,
+
=
=
x1
x2
x2
x1
2 U3
2 U3
2 U3
= 0.
=
=
x1 x2
x22
x21
Elementary computations show that, in this case, the components U1 , U2 and U3 are
given by the following relations:
U1 (x1 , x2 ) = 3 x2 + u1 , U2 (x1 , x2 ) = 3 x1 + u2 ,
U3 (x1 , x2 ) = 2 x1 + 1 x2 + u3 ,
where u1 , u2 , u3 and 1 , 2 , 3 are arbitrary constants.

The displacements U1 , U2 , U3 of an arbitrary point of the laminate, in the LoveKirchhoff plate theory are given by the equations (3.3.1) and (3.3.2); i.e.
u1 = U 1 x 3
U3
U3
, u3 = U 3 .
, u2 = U 2 x 3
x2
x1
Thus, we get
u1 = 2 x3 3 x2 + u1 ,
u 2 = 3 x1 1 x3 + u 2 ,
u 3 = 1 x2 2 x1 + u 3 ,
579

or, in vector form,
u (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = u + x.
The last result shows that if the in-plane deformations and the curvatures are vanishing,
the laminate can have only infinitesimal rigid displacements.
P3.23 According to equation (3.3.16)1 , the extensional stiffness A11 is given by the
following equation:
N
X

Q11 k (zk zk1 ) .
A11 =
k=1
According to the first equation (3.1.24), the reduced transformed stiffness Q11
by the following relation:

Q11 k = U1 + U2 cos 2k + U3 cos 4k .
is given
Hence, we obtain
A11 = U1
N
X
k=1
(zk zk1 ) + U2
N
X
k=1
We also observe that zo = h2 , zN =

N
X
k=1
(zk zk1 ) cos 2k + U3

h
2
N
X
k=1
(zk zk1 ) cos 4k .
(see Figure 3.11). Hence, we have
(zk zk1 ) = h,
h representing the thickness of the laminate.

Let us introduce now the quantities
V0A =
N
P
k=1
(zk zk1 ) = h , V1A =

V3A =
N
P
k=1
Thus we will have
N
P
k=1
(zk zk1 ) cos 2k ,
(zk zk1 ) cos 4k .
A11 = U1 V0A + U2 V1A + U3 V3A .

All formulas given in P3.23 can be obtained in a similar manner.
P3.24 According to equation (3.3.16)2 , the coupling stiffness B11 is given by the
following equation:
N

1X
2
Q11 k zk2 zk1
.
B11 =
2
k=1

Introducing here the expression of Q11 k from P3.23, we obtain
B11 =
N
N
N

1 X
1 X 2
1 X 2
2
2
2
cos 4k .
zk zk1
cos 2k + U3
zk2 zk1
U1
+ U2
zk zk1
2
2
2
k=1
k=1
k=1
580
We also observe that
N
X
k=1

2
zk2 zk1
= 0,
since z0 = h2 and zN = h2 .
If we introduce now the quantities
V0B = 0 , V1B =
N
N

1X 2
1X 2
2
2
(zk zk1
) cos 4k ,
cos 2k , V3B =
zk zk1
2
2
k=1
k=1
For the coupling stiffness B11 , we obtain the following expression:

B11 = U2 V1B + U3 V3B .
All formulas given in P2.24 can be derived using the same procedure.
P3.25 According to equation (3.3.16)2 , the bending stiffness D11 is given by the
following equation:
N

1X
3
.
Q11 k zk3 zk1
D11 =
3
k=1

Using the expression of Q11 k , given in P3.23, we get
D11 =
N
N
N

1 X
1 X 3
1 X 3
3
3
3
cos 4k .
zk zk1
cos 2k + U3
zk3 zk1
+ U2
zk zk1
U1
3
3
3
k=1
k=1
k=1
We recall that z0 = h2 and zN =
h
.
2
N
X
k=1
Hence, we have

h3
3
.
zk3 zk1
=
4
Let us introduce now the quantities

V0D =
N
N

1X 3
1 X 3
h3
3
3
zk zk1
cos 4k .
zk zk1
cos 2k , V3D =
, V1D =
3
3
12
k=1
k=1
In this way, we get

D11 = U1 V0D + U2 V1D + U3 V3D .
All formulas given in P3.25 can be obtained applying the procedure given above.
P3.27 (a) According to the matrix equations (3.3.18), we have
h i
h i
N = [A] [e] + [B] [k] , M = [B] [e] + [D] [k] .
Let us assume now that the curvature is vanishing; i.e. k = 0. In this case, the above
equations become
h i
h i
N = [A] [e] , M = [B] [e] .
581

From the first equation, we get
h i
[e] = [A]1 N .
Hence, the constant moments resultants M 11 , M 22 and M 12 , which must be applied

to obtain the curvatures of the laminate submitted to the constant forces resultants
N 11 , N22 and N12 , are given by the following matrix equation:

h i
h i
1
M = [B] [A]
N .
(b) According to the matrix equation (3.3.31), we have
h i h i
h i h i
[e] = A0 N + B 0 M , [k] = C 0 N + D0 M .
Let us assume now that the curvatures are vanishing. In this case, we must have
0 h i 0 h i
C N + D M = 0.
Hence,
h i
0 1 0 h i
C N .
M = D
According to the last equation (3.3.32), we have

0
1
D = [D ]
and, in this way, we get
h i
h i
0
M = [D ] C N .
The third equation (3.3.32) shows that
Thus, we obtain

1
C 0 = [D ] [C ] .
h i
h i
M = [C ] N .
According to the equation (3.3.28)3 , we have
[C ] = [B] [A]1 .
Consequently,
h
get
h i
i
1
M = [B] [A]
N .
(c) The results obtained in (a) and (b) lead to the same values for M 11 , M 22 , M 12.
(d) If the coupling stiffnesses are vanishing, [B] is the null 3 3 matrix , and we
M 11 = M 22 = M 12 = 0.
P3.28 For a single layer laminate,
h
h
N = 1, z0 = , z1 = .
2
2
582
Consequently, equations (3.3.16), reported to the principal material directions of the

laminate, take the following simplified forms:
Aij = hQij , Bij = 0, Dij =
h3
Qij , i, j = 1, 2, 6.
12
Hence, the coupling stifnesses are vanishing. Using the equations (3.1.6), for an isotropic
lamina, we obtain the following expressions for the reduced stiffnesses Qij :
E
E
E
E
,
, Q66 =
, Q22 =
, Q12 =
2(1 + )
1 2
1 2
1 2
= Q26 = 0.
Q11 =
Q16
Hence, the in-plane stiffnesses Aij and the bending stiffnesses become
1
Eh
A,
A , A12 = A , A66 =
2
1 2
A16 = A26 = 0,
1
Eh3
D,
D , D12 = D , D66 =
D11 = D22 =
2
12(1 2 )
D16 = D26 = 0.
A11 = A22 =
P3.29 For a single layer specially orthotropic laminate, we can use the formulas
given at the beginning of P3.28. Since for the specially orthotropic laminate
Q16 = Q26 = 0,
we get
A11 = hQ11 , A12 = hQ12 , A22 = hQ22 , A66 = hQ66 , A16 = A26 = 0,
Bij = 0 for i, j = 1, 2, 6,
D11 =
h3
h3
h3
h3
, D16 = D26 = 0.
Q22 , D66 =
Q12 , D22 =
Q11 , D12 =
12
12
12
12
Using equations (3.1.6), for a specially orthotropic laminate, we get

Q11 =
E2
12 E2
E1
, Q66 = G12 .
, Q22 =
, Q12 =
1 12 21
1 12 21
1 12 21
Thus, for the nonvanishing in-plane stiffness, we obtain the following expressions:
A11 =
E2 h
12 E2 h
E1 h
, Q66 = hG12 .
, A22 =
, A12 =
1 12 21
1 12 21
1 12 21
The nonvanishing bending stifnesses are given by the relations

D11 =
D22 =
12 E2 h3
E 1 h3
,
, D12 =
12(1 12 21 )
12(1 12 21 )
G12 h3
E 2 h3
.
, D66 =
12
12(1 12 21 )
583

Since we have the reciprocity relation (see Equation (2.2.73))
21 = 12
E2
,
E1
we can eliminate 21 from the above equation. In this way, we obtain all components of
the global stiffness matrix [E] expressed by the technical constants E1 , E2 , 12 , G12 and
by the thickness h of the single-layer, specially orthotropic laminate.
P3.31 We recall that laminates that are symmetric in both geometry and material
properties are called symmetric laminates. We recall also equation (3.3.16) 3 giving the
coupling stiffnesses
N
1X
2
).
(Qij )k (zk2 zk1
Bij =
2
k=1
Let us assume first that the number N of the laminate is even (for N = 6 see Figure
S.9).
Figure S.9: Symmetric laminate; N = even number.

Since the laminate is symmetric for each k = 0, 1, ..., N/2, there exists k = N/2 +
1, ..., N such that
zk1 = zk .
Also, if lk is the thickness of the k-th lamina, and lk is the thickness of the corresponding k-th lamina, we have
lk = l k .
Obviously,
zk = zk1 + lk
and
zk1 = zk lk = zk1 lk .
In this way, we obtain for k and for the corresponding k

2
zk2 zk1
= 2zk1 lk + lk2 ,
2
= 2zk1 lk lk2 ;
zk2 zk1
hence, for k and for the corresponding k, we get

2
2
).
zk2 zk1
= (zk2 zk1
584
At the same time, we have

Bij =
N/2
1X
2
)+
(Qij )k (zk2 zk1
2
k=1
N
X
k=N/2+1
2
).
(Qij )k (zk2 zk1
We recall again that the laminate is symmetric, thus, for k and the corresponding k, the
relation takes place
(Qij )k = (Qij )k .
Consequently,
N
X
N/2
k=N/2+1
2
)=
(Qij )k (zk2 zk1
k=1
2
).
(Qij )k (zk2 zk1
Thus, we obtain
Bij = 0, i, j = 1, 2, 6.
Let us assume now that the number N of the laminate is odd (for N = 5, see Figure
S.10).
Figure S.10: Symmetric laminate; N = odd number.

For any k = 1, ..., (N 1)/2, there exists k = (N + 1)/2, ..., N such that
zk1 = zk .
Also, denoting by lk and lk the thicknesses of the corresponding laminae, we shall have
lk = lk for k = 1, ..., (N 1)/2 and k = (N + 3)/2, ..., N.
Obviously,
zk = zk1 + lk for k = 1, ..., (N 1)/2
and
zk1 = zk lk = zk1 lk for k = (N + 3)/2, ..., N, k = 1, ..., (N 1)/2.
In this way, we get

2
zk2 zk1
= 2zk1 lk + lk2 for k = 1, ..., (N 1)/2
585

and
2
= 2zk1 lk lk2 for k = (N + 3)/2, ..., N, k = 1, ..., (N + 1)/2.
zk2 zk1
Hence,
2
2
) for k = 1, ..., (N 1)/2, k = (N + 3)/2, ..., N.
zk2 zk1
= (zk2 zk1
At the same time, we have

(N 1)/2
Bij =
k=1
2
2
2
) + (Qij )(N +1)/2 (z(N
(Qij )k (zk2 zk1
+1)/2 z(N 1)/2 )
N
X
k=(N +3)/2
2
).
(Qij )k (zk2 zk1
Since, for k and the corresponding k,
(Qij )k = (Qij )k ,
we obtain
(N 1)/2
N
X
k=(N +3)/2
Hence, we get
But
2
)=
(Qij )k (zk2 zk1
k=1
2
).
(Qij )k (zk2 zk1
2
2
Bij = (Qij )(N +1)/2 (z(N
+1)/2 z(N 1)/2 ).
z(N +1)/2 = z(N 1)/2 ,
since the laminate is symmetric and N is odd. Consequently, finally, we obtain

Bij = 0.
Obviously, the obtained results for a symmetric laminate are true also for a symmetric cross-ply laminate.
P3.33 To obtain Tsais formulas (3.2.24) for a laminate considered in P3.32, we
observe first that N can be expressed by m and we have
N=
m+1
.
m1
We recall also the relations

zk =
h
h
for k = 0, 1, ..., N ;
+k
N
2
hence,
h
for k = 1, ..., N.
N
According to the definition of a regular symmetric cross-ply laminate, we have also
zk zk1 =
k = 00 if k is odd and k = 900 if k is even .
586
Consequently, from the general equations (3.1.17), giving the transformed reduced stiffnesses Qij , we get
Q11
Q12
Q22
Q66
Q11
= Q11 if k is odd and
= Q12 for any k ;
= Q22 = f Q11 if k is odd and
= Q66 for any k ;
= Q22 = f Q11 if k is even ;
Q22
= Q11 if k is even ;
(Q16 )k = (Q26 )k = 0 for any k .
In order to obtain Tsais relations given in P3.32, the above properties must be
used.
We begin with A11 , which, according to the general formula (3.3.1)2 , is given by
the equation
N
X
A11 =
(Q11 )k (zk zk1 ).
k=1
Since zk zk1 = h/N , the above relation becomes

)
(
X
X
h
(Q11 )k .
(Q11 )k +
A11 =
N
k=even
k=odd
We recall now that k is odd (N + 1)/2 times and k is even (N 1)/2 times. Hence, for
A11 , we obtain the following expression:

N 1
h N +1
Q22 .
Q11 +
A11 =
2
2
N
Since Q22 = f Q11 , we get

A11 =
h
{(N + 1) + f (N 1)} Q11 .
2N
As we have seen in P3.32, N can be expressed by the cross-ply ratio m and it is

easy to see that
N=
2
2m
m+1
.
, N 1=
, N +1=
m1
m1
m1
If we use these relations, finally we get the following expression of the rigidity A 11 :
A11 =
m+f
hQ11 .
1+m
Thus, the first Tsai formula (3.4.24) was proved.

All Tsai formulas (3.4.24) concerning the extensional stiffness can be deduced in the same
manner.
We recall now the result proved in P3.31 where in the coupling stiffnesses Bij are
vanishing for any symmetric laminate. Hence, we have
Bij = 0, i, j = 1, 2, 6
587
and Tsais relations (3.4.24) concerning the coupling stiffnesses are proved.
We analyze now the bending stiffness D11 . According to the general relations
(3.3.16)3 , we have
N

1X
3
.
(Q11 )k zk3 zk1
D11 =
3
k=1
Since
zk =
h
h
+k ,
N
2
it is easy to see that

3
zk3 zk1
=
h3
N3

3N 2 + 6N + 4
3(N + 1)k + 3k 2 .
4
Hence, for D11 , we get

)
(
N
N
N
X
X
3N 2 + 6N + 4 X
h3
2
k (Q11 )k .
k(Q11 )k + 3
(Q11 )k 3(N + 1)
D11 =
4
3N 3
k=1
k=1
k=1
We recall now that (Q11 )k = Q11 if k is odd, and (Q11 )k = Q22 = f Q 11 if k is

even. We know also that (N + 1)/2 times k is odd and (N 1)/2 times k is even. Taking
into account these properties, from the above equation, we get

N 1
h3 Q11 3N 2 + 6N + 4 N + 1
f
+
D11 =
2
2
4
3N 3
)
X
X
X 2
X 2
3(N + 1)(
k+f
k) + 3(
k +f
k ) .
k=odd
k=even
k=odd
k=even
Now we use the relations (N is an odd number!)

X
k=odd
k2 =
k=odd
k=
(N + 1)2
,
4
k=
k=even
N (N + 1)(N + 2)
,
6
k=even
N2 1
,
4
k2 =
N (N 2 + 1)
.
6
In this way, for D11 , we obtain the following expression:

h3 Q11 3N 2 + 6N + 4
[(N + 1) + (N 1)f ]
D11 =
8
3N 3

3(N + 1)
(N + 1)2 + (N + 1)(N 1)f
4

1
+ [N (N + 1)(N + 2) + N (N + 1)(N 1)f ] .
2
After elementary computations, we obtain

h3 Q11 N 2 2N 2
[N + 1 + (N 1)f ] + 2N (N + 1) ,
D11 =
12N 3
2
588
or
D11
h3 Q11
=
12

N 3 3N 2 + 2
(f 1) + 1 .
2N 3
According to Tsais formulas (3.4.24), the parameter p, entering in the expressions

of the bending stiffness Dij , has the following value:

m(N 3)[m(N 1) + 2(N + 1)]
1
.
1
+
p=
N2 1
(1 + m)3
Since
m = (N + 1)/(N 1),
we get
N 3 3N 2 + 2
.
2N 3
can be expressed by the relation
p=
Accordingly, D11
D11 =
(f 1)p + 1 3
h Q11 .
12
In this way, we have proved that the first Tsai formula (3.4.24) giving D11 , is true.
In similar manner can be shown that all Tsais relations concerning the bending stiffnesses are true for a regular symmetric cross-ply laminate.
P3.34 Since the elasticity tensor of the composing laminae is positive-definite, we
shall have
E1 , E2 , G12 > 0 , 12 21 < 1.
Moreover, we assume that
0 < 12 , 21 < 1.
According to the relation (3.1.6),
Q11 =
E2
21 E1
E1
, Q66 = G12 .
, Q22 =
, Q12 =
1 12 21
1 12 21
1 12 21
Hence, we have
Q11 , Q12 , Q22 , Q66 > 0.
Since we consider a regular symmetric cross-ply laminate, we know that its coupling
stiffnesses are vanishing
Bij = 0, i, j = 1, 2, 6.
Moreover, we have also
A16 = A26 = D16 = D26 = 0.
Thus, we can conclude that the global stiffness matrix of the laminate [E] will be positivedefinite if and only if the matrices
A11 A12 0
D11 D12 0
A12 A22 0
and D12 D22 0
0
0
A66
0
0
D66
589
will be positive-definite. According to Sylvesters criterion, this property will take place
if and only if
A11 , A22 , A66 > 0,
A11 A12 A212 > 0,
D11 , D22 , D66 > 0,
2
D11 D22 D12
> 0.
We recall now Tsais relation (3.4.24) giving the extensional stiffnesses
A11 =
m+f
hQ11 ,
1+m
A12 = hQ12 ,
A22 =
1 + mf
hQ11 ,
1+m
A66 = hQ66 .
In these equations, m is the cross-ply ratio given by the relation (3.4.22) and obviously
m > 0.
In the same equation, f is the stiffness ratio given by the relation (3.4.23) and we have:
0 < f < 1.
Thus, we can conclude that
A11 , A22 , A66 > 0.
Elementary computations give

E12 h2
(m + f )(1 + mf )
2
.
A11 A22 A212 =

21
(1 + m)2
(1 12 21 )2
We recall now (see P3.32) that the cross-ply ratio m, for a regular symmetric cross-ply
laminate, is given by the equation
m=
N +1
,
N 1
where N > 1 is the number of layers and is an odd number. Hence, we have
m > 1.
Now we can conclude that
A11 A22 A212 > 0
if and only if the following supplementary restriction is fulfilled:

2
21
<
(m + f )(1 + mf )
.
(1 + m)2
We use now Tsais relations (3.4.24) giving the bending stiffness

D11 =
h3
(f 1)p + 1 3
Q12 ,
h Q11 , D12 =
12
12
D12 =
h3
(1 f )p + f 3
Q66 .
h Q11 , D66 =
12
12
590
We recall (see P3.34) that

N 3 3N 2 + 2
2N 3
Since for a regular symmetric cross-ply laminate N is an odd number, we have (assuming
N >1)
N 3.
p=
In this case, it is easy to see that
p > 0 for any N 3.

It is easy to see now that if the supplementary relation
p<
1
1f
is fulfilled, we shall have

D11 , D22 , D66 > 0
since
0 < f < 1.
Elementary computations give

2
2
D11 D22 D12
= [(f 1)p + 1] [(1 f )p + f ] 21
E12 h6
.
144 (1 12 21 )2
2
D11 D22 D12
>0
if the following supplementary condition:
2
21
< [(f 1)p + 1] [(1 f )p + f ]
is also fulfilled.
Summing up the obtained results, we can say that the global stiffness matrix [E]
of a regular symmetric cross-ply laminate is positive-definite if the elasticity tensor of
the composing laminae is positive-definite, if the ratios 12 , 21 , are positive, and if the
following supplementary conditions are also fulfilled:
2
21
<
(m + f )(1 + mf )
,
(1 + m)2
p<
where
1
,
1f
2
21
< [(f 1)p + 1] [(1 f )p + f ] ,
N +1
, for N 3,
N 1
E2
< 1,
0<f =
E1
1<m=
p=
N 3 3N 2 + 2
> 0 , for N 3,
2N 3
591
N , an odd number, representing the number of layers of the laminate.

Hence, the positive-definiteness of the elasticity tensor of the composing laminae
and the assumption 0 < 12 , 21 cannot assure the positive-definiteness of the global
stiffness matrix [E] of a regular symmetric cross-ply laminate!
P3.35 The engineering constants of the lamina are
E1 = 138GP a , E2 = 9P a , 12 = 0.3 , 21 = 0.0196 , G12 = 6.9GP a.
Substitution of these values in equation (3.1.6) fields the components of the lamina stiffness matrix associated with the principal material axes.
138.8 2.72
0
0 GP a.
[Q] = 2.72 9.05
0
0
6.9
The transformed lamina stiffness matrices for = 450 and = 450 plies are then
found by substituting the above stiffnesses in equations (3.1.17) or in equations (3.1.24),
(3.1.25). For the +450 plies,
45.22 31.42 32.44

[Q]+450 = 31.42 45.22 32.44 GP a,
32.44 32.44 35.6
and for the 450 plies,
45.22

Q 450 = 31.42
32.44
31.42
45.22
32.44
32.44
32.44 GP a.
35.6
Note that the only difference between the stiffness matrices for the two plies is that
the shear coupling terms (the terms with subscripts 16 and 26) for the 45 0 ply have
the opposite sign from the corresponding terms for the +450 ply.
Before finding the laminae stiffnesses, we must determine the distance from the
middle surface of the various ply interfaces, according to the Figure 3.23. Since the
thickness of the laminae is 0.25, we get
z0 = 0.5mm,
z1 = 0.25mm,
z2 = 0,
z3 = 0, 25mm,
z4 = 0.5mm.
The laminate extensional coupling and bending stiffnesses are found by substituting
these distances, along with the lamina stiffnesses given above, in equations (3.3.16). It
results
45.22 31.42
0
0 GP a mm,
[A] = 31.42 45.22
0
0
35.6
0 0 0
[B] = 0 0 0 GP a mm2 ,
0 0 0
3.77 2.62 2.03

[D] = 2.62 3.77 2.03 GP a mm3 .
2.03 2.03 2.97
592
Hence, all coupling stiffnesses are vanishing.

P3.37 (a) We have (see P3.35)
[B] = 0
and from the relation (3.3.28)1 and (3.3.32)1 , we get
[A0 ] = [A ] = [A]1 .
Since
[M ] = 0,
from the equation (3.3.31), we obtain
[e] = [A0 ][N ] = [A]1 [N ].
The inverse of the matrix [A] obtained in P3.35 has the following expression:
0.04276 0.0297
0
(GP amm)1 .
0
[A]1 = 0.0297 0.04276
0
0
0.02809
We know that
N11 = 50 103 M P amm1 , N22 = N12 = 0.
Hence, for the in-plane deformations, we get

0.04276 0.0297
0
e11
50
0.002138
e22 = 0.0297 0.04276
0 103 = 0.001485 .
0
2e12
0
0
0.02809
0
0
Since [B] = 0, from the equation (3.3.28), we obtain [B ] = 0, and the relation (3.3.32)
gives
[B 0 ] = 0.
Analogously, the relation (3.3.28)3 gives [C ] = 0, and hence, according to the
equation (3.3.32)3 , we shall have
[C 0 ] = 0.
Consequently, the relation (3.3.31) giving [k], becomes
[k] = [D 0 ][M ].
But, [M ] = 0, hence,
[k] = 0.
That is, all curvatures are vanishing.
(b) In order to obtain the resulting deformations, we must use the general relations
(3.3.3)
11 = = e + x3 k .
Since k = 0, we get
11
0.002138
22 = 0.001485 .
212
0
593
Hence, the deformation of the laminate is homogeneous.

Neglecting an infinitesimal rigid displacement and using the strain-displacement
relations for the components of the displacement vector, we obtain the following expressions:
u1 = 0.002138x1 ,
u2 = 0.001485x2 ,
u3 = 0.
(c) Substituting
equations (3.3.10), we

45.22
11
22 = 31.42
12
32.44
the above strains and the lamina stiffnesses from P3.35 in the
find that the stresses in the +450 plies are
31.42 32.44
0.02138
50
3
45.22 32.44 0.001485 10 M P a = 0 M P a.
32.44 35.6
0
21.2
Similarly, the stresses in

11
22 =
12
the 450 plies are
45.22
31.42
31.42
45.22
32.44 32.44
50
M P a.
0
=
21.2
32.44
0.002138
32.44 0.001485 103 M P a
35.6
0
Note that since all curvatures vanish for this problem, the stresses do not depend on the
distance x3 = z. Let us observe also that the normal stress 22 is vanishing, but the shear
stress 12 is nonzero!
P3.38 (a) Since, for the considered laminate, there exist nonvanishing coupling
stiffnesses, we must invert the full stiffness matrix

A B
[E] =
.
B D
Composing the full stiffness matrix from the [A], [B], [D] matrices of P3.36, and inverting,
we find the resulting midplane strains and curvatures to be

0.043866 0.02861
0
0
0
0.02083
e11
e22 0.02861
0.04386
0
0
0
0.02083

2e12
0
0
0.03284
0.02083
0.02083
0
=
k11
0
0
0.02083
0.52625
0.34331
0

k22
0
0
0.02083 0.34331
0.52625
0
2k12
0.02083 0.02083
0
0
0
0.39356
50
0.02193
0
0.001430
0
3
10 =
0
0
0
0
0.001042
(b) In order to obtain the resulting deformations, we must use equation (3.3.3); i.e.
= e + x3 k , , = 1, 2.
594
Thus, we get
11 = e11 = 0.002193, 22 = e22 = 0.00143, 212 = 2x3 k12 = 0.001042x3 .
The curvatures are expressed in terms of the normal displacement U3 (x1 , x2 ) by
equations (3.3.5). Thus, we obtain
1
2 U3
2 U3
2 U3
= 0.001042.
2 = 0,
2 =
2
x1 x2
x2
x1
Hence, negating rigid displacements, we obtain

u3 = U3 (x1 , x2 )
1
0.001042x1 x2 .
2
Now, using equation (3.3.2), we obtain

u1 = U1 (x1 x2 )
1
0.001042x2 x3 ,
2
1
0.0001042x1 x3 .
2
Using the strain-displacement relations, we get
u2 = U2 (x1 x3 )
U2 (x1 x2 )
U1 (x1 x2 )
= 22 = 0.00143.
= 11 = 0.002193 ,
x2
x1
Hence,
U1 (x1 x2 ) = 0.002193x1 + V1 (x2 ),
U2 (x1 , x2 ) = 0.00143x2 + V2 (x1 ).
At the same time, we must satisfy the equation
u2
u1
= 212 = 0.001042x3 .
+
x1
x2
Hence, we must have
1
dV2 (x1 )
1
dV1 (x2 )
0.001042x3 = 0.001042x3 .
0.001042x3 +
2
dx1
2
dx2
Thus, we get
dV2 (x1 )
dV1 (x2 )
= 0.
+
dx1
dx2
This relation can be satisfied only if
dV2 (x1 )
dV1 (x2 )
= const.
=
dx1
dx2
Hence,
V1 (x2 ) = (const.)x2 + const.,
V2 (x1 ) = (const.)x1 + const.
595

Obviously, we have here a rigid displacement which will be neglected.
Therefore, for the displacement u1 , u2 and u3 , we get
u1 = 0.002193x1 0.0000521x2 x3 ,
u2 = 0.00143x2 0.0000521x1 x3 ,
u3 = 0.000521x1 x2 .
(c) In order to obtain the stresses, we must use equation (3.3.10). Due to nonvanishing curvature, the strains and stress now depend on the distance z = x3 . For
example, at the top surface of the 1 ply (45) z = x3 = 0.5 mm (see Figure 3.24), and
according to the results obtained at (b), the resulting total strains are
11 = 0.002193, 22 = 0.00143, 212 = 0.000521 for z = x3 = 0.5mm.
Similarly, at the bottom surface of the 1 ply (450 ), or at the top surface of the 2 ply
(+450 ), z = x3 = 0, 25mm and the strains are
11 = 0, 002193,
22 = 0, 00143,
222 = 0, 000269.
In order to obtain the stresses at the top surface of the 1 play(-450 ), we can use
equation (3.3.10) or the relation (3.1.15). The transformed reduced stiffnesses were de0
termined in P3.35. To obtain the stresses at the top surface of the 1 ply(45
), we must
use the strains corresponding to z = x3 = 0, 5 and the rigidity matrix Q 450. Thus,
equation (3.1.15) gives

45.22
31.42
32.44
0.002193
x
11
22 = y = 31.42
45.22
32.44 0.001430 103 M P a
xy
32.44 32.44 35.6
0.000521
12
37.3
= 12.7 M P a.
6.2
Similar calculations, for the other plies, yield the values shown in the following
Table (see Figure 3.24):
Location
1T op
1Bottom
2T op
2Bottom
3T op
3Bottom
4T op
4Bottom
x3 = z(mm)
0.5
0.25
0.25
0.0
0.0
0.25
0.25
0.5
11 (M P a)
37.3
45.8
62.7
54.2
54.2
62.7
45.8
37.3
22 (M P a)
12.7
4.2
12.7
4.2
4.2
12.7
4.2
12.7
12 (M P a)
6.2
15.5
34.0
24.7
24.7
34.0
15.5
6.2
These results show that the stress distribution across the thickness of the considered laminate is quite complex, even for simple uniaxial loading. This is typical for all
laminates exhibiting coupling.
596
P3.40 A regular symmetric angle ply laminate has orthotropic laminae of equal
thickness. The adjacent laminae have opposite signs of the angle orientation of the principal material directions with respect to the laminate axes. For symmetry, such a laminate
must have an odd number of layers (see Figure 3.15).
According to the general equation (3.1.16)1 , we have
A11 =
N
X
k=1
(Q11 )k (zk zk1 ).
Also, the results proved in P3.39 show that

(Q11 )k = Q11 (Q11 ) .
Hence, we get
A11 = Q11
N
X
k=1
Obviously,
N
X
k=1
and thus, we obtain
(zk zk1 ).
zk zk1 = h,
A11 = hQ11 .
With the same procedure, we get

(A12 , A22 , A66 ) = h(Q12 , Q22 , Q66 ),
with
Q12 (Q12 ) , Q22 (Q22 ) , Q66 (Q66 ) .
Let us evaluate now the stiffness A16 . We start with the equation
A16 =
N
X
k=1
(Q16 )k (zk zk1 ).
According to the definition of the considered laminate, we have (see P3.38).

(Q16 )k = (Q16 ) = Q16 for k = odd number ,
(Q16 )k = (Q16 )+ = Q16 for k = even number.
Hence, we get
A16 = Q16
k=odd
(zk zk1 )
k=even
(zk zk1 )
Since the laminate is regular

zk zk1 =
k
for any k .
N
597
Since the laminate is symmetric, N is an odd number. Hence, k is (N + 1)/2 times

odd number and k is (N 1)/2 times an even number.
Hence,

N 1 h
N +1 h
.
A16 = Q16
2 N
2 N
Finally, it results
h
A16 = Q16 .
N
In the same way, it can be seen that
A26 =
h
Q with Q26 (Q26 ) .
N 26
We analyze now the behavior of the coupling stiffnesses Bij . According to equation
(3.3.16)2 , we have
N
1X
2
).
(Qii )k (zk2 zk1
B11 =
2
k=1
We know that (see P3.38)
(Q11 )k = (Q11 ) Q11 for any k .
Hence, we get
B11 =
Since
N
X
1
2
(zk2 zk1
).
Q11
2
k=1
zk1 = zk
we obtain
2
zk2 zk1
=
h
,
N
h2
{2k (N + 1)} .
N2
Hence, B11 becomes

B11
N
h2
1
h2 X
1
{2k (N + 1)} = Q11 2
= Q11 2
N
2
N
2
k=1
But
N
X
k=
k=1
hence,
N
X
k=1
k N (N + 1)
N (N + 1)
,
2
B11 = 0.
In similar manner, we can show that
B12 = B22 = B66 = 0.
Similarly, we have
B16 =
N
N
1 h2 X
1X
2
(Q16 )k (zk2 zk1
)=
(Q16 )k {2k (N + 1)} .
2
2 N2
k=1
k=1
598
According to the results proved in P3.39,

(Q16 )k = (Q16 ) Q16 if k is an odd number,
and
Thus, we get
B16
(Q16 )k = Q16 if k is an even number.
1 h2
Q
=
2 N 2 16
k=odd
[2k (N + 1)]
k=even
[2k (N + 1)]
We recall now that N is an odd number and k is (N + 1)/2 times an odd number
and (N 1)/2 times an even number. We use also the relations (see P3.33)
X
k=
k=odd
(N + 1)2
4
k=even
k=
N2 1
.
4
Consequently, we obtain
B16 =
Hence,

h2
(N + 1)2 (N + 1)2 (N 2 1) + (N + 1)(N 1) .
Q
4N 2 16
B16 = 0.
Similarly, it can be shown that

B26 = 0.
Hence, all coupling stiffnesses of a regular symmetric angle ply laminate are vanishing.
The same conclusion can be obtained using the general results given in P3.31!
We analyze now the bending stiffnessess. According to equation (3.3.16) 3 , we have
D11 =
N
1X
3
).
(Q11 )k (zk3 zk1
3
k=1
Since
(Q11 )k = (Q11 ) Q11 for any k, we obtain
D11 =

3
zk3 zk1
=
h3
N3
N
X
1
3
(zk3 zk1
).
Q11
3
k=1

2N 2 + 6N + 4
3(N + 1)k + 3k 2 .
4
Hence, D11 becomes

D11
h3
Q
=
3N 3 11
k=1
k=1
X
X 2
3N 2 + 6N + 4
N 3(N + 1)
k+3
k
4
599

We use now the well-known relations
N
X
N
X
N (N + 1)(2N + 1)
N (N + 1)
and
k2 =
6
2
k=
k=1
k=1
After elementary computations, we obtain

D11 =
h3
Q .
12 11
Similarly, it can be shown that

(D12 , D22, D66 ) =
h3
(Q , Q , Q ).
12 12 22 66
For the evaluation of D16 , we start with the equation

D16 =
N
1X
3
).
(Q16 )k (zk3 zk1
3
k=1
In this way, we obtain

D16 =

N
2N 2 + 6N + 4
h3 X
2
3(N
+
1)k
+
3k
.
Q
)
(
k
16
4
3N 3
k=1
Since
we get
D16
h3 Q16
=
3N 3
X 2
X
2N 2 + 6N + 4 N + 1
k
k+3
3(N + 1)
2
4
k=odd
k=odd
X 2
X
2N 2 + 6N + 4 N 1
k
k3
+ 3(N + 1)
2
4
k=odd
k=even
Since N is odd number, we have

X
k=odd
k2 =
k=odd
k=
(N + 1)2
,
4
N (N + 1)(N + 2)
,
6
k=
k=even
k=even
N2 1
,
4
k2 =
N (N 2 1)
.
6
Introducing these values in the above expression of D16 , after long but elementary computations, we get
h3 2N 2 2
Q16 .
D16 =
12 N 3
Similarly, we get
h3 2N 2 2
Q26 .
D26 =
12 N 3
600
P3.41 In the case of regular antisymmetric angle-ply laminate, N is an even number

and all layers have the same thickness h/N . According to the results proved in P3.39, it
is easy to see that
(A11 , A12 , A22 , A66 ) = h(Q11 , Q12 , Q22 , Q66 ).
For A16 , we get

A16 =
N
X
k=1
(Q16 )k (zk zk1 ).
We know that k is N/2 times an odd number, and N/2 times is an even number.
Also,
if k is odd then (Q16 )k = (Q16 ) = Q16 ,
and
if k is even then (Q16 )k = (Q16 )+ = Q16 .
Since
zk zk1 = h/N,
we obtain
A16 =
h
Q
N 16
Hence,
N
N
2
2
A16 = 0.
In the same way, we obtain
A26 = 0.
According to a result obtained in P3.40, we have
( N
)
X
h2
1
k N (N + 1) .
B11 = Q11 2 2
N
2
k=1
Since
N
X
k=1
we obtain
k=
N (N + 1)
,
2
B11 = 0.
Similarly, it can be seen that
B12 = B22 = B66 = 0.
Another result obtained in P3.40 shows that
(
)
X
X
1 h2
Q
[2k (N + 1)]
[2k (N + 1)] .
B16 =
2 N 2 16
k=odd
k=even
601
We recall that N is an even number and, in this case, we have (see Equation (3.4.22))
X
k=
k=odd
N2
4
k=
k=even
N (N + 2)
.
4
We know also that k is N/2 times odd, and N/2 times even. Consequently, we obtain

2
N
N (N + 2)
N
N
1 h2
.
+
(N
+
1)
(N
+
1)
Q
B16 =
16
2
2
2
2
2 N2
Hence,
B16 =
h2
Q .
2N 16
B26 =
h2
Q .
2N 16
Similarly, we get
Without any difficulty, it can be shown that

(D11 , D12 , D22 , D66 ) =

h3
Q11 , Q12 , Q22 , Q66 .
12
A result obtained in P3.40 shows that

N
2N 2 + 6N + 4
h3 X
2
.
3(N
+
1)k
+
3k
Q
)
(
D16 =
k
16
4
3N 3
k=1
Hence,
D16
(
)
X 2N 2 + 6N + 4
h3
2
3(N + 1)k + 3k
Q
4
3N 3 16 k=odd
(
)
X 2N 2 + 6N + 4
2
3(N + 1)k + 3k
.
4
k=even
Since N is an even number, we have ( see Equation (3.4.24))

X
k2 =
k=odd
N (N 2 1)
6
k=even
k2 =
N (N + 1)(N + 2)
.
6
Hence, we obtain
D16 =

2

N (N + 2)
2N 2 + 6N + 4 N
N
N
h3
Q
3(N
+
1)
3N 3 16
4
2
2
4
4

N (N + 1)(N + 2)
N (N 2 1)
.
+3
6
6

D16 = 0.
Similar reasoning leads to the relation
D26 = 0.
602
P3.48 We recall the simply supported edge boundary conditions S1, given in equations (3.6.17)
S1 : U3 = 0, Mnn = 0, Un = , U = .
Hence, and are given functions on the boundary curve D.
We introduce now the functional J1 (U ) defined by the equation
Z
J1 (U) = W (U) qU3 da.
D
Hence, q is a given continuous function on D and W (U)n the energy functional defined
by equation (3.6.1).
As we know (see Equation (3.6.8)), the first variation W of W in U, in the direction
U, is given by the following relation:
Z
W =
(N, U + M, U3 )da +
{Un Nnn + U Nn + U3 (Mn, + Qn ) U3,n Mnn } ds.
We shall calculate now the variation J1 of J1 in U, in a direction that satisfies

homogeneous boundary condition; i.e.
Un = U = U3 = 0 on D.
Since for the boundary value problem S1 , Mnn = 0 on D, we shall obtain
Z
J1 = {N, U + (M, + q) U3 } da.
D
Based on the last relation and recalling the equilibrium equations (3.5.3), (3.5.5)
and the supplementary constitutive relation (3.5.4), we obtain the following variational
principle adequate to the simply supported edge boundary conditions S1.
If U is a regular solution of the boundary value problem S1, the variation J1 of J1
in U is vanishing for any variation U satisfying the homogeneous boundary conditions
Un = U = U3 = 0 on D. Conversely, if U satisfies the displacement boundary
condition given in S1 and if the variation J1 of J1 is vanishing in U for any variation
U satisfying the above homogeneous boundary conditions, then U is a regular solution
of the boundary value problem S1.
P3.53 We try to prove the following converse of the principle of minimum potential
energy appropriate to the boundary value problem S2.
Let U B2 and suppose that
e
J2 (U) J2 (U),
e B2 . Then U is a solution of the boundary value problem S2.

for every U
603
Let us consider an arbitrary vector field U0 of class C on D, and suppose that

U satisfies the homogeneous conditions
0
U30 = 0 and U0 = 0 on D.
e = U + U0 B2 and the results obtained in P3.50 show that
Then U
Z
Z
0
W (U0 ) {U0 N, + U30 (M, + q)}da + {Un0 (Nnn ) U3,n
Mnn }ds 0.
D
This inequality must hold when U is replaced by U0 , being an arbitrary real number.
Since W (U0 ) 0, we must have
Z
Z
0

0
0
U N, + U30 (M, + q) da +
Un (Nnn ) U3,n
Mnn ds = 0.
D
Since U is an arbitrary vector field, from the above equation and from the supplementary
constitutive relation (3.6.5), it follows that the equilibrium equations (3.5.8) and the
boundary conditions corresponding to S2 are satisfied. Hence, U is a regular solution of
the boundary value problem S2.
With similar procedures, it can be proved that the converse of the principle of minimum potential energy appropriate for a clamped laminate submitted to the boundary
condition C2 is also true.
Chapter 4
P4.1 To obtain the kinematical meaning of the influence tensor function A = A(x),
we introduce the elementary second order tensor Iij , i, j = 1, 2, 3 having the following
components:
1
ij
i, j, k, l = 1, 2, 3.
= (ik jl + il jk ) ,
Ikl
2
It is easy to see that the matrices of the components of these 9 tensors have the following
structure:
1 0 0
0 1 0
11
12
= 0 0 0 ,
I
= 0 0 0 , ...
I
.
0 0 0
0 0 0
It follows that any constant symmetric second order tensor

with components kl
can be expressed in the following form:
= kl Ikl .
According to equation (4.1.14), the microscopic strain (x) which exists in the body, if on
T = const.
its boundary an homogeneous displacement condition corresponding to
=
is imposed, is given by the relation
(x) = A(x)
.
Thus, we obtain
(x) = kl A(x)Ikl .
604

This equation shows that
kl (x) = A(x)Ikl
is the microscopic strain in the body, if on its boundary homogeneous displacement conditions corresponding to the constant symmetric tensor Ikl are imposed. Also, taking
into account the definition of this special tensor, for the components kl
ij (x) of the corresponding micro-strain, we get
kl
ij (x) = Aijkl (x) .
The last relation clarifies the significance of the components of the influence tensor
function A = A(x): Aijkl (x) is the (ij)-component of the micro strain kl (x) which exists
in the body, when on its boundary, the homogeneous displacement corresponding to I kl
is imposed.
The obtained results have an important consequence: in order to find the influence
tensor function A = A(x), we must solve 6 special homogeneous displacement problems
corresponding to the elementary strains Ikl , k, l = 1, 2, 3.
P4.2 Let us assume a macro-homogeneous composite having three different phases:
a matrix and two kinds of inclusions. Let us consider a RVE of the mixture occupying the
domain D. Let D1 , D2 and D3 be the mutually disjoint subdomains of D occupied by the
matrix, the first and the second kinds of inclusions, respectively. The micro-stress-strain
relation of the mixture has the form
c1 (x) , in D1 , c1 = const. ,
c2 (x) , in D2 , c2 = const. ,
(x) = c(x)(x) =
c3 (x) , in D3 , c3 = const. .
Let us assume now that on the boundary D of the RVE an homogeneous displacement corresponding to
=
T = const. is imposed.
Let us denote by A = A(x) the influence tensor function corresponding to this
boundary value problem; i.e.
(x) = A(x)
.
Let us denote by
1 ,
2 and
3 the mean values of (x) in D1 , D2 and D3 , respec 1, A
2 and A
3 be the mean values of the influence
tively, and let the constant tensors A
tensor function A(x) in D1 , D2 and D3 , respectively. We get
1
2
3
1 = A
,
2 = A
,
3 = A
.
In order to evaluate the mean value
of the corresponding micro-stress (x), we
use the relation
= c1
1 + c2
2 + c3
3 .
3 are the mean values of (x) in D1 , D2 and D3 ,
In this equation,
1,
2 and
v3
v2
v1
are the concentration of the matrix and the
, c3 =
, c2 =
respectively, and c1 =
v
v
v
two different phases, v, v1 , v2 , v3 being the volumes of the domain D, D1 , D2 , D3 .
Since the composite is piece-wise homogeneous, from the assumed micro-stress stain
relation, we obtain
1 = c1
1 ,
2 = c2
2 ,
3 = c3
3 ,
605
1, A
2, A
3 , we
since c1 , c2 and c3 are constant tensors. Using the influence tensors A
can express the above mean value as
3
2
1
.
,
= c3 A
,
2 = c2 A
1 = c1 A
Consequently, the mean stress
can be expressed in terms of the mean strain
using the following equation:

3 )
2 + c3
1 + c2
.
c3 A
c2 A
= (c1
c1 A
Hence, denoting by b
c the overall elasticity of the three-phasic mixture we get
2 + c 3 c3 A
3
1 + c 2 c2 A
b
c = c 1 c1 A
and the overall stress-strain relation is
=b
c
.
In order to determine the overall elasticity, we must know three constant influence
1, A
2 and A
3 . It is easy to see that these tensors are not independent and must
tensors A
satisfy the restriction
1 + c2 A
2 + c3 A
3 = I .
c1 A
Hence, in order to obtain b
c, we must determine only two influence tensors.
P4.9 If Hills strong assumption is satisfied, according to the relations (4.1.22),

(4.1.33), (4.1.20), (4.1.34), (4.2.5), we have, simultaneously, the following relations:
1
b , k
b=b
1
2
1
2
2 = A
1 = B
2 = B
1 = A
,
,
,
.
=b
c
,
= k
c ,
Obviously, we have also the micro-constitutive equations
(x) = c(x)(x) , (x) = k(x)(x) , k1 (x) = c(x) .

Since the material is piece-wise homogeneous (see Equations (4.1.5), (4.1.6)), we
have also
1 = c1
1 ,
2 = c2
2 ,
1 = k 1
1 ,
2 = k 2
2
and
1
k1 = c1
.
1 , k2 = c 2
According to these equations,

1 can be expressed in two ways:
1 = A1 and
1 = k1
1.
b ; hence,
According to the overall strain-stress relation,
= k
b .
1 = A1 k
1
Let us observe also that
1 = B
; hence,
1
.
1 = k 1 B
606
Comparing the last two expression of

1 , and taking into account that
is arbitrary,
b = k1 B
1 .
A1 k
Starting with the equations
1 = B1
and
1 = c1
1 ,
by similar reasoning, we can conclude that
1b
1 .
B
c = c1 A
Taking into account the mean values corresponding to the inclusions, it can be
shown that the influence tensors A2 and B2 are connected by the equations
b = k2 B
2 and B
2b
2k
2.
c = c2 A
A
We recall that the above compatibility conditions are consequences of Hills strong assumption. According to G
ar
ajeus theorem, Hills strong assumption is implied by Hills
weak assumption. Hence, the compatibility conditions are satisfied only if the Hills weak
assumption is supposed to hold!
P4.13 Let us consider the homogeneous displacement boundary value problem corresponding to
. Let [u, = (u), ] be the solution of this problem. As we know,
) .
b
c = (u) c(v) (v) c(v) for any v K(
We also know that
(x) = A(x)
.

A(x) = J.
Let us denote the corresponding micro-strain field by R (x); i.e.
R (x) = const.
We introduce also the homogeneous displacement field
vR (x) = x in D.
Obviously, vR (x) K(
); that is, it represents a kinematically admissible field corresponding to
. Hence, we get
.
c(x)
b
c
R (vR ) c(x)R (vR ) =
We recall now that Voigts estimate cV is just the mean value of the micro-elasticity
c(x); i.e. cV = c(x). Thus, the above inequality becomes
b
c cV for any .
Thus, we can see that Hills universal estimate can be obtained assuming A(x) J.
Obviously, this hypothesis corresponds to Voigts assumption: the strain field is constant
in the RVE, submitted to homogeneous displacement boundary conditions.
607
The problem concerning the overall compliance can be analyzed in a similar manner, assuming B(x) = J.
P4.24 We use the relations
k1 =
2 1 + 2
2 1 + 1
, kV = c 1 k1 + c 2 k2 .
, k2 =
3 1 22
3 1 21
In this way, we get

kV =
(1 21 )(1 22 )
2
.
3 1 + (3c1 2)1 + (3c2 2)2 21 2
Since
V
3kV
2
=
1+
3kV
we find
c1 1 + c2 2 21 2
.
1 2(c2 1 + c1 2 )
Using the result given in P4.23, we obtain
V =
V b =
(c1 1 + c2 2 )(c2 1 + c1 2 ) 1 2
.
{1 2(c2 1 + c1 2 )}{1 (c2 1 + c1 2 )}
We take now into account the identity

c21 + 2c1 c2 + c22 = 1
and, thus, we obtain for the above difference
V b = c1 c2
(1 2 )2
.
{1 2(c2 1 + c1 2 )}{1 (c2 1 + c1 2 )}
As we already know, c2 1 + c1 2 <
1
1
since 0 < 1 , 2 < and c1 + c2 = 1. Hence,
2
2
b < V .
The other inequalities given in P4.24 can be verified in a similar manner.

P4.29 A biphasic macro-homogeneous and macro-isotropic glass-epoxy composite
has the mechanical and geometrical characteristics given by the following relations:
E1 = 3GP a , E2 = 70GP a , 1 = 0.3 , 2 = 0.2 , c1 = 0.3 , c2 = 0.7 .
(a) To find k1 , 1 , k2 , 2 we use the well-known relations
k=
E
E
.
, =
2(1 + )
3(1 2)
Thus, we get
k1 = 2.5GP a , k2 = 38.89GP a , 1 = 1.15GP a , 2 = 29.17GP a .
608

(b) To find kV , V , kR , R , we use the equations (4.3.11) and (4.3.12), and find
kV = 27.97GP a, kR = 7.69GP a, V = 20.76GP a, R = 3.57GP a .
(c) EV , V , ER and R are given by equations (4.3.16) and by the relations given
in P4.25. We get
EV = 60GP a, ER = 9.36GP a, c1 E1+ c2 E2 = 49.9GP a ,

1

c2
c1
= 0.22.
+
= 0.20, R = 0.30, c1 1+ c2 2 = 0.23,
2
1
(d) The results show that for the considered composite

c1 E1 + c 2 E2 < E V .
(e) Hill, Haskin an Shtrikman bounds k and k + are given by the relations (4.3.50).
We find, for the best possible estimates, the following values
k = 10.27GP a, k + = 23.89GP a.
Accordingly, the overall bulk modulus b
k of our composite satisfies the following
restrictions:
10.27GP a b
k[GP a] 23.89GP a.
The above restrictions represent all that can be obtained, neglecting the geometry
of the inclusions and their distribution in the matrix. To obtain the best bounds or
to evaluate the overall modulus b
k, new information concerning the above geometrical
characteristics is needed. According to Hills universal bounds, we have also
7.69GP a b
k[GP a] 27.97GP a.
Hence, the possibility to obtain the best bounds k and k + represents an improvement, with respect to the estimates founded in Voigts and Reuss classical results.
However, in the analyzed case, the interval (k , k + ) in which lies the overall bulk modulus b
k rests relatively large.
P4.31 We start recalling the system (4.4.61), (4.4.62)
k k

We recall also that
+ 0 p 0 p + 3
= 0, = 1, 2,
= 0, = 1, 2.
q + 0 q 0 q
+e
p = c1 p1 + c2 p2 , q = c1 q1 + c2 q2 .
Solving the system corresponding to the unknowns p1 , p2 and denoting the solution
by p1 , p2 , we get, taking into account also the identity c1 + c2 = 1,
!
!)
(
1
c2
c1
1
,
p1 = 3
0
k2 k
k2 k
k1 k
(k1 k )(k2 k )
609

(
(k1 k )(k2 k )
c1
c2
k2 k
k1 k
!)
p2 = 3
k1 k
Hence, for the mean value p = c1 p1 + c2 p2 , we get

!)
(
h
c2
c1
1
p
0
k2 k
k1 k
(k1 k )(k2 k )
!)
!
(
1
1
.
+ c2
= 3
c1
0
0
k1 k
k2 k
Dividing the above equation with
!
!
[1 0 (k1 k )][1 0 (k2 k )]

1
1
0
0
(k1 k )(k2 k )
k2 k
k1 k
and using, in the right-hand side term, the identity c1 + c2 = 1, we get

!
(
1
c1
(k1 k )(k2 k )
0
[1 0 (k1 k )][(1 0 (k2 k )] k1 k k2 k
h
c2
c1
1
c2
p = 3
+
+
.
0
1
1
k2 k k1 k
0
0
k2 k
k1 k
Introducing the parameter
A=
c1
we get
k1 k
c2
k2 k
c2 (k2 k )
c1
1
ih
c2
1 0 (k1 k )
Simple computations show that
1 0 (k2 k )
c1
1 + 0 A =
1 0 (k1 k )
since c1 + c2 = 1!
Now we can see that
h
p=
p = 3A
.
c2
1 0 (k2 k )
3A
1 + 0 A
1 0 (k2 k )
i
1 0 (k1 k ) 1 0 (k2 k )
n

o h
p = 3
c1 1 0 (k2 k ) + c2 1 0 (k1 k )
A,
or
1 0 (k1 k )
c1 (k1 k )
610
and equation (4.4.64)1 was obtained. Similar reasoning leads to the relation (4.4.64)2 .
In order to obtain the value U corresponding to the solution p , q
, we use the fact
that this solution satisfies the system given in the first part of this problem. Using this
fact, we get
2
2
X
X
h2
h
c
2
p
p
c p2 + 0 p 3
0
=1
=1 k k
and
2
2
X
X
h h
h
c
e q .
q
c q
q
+ 0 q q
=1
=1 2( )
Introducing these relations in equation (4.4.56), we get
h
1 h
1 h
,
e) = U + p
U = U + (3 p + q
2
2
since p =
2
P
c p and q=
=1
2
P
c q
. Hence, the relation (4.4.63) is proved.
=1

P4.32 According to the given data, the function f = f (k ,) is given by the equation

f = f ( k , ) = k +
A
,
1 + 0 A
where, as we can see from the relations (4.4.65) and (4.4.55),

A=
2
X
=1
c (k k )
1 0 (k k )
and
0 =
3 k +4
From the last equation, we get

0
12
(3 k +4 )2
4 2
0 .
3
Using this relation, we obtain

A
2
c (k k )2
4 2X
.
0
3 =1 [1 (k )]2
k
0
In the same way, we get
A
f
Hence, the sign of
=
(1 + 0 A)2
is given by the sign of
4 2 2
0 A
3
4 2 2
0 A .
3
611

We obtain
4
4 2 2
0 A = 02

3
3
c2 (k2 k )2
[1 0 (k2 k )]2
[1 0 (k1 k )]2
c1 (k1 k )2
c21 (k1 k )2
[1 0 (k1 k )]2
(k1 k )(k2 k )
2c1 c2
[1 0 (k1 k )][1 0 (k2 k )]

)
(k2 k )2
2
.
c2
[1 0 (k2 k )]2
Now, using the fundamental identity by c1 + c2 = 1 finally results in
4
4 2 2
0 A = 02 c1 c2

3
3
k1 k
1 0 (k1 k )
k2 k
1 0 (k2 k )
)2
Hence,
f
In the same manner, it can be proved that

f
0 and
0.
0.
P4.33 According to the equation (4.4.73), we have
= 1 +
c2 1 (2 1 )
c2
= 1 +
c 1 1
1
1 + c1 1 (2 1 )
+
1
2 1
where
1 =
6(k1 + 21 )
.
5(3k1 + 41 )
Thus, we get
1+ 1 (2 1 )
c 2 1
2
,
= c1
=1
1 + c1 1 (2 1 )
1 + c1 1 (2 1 )
1 2
since c1 + c2 = 1. Using the same identity, we obtain
1+ c1 1 (2 1 ) + c2 1 (2 1 )
2
= c1
1 2
1 + c1 1 (2 1 )

c2 (2 1 )
.
= c1 1 + 1
1 + c1 1 (2 1 )
Using again the expression giving , we obtain
c2 (2 1 )
1
=
.
1
1 + c1 1 (2 1 )
612

In this way, finally, we get

2
1
.
= c1 1 + 1
1
1 2
The relation giving + can be obtained in a similar manner.
P4.35 We start with equations (4.4.71) giving k and k + ; we have
k = k1 +
c1 2 (k1 k2 )
c2 1 (k2 k1 )
,
, k + = k2 +
2 + 3c2 (k1 k2 )
1 + 3c1 (k2 k1 )
with
1 = 3k1 + 41 , 2 = 3k2 + 42 .
Using the identity c1 + c2 = 1, we get

1
1
k+ k
.
=
3c
c
1
2
2 + 3c2 (k1 k2 )
1 + 3c1 (k2 k1 )
(k2 k1 )2
Since
2 1 = 3(k2 k1 ) + 4(2 1 ),
finally, it results
2 1
k+ k
.
= 12c1 c2
[1 + 3c1 (k2 k1 )][2 + 3c2 (k1 k2 )]
(k2 k1 )2
The above result shows that if both phases have the same shear moduli; i.e.
1 = 2 = ,
then k + = k . Obviously, the common value of the bounds is just the overall bulk modulus b
k of the composite, found by Hill. Now we can see that Hills wonderful result can
be obtained also, using Hashins and Shtrikmans variational and extreme principle.
P4.45 In order to solve the problem, we use Eshelbys second energetical theorem
given in the final part of Section 2.6. Also, we assume that on the boundary of the
RVE, a traction boundary condition corresponding to
=
T = const. is given. The
homogeneous body of the theorem is, in our case, the matrix without inclusions and the
inhomogeneous material is the matrix containing the special inclusions occupying the
domain V2 . Taking into account these observations, the constitutive relations (4.5.1) and
the energetical definition of the overall moduli, from Eshelbys equation (2.6.60), we get
Z
1
1
1 2
1
1 2
(
+
s e s
e)dv .
s
s+
+
s
s=
+
b
v
21
k1
2b
k
V2
According to the constitutive relation (4.5.1), we have
1
1
s , = k2 and s =22 e.
and
e=
=
21
k1
613

Hence, we get

Z
Z
1
2
1
k2
1
1 2
1
1 2
edv .
s
dv + 1
s
s+ 1
+
s
s=
+
b
v
1
v
k1
21
k1
2b
k
V2
V2
Obviously, the last relation can be expressed in the following equivalent form:

1
1
1
1
1
1 2
1
1 2
s
e2 ,
+
c
s
+c
k
+
s
s=
+
2
2 2
2 2
b
1
2
k1
k2
21
k1
2b
where 2 and
e2 are the mean values of and e, respectively, on the domain V2 occupied
by the inclusions in the considered RVE. Now it is easy to see that Budianskys relation
(4.5.5) and the above equation obtained using Eshelbys second energetical theorem are
identical and, obviously, our problem is solved.
Chapter 5
P5.1 (a) The components Fkm and the components Fekm of the gradients of defore respectively, are given by the equations
mation F and F,
Fkm =
k
,
Xm
ekm
.
Fekm =
em
X
e are connected by the relations

ek of X and X
The components Xk and X
ek = Qkm Xm ,
X
where Qkm are the components of the orthogonal tensor Q. Hence, using the chain rule,
we obtain
el
ek X
k
= Fekl Qlm .
=
Fkm =
el Xm
Xm
X
The obtained result can be expressed in tensorial form as

e
F = FQ.
e corresponding to F and F,
e
(b) As we know, Greens strain tensors G and G,
respectively, are given by the relations

1 T
eT F
e 1 .
e = 1 F
F F1 , G
G=
2
2
Using the relation obtained in (a), we have
hence,
eT ;
FT = Q T F
e T FQ.
e
FT F = Q T F
Since, the tensor Q is orthogonal, the equation

QT Q = 1
614
is satisfied. In this way, finally we obtain

e
G = QT GQ.
P5.4 Let us denote by GB , the set of all symmetry transformation of a hyperelastic material, corresponding to its reference configuration B. Hence, if the orthogonal
transformation Q is an element of the set GB , the relation

uB QGQT = uB (G)
must be satisfied for every symmetric tensor G.

(a) Obviously, the above restriction is satisfied for Q = 1 and Q = 1. Accordingly,
1 and 1 are elements of the set GB for any reference configuration B of the material.
(b) Let as assume now that the orthogonal transformation Q is an element of the
set GB . Consequently, the above restriction is satisfied for Q and for every symmetric
e
e is an arbitrary symmetric tensor.
where G
tensor G. Let as assume that G = QT GQ,
We have

T
e
e
uB QQT GQQ
= uB QT GQ
e Since Q is an orthogonal tensor, QQT = QT Q = 1 and

for every symmetric tensor G.

e = uB QT GQ
e
uB G
e Accordingly, the orthogonal tensor QT = Q1 is a symfor every symmetric tensor G.

metry transformation; i.e. QT = Q1 GB , if Q GB .
(c) Let us assume that the orthogonal transformation Q1 and Q2 are symmetry
transformations. In this case, we successively get
n
o

o
n
n
o
uB (Q1 Q2 ) G (Q1 Q2 )T = uB Q1 Q2 GQT2 QT1 = uB Q2 GQT2 = uB (G) ,
for any symmetric tensor G. The last result shows that Q1 , Q2 GB .

The properties (a)(c) show that the set GB is a group relative to the composition
of two transformations. This is the reason why GB is named symmetry group of the material, corresponding to the reference configuration B. If the material has no symmetry,
properties GB = {1, 1}. If the material is isotopic GB = O, O being the full orthogonal group; i.e. the set of all orthogonal tensors.
b are connected by the

P5.5 Let us assume that the reference configurations B and B
deformation
b = X,
X
where is orthogonal tensor. Using the chain rule, it is easy to see that
hence,
Also, we have
b
F = F,
b
G = T G.

b ,
u = uB (G) = uBb G
615
uB and uBb being the constitutive functions corresponding to the reference configurations
b respectively. The above relations show that these two constitutive functions
B and B,
are related by the equation

b
b = uB T G
uBb G
b
Let us assume now that the orthogonal transformation Q is a symmetry transformation of the material relative to the reference configuration B; i.e. Q GB . According
to the above equation, we get

T

T
b QT
b QT
QT G
= uB T QT G
uBb
n
o
T T
b
= uB T QT GQ
.
Since is an orthogonal tensor, T = 1; hence, we obtain

n

o
T
b QT
b
QT G
= uB Q T G
QT .
uBb
Recalling that Q GB , we obtain

n

o
b
b
.
QT = uB T G
uB Q T G
Using again the relation connecting the constitutive functions uB and uBb , we conclude that

b
b .
uB T G
= ub G
B
In this way, from the last two equations, we obtain

T
T
T
b
b
= uBb G
Q G Q
uBb
b The last equation shows that QT is a symmetry transfor every symmetric tensor G.
b if Q is a symmetry
formation of the material relative to its reference configuration B,
transformation relative to B; i.e. if Q GB , then QT GBb . Hence, we can conclude
that the set GB T is contained in the set GBb ; i.e.
GB T GBb .
Similar reasoning shows that the inverse inclusion
is also true. Hence,
GBb GB T
GBb = GB T .
P5.6 Let us assume that the constitutive function uB (G) of a hyperelastic material
is a quadratic form of Greens strain tensor G; i.e.
uB (G) =
1
G CG,
2
616
where C is a given, constant fourth order tensor.

(a) Let us assume that Q GB . In this case, we must have

uB QGQT = uB (G)
for any symmetric tensor G. Since uB (G) has the form given above, we can conclude
that if Q GB , the elasticity tensor C of the material must satisfy the restriction

QGQT C QGQT = GCG

(b) It is obvious that if C satisfies the above restriction for an orthogonal tensor
1
Q and for any symmetric tensor G, then uB (G) = GCGT satisfies the restriction
2

uB QGQT = uB (G) for any symmetric tensor G. Hence, Q GB .
(c) The component form of the restriction supposed on C in (b) is

n
o
QGQT
C QGQT
= Gkl Cklmn Gmn .
rs
rs
We have also
QGQT

rs
C QGQT
= Qrk Gkl QTls = Gkl Qrk Qsl

= Crspq QGQT
pq
= Crspq Qpm Gmn QTnq = Crspq Qpm Qqn Gmn .
Hence, the restriction imposed on the elasticity tensor C takes the form
Gkl Qrk Qsl Crspq Qpm Qqn Gmn = Gnl Cklmn Gmn .
Since this equation must be satisfied for every symmetric tensor G, we can conclude
that if Q GB , C must satisfy the restrictions
Cklmn = Qrk Qsl Qpm Qqn Crspq .
As we already know, if Q GB , then QT GB . Consequently, C must verify also the
equivalent restrictions
Cklmn = Qkr Qls Qmp Qnq Crspq .
(d) Let us assume now that we have a linearly hyperelastic material, submitted to
infinitesimal deformations. As we know, its constitutive functions can be obtained from
those given in this problem, replacing Greens strain tensor G with the infinitesimal
strain tensor , and the elasticity tensor C with the elasticity tensor c of the linear
theory. Hence, we have
1
u = uB () = c
2
and using (a) and (c) simultaneously, we can conclude that if Q is a symmetry transformation of the material; i.e. if Q GB , then the elasticity tensor c and its components
cklmn must satisfy the restrictions

QQT c QQT = c
617
for any symmetric tensor, and cklmn = Qkr Qls Qmp Qnq crspq .
Thus, using results of the nonlinear mechanics, we were able to justify in a rigorous
manner the definition of a symmetry transformation of a linearly hyperelastic material,
given in Section 2.2. As our reasoning shows, to obtain this result, we must surpass the
framework of the linear theory, since a symmetry transformation is not an infinitesimal
transformation!
P5.7 Let us assume that the deformation of the body from its reference configuration
B to its current configuration Bt is given by the equation
x = (X,t)
or in component forms
xk = k (Xl , t) .
Since the time t is fixed, this variable will not be mentioned in what follows. Let
us consider now a material surface in the reference configuration B of the body, given by
its parametrical representation
X = (u, v) ,
X
X
dv
du and
u and v being real parameters. The infinitesimal (material) vectors
v
u
are situated in the tangent plane of the considered material surface and the area dA of
the little parallelogram formed by these two vectors is given by the equation

X
X
dudv.

dA =
v
u
X X
is orthogonal to the tangent plane. Conse
As is well known, the vector
v
u
quently, if N is the unit normal to the considered material surface, we should have
NdA =
X
X
dudv,
v
u

Nk dA = klm
Xm
Xl
dudv,
v
u
klm being Riccis symbols.

Analogously, for the same material surface of the body, but in its current configuration, we shall have
x
x
dudv,
nda =
v
u
or, in component forms,
xs xt
dudv.
nr da = rst
u v
Since x and X are connected by the equation x = (X), the parametrical representation of the considered material surface in the current configuration of the body is
given by the equation
x = (X (u, v)) ,

xs = s (Xk (u, v)) .
618
Using the above relations and the chain rule, we get

nr da = rst
But
xs Xl xt Xm
dudv.
Xl u Xm v
xt
xs
= Ftm ;
= Fsl and
Xm
Xl
hence,
Xl Xm
dudv.
u v
On the other hand, we have J = det F = det FT and, as is well known from the
matrix calculus, J can be expressed by the following equation:
nr da = rst Fsl Ftm
klm J = rst Frk Fsl Ftm .

Consequently, multiplying the relation giving nr da by Frk and summing with respect to
r, we get
Xl Xm
dudv,
Frk nr da = Jklm
u v
or, equivalently,
Frk nr da = JNk dA.
Obviously, the tensor form of this equation

FT nda = JNdA.
Hence, we finally have proved the Nansons relation
nda = JFT NdA with J = det F.
P5.12 Let us assume the given body submitted to the homogeneous deformation
x1 = 1 X1 ,
x 2 = 2 X2 ,
x 3 = 3 X3 ,
1 , 2 , 3 being arbitrary real numbers satisfying the restriction 1 , 2 , 3 > 0.

(a) Since the reference configuration B of the body is the parallelepiped defined by
the inequalities ak Xk ak , k = 1, 2, 3, it is clear that the deformed configuration B

of the body is also a parallelepiped defined by the inequalities k ak xk k ak , (!) k =
1, 2, 3.
(b) The components of F kl the deformation gradient F are given by the equation
xk
.
F kl =
Xl
Consequently, for the matrix of the components, we obtain
1 0 0
h i
F kl = 0 2 0 .
0 0 3
We can conclude that F is a symmetric tensor; i.e. F = F. Since C = F F, the
matrix of the components of the Cauchy-Green strain tensor C is

2
1 0 0
h i
2
C kl = 0 2 0 .
0 0 23
619
Greens strain tensor G is given by the equation

1
1 T
C1 .
F F1 =
G=
2
2
Hence, the matrix of components of G is

1

21 1
0 0
h i 2

1 2
2 1
0
Gkl = 0
2

1 2
3 1
0 0
2
Since J = det F , we obtain
J = 1 2 3 .
(c) As we know in any possible deformation of a body, the restriction
J = det F > 0
must be satisfied. Just this restriction is expressed by the inequality
J = 1 2 3 > 0,
which must be satisfied by the real numbers 1 , 2 , 3 describing the deformation of the
body.
P5.14 (a) Since the considered body is made up by the given hyperelastic material,
the symmetric Piola-Kirchhoff strain tensor is given by the equation
u
G .
=
G
Taking into account the given special form of the constitutive equation, we find

= tr G 1 + 2 G .
The obtained result shows that the nondiagonal components of are vanishing.
Also, according to the results obtained in P5.12 (b), we have
tr G =

1 2
1 + 22 + 23 3 .
2
Hence, the components of are given by the equations

2
1 + 22 + 23 3 + 2 21 1 ,
2

2
1 + 22 + 23 3 + 2 22 1 ,
22 =
2

2
1 + 22 + 23 3 + 2 23 1 ,
33 =
2
kl = 0 if k 6= l.
11 =
620
As we know, the nominal strain existing in the deformed configuration B is given

by the equation
T
= F .
This result shows that the nondiagonal components of are vanishing, and its
components are given by the equations
22 = 2 22 ,
11 = 1 11 ,
33 = 3 33
kl = 0 if k 6= l.
As we have seen in P5.10, the Cauchys stress T existing in the deformed configu
ration B is given by the equation
1
F .
T=J
This results shows that the nondiagonal components of T are vanishing, and its
components are given by the equation:
T 11 =
1
11 ,
2 3
T kl = 0,
3
33 ,
2 1
1
33 ,
2 1
2
22 ,
3 1
T 33 =
1
22 ,
3 1
T 33 =
T 22 =
if k 6= l,
or, equivalently,
T 11 =
1
11 ,
2 3
T kl = 0,
T 22 =
if k 6= l.
(c) As we know, the Cauchys stress vector tn acting on a material surface element
with unit normal n in the deformed configuration is given by the equation
tn = T n.
In what follows, we assume that 1 , 2 and 3 are positive numbers; i.e. 1 , 2 , 3 > 0.
The outward unit normal n to the deformed faces x1 = 1 a1 has the components
n1 = 1, n2 = n3 = 0. Hence, the Cauchys stress vector tn , acting on these faces in the
deformed configuration B , has the components
tn1 = T11 =
1
11 ,
2 3
tn2 = tn3 = 0.
The outward unit normal n to the deformed faces x2 = 2 a2 has the components
n1 = 0, n2 = 1, n3 = 0. Hence, the Cauchys stress vector tn , acting on these faces in
the deformed configuration B , has the components
tn1 = 0,
tn2 = T22 =
1
22 ,
3 1
tn3 = 0.
621
The orthogonal unit normal n to the deformed faces x3 = 3 a3 has the compo
nents n1 = n2 = 0, n3 = 1. Hence, the Cauchys stress vector tn , acting on these faces
in the deformed configuration B , has the components
tn3 = T33 =
tn1 = tn2 = 0,
1
33 .
1 2
The Piolas and Kirchhoffs stress vector sN , acting on a material surface element
with unit normal N in the reference configuration B is given by the equation
sN = N.
The outward unit normal N to the undeformed faces X1 = a1 has the components
N1 = 1, N2 = N3 = 0. Hence,
sN1 = 11 ,
sN2 = sN3 = 0.
N1 = 0, N2 = 1, N3 = 0. Hence,
sN1 = 0,
sN2 = 22 ,
sN3 = 0.
N1 = N2 = 0, N3 = 1. Hence,
sN1 = sN2 = 0,
sN3 = 33 .
(c) As we have seen, the Cauchys stress tensor T is a constant tensor. Hence, according to Cauchys equilibrium equation, the body force density b, assuming the equi
librium of the body in the deformed configuration B , must be vanishing. Also, in order to
maintain the body in its deformed equilibrium configuration on the faces xk = k ak (!)
of the body must be applied constant normal surface tractions, having magnitudes determined in (b). For instance, on the face x1 = 1 a1 must be applied on unit surface area
of this plane, the normal surface traction

2
1
1
1
1 + 22 + 23 3 + 2 21 1 .
tn1 = T11 =
11 =
11 =
2 3 2
2 3
2 3
(d) To analyze the results obtained in (a) and (b), we first observe that according
to the formulas obtained in (b), the stress vector tn and sN , corresponding to various
faces of the parallelepiped are connected by the equations for the faces X1 = a1 and
x1 = 1 a1 , we have
1
sN1 ;
tn1 =
2 3
for the faces X2 = a2 and x2 = 2 a2 , we get
tn2 =
1
sN2 ;
3 1
622
for the faces X3 = a3 and x3 = 3 a3 , we obtain
tn3 =
1
sN3 .
1 2
Let us denote by S1 and s1 , the areas of the faces X1 = a1 and x1 = 1 a1 ,

respectively. Obviously, we have
S1 = a2 a3 and s1 = 2 a2 3 a3 ;
hence,
s 1 = 2 3 S 1 .
Let us denote by F 1 the total normal force activity on the face x1 = 1 a1 in the
deformed configuration B of the body. This force is given by the equation
F 1 = tn1 s1 .
Since s1 = 2 3 S1 , the same force F 1 , can be expressed as
F 1 = tn1 2 3 S1 .
But tn1 =
1
sN 1 , and, consequently, we get
2 3
F 1 = sN1 S1 .
Hence, we have
F 1 = tn1 s1 = sN1 S1 ,
or, equivalently,
F1
F
.
` 1 and sN1 =
tn1 =
S1
s1
Summing up the above results, obtained in the special problem here analyzed, we
have the following results.
(i) The Cauchys stress tn1 is the normal force F 1 acting in the deformed state of
the body, reported to the unit area of the deformed boundary x1 = 1 a1 of the body.
(ii) The Piolas and Kirchhoffs stress sN1 is the same normal force F 1 acting on
the same deformed boundary x1 = 1 a1 of the body, and reported to the unit area of
the undeformed boundary X1 = a1 .
Obviously, all results obtained in (a) and (b) can be analyzed in the same manner,
taking into account the mechanical significance of the stress vectors tn and sN .
Actually, as we have seen, in our special problem, we are led to the corresponding
mechanical meaning and, in this way, to a better understanding of these essential concepts of the general nonlinear mechanics of the deformable bodies.
P5.16 (a) The symmetric Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor is given again by the
constitutive equation

= tr G 1 + 2 G,
623
G being Greens strain tensor determined in P5.15 (b). As it is easy to see in this case,
tr G = 2 /2
and, for the components of , we obtain the following values:
1 2
, 12 = , 13 = 0,
2
1
2
21 = , 22 = ( + 2) , 23 = 0,
2
1 2
31 = 0, 32 = 0, 33 = .
2
11 =
In order to find the components of , we use the equation
T
= F .
Thus, we get
11
21
31
1
( + 2) 2 , 12 = , 13 = 0,
2
1
1
= + ( + 2) 3 , 22 = ( + 2) 2 ,
2
2
1
= 0, 32 = 0, 33 = 2 .
2
23 = 0,
In order to find the components of T, we use the equation

1
T=J
F .
Since J = 1, we obtain
T 11
T 21
T 31
1
1
1
( + 4) 2 + ( + 2) 4 , T 12 = + ( + 2) 3 , T 13 = 0,
2
2
2
1
1
= + ( + 2) 3 , T 22 = ( + 2) 2 , T 23 = 0,
2
2
1
= 0, T 32 = 0, T 33 = 2 .
2
As is easy to see, the diagonal components of T are even functions of the shear
and the nonvanishing mixed component T 12 is an odd function of the shear .
If the shear is infinitesimal, all stresses , and reduce to the Cauchys stress
of the classical linear elasticity. To obtain the components of this tensor, we must neglect
all terms containing 2 , 3 and 4 . In this way, we obtain the well-known result
0 0
h i
kl = 0 0 .
0
0 0
(b) To find Cauchys stress vector tn acting on the boundary of the deformed body,
we must determine the unit outward normal n of the deformed boundary of the material.
624
This can be made in two ways: (i) we can use the result given in P5.8; (ii) we can solve
the problem directly, using the Figure 5.6. This second approach leads to the following
obvious results.
The outward unit normal n at the deformed boundary
a2 X2 a2 ,
x1 = a1 + X2 ,
a3 X3 a3
has the following components:

n1 = p
1
,
1 + 2
n2 = p
,
1 + 2
n3 = 0.
The outward unit normal n at the boundary

x1 = a1 + X2 ,
a2 X2 a2 ,
a3 X3 a3
has the following components:

n1 = p
1
,
1 + 2
n2 = p
,
1 + 2
n3 = 0.
It is easy to see that the outward unit normals to the boundaries X2 = a2 and
X3 = a3 rest unchanged during the shear. Consequently, we have the following results.
The outward unit normal n to the deformed boundaries x2 = a2 has the following
components:
n1 = 0, n2 = 1, n3 = 0.
The outward unit normal n to the deformed boundaries x3 = a3 has the following
components:
n1 = n2 = 0, n3 = 1.
As before, for all deformed boundaries, the Cauchys stress vector tn can be calculated using the Cauchys fundamental equation
tn = T n
and taking into account the involved unit normal.
For the deformed boundary x1 = a1 + X1 , a2 X2 a2 , a3 X3 a3 , we
find

1
T21 T 22 , tn3 = 0.
T11 T 12 , tn2 = p
t n1 = p
2
2
1+
1+
For the deformed boundary x1 = a1 + X1 , a2 X2 a2 , a3 X3 a3 , we
get
t n1
= p
1
1 + 2
T11 T 12 ,
t n2
= p
1 + 2
T21 T 22 ,
For the deformed boundaries x2 = a2 , we find
tn1 = T 12 ,
tn2 = T 22 ,
tn3 = 0.
tn3 = 0.
625

For the deformed boundaries x3 = a3 , the result is
tn1 = 0,
tn2 = 0,
tn3 = T 33 .
(c) As in P5.14, the Cauchys stress tensor T is again a constant tensor. Consequently, according to Cauchys equilibrium equation, the body force density b, assuring
the equilibrium of the body in its deformed configuration B , must be vanishing. To maintain the body in its deformed equilibrium configuration on the deformed faces of the material, constant surface tractions must be applied. The surface force acting on a selected
deformed boundary has a normal component denoted in the following by N k , k = 1, 2, 3
and a tangential component denoted by T k , k = 1, 2, 3. These components are given in

the Figure S.11, for a deformed transverse section X3 = const.
Figure S.11: Normal and tangential tractions on the deformed faces of a sheared
block.
In the following, we shall evaluate the normal and tangential tractions on various
deformed faces of the parallelepiped. To do this, we denote by the unit tangent vector
on the selected face (see Figure S.11).
The unit tangent vector on the deformed faces x1 = a1 + X2 , a2 X2 a2 ,
a3 X3 a3 has the following components:
1 = p
,
1 + 2
2 = p
1
,
1 + 2
On the deformed faces x2 = a2 , we get

1 = 0,
2 = 1,
3 = 0
and, on the deformed faces x3 = a3 , we have

1 = 2 = 0,
3 = 1.
3 = 0.
626
On the selected face, the corresponding normal traction N and the corresponding
tangential traction T are evaluated using the obvious equations
N = n tn and T = tn .
Using the results obtained in (b), we successively find:
on the deformed faces x1 = a1 + X2 , a2 X2 a2 , a3 X3 a3 , to
maintain the body in its deformed equilibrium configuration B , the following normal and
tangential tractions must be applied:

1
2
T
2
+
T 12
T 22 ,
N1
11
1 + 2

1
2
;
T
+
1
T
T1
=
12
11
22
1 + 2
on the deformed faces, x2 = a2 , the following normal and tangential tractions

must be applied:
N 2 = T 22 ,
T2 = T 12 ;
on the deformed faces, x3 = a3 , the tangential traction, which must be applied
to maintain the body in its deformed equilibrium configuration B , is vanishing and the
necessary normal force is given by the equation
N 3 = T 33 .
(d) Analyzing the results obtained in (a)(c), we can say the following:
(i) The shear stress T 12 is an odd function of the amount of shear . The departure
from the classical linear proportionality of shear stress to shear strain is an effect of third
order in the amount of shear.
(ii) In the classical linear theory, shear stress suffices to produce shear. Our results
show that this simple property can never hold exactly even for an isotropic material. In
fact normal tractions, negligible only in small shears, are required if a simple shear is to
be produced.
That is, normal tractions (forces) must act upon all faces of the block in order
to maintain it in a state of simple shear. Unless these normal forces are supplied, it is
natural to assume that a cube of the material, if subjected to shear stress alone upon
its faces, will tend to contract or expand. This phenomenon was first remarked upon by
Kelvin, and is named Kelvin effect.
(iii) Equally present in our isotropic material is the inequality of the normal tractions
N 1 , N 2 and N 3 . The necessity of these unequal normal tractions in order to produce a

simple shear suggests that unless they are supplied, an initially cubical specimen, when
subjected to shear traction, tends only to dilate or contract unequally. This phenomenon
was first noticed by Poyting, and is called Poyting effect.
(e) As the constitutive equation

= tr G 1 + 2 G
627
shows the eigendirections of Greens strain tensor G and of the symmetric Piola-Kirchhoff
stress tensor are the same: M1 , M2 , M3 found in P5.15(c).
If we denote by 1 , 2 , 3 the corresponding eigenvalues of , we obtain
1 = (g1 + g2 ) + 2g1 ,
2 = (g1 + g2 ) + 2g2 ,
3 = (g1 + g2 ),
where g1 , g2 and g3 = 1 are the corresponding eigenvalues of G.

(f) What happens if the normal surface forces acting on the boundaries of the body
are vanishing was clarified in (d).
P5.25 According to the assumption made in P5.13, the specific strain energy of the
considered nonlinear hyperelastic material is given by the following constitutive equation:
u = u(G) =
1
( trG)2 1 + 2G G.
2
In order to obtain the tensor K, we must use the equation (5.2.20). It is easy to see that
the components of this tensor are given by the following relations:
K klmn = kl mn + (km ln + kn lm ).
Let us observe that the components of the tensor K do not depend on Greens strain
tensor G. That is so, since u(G) is a quadratic form of G. To evaluate the components
of the fourth order tensor C, we must use the relation (5.2.27)
Ckqpn = F ql F pm K klmn .
According to the results obtained in P5.12, the components of the deformation
gradient F are given by the relation
F ql = q ql (!).
In the above relations, there is no summation relative to the indices appearing
twice. The sign (!) is used to indicate this fact. Using this convention and the above
formulas, we get
C kqpn = q p K kqpn (!).

Hence,
C kqpn = q p {kq pn + (kp qn + kn qp )}(!).
For the finding of the components of the instantaneous elasticity , we must use
the relation (5.2.30)
kqpn = C kqpn + kn qp .
As the results obtained in P5.13 show, only the diagonal components of the tensor
are nonvanishing. Correspondingly, we can write
kn = kk kn (!).
628
We recall again that in this equation, there is no summation with respect to the
index k, appearing three times!
The above formulas lead us to the following expressions of the components of the
instantaneous elasticity :
kqpn = q p {kq pn + (kp qn + kn qp )} + kk kn qp (!).
The components of the corresponding instantaneous elasticity can be evaluated

using the result proved in P5.19
1
rqps = J
F rk F sn kqpn .
According to the results obtained in P5.12,
J = 1 2 3
and, consequently, finally we obtain the following expressions for the components of
the instantaneous elasticity , appropriate to the updated Lagrangean approach of the

incremental problems:
rqps =
r s
r q p s
{rq sn + (rp qs + rs qp )} +
rr rs qp (!).
1 2 3
1 2 3
It is left to the reader the pleasure of finding the number of independent and non
vanishing components of the instantaneous elasticities and .

If the initial applied deformation is infinitesimal i.e. if
| k 1 |<< 1 for k = 1, 2, 3
we can take k ' 1, k = 1, 2, 3, in the above formulas and in this way for the components
of the involved instantaneous elasticity , we can obtain the following expressions:
rqps = rq sn + (rp qs + rs qp ) + rr rs qp (!).
P5.26 Obviously, the components of the tensor K are those obtained in P5.25. Using
the results obtained in P5.15, it is easy to see that the components of the deformation
gradient F in pure shear are given by the relations
F kl = kl + k1 l2 .
Hence, using the relation (5.2.27), we obtain
2
C kqpn = K kqpn + (q1 K k2pn + p1 K kq2n ) + q1 p1 K k22n .
Using now the relations (5.2.30), we obtain
2
kqpn = K kqpn + (q1 K k2pn + p1 K kq2n ) + q1 p1 K k22n + qn qp ,
629
where the components kn of the symmetric Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor are those determined in P5.16 (a) and
K kqpn = kq pn + (kp qn + kn qp ).
In order to find the components of the corresponding instantaneous elasticity ,
we use now equation (5.3.28). Since J = 1 in pure shear, we obtain for the components
of the tensor c the following expressions:
ckqps = (kl + l2 k1 )(qm + q1 m2 )(pn + p1 n2 )(sr + s1 r2 ) K lmnr .

Consequently, taking into account the relations (5.3.31), we are led to the following
expressions of the components of the instantaneous elasticity :
kqps = ckpqs + T ks qp ,
where the components T ks of the Cauchys stress tensor are those determined P5.16(a).
As our results show, in pure shear, the components of the instantaneous elasticities
can have very complicated expressions, even if the hyperelastic constitutive equation has
the simplest form, but the initial applied shear is large. As we shall see by solving the
following problem, considerable simplifications can be achieved if the applied shear is
infinitesimal and the considered material is linearly elastic and isotropic.
If the involved material is linearly elastic and isotropic, the components of its elasticity tensor c have the following expressions:
ckqpn = kq pn + (kp qn + kn qp ),
and being Lames constants. To obtain the components of the involved instantaneous
elasticity , we must use the relations (5.2.48)
kqpn = ckqpn + kn qp .
As we know from P5.17, if the initial applied shear is infinitesimal, only the
components 12 = 21 of the stress are nonvanishing and 12 = 21 = .

kn = (k1 n2 + k2 n1 )
and for the components of the instantaneous elasticity , we obtain the following expressions:
kqpn = kq pn + (kp qn + kn qp ) + (k1 n2 + k2 n1 )qp .
Accordingly, the incremental constitutive equation (5.6.2), appropriate to an initial
applied infinitesimal shear , becomes
kq = kq up,p + (uk,q + uq,k ) + (k1 uq,2 + k2 uq,1 ),
or, equivalently,
kq
kq pp + 2kq + (k1 uq,2 + k2 uq,1 )
kq pp + 2kq + 12 (k1 uq,2 + k2 uq,1 ),
630
where
1
(uk,q + uq,k )
2
are the components of the infinitesimal strain tensor .
The above given results show clearly that the incremental behavior of the initial
deformed body depends on its material properties, through and , its Lame constants,
as well as on the initial applied deformation, through , the initial applied infinitesimal
shear.
kq =
P5.33 According to the relations (5.5.1) and (5.5.2), the local stability of an ini
tial deformed equilibrium configuration B is assured by the positive definiteness of

the corresponding instantaneous elasticity. Since the initial homogeneous deformation
(5.6.17)(5.6.18) is infinitesimal, the involved instantaneous elasticity is and it is positive definite if
u uT = ul,k klmn um,n > 0
for any u 6= 0. If the material is orthotropic and the initial deformation is that given
in (5.6.17)-(5.6.18), the nonvanishing instantaneous elasticities are those given by the
relations (5.6.22).
(a) Now, let us assume that we have only antiplane incremental states relative to
the plane x1 x2 ; i.e.
u1 = u2 0 and u3 = u3 (x1 , x2 ),
and let us establish the sufficient condition assuring local stability of B relative to antiplane incremental states. It is easy to see that, in this case, the above inequality takes
u3, 33 u3, > 0,
, = 1, 2
for any u3, such that u3, u3, > 0.

According to (5.6.22), the above condition becomes
u3,1 1331 u3,1 + u3,2 2332 u3,2 > 0,
for any u3,1 and u3,2 such that u23,1 + u23,2 > 0. Since u3,1 and u3,2 are reciprocally
independent, the inequality can be satisfied if and only if the involved instantaneous
elasticities satisfy the restrictions
1331 > 0, 2332 > 0.
Taking into account again the relations (5.6.22), we can conclude that the local
stability of the initial deformed equilibrium configuration B , relative to antiplane incre
mental states, is assured if the initial applied normal stresses 11 and 22 satisfy the
restrictions
C55 + 11 > 0 and C44 + 22 > 0.

Since the elasticity tensor c of the material is positive definite; i.e. the reference configuration B of the body is locally stable, the elasticities C44 , C55 are positive; i.e.
C44 > 0, C55 > 0.
631
In this way, we can conclude that local instability can occur only if 11 or/and 22 are
negative; i.e. are compressive stresses.
(b) Let us assume now that we have only plane incremental states relative to the
plain x1 x2 ; i.e.
u1 = u1 (x1 , x2 ), u2 = u2 (x1 , x2 ) and u3 0.
It is easy to see that, in this case, the considered condition, assuming local stability of
B , takes the following simplified form:

u, u, > 0, , , , = 1, 2,
for any u, such that u, u, > 0.
According to (5.6.22), after a little algebra, the above restriction takes the form
u1,1 1111 u1,1 + u1,1 1122 u2,2 + u2,2 2211 u1,1 + u2,2 2222 u2,2
+ u1,2 2112 u1,2 + u1,2 2121 u2,1 + u2,1 1212 u1,2 + u2,1 1221 u2,1 > 0
for any u, such that u, u, > 0. Since u1,1 , u2,2 , u1,2 and u2,1 are reciprocally independent, the above restriction will be fulfilled if and only if
u1,1 1111 u1,1 + u1,1 1122 u2,2 + u2,2 2211 u1,1 + u2,2 2222 u2,2 > 0
for any u1,1 , u2,2 such that u21,1 + u22,2 > 0, and
u1,2 2112 u1,2 + +u1,2 2121 u2,1 + u2,1 1212 u1,2 + u2,1 1221 u2,1 > 0
for any u1,2 , u2,1 such that u21,2 + u22,1 > 0.
According to Sylvesters criterion, since 1122 = 2211 , 2121 = 1212 , the above
conditions are fulfilled if and only if the involved instantaneous elasticities satisfy the
restrictions
2
1111 > 0, 2222 > 0, 1111 2222 1122
> 0,
and
2
2112 > 0, 1221 > 0, 2112 1221 1212
> 0.
Using again the relations (5.6.22), we can conclude that the local stability of the ini
tial deformed equilibrium configuration B relative to plane incremental states is assured
if the initial applied stresses 11 , 22 satisfy the following conditions:
2
C11 + 11 > 0, C22 + 22 > 0, (C11 + 11 )(C22 + 22 ) C12
> 0,
2
C66 + 11 > 0, C66 + 22 > 0, (C66 + 11 )(C66 + 22 ) C66
> 0.
Since c is positive definite, the elasticities of the material satisfy the relations
2
C11 > 0, C22 > 0, C66 > 0, C11 C22 C12
> 0.
In this way, we can conclude that local instability can occur only if 11 and/or 22
are compressive stresses.
632
P5.35 Let us assume now that one nonlinear hyperelastic isotropic material is submitted to the initial homogeneous deformation given in P5.12; i.e.
x1 = 1 X1 , x2 = 2 X2 , x3 = 3 X3 , 1 2 3 > 0.
(a) As we have seen in P5.12, the corresponding Green strain tensor G has the
following components:
G11 =
1 2
(1 1), G22 (22 1), G33 (23 1), Gkl = 0
2
for
k 6= l .
Hence,
I 1 = Gmm =
3
1 X 2
(m 1),
2 m=1
I 2 = Gkm Gkm =
3
X
Gmm =
m=1
I 3 = Gkm Gml Glk =
3
X
3
1 X 2
(m 1)2 ,
4 m=1
Gmm =
m=1
3
1 X 2
(m 1)3 .
8 m=1
From P5.34 (b), we can conclude that only the diagonal components of are
non-vanishing and we have
mm =
u 2
u
u
+2
Gmm (!), km = 0
Gmm + 3
I3
I2
I1
for
k 6= m.
The superposed shows that the involved derivatives must be evaluated for
I 1 , I 2 , I 3 and the sign (!) shows that we have no summation with respect to the index
m! Introducing the expression of Gmm in the above relation, we get the components of
as a function of 1 , 2 and 3 :
mm =
u
3
u
u
(!), km = 0
+ (2m 1)2
+ (2m 1)
I3
4
I2
I1
for
k 6= m.
As we know, and T are connected by the relation
T=J
T
1
FF , J = det F
T kl = J
F km F ln mn .
As we have seen in P5.12, only the diagonal components of F are nonvanishing and
we have
6 l.
F 11 = 1 , F 22 = 2 , F 33 = 3 , F kl = 0 for k =
Hence,
J = 1 2 3
633
In this way, we can conclude that only the diagonal components of T are nonvanishing and we obtain
T 11 =
3
2
1
33 , T km = 0
22 , T 33 =
11 , T 22 =
1 2
3 1
2 3
for
k 6= m.
(d) According to equation (5.2.20), the tensor K is defined by the relation

K=
2u
(G).
GG
K=
2u
(G),
GG
Since
we shall have
Kklmn = (
1
2u
)mn .
)(
+
)klmn = (
Glk G
2 Gkl
GG
According to the result obtained in (b), we get
u
u
u
Gmp Gpn ).
Gmn + 3
mn + 2
(
)mn =
(
I3
I2
Gkl I1
Gkl G
We know that u(G) depends on G only through the invariants I1 , I2 , I3 . Taking

into account this fact and using the chain rule after elementary, but long, computations,
we obtain for Kklmn the following expression:
Kklmn
2u
2u
2u
(Gkl mn + kl Gmn ) + 4 2 Gkl Gmn
2 kl mn + 2
I2
I2 I1
I1
2u
(kl Gmp Gpn + Gkp Gpl mn )
I3 I1
2u
(Gkp Gpl Gmn + Gkl Gmp Gpn )
I3 I2
u
2u
(km ln + kn lm )
+
2 Gkp Gpl Gmq Gqn
I2
I3
3 u
(km Gln +nl Gmk +lm Gkn +nk Gml ).
2 I3
We recall now that only the diagonal components of G are nonvanishing; hence, we
have
Gkl = Gkk kl (!), Gkp Gpl = Gkk kl (!).

Using these relations, we obtain
K klmn
2
2
2
+ 2(Gkk + Gnn )
+ 4 Gkk Gnn
2
I1
I1 I2
I22
kl mn {
3(Gkk + Gnn )
9 Gkk Gnn
2
2
2
+ 6(Gkk Gnn + Gkk Gnn )
I1 I3
I2 I3
2
} u + (km ln + kn lm ){
+ (Gkk + Gll )
} u (!).
I32
I2
2
I3
634
Let us introduce now the coefficients akn , kl defined by the following relations:
akn = (k n + 2kn Bkk ) u (!), kl = lk = Bkl u,
the differential operations k and B kl being defined by the relations

2
(!),
+ 3 Gkk
+ 2 Gkk
I3
I2
I1
(!).
+ (Gkk + Gll )
= Blk =
I3
2
I2
k =
Bkl
Now it is easy to see that the components of the tensor K can be expressed in the
following form:
K klmn = kl mn k n u + (km ln + kn lm )Bkl u (!).

By direct verification, it can be seen that the following relation is true:
2kl mn kn = kl (km ln + kn lm )(!).
Now, using this equality and the coefficients akn , kl introduced above, we can
express the components of K in the following equivalent and final form:
K klmn = kl mn akn +(1 kl )(km ln + kn lm ) kl (!).

P5.41 Let us assume now that the initial applied deformation in P5.35 satisfies the
restriction 1 = 2 . Using the results obtained in P5.35 (c) and the fact that now
G11 = G22 ,
1 = 2 , B11 = B22 , B13 = B23 ,
hence,
a11 = a22 , a13 = a23 , 11 = 22 , 13 = 23 .

Also, from P5.35 (a), it follows that
11 = 22 .
Consequently, according to the relations found in P5.37, we obtain the following
expressions for the instantaneous elasticities:
2
2
1111 = 2222 = 1 a11 + 11 , 3333 = 3 a33 + 33 ,
2
1122 = 2211 = 1 a12 ,
1133 = 3311 = 2233 = 3322 = 1 3 a13 ,
1221 = 2112 = 21 12 + 11 ,
2
1212 = 2121 = 1 12 ,
1313 = 3131 = 2323 = 3232 = 1 3 13 ,

2
1331 = 2332 = 3 13 + 11 ,
2
3113 = 3223 = 1 13 + 33 .
635

The above relations show that restrictions (5.6.77) are satisfied.
Moreover, since G11 =G22 , using the results given in P5.37, we can see that
a11 = (1 1 + 2 B 11 ) u, a12 = 1 1 u, 12 = B 12 u,
hence,
a12 +2 12 = (1 1 + 2 B 12 ) u .
We have also
B11 = B12 =
.
+ 3 G11
I3
I2
Consequently,
a11 = a12 + 2 12 .
Using the last result, we find that the instantaneous elasticities satisfy also the
equation
1111 1221 = 1122 + 1212 .

The above relation shows that the restriction (5.6.78) is also satisfied. Concluding,
we can say that in the special case considered here, all conditions are fulfilled assuming
the existence of a cylindrical symmetry in the initial deformed equilibrium state. Particularly, Guzs representation (5.6.114) by displacement potentials can be used to analyze
incremental boundary value problems, replacing, obviously, by .

P5.42 Let us consider a body and let Bt be its current configuration. Let us assume
that the boundary Bt of the body is submitted to a hydrostatic pressure
tn (x, t) = p(x, t)n(x, t),
where p = p(x, t) > 0 is a scalar field and n = n(x, t) is the unit outward normal to
B t . Let us assume that B is the initial ( = 0) deformed equilibrium configuration of
the body and let u = u(x, t) be the incremental displacement field from B to B t . As in
Section 5.3, we denote by
H0 (x, t) = x u(x, t)
the gradient of the involved incremental displacement field, and by
F0 (x, t) = x 0 (x, t)
the gradient of the involved incremental deformation from B to Bt . We have

F0 (t) = 1 + H0 (t),
and
J0 (t) = det F0 (t) = 1 + trH0 (t).
Also, the following relation is true:
F1
0 (t) = 1 H0 (t).
636
Using the nominal stress tensor 0 (x, t) corresponding to B taken as reference
configuration, we shall have on the boundary B of B ,

sn0 (x, t) = T0 (x, t)n(x), n(x) = n(x, 0),
where sn0 (x, t) is the Piola-Kirchhoff stress vector, corresponding to B taken as reference
configuration. Denoting by df (t) the surface force acting the boundary B t of the current
configuration Bt of the body, according to the assumption made, we get
df (t) = p(t)n(t)da(t) = sn0 (t)da(0),
where da(t), da(0) are the elementary areas of the considered material surface element in
Bt , respectively, in B0 =B . Using Nansons formula, we obtain

n(t)da(t) = J0 (t)FT
0 (t)nda(0).
sn0 (t) = p(t)J0 (t)FT
0 (t)n.
We denote by p(t) the incremental perturbation of the hydrostatic presume and,
by sn0 (t), the incremental perturbation of the Piola-Kirchhoff stress vector. We have
p(t) = p + p(t) and sn0 (t) = sn0 + sn0 (t),
p and sn0 being the values of p(t) and sn0 (t) in the initial deformed equilibrium config
uration B . As we know, we have
sn0 = tn = p n.
Using the obtained formulas and taking into account the approximations corresponding to the incremental problem, after elementary computations, we get the following
expression of the incremental Piola-Kirchhoff stress vector:
sn0 (t) = p(t)n p {trH0 (t)}n + p HT (t)n on B .
Let 0 (t) be the perturbation of the nominal stress tensor 0 (t); hence,
0 (t) = 0 (0) + (t) = T + 0 (t),
where T is Cauchys stress tensor corresponding to B .

As we know, in the initial deformed equilibrium configuration, we have
sn0 = tn = T0 (0)n = T n = p n on B .
Thus, we can conclude that the perturbations sn0 (t) and 0 (t) are connected by
the equation
T
sn0 (t) = 0 (t)n on B .
637
Hence, the incremental nominal stress tensor 0 (t) must satisfy, on the boundary
B of the initial deformed equilibrium configuration, the following incremental traction

boundary condition:
0 (t)n = p(t)n p {trH0 (t)}n + p HT0 (t)n on B ,
n representing the unit outward normal to B .

As we can see, the expression on the right-hand side of the above boundary condition depends on the incremental displacement field u = u(x, t), since H0 = u. It is
obvious that the given external load, in the case of the hydrostatic presume, is not a dead
load ! On the contrary, we have to deal here with a following load, since the hydrostatic
pressure always has the direction of the external outward unit normal to the boundary of
the body, and this direction changes in time if the body is deformed, even if the involved
deformations are incremental! The obtained incremental traction boundary condition just
takes into account this characteristic behavior of the external load analyzed in this problem. At the same time, our results show that the incremental boundary value problem
involving following loads are much more complicated than those corresponding to dead
loads, which can be prescribed since they are independent of the deformations of the body.
P5.43 We shall analyze now the case given in P5.42, but using the Lagrangean
approach and the notations introduced in Section 5.3. We denote by U = U(x, t) the
incremental displacement field from B to B t and by
H(x, t) = x U(x, t),

its gradient. By F(x, t) we denote the gradient of the deformation from B to B t , B being
the reference configuration. We have
F(t) = F + H(t),
where F is the gradient of the deformation from B to B . Since we use the approximation
corresponding to incremental fields, we get
1
F1 (t) = F
H(t) F
hence,
T
FT (t) = F
H (t) F
Let us denote by J(t) the incremental variation of J(t) = det F(t); hence,
J(t) = J + J(t), J = det F,
and
J(t) =
det F(t)
|t=0 H(t).
F(t)
As we know,
det F
= (det F)FT ,
F(t)
638
hence,
T
J(t) = J F
H(t).
Using the nominal stress tensor (x, t) corresponding to B taken as reference configuration, we shall have, on the boundary B of the reference configuration B,
sN (X, t) = T (X, t)N,
where sN (X, t) is the Piola-Kirchhoff stress vector, corresponding to B taken as reference
configuration and N is the unit outward normal to B.
According to the assumption made, we must have
df (t) = p(t)n(t)da(t) = sN (t)dA,
where da(t), and dA are the elementary areas of the considered material surface element
in Bt and, respectively, in B. Using Nansons formula, we obtain
n(t)da(t) = J(t)FT (t)NdA.
sN (t) = p(t)J(t)FT (t)N.
We denote again, by p(t), the incremental perturbation of the hydrostatic pres
sure, by sN , the involved Piola-Kirchhoff stress vector existing in B and by sN (t), the
incremental perturbation of the Piola-Kirchhoff stress vector sN (t). Hence, we have
p(t) = p + p(t), sN (t) = sN + sN (t).
We have
sN = pJ F
N.
In this way, using the obtained formulas and taking into account the approximations
corresponding to the incremental problem, after elementary computations, we get the
following expression of the incremental Piola-Kirchhoff stress vector:
T
sN (t) = p(t) J F
N pJ (F
H(t)) F
N + pJ F
H (t) F N.
Let (t) be the perturbation of the nominal stress tensor (t); hence,
(t) = + (t),
where is the nominal stress tensor corresponding to B .

As we know, in the initial deformed equilibrium configuration, we have
sN = N = pJ F
N on B.
Thus, we can conclude that the perturbation sN (t) and (t) are connected by the
equation
T
sN (t) = (t)N on B.
639
Hence, the incremental nominal stress tensor (t) must satisfy, on the boundary
B of the reference configuration of the body, the following incremental traction boundary
condition:
T
(t)N = p(t) J F
N p J (F
H(t))N + pJ F
H (t) F N on B.
Comparing the last results obtained in P5.42 and P5.43, we can see that it is more
advantageous to use the updated Lagrangean approach if we wish to analyze incremental
boundary problems in which following loads are involved. Thus, the traction boundary
value problem can be formulated in a more simplified form. Obviously, in the updated
Lagrangean approach, the incremental behavior of the material is governed by the in
stantaneous elasticity , whereas, if the Lagrangean approach is taken into account, the
instantaneous elasticity must be used.

Let us observe that if the initial applied deformation is infinitesimal, there is no
difference between the two formulations of the incremental boundary value problem, and
it is easy to see that the incremental traction boundary condition which must be satisfied
by the incremental nominal stress tensor (t) becomes
T (t)n = p(t)n p {tru(t)}n + p uT (t)n on B,
where n is the outward unit normal to B and u = u(x, t) is the incremental displacement field. The above result can be obtained from the given boundary condition taking
F = 1, an admissible approximation since the initial applied deformation is infinitesimal.

Obviously, in this case, the incremental behavior of the material is governed by the instantaneous elasticity , introduced in the last part of Section 5.3.
P5.46 To find r , we start with the relation
r = (22 11 ) sin cos 12 sin2 + 21 cos2 .
Taking into account equations (5.6.117), we obtain
r = (1122 1111 )(u1,1 u2,2 ) sin cos + (1221 u1,2 + 1212 u2,1 )(cos2 sin2 ).
According to the restriction (5.6.78), we have
1122 1111 = (1221 + 1212 ).
Hence,
r = (1221 + 1212 )(u2,2 u1,1 ) sin cos + (1221 u1,2 + 1212 u2,1 )(cos2 sin2 ),
or
r = (1212 + 1221 )(u2,2 u1,1 ) sin cos + 1221 (u1,2 cos2 u2,1 sin2 )
+1212 (u2,1 cos2 u1,2 sin2 ).
640

We now use equations (5.6.119) and, in this way, obtain
u2,2 u1,1 = (
u
1 ur
u
ur
ur
1 u
) sin 2,
+
) cos 2 + (
+
r
r r
r
r
r
r
u1,2 cos2 u2,1 sin2 = (
u
1 ur
)(sin4 + cos4 )
r
r
ur
1 u
ur
u
) cos 2 sin cos ,
sin 2 sin cos + (

r
r
r
r
u2,1 cos2 u1,2 sin2 =
u
(sin4 + cos4 )
r
ur
1 u
ur
u
1 ur
) cos 2 sin cos .
) sin 2 sin cos + (
r
r
r
r
r
Using now the identity

sin4 + cos4 = 1 sin 2 sin cos ,
after long, but elementary computations, we find
r = 1221 (
u
u
1 ur
) + 1212
.
r
r
r
In a similar way, and z in terms ur , u and uz can be obtained.

Chapter 6
P6.15 As we know, if the body force b is zero, the Lames equation of motion for a
linearly, elastic, homogeneous, isotropic material has the following form:
..
u + ( + )grad divu = 0 u,
where and are Lames constants and 0 is the constant mass density of the material.
It is easy to see that the above equation can be written in the following equivalent form:
..
2
vT2 u + (vL
vT2 )grad divu = u,
where
vL =
+ 2
and vT =
0
are the velocities of propagation of the longitudinal and transverse plane elastic waves in
an unbounded linear elastic homogenous and isotropic material.
In component form, the above equation becomes
..
2
vT2 u1 +(vL
vT2 ),1 = u1 ,
..
2
vT2 u2 +(vL
vT2 ),2 = u2 , = u1,1 + u2,2 + u3,3 .
2
2
vL
u3 +(vL
vT2 ),3
..
= u3,
641
It is easy to see that the given displacement field satisfies identically the third equation
of motion. Simple reasoning shows that the first and the second equations become
..
2
vT2 (u1,11 + u1,22 )+(vL
vT2 ),1 = u1 , = u1,1 + u2,2 ,
..
2
vT2 (u2,11 + u2,22 )+(vL
vT2 ),2 = u2 .
For the given displacement field, we find

u1,1 = Akex2 cos k(x1 vt), u2,1 = Bkex2 sin k(x1 vt),
u1,11 = Ak 2 ex2 sin k(x1 vt), u2,11 = Bk 2 ex2 cos k(x1 vt),
u1,2 = Aex2 sin k(x1 vt), u2,2 = Bex2 cos k(x1 vt),
u1,22 = A2 ex2 sin k(x1 vt), u 2,22 = B2 ex2 cos k(x1 vt).
Hence,
u1 = u1,11 + u1,22 = A(2 h2 )ex2 sin k(x1 vt),
u2 = u2,11 + u2,22 = B(2 h2 )ex2 cos k(x1 vt),

= u1,1 + u2,2 = (Ak B)ex2 cos k(x1 vt),
,1 = (Ak B)kex2 sin k(x1 vt),
,2 = (Ak B)ex2 cos k(x1 vt).
In a similar manner, we find

..
u1 = (vk)2 Aex2 sin k(x1 vt),

..
u2 = (vk)2 Bex2 cos k(x1 vt).
Using the above results, we can conclude that Lames homogenous equations of motion are
satisfied by the given displacement field if the following algebraic equations are fulfilled:
2
2
{vT2 2 + (v 2 vL
)k 2 }A + (vL
vT2 )kB = 0,
2
2 2
(vL
vT2 )kA + {(v 2 vT2 )k 2 + vL
}B = 0.
These equation have nonzero solutions; i.e. A 6= 0 and B 6= 0, if and only if the following
equation is satisfied:
2 2
2
vT + (v 2 vL
)k 2

2
(vL
vT2 )k
2
(vL
vT2 )k
2
2 2
(v 2 vL
)k 2 + vL

= 0.

It is easy to see that this characteristic equation can be expressed in the following equivalent form:

v2
v2
v2
v2
4
2 2 2 k 2 2 + (1 2 )(1 2 )k 4 = 0.
vT
vL
vT
vL
This equation has the following positive roots:

s
s
v2
v2
1 = 1 2 k > 0, 2 = 1 2 k > 0.
vT
vL
642
Obviously, the above roots are real and positive numbers if and only if the unknown
constant quantity v satisfies the restriction
2
v 2 < vT2 and v 2 < vL
.
We assume that the above condition is satisfied and ultimately we shall prove that
this supposition is true. Denoting by A1 and B1 the constants corresponding for 1 , we
get
s
1
v2
A1.
B1 = 1 2 A1 =
k
vL
Denoting by A2 and B2 the constants corresponding for 2 , we get

s
2
v2
B2.
A2 = 1 2 B2 =
k
vT
Consequently, we have two linearly independent solutions and we can conclude

that the homogenous Lames equations of motion are satisfied by the following nonzero
displacement fields:
u1 = (A1 e1 x2 +
2
B2 e2 x2 ) sin k(x1 vt),
k
1
A1 e1 x2 + B2 e2 x3 ) cos k(x1 vt),
k
where A1 and B2 are arbitrary constants and v, h are also constant real numbers.
Since the boundary x2 = 0 of the half space is stress-free, the components 11 , 22
and 23 of the Cauchys stress tensor must satisfy the following homogenous traction
boundary conditions:
u2 = (
21 = 22 = 33 = 0 for x2 = 0.
According to the constitutive equation of the material, we have
21 = 221 = (u2,1 + u1,2 ),
22 = + 222 = (u1,1 + u2,2 ) + 2u2,2
23 = 223 = (u2,3 + u3,1 ).
Obviously, 23 = 0; hence, 23 = 0, and the third boundary condition is identically
satisfied.
Using the expressions of the displacement fields u1 and u2 , we get

v2
21 = 21 A1 e1 x2 + (2 2 )kB2 e2 x2 sin k(x1 vt),
vT

2
k ( + 2)12
A1 e1 x2 22 B2 e2 x2 cos k(x1 vt).
22 =
k
Now its easy to see that the homogeneous traction boundary conditions for 21 and 12
take the following form:
643
21 A1 + (2
v2
)kB2 = 0,
vT2
k 2 ( + 2)12
A1 + 22 B2 = 0.
k
Since
2
= (vL
2vT2 ) and = k 2 ,
the above homogenous algebraic system for the unknowns A1 and A2 can be expressed
21 A1 + (2
v2
)kB2 = 0,
vT2
v2
)kA1 + 22 B2 = 0.
vT2
This system has nonzero solutions if and only if the following equation for the unknown
v is satisfied

2

(2 vv2 )k
21
T

= 0.

(2 v2 )k 2
2

v2
(2
This equation can be expressed as
v2 2 2
) k 41 2 = 0.
vT2
If we use the expressions of 1 and 2 , we find that v must satisfy the equation
s
s
2

v2
v2
v2
=4 1 2 1 2 .
2 2
vT
vL
vT
(2
If we denote
vL
> 1,
vT
we can conclude after elementary computations that v must satisfy the equation
f(
8(3 2 2) v 2 16( 2 1)
v
v
v
= 0.
( )
) ( )6 8( )4 +
2
vT
2
vT
vT
vT

f (0) = 16
( 2 1)
< 0 and f (1) = 1 > 0.
2
These inequalities show that the positive real root v of the above equation is in the
interval (0, vT ); i.e. 0 < v < vT < vL. The other roots of the above equation are negative
or purely imaginary numbers.
Thus, we can conclude that the homogenous tractions boundary conditions can be
satisfied for any k and for v satisfying the above algebraic equation where 1 and 2 are
positive real numbers.
644

For instance, for = 1/4, we find 2 = 3 and the above equation becomes
3 3 24 2 + 56 32 = 0 with =
v2
.
vT2
Thus, we get
v = 0.9194vT
and
1 = 0.8475k, 2 = 0.3933k.
Hence, the displacement fields u1 and u2 are
u1 = A(e1 x2 0.5773e2 x2 ) sin k(x1 vt),
u2 = A(0.8475e1 x2 1.4679e2 x2 ) cos k(x1 vt),
where A is an arbitrary constant and k is an arbitrary positive number.

We have considered a dynamical problem characterized by a homogenous equation
of motion and by homogenous traction boundary conditions. We have shown that this
homogenous dynamical problem has nonzero solutions even if the reference configuration
of the material is locally stable; i.e. vT and vL are positive real numbers. As we know,
if the reference configuration of the body is locally stable, the homogenous equilibrium
equation with homogenous boundary conditions can be satisfied only by the zero solution.
Such kind of problems of the elastostatics can have nonzero solutions only if the material
is initially deformed and the deformed equilibrium configuration of the body becomes
locally unstable for some critical values of the loading parameters.
As is easy to see, the above presented time dependent displacement field describes
a plane wave propagating in a direction parallel to the stress-free boundary of the material, v representing the velocity of propagation of the wave. Since 1 and 2 are positive
numbers, the amplitude of this wave quickly decreases as the distance from the stress-free
boundary increases. Hence, our displacement field describes a surface wave; its existence
was proved for the first time by Rayleigh and it is usually named Rayleigh wave.
P6.18 Let us assume now that in the strip stability problem, we take (2) = 0 and
we suppose that
(1) = (A1 cosh a1 x1 + A2 cosh a2 x2 ) sin ax1 ,
or
(1) = (A1 sinh a1 x1 + A2 cosh a2 x2 ) sin ax1 .
Let us introduce the function (1) and (2) defined by the relations
(1) = A1 cosh a1 x2 sin ax1 , (2) = A2 cosh a2 x2 sin ax1.
Thus, we have
645
= (1) + (2)
and
(1)
,11 = a2 A1 cosh a1 x2 sin ax1 ,

(1)
,22 = a2 12 A1 cosh a1 x2 sin ax1 ,

(2)
,11 = a2 A2 cosh a2 x2 sin ax1 ,

(2)
,22 = a2 22 A2 cosh a2 x2 sin ax1 .

Now, it is easy to see that
(1)
(2)
(1)
(2)
,22 + 12 ,11 = 0 and ,22 + 22 ,11 = 0.

Consequently,

2
2
2
2
2
2
=0
+
2
1
x21
x22
x21
x22
and Guzs equation is satisfied by the displacement potential .
Analogously it can be shown that the displacement potential satisfy the same
equation.

P6.25 Since m11 is the coefficient of A1 in the system (6.3.58), and since the first
equation of this system is the direct consequence of the first homogeneous traction boundary condition (6.3.43), we must evaluate rr , assuming for a moment that
1
ur = A1 I1 (1 r) cos sin z,
r
u = A1 1 I10 (1 r) sin sin z,

uz = 0,
as is easy to see, examining the relations (6.3.57).

According to the first incremental constitutive equation obtained introducing (5.6.119)
in (5.6.118), we have

uz
ur
1 u
ur
.
+ 1133
+
+ 1122
rr = 1111
z
r
r
r
The nonzero instantaneous elasticities are given by equations (6.3.21). Using this
relation, and the above assumed expression of the incremental displacements, we get

ur
1 u
ur
.
+
+ C12
rr = C11
r
r
r
Now, we find

1
1 0
d 1
I1 (1 r) + 2 I1 (1 r) cos sin z.
I1 (1 r) + C12
rr = A1 C11
r
r
dr r
646

Using the identity
d
dr
we obtain
and
d
dr
1
I1 (r)
r
1
I1 (1 r)
r
1
I2 (r),
r
1
I2 (1 r)
r
1
1
1 0
I2 (1 r).
I1 (1 r) + 2 I1 (1 r) =
r
r
r
Using the above results, we get
rr = A1
1
(C11 C12 ) 1 I2 (1 r) cos sin z.
r
Evaluating rr for r = a, we obtain

rr = A1
(C11 C12 ) 1 I2 (1 r) cos sin z for r = a.

a
According to the relations (6.3.56)2 and (6.3.60),

= /l and = a/l.
Hence,
rr = A1
(C11 C12 ) 1 I2 (1 r) cos sin z for r = a.

a2
Now, taking into account the expression (6.3.59)1 of the coefficient m11 , we get
rr = m11 A1 cos sin z for r = a.
The above result proves that the given expression of m11 is correct.
The other coefficients mkl of the homogeneous algebraic system can be obtained in
a similar manner.
P6.26 According to the relation (6.3.62) defining the function In (r), we have
I1 (r) =
X
j=0
r 1+2j
1
.
j!(1 + j)! 2
Hence, for r 1, we obtain the following asymptotic expression of the function I 1 (r):
I1 (r)
r3
r
.
+
16
2
3r2
1
.
+
16
2
We recall now the expressions (6.3.57) of the incremental displacement fields u r , u
and uz . Using the above estimates, we obtain
I10 (r)
I1 (s r) =
647
(s r)3
s r
, s = 1, 2, 3
+
16
2
and
3(s r)2
1
, s = 1, 2, 3.
+
16
2
Introducing these asymptotic estimates in (6.3.57) and neglecting terms of order
r3 , after elementary computations, we obtain
I10 (s r) =
r 2
cos sin z,
A1 + A 2
a

r 2
sin sin z,
u = A1 + A3
a
r
cos cos z,
uz = A 4
a
ur =
where A1 , A2 , A3 , and A4 define dimensionless constant quantities. For instance, by A1

the following expression was designed:
(A1 1 + A2 2 + A3 3 ) ,
2
A1 , A2 and A4 being the constants appearing in the expressions (6.3.57) of the incremental displacement fields ur , u and uz .
P6.30 To express the incremental nominal stresses corresponding to the incremental

displacement field (6.3.65), we must use the nonzero instantaneous elasticities given by
the relations (6.3.21) and the incremental constitutive equations,
kl = klmn um,n .
Elementary but long computations lead to the following result:

x1
A4
A1
sin x3 ,
1133 A5
+ 1122
11 = 21111
a
b
a

A 4 x2
A3
sin x3 ,
+ 1221
12 = 21212
b
a
b

x 2
x 2
A5
2
1
cos x3 ,
+ 1331
+ A2
13 = 1313 A1 + A2
a
b
a

A 4 x2
A3
sin x3 ,
+ 2121
21 = 22112
b
a
b

x1
A4
A2
sin x3 ,
2233 A5
+ 2222
22 = 22211
a
b
a
x x
2
1
cos x3 ,
23 = 2323 A4
b
a
648
31 =
3113 A1 + A2
x 2
1
+ A3
x 2
2
+ 3131
A5
a
cos x3 ,
x x
2
1
cos x3 ,
b
a

x1
A4
A2
sin x3 .
3333 A5
+ 3322
= 23311
a
b
a
32 = 3223 A4
33
Using the expression (6.3.21) of the nonzero instantaneous elasticities, and taking
into account the fact that the bar is isotropic, that is, its elasticities can be expressed in
terms of E and by the relations (2.2.91), finally, we obtain

x
E
A4
A1
1
sin x3 ,
A5
+
11 = 2(1 )
(1 + )(1 2) a
b
a

x
E
A4
A3
2
sin x3 ,
+
12 = 2
2(1 + ) b
a
b

x 2 A
x 2
E
5
2
1
cos x3 ,
+
+ A3
13 = A1 + A2
2(1 + )
a
b
a

x
E
A4
A3
2
sin x3 ,
+
21 = 2
2(1 + ) b
a
b

x
A4
E
A2
1
+ (1 )
A5
sin x3 ,
22 = 2
a
b
(1 + )(1 2) a
x x
E
1
2
cos x3 ,
23 = A4
2(1 + ) a
b
31 =

x 2
x 2 A
E
E
1
2
5
p A1 + A 2
+ A3
+
cos x3 ,
2(1 + )
a
b
a 2(1 + )
32 = A4
33

x1
x2
E
p
cos x3 ,
2(1 + )
a
b

E
A4
E
A2
+
2
a (1 + )(1 2)
b (1 + )(1 2)

(1 )E
x1
p
sin x3 .
A5
(1 + )(1 2)
a
Comparing the results in P6.21, P6.22 and in P6.30, it is easy to see that the actual
stress state of the buckled bar is much more complex as that corresponding to the Eulerian incremental displacement field (6.3.23) founded in Eulers plane section hypothesis.
P6.41 (a) Since E3 = 200GP a, l = 10m, a = 0.5m for the Eulerian buckling force,
we obtain
649
pE = 1232.5M P a = 1.2325GP a.
(b) The parameter = a/l has the value
= 0.157.
(c) The correction factors p (0.157) for
G31 = G32 = 0.1E3 , 0.02E3 and 0.01E3
are given by the curves number 1, 5 and 10, respectively, in the Figure 6.11. Taking into
account this fact we obtain
p (0.157) = 0.9 if G31 = G32 = 0.1E3 ,
p (0.157) = 0.7 if G31 = G32 = 0.02E3 ,
p (0.157) = 0.5 if G31 = G32 = 0.01E3 .
(d) Since l = 10m and a = 0.5m, we have a relatively short bar. The obtained results show that, in this case, the correction furnished by the three-dimensional linearized
theory can be important. Indeed, as the ratio G31 /E3 decreases, the correction factor decreases also. For our relatively short fiber reinforced bar, if it is strongly anisotropic; i.e.
if the ratio G31 /E3 is in the interval (0.01, 0.02), the correction factor is in the interval
(0.5, 0.7) and its influence on the critical buckling pressure cannot be neglected to avoid
the occurrence of dangerous cases actually leading to buckling of the bar if the critical
buckling pressure is determined using Eulers formula.
P6.45 We have a rectangular cylindrical bar, its geometrical characteristics being

l = 10m, a = 0.5m, b = 1.5m.
(a) Since a < b, the Eulerian buckling pressure pE is given again by the equation
used in P6.44 (a). Hence, we have
pE = 1643.25M P a = 1.64325GP a.
(b) The parameter and the aspect ratio K are
= 0.1785, K = 3.
(c) Since the aspect ratio K = 3 and the axial shear moduli of the bar G13 = G23
can have the values G13 = G23 = 0.1E3 , 0.01E3 , the corresponding correction factor
p () are given by the curves number 1 and number 7 of Figure 6.14. Using this fact, we
find
p (0.1785) = 0.94 if G13 = G23 = 0.1E3 ,
p (0.1785) = 0.58 if G13 = G23 = 0.01E3 .
650
(d) We have a relatively short bar. If G13 = G23 = 0.1E3 , the bar is weakly anisotropic,
and the Eulerian formula gives an excellent result. If G13 = G23 = 0.01E3 , the bar is
strongly anisotropic and the correction furnished by the three-dimensional theory cannot
be neglected and the correct value pc , given by the equation (6.3.72) becomes
pc = 0.943GP a,
being nearly two times smaller than the value pE = 1.64325GP a given by the Eulers
theory.
Chapter 7
P7.1 According to equation (7.2.23)2 , the global specific incremental stress energy
w = w (U) has the following expression:
w = w (U) =
1
U, U, + U, k + k D k +
2
o
o
1
+ U3, N U3, U, Q U3, ,
2
where , , , = 1, 2. Consequently, we obtain

o
1
1
w
= U, + U, + k Q U3, .
2
2
U,
Using the symmetry property (7.1.37)1 of the global instantaneous elasticities ,

we can express the above relation in the following equivalent form:
o
1
1
w
= U, + U, + k Q U3, ,
2
2
U,
or, changing with and with in the second term of the right-hand side,
o
w
= U, + k Q U3, .
U,
Now, the global incremental constitutive equation (7.1.35)1 shows that

w
= N .
U
In a similar manner, it can be shown that
w
w
.
= M and R P =
U3,
k
P7.3 To prove the uniqueness theorem for the incremental traction boundary value
problem (7.2.32), we shall use the incremental work relation (7.2.22). Let us assume
that our boundary value problem has two regular solutions U(1) and U(2) and let us
denote by U = U(1) U(2) the difference of these two solutions. We shall design by
e , k , N , M , R and P the incremental fields corresponding to U. Since the
two solutions U(1) and U(2) satisfy the same boundary conditions (7.2.32) and correspond
651
to the same normal force q, from the work identity (7.2.22), we can conclude that the
following equation is satisfied:
Z
{U, N + k M + (R P ) U3, } da = 0.
D
Using now the expression (7.2.23)2 of the global incremental strain energy w =
w (U) corresponding to the difference U = U(1) U(2) , from the above relation, we can
conclude that
Z
w (U) da = 0.
D
Since, according to the assumption made, w (U) is a positive definite quadratic

form and U(1) , U(2) are regular solutions, the last equation shows that
w (U) = 0 in D.
Using again the positive definiteness of the w (U) and its second expression (7.2.23) 2 , we
can conclude that
U, = 0 and U3, = 0 in D.
Accordingly,
U1 = C1 , U2 = C2 , U3 = C3 in D,
C1 , C2 , C3 being arbitrary real constants. Hence, according to equations (3.1.6), u 1 = C1 ,
u2 = C2 , u3 = C3 in D; i.e. the incremental displacement field u is a rigid translation
of the plate. Thus, we can say that if w = w (U) is a positive definite quadratic form,
the incremental traction boundary value problem (7.2.32) can have, at most, one regular
solution, modulo an infinitesimal rigid translation of the plate.
P7.6 Let U = (U , U3 ) be the regular solution of the incremental traction boundary
value problem and let V = (V , V3 ) a regular vector field defined on D. Then, U + V is
a regular admissible displacement field. We use now the expression (7.2.24) of the incremental total strain energy, where the incremental specific strain energy w (U) is defined
by the equation (7.2.23)2 . Taking into account the global incremental constitutive equations (7.1.19) and the relation (7.1.38), together with the symmetry relations (7.1.37),
after a long, but elementary computation, we find
W (U + V) =
W (U) + W (V) +
{V, N + k (V) M + V3, (R P )} da.
In this equation, N , M and R P are the incremental fields corresponding to

the incremental displacement U, and k (V) = V3, are the curvatures corresponding
to the vector field V.
652

Using Greens formula and the relations (7.2.7) after simple calculus, we get
Z
Z
Z
W (U + V) = W (U) + W (V) =
V N ds V N, da +
V3 Rn ds
V3 R, da
V3, Mn ds +
V3, (M, P ) da.
We use now the relation (7.2.21), which gives

Z
Z
V3, Mn ds =
(Mnn V3,n Mn, V3 ) ds.
D
Thus, since V Nn = Vn Nnn + V Nn on D, we get

W (U + V) = W (U) + W (V)
+
{Vn Nnn + V Nn + V3 (Rn + Mn, ) V3,n Mnn } ds
{V N, + V3 R, V3, (M, P )} da.
We recall now that U is a solution of the incremental traction boundary value problem (7.2.32). Hence, N , M , R and P satisfy the global incremental equilibrium
conditions (7.2.4) and the involved boundary conditions (7.2.32). Accordingly, from the
above equation, we get
W (U + V) = W (U) + W (V) +
(Vn + V + V3 V3,n ) ds +
qV3 da.
We return now to the potential energy functional I (U) defined by the relation
(7.2.33). It is easy to see that
Z
I (U + V) = W (U + V)
{ (Un + Vn ) + (U + V ) + (U3 + V3 ) (U3,n V3,n )} ds
q (U3 + V3 ) da.
Hence, using the above established relation, we obtain

Z
I (U + V) = W (U)
(Un + U + U3 U3,n ) ds + W (V),
D
or
I (U + V) = I (U) + W (V) .
Assuming now that the quadratic form w = w (U) is positive definite, from the
above relation, we can conclude that
653

I (U + V) > I (U) ,
for any V 6= const.

Summing up the obtained results, we can say that if U is a regular solution of the
incremental traction boundary problem and if the global specific strain energy w = w(U)
is positive definite, then the potential energy I (U) has an absolute minimum in U on
the set of all admissible displacement fields.
We stress the fact that in the analyzed situation, the admissible displacement fields
are not restricted by any supplementary conditions.
We observe also, that using the above extreme principle, we can prove the uniqueness of the solution of the incremental traction boundary value problem, modulo an
infinitesimal rigid displacement of the laminate.
P7.11 To analyze the behavior of the function = (K, m) for m fixed and K
variable, we shall calculate the first derivative of (K, m) with respect to K > 0. We
obtain

D11 4
2
=
m
= 2 3 K4
D22
m K
K
!
!
!
r
r
r
D11 2
2
2
4 D11
4 D11
m .
m
K
m
K+
= 2 3 K +
D22
D22
D22
m K
We recall that D11 , D22 > 0 since the stress-free reference configuration of the
laminate is assumed to be locally stable.
Hence, for m fixed,
r
r
D11
D11
m.
< 0 if K < 4
m and
> 0 if K > 4
D22
K
D22
K
The minimum of the function = (K, m) , for m fixed, occurs for

r
4
K=
D11
m
D22
and for any m = 1, 2, 3, ... the minimum value min of (K, m) is given by the equation
!
r
2D12 + 2D66
D11
.
+
min = 2
D22
D22
P7.15 In order to evaluate the coefficients aklij defined by the relations (7.3.47) and
(7.3.48), we use the following relations:
Za
sin
Zb
sin
kx1
ix1
dx1 =
sin
a
a
Za
cos
a
kx1
ix1
dx1 = ik ,
cos
a
2
a
Zb
cos
jx2
lx2
b
cos
dx2 = jl ,
b
b
2
lx2
jx2
sin
dx2 =
b
b
654

kx1
ix1
dx1 =
cos
sin
a
a
cos
Za
o
an
kx1
ix1
1 (1)i+k ,
dx1 =
sin
2
a
a
Zb
lx2
jx2
dx2 =
cos
b
b
Zb
cos
o
bn
lx2
jx2
1 (1)i+k .
dx2 =
sin
2
b
b
Za
sin
We shall illustrate the procedure evaluating the coefficients bijkl given by the relations
(
4 )
2

4
j
ij 2
i
+ D22
+ 2 (D12 + 2D66 )
bijkl = D11
b
ab
a
Za
kx1
ix1
dx1
sin
sin
a
a
Zb
sin
lx2
jx2
dx2 .
sin
b
b
Using the above given results, we obtain

(
4 )
2

4
j
ij 2
i
ab
.
+ D22
+ 2 (D12 + 2D66 )
ik jl Dn
bijkl =
b
ab
a
4
P7.16 For the considered composite laminate, the initial applied load is a biaxial
uniform compression, characterized by the following relations:
o
N 11 = P, N 22 = P, N 12 = N 21 = 0,
o
M 11 = M 22 = M 12 = M 21 = 0, q = 0.
Hence, P > 0 is given and > 0 is also a known quantity.
(a) Since the initial applied resultant forces and moments are constant quantities
and since the initial applied normal load is vanishing, the global equilibrium conditions
o
(7.1.15) are satisfied and the shear forces Q1 , Q2 are vanishing; i.e.
o
Q = 0 , = 1, 2.
o
Consequently, the initial deformed configuration B of the laminate is a possible equilibrium state of the considered plate.
o
(b) To obtain the initial in-plane deformations e and initial curvatures, we must
use the global constitutive equations (7.1.14). According to the given data, we have
o
A11 e +B11 k = P,
o
A22 e +B22 k = P,
o
A12 e +B12 k = 0,
and
B11 e +D11 k = 0,
B22 e +D22 k = 0,
655

o
B12 e +D12 k = 0.
o
Using the last three equations, we can express the curvatures k as functions of the
o
in-plane deformations e . Introducing the obtained results in the first three equations,
o
we can find the in-plane deformations e as functions of P , and the global constitutive
o
coefficients of the laminate. For a general laminate, all components e and k will be
nonvanishing, constant quantities.
o
o
o
(c) To find the initial displacement U 1 , U 2 and U 3 , we must use the geometrical reo
lations (7.1.8) assuming e and k known constant quantities, found in (b) as functions
of P, and the global mechanical parameters of the laminate. We have
o
o
o
U2
U1
U1
= 2 e12 ,
+
= e11 ,
x1
x2
x1
o
o
o
2 U 3
2 U 3
U2
= k 12 ,
= k 11 ,
= e22 ,
2
2
x1 x2
x1
x2
o
o
2 U 3
= k 22 .
2
x2
Hence, neglecting a rigid displacement of the plate, we find
o
U 1 = e11 x1 + e12 x2 , U 2 = e12 x1 + e22

o
o
k
k
x2 , U 3 = 11 x21 k 12 x1 x2 22 x22 .
2
2
o
(d) Now, the initial displacements u1 , u2 , u3 of the prestressed laminate can be

obtained taking into account the general relations (7.1.5)
o
u1 = e11 x1 + e12 x2 + k 11 x1 x3 + k 12 x2 x3 ,
u2 = e12 x1 + e22 x2 + k 12 x1 x3 + k 22 x2 x3 ,
o
u3 = U 3 .
P7.20 For an antisymmetric cross-ply laminate, we have (see Equations (3.4.18))
A16 = A26 = 0, D16 = D26 = 0
and
B11 = B22 , B12 = B16 = B26 = B66 = 0.
(a) The answer is obvious;

(b) Using Voigts type convention, the global constitutive equations of P7.16(b) will
be simplified, and become
o
A11 e11 +A12 e22 +B11 k 11 = P,

o
o
o
A21 e11 +A22 e22 B11 k 22 = P,
o
A60 e12 = 0, B11 e11 +D11 k 11 +D12 k 22 = 0,

o
o
o
B11 e22 +D21 k 11 +D22 k 12 = 0,
o
D66 k 12 = 0.
656
To solve this system, we assume that the initial deformed equilibrium configurao
tion B of the composite is locally stable. Hence, particularly, A66 > 0 and D66 > 0.
o
o
e12 = 0 and k 12 = 0.
o
2
We have also D11 D22 D12
> 0, and we can express the curvatures k 11 and k 22 as
o
o
functions of e11 and e22 . We find

o
o
o
B11
D22 e11 +D12 e22 ,
k 11 =
2
D11 D22 D12
k 22 =

o
o
B11
D12 e11 +D11 e22 .
2
D11 D22 D12
Introducing these relations in the first two equations, we obtain the following relations:
2 o
2 o
e11 + A12 D12 B11
e22 = P,
A11 D22 B11
2 o
2 o
A12 D12 B11 e11 + A22 D11 B11 e22 = P,
with
2
= D11 D21 D12
> 0.
Solving this system, we get the in-plane deformation e11 and e21 as functions of the
o
compressive force P > 0 and of the ratio > 0. Consequently, the curvatures k 11 and
o
k 22 can be expressed in terms of the same given quantities P and .
o
o
(c) Since now e12 = k 12 = 0, from P7.16 (c), we obtain
o
U 1 = e11 x1 , U 2 = e22 x2 , U 3 =
k 11 2 k 22 2
x2 .
x1
2
2
(d) Hence, according to P7.16 (d)

o
u1 = e11 x1 + k 11 x1 x3 , u2 = e22 x2 + k 22 x2 x3 , u3 = U 3 .
P7.37 Let us assume the composite strip clamped at its edges x = a; i.e. we
suppose the following boundary condition:
U3 = 0, U3,1 = 0, N11 = 0 for x = a.
(a) According to the equations (7.4.34)1 and (7.4.44), we have
N = N 11 = C1
and
From the last relation, we obtain
1
C2
x+
P
P

B+M
C1 C 3 .
AP
U3,1 = K cos x L sin x
C2
.
P
657

According to the third boundary condition, we obtain
C1 = 0.
Consequently, for the normal displacement U3 , we get
C3
C2
.
x
P
P
Imposing the first two boundary conditions, we obtain for the unknown constants
K,L,C2 and C3 the following linear, homogeneous and algebraic system:
C3
C2
= 0,
a
P
P
C3
C2
= 0,
a
K sin a + L cos a +
P
P
C2
= 0,
K cos a L sin a
P
C2
= 0.
K cos a + L sin a
P
K sin a + L cos a
Let us denote by the determinant of this system. Elementary computation gives

=
4
sin a (a cos a sin a) .
P2
Hence, the characteristic equation of our buckling problem is

sin a (a cos a sin a) = 0.
Consequently, to obtain bifurcation (buckling), we must have
sin a = 0 or tga = a.
The first condition gives
a = k, k = 1, 2, 3, ... .
Let us consider the following equation:
tg = .
As is well known, this equation has infinite positive roots k , k = 1, 2, 3, ... and the
smallest positive root 1 satisfies the inequality < 1 .
Also, from P7.35 we already know that the function F = F (, M ), giving through
the relation (7.4.59) the possible buckling forces, in an increasing function of . Thus,
inspecting the possible values of , we can see that the critical value of , for which the
primary eigenstate occurs, is given by the relation
bc = .
Accordingly, the critical value Pbc of the applied compressive force is given by the equation:
r
2
2
2
b c , M ) = A + D (A D )2 + 4 (B + M )2 .
2Pbc = F (
2
2
2
a
a
a
658
(b) The critical value of for which the primary eigenstate of a simply supported
strip occurs is given by the relation (7.4.60), and we have
bc = .
2a
b c and the function F = F (, M ) is an increasing function of , we can

Since c <
conclude that
Pc < Pbc ,
where Pc , given by the relation (7.4.61), is the critical value of the applied compressive
force for which the buckling of the simply supported strip occurs. Accordingly, we can
conclude that the compressive force producing buckling of a simply supported strip is
smaller than the compressive force producing buckling of the same step, if it is clamped.
P7.41 Let us consider again the composite strip analyzed in Section 7.4 and in
P7.37P7.40. But now, we assume that the strip is simply supported in the edge x = a
and clamped on the edge x = a. Thus, the following boundary condition must be satisfied:
U3 = 0, N11 = 0, M11 = 0 for x = a,

U3 = 0, N11 = 0, U3,1 = 0 for x = a.
(a) According to the general relations (7.4.34), we have N = N11 = C1 . Hence,

C1 = 0.
Consequently, the general equations (7.4.44) and (7.4.47) give
C3
C2
,
x
P
P
= M = P (K sin x + L cos x).
M11
Hence, we have also
C2
.
P
Imposing the remaining boundary conditions, we are lead to the following linear
and homogeneous algebraic system for the unknown constants K, L, C2 and C3
U3,1 = K cos x L sin x
C3
C2 a
= 0,
P
P
P K sin a + P L cos a = 0,
C3
C2 a
= 0,
K sin a + L cos a
P
P
C2
= 0.
K cos a L sin a
P
K sin a + L cos a +
From the first two equations, we get C3 = aC2 .

Using this result, we can simplify the problem and we can conclude that the following system must be satisfied:
659
K sin a + L cos a = 0,
2a
C2 = 0,
K sin a + L cos a
P
1
K cos a L sin a C2 = 0.
P
Let us denote by the determinant of this system. We find

1
(sin 2a 2a cos 2a).
P
Hence, the characteristic equation = 0 of our buckling problem is
=
tg2a = 2a.
Let 1 be the smallest positive root of the equation tg = . As we know, this root satisfies
the restriction
< 1 <
3
.
2
Consequently, the critical value c for which the primary eigenstate occurs is given by
the relation
c =
1
.
2a
Accordingly, from the general relation (7.4.59), we get the critical value P c of the applied
compressive force
r
12 D 2 12
12 D
) + 2 (B + M )2 .
(A
2 P c = F ( c , M ) = A +
a
4a2
4a2
(b) Taking the relation (7.4.60) giving c , the result obtained in P7.38 giving c and
b c . Hence, the critical buckling

knowing that < 1 < 3 , we can see that c <c <
2
forces Pc , Pbc and P c corresponding to our three stability problems and ordered as follows
Pc <P c < Pbc.

P7.45 (a) According to the general expression of the exclusion functional E = E (U),
we have
E (U) = E (U1 , U3 ) = 2
Za
w (U) dx.
According to the relation (7.4.29), the incremental specific strain energy w = w (U) has
the following expression:
w = w (U1 , U3 , U1,1 , U3,1 , U1,11 , U3,11 ) =
=
P 2
D 2
AP 2
.
U3,11
U3,1 (B + M ) U1,1 U3,11 + U3,11
2
2
2
660

To obtain this relation, we have used the geometrical equations
e = U1,1 , k = U3,11 .
o
Also, we have used the notation N = P and M = M .

(b) As is well known, the Euler-Lagrange equations corresponding to our exclusion
functional E = E (U) have the following form:
d2
dx21
d2
dx21
w
U1,11
w
U3,11
d
dx1
d
dx1
w
U1,1
w
U3,1
w
= 0,
U1
w
= 0.
U3
Now, using the expression of w = w (U1 , U3 , U1,1 , U3,1 , U1,11 , U3,11 ), we get the following
differential system:
(A P ) U1,11 + (B + M ) U3,11 = 0,
(B + M ) U1,111 + DU3,1111 + P U3,11 = 0.

(c) From the first equation, we obtain
(A P ) U1,11 + (B + M ) U3,11 = C1 ,
where C1 is an arbitrary constant. Similarly, from the second equation, we get
(B + M ) U1,1 + DU3,11 + P U3 = C2 x + C3 ,
where C2 and C3 are arbitrary constants. From the above two equations, we can eliminate
U1,1 and, in this way, after elementary computations, we obtain the differential equation
satisfied by U3 :
B+M
(B + M )2 D (A P )
C1 .
U3,11 P U3 = C2 x + C3
AP
AP
Now, we can see that the last relation coincides with the differential equation
(7.4.40) obtained using the global incremental equilibrium conditions of the considered
strip, assuming that the strip is in cylindrical incremental state. Obviously, this relation
is not surprising, taking into account the existence of the incremental variational principle and the fact that the Euler-Lagrange equations express the stationarity condition of
the exclusion functional E = E (U) .
Chapter 8
P8.1 (a) It is easy to see that if u = u (x1 , x2 ) = x21 x22 , then
u =
2u
2u
0.
+
2
x22
x1
Hence, the function u = u (x1 , x2 ) can be the real or the imaginary part of a holomorphic
function.
661
(b) Let f = f (z) = u (x1 , x2 ) + iv (x1 , x2 ), a holomorphic function such that

Ref (z) = u (x1 , x2 ) = x21 x22 . We know that u = u (x1 , x2 ) and v = v (x1 , x2 ) = Imf (z)
satisfy Cauchys and Riemanns conditions:
v
u
v
u
.
=
and
=
x1
x2
x2
x1
Hence, the function v = v (x1 , x2 ) must satisfy the equations
v
v
= 2x2 .
= 2x1 ,
x1
x2
Thus, we find v = 2x1 x2 + K, where K is an arbitrary complex constant. The

obtained results lead to the following function:

f = f (z) = x21 x22 + 2ix1 x2 + iK = z 2 + iK, z = x1 + ix2 .
Let g = g (z) = U (x1 , x2 ) + iV (x1 , x2 ), a holomorphic function such that Img (z) =
V (x1 , x2 ) = u (x1 , x2 ) = x21 x22 . We know that U = U (x1 , x2 ) = Reg (z) and V =
V (x1 , x2 ) satisfy Cauchys and Riemanns conditions
V
U
V
U
.
=
and
=
x1
x2
x2
x1
Hence, the function U = U (x1 , x2 ) must satisfy the equation
U
U
= 2x1 .
= 2x2 ,
x2
x1
Thus, we find U = 2x1 x2 + L, where L is an arbitrary complex constant. The obtained

results give

g = g (z) = 2x1 x2 + i x21 x22 + L = iz 2 + L.
P8.2 Let f = f (z) be a holomorphic function defined in the domain B and let L
be a regular closed curve in B. Let us assume that:
f (z) = u (x1 , x2 ) + iv (x1 , x2 ) ,
u and v being the real and imaginary parts of f. Since z = x + iy, we have
Z
Z
Z
f (z) dz =
udx1 vdx2 + i
vdx1 + udx2 .
L
Using Greens theorem, we get

Z Z
Z
Z Z
v
u
u
v
dx1 dx2 ,
dx1 dx2 + i
f (z) dz =
x2
x1
x2
x1
D
L
D
where D is the finite domain bounded by L.

Since f = f (z) is a holomorphic function, its real and imaginary parts satisfy
Cauchys and Riemanns conditions recalled in P8.1. Thus, from the above equation, we
obtain Cauchys fundamental theorem:
Z
f (z) dz = 0.
L
662
Q
Q
P
P
z
g
Figure S.12: Cauchys fundamental formula.
To prove Cauchys fundamental formula, let us consider a circle centered in z and

having radius as shown in Figure S.12. Let us consider the cut having two faces, P Q
and P 0 Q0 as shown in Figure S.12. The senses of integration on various curves is also
given in Figure S.12.
S
S S
According to Cauchys fundamental theorem on the closed curve L Q0 P 0 P Q,
we have
Z
I
Z
I
f (t) dt
f (t) dt
f (t) dt
f (t) dt
= 0,
+
+
+
t
z
t
z
t
z
0
0
PQ t z
Q P
L
(t)
is a holomorphic function on the domain bounded by the above considered
since ftz
closed curve, z being in the exterior of this domain (see Figure S.12) . Obviously, on the
considered cut, we have
Z
Z
f (t) dt
f (t) dt
= 0.
+
PQ t z
Q0 P 0 t z
Consequently, we obtain

I
f (t) dt
=
tz
f (t) dt
= f (z)
tz
f (t) dt
.
tz
dt
+
tz
f (t) f (z)
dt.
tz
Using the definition of the logarithmic function, we obtain

I
dt
= 2i
t
and, thus, the above relation becomes

I
I
f (t) f (z)
f (t) dt
dt.
= 2if (z) +
tz
t
663

Thus, we obtain
f (t) dt
2if (z) =
tz
f (t) f (z)
dt.
tz
The left-hand side of this equation does not depend on , the radius of the circle .
Hence, the right-hand side of the above relation is also independent on . We shall show
that this quantity is zero. Indeed, we have
Z
Z
f (t) f (z)
|f (t) f (z)|

|dt| .
dt

|t z|
tz
But we have (see Figure S.12) |t z| = , |dz| = d since t z = ei , (0, 2)

on . Also, |f (t) f (z)| < for any > 0 if |t z| = < (), since f = f (t) being
holomorphic is also a continuous function. Thus, we get

Z
Z 2
f (t) f (z)
<

dt
d = 2,

tz
0
for any > 0, if < () . Consequently,

Z

f (t) dt
< 2,

2if
(z)

L tz
for any > 0. But, as we already know, the quantity on the left-hand side of the above
inequality does not depend on . Hence, this quantity must be zero; i.e.
Z
f (t) dt
= 2if (z) .
L tz
P8.6 Let us consider the polynomial function

f (z) = z
and let
X (z) = z 2 a2
12
be the Plemelj function. Using Newtons generalized binomial formula, we obtain the
following development
Hence,

1

1
1 a4
1 a2
a2 2
f (z)
+
...
.
= z2 1
= z z 2 a2 2 = z 2 1 2
8 z4
2 z2
z
X (z)
a4
a2
f (z)
4 + ...
= z2
8z
2
X (z)
Comparing the above relation and the general equation (8.1.88), we get
m = 1, a2 = 1, a1 = 0, a0 =
a2
.
2
Thus, taking into account the general relation (8.1.96), we find

p

Z a
1
a2
a2
z
1
tdt
1
2
2
2
2
=
z z a z +
.
z +
=
2
2
2
2 X (z)
2i a X + (t) (t z)
664

We use now the relation (8.1.75)2 and obtain
1
.
X + (t) =
2
i a t2
Thus, the above equation becomes

p
Z a 2
a2
1
t a t2 dt
1
.
z z 2 a2 z 2 +
=
2
2
tz
2 a
Hence,

p
a2
,
I (z) = z z 2 a2 z 2 +
2
or, equivalently,
I (z) =
a2
z
z2 +
2
X (z)
P8.9 Let us consider the complex variables
zj = x1 + j x2 , j = 1, 2;
where 1 6= 2 are two complex numbers. Using the results obtained in P8.8, we have
, j = 1, 2.
+ j
= j
and
+
=
zj
zj
x2
zj
zj
x1
Taking into account these relations, we obtain
, j = 1, 2;
= j j
j
zj
x1
x2
and
j
= j j
, j = 1, 2.
x2
x1
zj
Consequently, the equation (8.2.13) can be expressed as

(1 1 )2 (2 2 )2
4
= 0.
z1 z 1 z2 z 2
Since 1 and 2 are complex numbers

1 6= 1 and 2 6= 2 .
Thus, the above equation can be satisfied if and only if

4
= 0.
z1 z 1 z2 z 2
Hence, the equations (8.2.13) and (8.2.16) are equivalent.
P8.10 Since 1 = 2 = , obviously, z1 = z2 = z = x + y and the equation (8.2.16)
becomes
4
= 0.
z 2 z 2
665
Integrating this equation with respect to z, we get

3
= H1 (z) ,
z z 2
H1 = H1 (z) being an arbitrary function of z. A new integration with respect to z gives
2
= zH1 (z) + G1 (z) ,
z2
G1 = G1 (z) being an arbitrary function of z. Integrating the above equation with respect
to z, we obtain
= zH1 (z) + G1 (z) + f1 (z) ,

z
where f1 = f1 (z) is an arbitrary function on z and
Z
Z
H1 (z) = H1 (z) dz, G1 (z) = G1 (z) dz.
A new integration with respect to z gives
= zh1 (z) + g1 (z) + zf1 (z) + f2 (z) ,
where f2 = f2 (z) is an arbitrary function of z and

Z
Z
h1 (z) = H1 (z) dz, g1 (z) = G1 (z) dz.
We recall now that = (x1 , x2 ) is a real valued function. Hence, we must have
h1 (z) = f1 (z) and g1 (z) = f2 (z).
Thus, finally, we get
= (x1 , x2 ) = zf1 (z) + z f1 (z) + f2 (z) + f2 (z)
or, equivalently,
= (x1 , x2 ) = 2Re {zf1 (z) + f2 (z)} .
Since f1 = f1 (z) and f2 = f2 (z) depend only on z = x1 + x2 , they are analytic
functions.
Thus, we can conclude that the general solution of our differential equation can be
expressed by two arbitrary analytic functions using the above equation.
In the theory of isotropic elastic material, only a representation of this type is used
to solve boundary value problems involving plane states.
P8.20 We use the representation formulas (8.2.32) and the results obtained in P8.16.
Thus, we obtain
q

q

1
2
2
2
2
z 1 a z 1 c 2 a1 1
.
z2 a z2
u2 (x1 , x2 ) = gRe
c 1 a2 2
666
Hence, the normal displacement of the upper face of the crack is

!)
(
+
q
c 1 a2 2 c 2 a1 1
+
2
x1 a2
, a < x1 < a.
x1
u2 x1 , 0 = gRe
Using the equations (8.1.29) and (8.1.30)1 , we get

q

c 1 a2 2 c 2 a1 1
, a < x1 < a.
i a2 x21 x1
u2 x1 , 0+ = gRe
According to equations (8.4.11)
Re
c 1 a2 2 c 2 a1 1
= 0.
Hence,
c 1 a2 1 c 2 a1 1
= iG,
where G is a real number. Taking into account this result for the normal displacement
of the upper face of the crack, we obtain the following expression:
q

u2 x1 , 0+ = gG a2 x21 for a < x1 < a.
Similar reasoning leads to the following expression for the normal displacement of the
lower face of the crack:
q

u2 x1 , 0 = gG a2 x21 for a < x1 < a.
Hence, for the jump

[u2 ] (x1 ) = u2 x1 , 0+ u2 x1 , 0
of the normal displacement, we obtain the following expression:

q
[u2 ] (x1 ) = 2gG a2 x21 for a < x1 < a.
P8.23 According to equations (8.5.39), the involved instantaneous elasticities have

the following expressions:
1331 = C55 + 11 , 2331 = C44 .

Hence,
3 = i
We suppose that
C55 + 11
.
C44
C55 + 11 > 0;
hence, we assume that the composite is internally or structurally stable. In this case,
from the results given in P8.21, we get

q
k
2
2
,
u3 (x1 , x2 ) = r

Re i z3 z3 a
C44 C55 + 11
667

where
C55 + 11
x2 .
C44
The above expression of the tangential displacement can be expressed in the following equivalent form:

q
k
2
2 z
z
.
a
Im
u3 (x1 , x2 ) = r
3
3

C44 C55 + 11
z 3 = x 1 + 3 x2 = x 1 + i
Particularly, as we already have seen in P8.21, on the upper face of the crack, we get
q

k
2
2
u3 x1 , 0 + = r

a x1 for a < x1 < a.
C44 C55 + 11

The last relation shows that u3 x1 , 0+ > 0 if k > 0. This is a normal result since
the tangential force applied on the upper face of the cut is in the direction of the positive
x3 axis, if k > 0.

Let us denote by u
b x1 , 0+ the tangential displacement of the upper face of the
crack if the initial applied stress is zero; i.e. if 11 = 0. We have

q

k
a2 x21 .
u
b3 x1 , 0+ =
C44 C55
Comparing the obtained results, we can see that

b3 x1 , 0+ if 11 < 0
u3 x1 , 0 + > u
and

u3 x1 , 0 + < u
b3 x1 , 0+ if 11 < 0.
That is, if the initial applied force 11 , acting in the direction of the reinforcing
fibers of the composite is a tensile force, the rigidity of the material is increasing, and if
the initial applied force is a compressive one, the rigidity of the composite is decreasing.
These results were first obtained by Guz [8.4]. We believe that the obtained properties
are completely meaningful and prove the consistency of the three-dimensional linearized
theory used to obtain the incremental behavior of a fiber reinforced and prestressed
composite containing a crack. Similar results are valuable concerning the first and the
second mode.
P8.27 Since according to the assumption made,
11 = 0
for the instantaneous elasticities given in P8.23, we get the following values:
1111 = 2222 = 3333 = + 2,
1122 = 2211 = 2233 = 3322 = 3311 = 1133 = ,
1212 = 2121 = 2323 = 3232 = 3131 = 1313 = ,
2112 = 1221 = 3223 = 2332 = 1331 = 3113 = .
668
According to the results obtained in P8.26, the roots 1 and 2 of the algebraic
equation (8.2.9) are equal and
1 = 2 = i.
Hence, the quantity f given by equation (8.4.4) has the following value:
f = 42 ( + )2 .
Analogously, for the quantity l given by equation (8.4.6), we find
l = 2i ( + ) ( + 2) .
Hence, for b
l defined by the relation (8.5.12), we get
b
l = 2 ( + ) ( + 2) .
The strain energy release rate GI (a) for the first mode is given by the relation (8.5.16).
Using the obtained results, we find
GI (a) = KI2
+ 2
.
4 ( + )
The Lames coefficients and can be expressed in terms of Youngs modulus E

and Poissons ratio by the relations
=
E
E
.
, =
2 (1 + )
(1 + ) (1 2)
Using these equations, finally, we get

1 2
KI .
2
This formula is well known in the classical fracture mechanics, concerning isotropic
materials without initial applied stresses. For the quantity m given by equation (8.4.18),
we get
GI (a) =
m = 2i ( + ) ( + 2) .
Hence, for m
b defined by equation (8.5.22), we obtain
m
b = 2 ( + ) ( + 2) .
The strain energy release rate GII (a) for the second mode is given by the relation
(8.5.25). Using the obtained results, we find
1 2
KII .
2
As above, this formula is well known in the classical fracture mechanics.
The strain energy release rate GIII (a) for the third mode is given by equation
(8.5.31). Using the values of the involved instantaneous elasticities, we obtain for G III (a)
the following well-known expression:
GII (a) =
669
1 2
KIII .
2
It is interesting to observe that we have obtained the above correct result corresponding to an isotropic material (for which 1 = 2 ), even if we have used the formula
corresponding to an anisotropic material (for which 1 6= 2 )!
GIII (a) =
P8.30 For a monoclinic material, the constitutive equations are given in the relation
(2.2.18). We have
11 = C11 11 + C12 22 + C13 33 + 2C16 12 ,
22 = C12 11 + C22 22 + C23 33 + 2C26 12 ,
33 = C13 11 + C23 22 + C33 33 + 2C36 12 ,
23 = 2C44 23 + 2C45 31 ,
31 = 2C45 23 + 2C55 31 ,
12 = C16 11 + C26 22 + C36 33 + 2C66 12 .
(a) Let us assume now that the material is in plane strain equilibrium state, relative to
the x1 x2 plane; i.e. we have
u1 = u1 (x1 , x2 ) , u2 = u2 (x1 , x2 ) , u3 = 0.
In this case, we get
13 = 23 = 33 = 0.
Also, we can conclude that 11 , 22 , 12 depend only on x1 , x2 . Also, we have
23 = 31 = 0,
and 11 , 22 , 33 , 12 depend only on x1 , x2 . Consequently, the Cauchys third equilibrium
equation is identically satisfied and the first two equations become
11,1 + 12,2 = 0, 21,1 + 22,2 = 0.
(b) According to the obtained results, the constitutive equations take the form
11 = C11 11 + C12 22 + 2C16 12 ,
22 = C12 11 + C22 22 + 2C26 12 ,
12 = C16 11 + C26 22 + 2C66 12 ,
33 = C13 11 + C23 23 + 2C36 12 .
Using the first three equations, taking into account the strain-displacement relations and
considering the equilibrium equations, we can conclude that the plane displacements
u1 = u1 (x1 , x2 ) , u2 = u2 (x1 , x2 ) must satisfy the following differential equations:
P11 u1 + P12 u2 = 0, P21 u1 + P22 u2 = 0,
where the involved differential operators are
P11 = C11
2
2
2
,
+ C66 2 + 2C16
2
x1 x2
x2
x1
670

P12 = P21 = (C12 + C66 )
2
2
2
+ C16 2 + C26 2 ,
x2
x1
x1 x2
2
2
2
.
2 + 2C26
2 + C22
x1 x2
x2
x1
The obtained result shows that in the assumed conditions, a plane strain equilibrium
state is possible.
(c) Let us suppose now a plane strain state motion; i.e. we assume that
P22 = C66
u1 = u1 (x1 , x2 , t) , u2 = u2 (x1 , x2 , t) , u3 = 0.
From (b), it is obvious that such a state can exist. Moreover, we can conclude that
the plane displacement components must satisfy the following equations of motion:
P11 u1 + P12 u2 =
u1 , P21 u1 + P22 u2 =
u2 ,
representing the mass density of the material in its stress-free reference configuration.
P8.35 (a) According to the assumption made,
1 6= 2 .
We know also that 1 and 2 are complex or imaginary numbers. Hence,
z1 = x1 + 1 x2 and z2 = x1 + 2 x2
are complex variables. We have also
z 1 = x1 + 1 x2 and z 2 = x1 + 2 x2 .
At the same time, we can see that the differential equation satisfied by = and given
in P8.32 (b) can be written in the following equivalent form:

= 0.
2
1
2
1
x1
x2
x1
x2
x1
x2
x1
x2
Now, using the relation
and
=
+
, = 1, 2;
+
=
x2
z
z
z
z
x1
it is easy to see that the above differential equations take the equivalent form
(1 1 )2 (2 2 )2
4
= 0.
z1 z 1 z2 z 2
Since 1 and 2 are complex, numbers 1 6= 1 and 2 6= 2 . Hence, the above equation
becomes
4
= 0.
z1 z 1 z2 z 2
(b) Now, it is easy to see that the general solution of this equation is
= (x1 , x2 ) = f1 (z1 ) + f2 (z2 ) + f3 (z 1 ) + f4 (z 2 ) ,
671
where f1 , f2 , f3 and f4 are arbitrary functions depending on z1 , z2 , z 1 and z 2 , respectively.

We recall now that = (x1 , x2 ) is a real valued function. Hence, we must have f3 (z 1 ) =
f1 (z1 ) and f4 (z 2 ) = f2 (z2 ).
= (x1 , x2 ) = f1 (z1 ) + f1 (z1 ) + f2 (z2 ) + f2 (z2 ) = 2Re {f1 (z1 ) + f2 (z2 )} ,
where f1 = f1 (z1 ) and f2 = f2 (z2 ) depending only on the complex variables z1 and z2 ,
respectively, are arbitrary analytical functions.
The obtained results represent the basis to obtain the representation of Leknitskii
and Guz type of the elastic state through two complex potentials.
P8.36 According to the results obtained in P8.31, we have

2
2
2
+ C26 2 ,
u1 = P12 = C16 2 + (C12 + C66 )
x2
x1 x2
x1
u2 = P11 =
C11
2
2
2
+ C66 2
+ 2C16
2
x2
x1 x2
x1
According to P8.35, we have also

= 2Re {f1 (z1 ) + f2 (z2 )}
with z1 = x1 + 1 x2 , z2 = x1 + 2 x2 .
Hence, using the chain rule, we obtain

u1 = 2Re P1 f100 + P2 f200 , u2 = 2Re Q1 f100 + Q2 f200 ,
where
P = C16 + (C12 + C66 ) + C26 2 ,

Q = C11 + 2C16 + C66 2 , = 1, 2.
Now we shall introduce the following analytical functions:
F (z ) = P f00 (z ) , = 1, 2.
Thus, we obtain
u1 = 2Re {F1 (z1 ) + F2 (z2 )} , u2 = 2Re

Q2
Q1
F2 (z2 ) .
F1 (z1 ) +
P2
P1
According to P8.30 (b), we have

22 = C12 u1,1 + C22 u2,2 + C26 (u1,2 + u2,1 ) .
Using the expressions of u1 and u2 after elementary computations, we get

2 0
1 0
F2 (z2 ) ,
F1 (z1 ) +
22 = 2Re
p2
p1
672
where
2 3
C22 C66 C26
+ 2 (C22 C16 C12 C26 ) 2

2
+ C11 C22 C12
C12 C66 + C16 C26
+ (C11 C26 C12 C16 ) , = 1, 2.
Since 1 and 2 satisfy the equation l () = 0, given in P8.32, the above expression can
be simplified and we get

2
= (C66 C12 C16 C26 ) 2 + (C12 C16 C11 C26 ) + C16
C11 C66 1
,
= 1, 2.
Let us introduce now the analytic functions

(z ) =
F (z ) , = 1, 2.
P
Using the above results, we obtain

u1 = 2Re {p1 1 (z1 ) + p2 2 (z2 )}
with
P
, = 1, 2;
u2 = 2Re {q1 1 (z1 ) + q2 2 (z2 )} ,

p =
with
q =
Q
, = 1, 2,
and
22 = 2Re {1 (z1 ) + 2 (z2 )} with (z ) = (z ).
To obtain the components 12 = 21 and 11 , we use the constitutive equations given in

P8.30(b). We have
12 = C16 u1,1 + C26 u2,2 + C66 (u1,2 + u2,1 ),
11 = C11 u1,1 + C12 u2,2 + C16 (u1,2 + u2,1 ).
Using the above complex representations of u1 and u2 , after long, but elementary computations, we get
12 = 2Re {r1 1 (z1 ) + r2 2 (z2 )} ,
where
ra =
and
R
, = 1, 2,
2
R = (C11 c66 C16
) + (C11 c26 C12 c16 )u + (C16 C26 C66 C12 )u2 , = 1, 2
where
11 = 2Re {s1 1 (z1 ) + s2 2 (z2 )}

s =
S
, = 1, 2,
673

2
S = C11 (C22 C12 C66 ) + C16
+ (C16 C22 C11 C26 ) +
2
C16 (C66 C26 ) , = 1, 2.
The above obtained relations give the Lekhniskii-Guz type representation of the
elastic state by two complex potentials defined in two different complex planes.
A different, but equivalent representation is given by Lekhniskii [8.2] and by Sih and
Leibowitz [8.4]. These authors use a different approach using a stress potential (Airys
function) and taking into account the compatibility condition satisfied by the nonvanishing components of the strain tensor.
P8.37 According to the assumptions made, the following boundary conditions must
be satisfied on the two faces of the crack.

21 x1 , 0+ = 21 x1 , 0 = 0 for |x1 | < a
and

22 x1 , 0+ = 22 x1 , 0 = g (x1 ) for |x1 | < a.
Here, g = g (x1 ) is a given function and we suppose that this function satisfies the
H condition.
The displacements and stresses are vanishing at large distances from the crack; i.e.
we must have
q
lim {u (x1 , x2 ) , (x1 , x2 )} = 0 for r = x21 + x22 , , = 1, 2.
r
Taking into account the representation formula obtained in P8.36, we can conclude
that the complex potentials must satisfy the following conditions at large distances from
the crack:
lim { (z ) , (z )} = 0 for = 1, 2.
|z |
Using the representation formula for 21 and the boundary conditions which must
be satisfied by 21 at the two faces of the crack, we can conclude that the complex
potentials 1 (z1 ) and 2 (z2 ) must satisfy the following boundary conditions:
+
r1 +
1 (x1 ) + r2 2 (x1 ) + r 1 1 (x1 ) + r 2 2 (x1 ) = 0,
r1
1 (x1 ) + r2 2 (x1 ) + r 1 1 (x1 ) + r 2 2 (x1 ) = 0,
for |x1 | < a.

Reasoning, as in Section 8.3, we can conclude that our complex potentials must
satisfy the following relation:
r1 1 (z) + r2 2 (z) = 0 for any z = x1 + ix2 .
According to the second boundary condition satisfied by 22 on the two faces of the crack,
we get
+
+
1 (x1 ) + 2 (x1 ) + 1 (x1 ) + 2 (x1 ) = g (x1 ) ,
+
for |x1 | < a.
1 (x1 ) + 2 (x1 ) + 1 (x1 ) + 2 (x1 ) = g (x1 ) ,
674

Using the above established relation connecting the two potentials, we obtain
r1
2 (z) = 1 (z) for any z = x1 + ix2 .
r2
Taking into account this equation, we can eliminate the potential 2 (z2 ) and for
the potential 1 (z1 ), we get the following boundary conditions:
r2 r1
r2 r 1 +
1 (x1 ) = g (x1 ) ,
1 (x1 ) +
r2
r2
r2 r1 +
r2 r 1
1 (x1 ) = g (x1 ) .
1 (x1 ) +
r2
r2
Adding and subtracting lead to

+

r2 r1
r2 r 1
r2 r1
r2 r 1
= 2g,
1
1 +
+
1
1 +
r2
r2
r2
r2
+

r2 r1
r2 r 1
r2 r 1
r2 r1
1
1
1
= 0.
1
r2
r2
r2
r2
Reasoning, as in Section 8.3, from the second condition, we can conclude that the
following condition must be satisfied:
r2 r 1
r2 r1
1 (z1 )
1 (z1 ) = 0.
r2
r2
The first condition represents a nonhomogeneous Hilbert-Riemann problem. Hence,
as in Section 8.3, we get
Z
r2 r 1
r2 r1
X (z1 ) a
g (t) dt
1 (z1 ) +
1 (z1 ) =
,
+
r2
r2
i
a X (t) (t z)
where X (z1 ) is the Plemeljs function.
The last two relations and the formulas connecting the two potentials give the
following result:
Z a
r2 X (z1 )
g (t) dt
1 (z1 ) = 01 (z1 ) =
,
2i (r2 r1 ) a X + (t) (t z)
Z a
r1 X (z2 )
g (t) dt
2 (z2 ) = 02 (z2 ) =
.
2i (r2 r1 ) a X + (t) (t z)
If we use the properties of Plemeljs function, we can express the complex potentials
Z a
r2
g (t) a2 t2 dt
p
1 (z1 ) = 01 (z1 ) =
,
tz
2 (r2 r1 ) z12 a2 a
Z a
r1
g (t) a2 t2 dt
p
2 (z2 ) = 02 (z2 ) =
.
tz
2 (r2 r1 ) z22 a2 a
P8.40 (a) To solve the problem, we use the complex representation of the normal displacement u2 (x1 , x2 ) given in P8.36 jointly with the expressions of the complex
potentials obtained in P8.38. We get

q

q

q1 r2
q2 r1
u2 (x1 , x2 ) = pRe
z12 a2 z1
.
z22 a2 z1
r2 r 1
r2 r 1
675
To find the normal displacement of the line < x1 < a, x2 = 0 behind the
crack, we use the relations (8.1.27) defining the Plemeljs function. In this way, after
elementary computations, we get

q
q1 r2 q 2 r1
2
2
, for < x1 < a.
x1 a + x1 Re
u2 (x1 , 0) = p
r2 r 1
In the case of a monoclinic material, (q1 r2 q2 r1 )/(r2 r1 ) is a complex number.

Let us denote by m and n, its real and imaginary parts, respectively; i.e.
q1 r2 q 2 r1
= m in,
r2 r 1
and we have
m 6= 0 and n > 0.
Using the above decomposition, we obtain

q
2
2
for < x1 < a.
x1 a + x1
u2 (x1 , 0) = pm
To find the normal displacement of the line a < x1 < , x2 = 0 ahead of the crack,
we use the same procedure and obtain

q
2
2
x1 a x1 for a < x1 < .
u2 (x2 , 0) = pm

(b) Using again the relations (8.1.27) for the normal displacement u2 x1 , 0+ of the
upper face of the crack, we obtain the following expression:

q

u2 x1 , 0+ = p n a2 x21 mx1 for a < x1 < a.

Analogously, for the normal displacement u2 x1 , 0 of the lower face of the crack,
we obtain the following equation:

q

u2 x1 , 0 = p n a2 x21 mx1 for a < x1 < a.
(c) To give the graphical representations of the obtained results, we assume

p > 0, m > 0
and we introduce the functions U + (x1 ) and U (x1 ) defined in the following way:
1
p u2 (x1 , 0) for
< x1 < a
p1 u2 x1 , 0+ for a < x1 < a ,
U + (x1 ) =
p1 u2 (x1 , 0) for a < x1 <
and
1
p u2 (x1 , 0) for
< x1 < a
p1 u2 x1 , 0 for a < x1 < a
U (x1 ) =
p1 u2 (x1 , 0) for a < x1 < .
676
We get

p
2
2
m p x1 a + x1 for < x1 < a

U + (x1 ) =
n a2 x21 mx1 for a < x1 < a
x2 a2 x1 for a < x1 <

m
1
and

p
2
2 +x
a
for < x1 < a
x
m
1
p
U (x1 ) =
n a2 x21 mx
1 for a < x1 < a
2
x1 a x1 for a < x1 < .
m
Obviously, we have U + (x1 ) = U (x1 ) for < x1 < a and a < x1 < since
in the above intervals U + (x1 ) and U (x1 ) characterize the normal displacement of the
lines < x1 < a, x2 = 0 and a < x1 < , x2 = 0 behind and ahead of the crack.
Also, it is clear that
U + (x1 ) 6= U (x1 ) for a < x1 < a
since in the above interval U + (x1 ) and U (x1 ) characterize the normal displacements
of the two faces of the crack and these displacements are not equal for the same value of
the coordinate x1 !
The Figures S.13 and S.14 give the graphical representations of the functions U + =
+
U (x1 ) and U = U (x1 ) .
U+
m2+n2 a
na
ma
-a
-ma
m2 +n2
na
m2 +n2
-ma
Figure S.13: The function U + = U + (x1 ) ; 0 < m < n.

(c) We can make the following observations:
(i) Since for a monoclinic material m 6= 0, the normal displacement of the lines
< x1 < a, x2 = 0 and a < x1 < , x2 = 0 behind and ahead of the crack are not
zero and have opposite orientations on the two lines.
677
Uma
-na
m2+n2
-a
ma
m2 +n2
-ma
-na
-
m 2+n 2a
Figure S.14: The function U = U (x1 ) ; 0 < m < n
(ii) As we have seen in Section 8.3 for an orthotropic material, even if it is prestressed in the considered manner, the normal displacement of the above lines is zero.
(iii) Even if the symmetrically applied normal stresses have constant value on the
two faces of the crack, for a monoclinic material, the normal displacements are not symmetric relative to the line x2 = 0 and the crack tip have nonzero normal displacements,
since m 6= 0.
(iv) As we have seen in the Section 8.3, for an orthotropic material, even if it is
prestressed in the given manner, the normal displacements of the two faces of the crack are
symmetric relative to the x2 = 0 line and the crack tips have zero normal displacements,
if the normal stresses are symmetrically applied on the crack faces.
(v) To explain the above results, we recall that the normal loads are symmetrically
applied on the two faces of the crack relative to the plane x1 x3 . This is a symmetry plane
for an orthotropic material even if it is prestressed in the considered manner, but it is
not a symmetry plane for our monoclinic material! Obviously, this latter fact produces
the observed behavior signaled in (i) and (iv) .
P8.43 Since C44 > 0, the equilibrium equation satisfied by u3 can be written in the
following equivalent form:
u3,22 + 2
C55
C45
u3,11 = 0.
u3,12 +
C44
C44
Let us try to factorize this equation in the following form:

u3 = 0,
4
3
x1
x2
x1
x2
where 3 and 4 are constant quantities. It is easy to see that the above two equations
678
are equivalent if and only if 3 and 4 satisfy the following relations:

3 + 4 = 2
C55
C45
.
, 3 4 =
C44
C44
Hence, 3 and 4 are the roots of the algebraic equation

2 + 2
C55
C45
= 0.
+
C44
C44
Accordingly, we get

q
q
1
1
2
2
.
C45 i C44 C55 C45
, 4 =
C45 + i C44 C55 C45
3 =
C44
C44
2
> 0, 3 and 4 are conjugate complex numbers; i.e.
Since C44 C55 C45
4 = 3 .
Hence, the differential equation satisfied by u3 becomes

u3 = 0.
3
3
x1
x2
x1
x2
We introduce the complex variable,

z 3 = x 1 + 3 x2 .
Now, we can see that the above differential equation takes the following equivalent form:
2 u3
= 0.
z3 z 3
Thus, we can conclude that the antiplane elastic state can be represented in the following
way:
u3 = 2Ref3 (z3 ) ,
13 = 2Re(1 f30 (z3 )) with 1 = C55 + C45 3 ,
23 = 2Re(2 f30 (z3 )) with 2 = C45 + C44 3 ,
f3 = f3 (z3 ) being an arbitrary analytic function of the complex variable z3 . Introducing
the analytic function
3 (z3 ) = 2 f3 (z3 )
we get the following equivalent representation:
u3 = 2Re1
2 3 (z3 ) ;
13 = 2Req3 (z3 ) , q =
1
,
2
23 = 2Re3 (z3 ) , 3 (z3 ) = 0 (z3 ) ,

which is more useful to study problems concerning a crack.

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MECHANICS OF

CHAPMAN & HALL/CRC

C4428_SeriesPage 7/31/03 1:34 PM Page 1

CRC S ERIES: M ODERN M ECHANICS

Series Editors: David Gao and Ray W. Ogden

MECHANICS OF ELASTIC COMPOSITES

BEYOND PERTUBATION: INTRODUCTION

TO THE HOMOTOPY ANALYSIS

HYBRID INCOMPATIBLE FINITE ELEMENT METHODS

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C4428_discl.fm Page 1 Monday, July 21, 2003 8:34 AM

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

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MECHANICS OF ELASTIC COMPOSITES

Copyright 2004 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

Copyright 2004 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

Copyright 2004 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

Copyright 2004 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

Hashins bounds for the overall moduli

5 THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL LINEARIZED THEORY

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Change of basis by a rotation about e3 .

The singular surface .

Lamina with unidirectional fibers.

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3.20 Simply supported laminated rectangular plate under distributed

Scales of analysis: d << l << L.

The configuration B, B and Bt .

c into two branches (broken curves) with tangents W and W + U

Superficial instability. Incremental plane states.

Copyright 2004 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

Rectangular composite laminate under biaxial compression.

Variation of the critical load N c 11 with aspect ratio K = ab .

The definition of the logarithmic function.

The definition of the function f (z) = z 2 a2

The spherical coordinate system.

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Copyright 2004 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

CHAPTER 1. ELEMENTS OF TENSOR CALCULUS

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1.1. TENSOR ALGEBRA

(S2) (u) v = (u v) (associativity with respect to multiplication with

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CHAPTER 1. ELEMENTS OF TENSOR CALCULUS

ek em = km and e0r e0s = rs , k, m, r, s = 1, ..., n. Hence, we successively obtain

qkr = ek e0r = cos (ek , e0r ) .

Copyright 2004 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

e02 = e1 sin + e2 cos ,

1.1. TENSOR ALGEBRA

From the equations (1.1.4), it follows that the transformation matrix Q =

Accordingly, the transformation of the components of a vector u from V is

Figure 1.1: Change of basis by a rotation about e3 .

Copyright 2004 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

CHAPTER 1. ELEMENTS OF TENSOR CALCULUS

The linearity of the function T, involved in the definition of a second order

The null tensor, denoted by 0, is defined by the equation

The sum T + U of two tensors T and U is defined by the equation

The product T = T of a real number and a tensor T is defined by the

Using this definition and the properties (S1)-(S5) of a scalar product, we

Copyright 2004 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

1.1. TENSOR ALGEBRA

= (T Tkm ek em ) (vs es ) = vs Tes vs Tkm ek (em es )

Hence, T Tkm ek em = 0 (the second order null tensor). Accordingly,