Lab Notes PH-315

Portland State University

A. La Rosa

Transfer function and the Laplace transformation

__________________________________________________________
1.
2.
3.
4.

INTRODUCTION
THE LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION L
TRANSFER FUNCTIONS
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
Analysis of the three basic passive elements R, C and L
Simple lag network (low pass filter)

1. INTRODUCTION
Transfer functions are used to calculate the response C(t) of a system to a given input
signal R(t). Here t stands for the time variable.

r(t )
Input signal

Electronic circuit,
mechanical system,
thermal system

c(t )
Output signal

Physical system
Fig. 1 Given an input signal, we would like to know the system response C(t).

The dynamic behavior of a physical system are typically described by differential (and/or
integral) equations:

For a given input signal R(t), these equations need to be solved in order to find C(t).

Alternatively, instead of trying to find the solution in the time domain, each timevariable, as well as the differential equations, can be transformed to a different
variable domain in which the solutions can be obtain in a more straightforward way;
then an inverse transform would take place the solution into the time domain

Original problem
r(t ),
differential Eq.

Difficult solution

Transform
Problem in
transform space
R(s)
Easier solution
Algebraic operations

Solution of
original problem
c (t )
Inverse
transform
Solution in
transform space
C(s)

Fig. 2 Solving the equations in a different domain and then applying

an inverse transform to obtain the solution in the time domain

One of those transforms is the Laplace transformation

2. THE LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION L
The Laplace transform F=F(s) of a function f = f (t ) is defined by,

L
F

L (f) = F

F(s) f (t ) e- st dt

(1)

The variable s is a complex number, s = a +j.

f (t)

F(s)

s
a

t
Time domain

Laplace domain

Example f is the unit step function

F(s)

f (t ) e

- st dt

= 1 e- st dt

1
s

t
Time domain

Laplace domain

(2)

Example A signal response from a system (temperature, for example) respond, after an
external; excitation has stopped, by decaying exponentially. Lets find out how such decay is
characterized by a Laplace transformation.
f is a decaying exponential f (t ) Ae- t

F(s)

f (t ) e

- st dt

F(s)

Ae

-t

e- st dt

t
Time domain

A
s

(2)

Laplace domain

Example. As we mentioned in the introduction, the system response is governed by differential

d2 f
df
equations. We would like to know then, how
and
transform by a Laplace
dt 2
dt
d2 f
df
transformation. For simplicity, and clarity, lets use the notation:
= f and
=f .
dt 2
dt
If F = L ( f ) evaluate L (f )

L( f ')

f ' (t ) e

- st dt

- st
f (t ) e

s f (t ) e - st dt
0

f (0) s f (t ) e- st dt
0

f (0) s [ L ( f ) ]

f (0) s F(s)

Laplace transformation of
(3)
the derivative
Typically, one proceeds putting the initial conditions equal to zero. (The situation with initial
conditions different than zero are added in a separate simpler procedure). Thus,

L( f ')

Laplace transformation of the derivative

s F(s)

with the initial conditions equal to zero

If F = L ( f ) evaluate L (f )

(3)

L( f ")

f " (t ) e

- st dt

f ' (0) s f (0) s2 F(s)

Laplace transformation of the

(4)
second derivative
Typically, one proceeds putting the initial conditions equal to zero. (The situation with initial
conditions different than zero are added in a separate simpler procedure). Thus,

L( f ")

s2 F(s)

Laplace transformation of the second derivative

(4)

with the initial conditions equal to zero

Example. Sometimes the response signal of a system (the voltage across a capacitor, for
example) must be given in terms of the integral of another quantity (the integral of the
corresponding current across the capacitor). It is convenient, then, to obtain the Laplace
transformation of an indefinite integral g (t )

If F = L ( f ) and g (t )

f (u) du

f (u) du , evaluate L (g)

L (g) s g (t ) e- st dt

f (u ) du ] e- st dt

-[

1
s

f (u) du ]

1 - st
e

s
0

f (t ) ] [

1
s

e- st ] dt

f (t ) e- st dt

1
F(s )
s

Laplace transformation of the

(5)

indefinite integral

3. TRANSFER FUNCTIONS

r(t )
Input signal

Differential Eq
governing the behavior
of the system

c(t )
Output signal

Fig. 3 Schematic of the system response in the time domain

In a simple system, the output c(t) may be governed by a second order differential equation
a2 c + a1 c + ao c = r (t)

Applying the Laplace transforms (3) and (4), one obtains

( a2 s2 + a1 s + ao ) C(s) = R (s)

C(s)

1
a 2 s + a1 s a o
2

R(s)

In a more general case, the differential equation may be of higher order (higher than 2). Also
the input may be composed of derivatives of a given function r=r(t). Therefore the factor
1
may become a more elaborated function of s.
2
a 2 s + a1 s a o
Thus, for a system in general,
C(s) = G(s) R(s)

(6)

Notice, G=G(s) characterizes the physical system. It is called the transfer function.
It is more typical to write,

G(s)

C(s)
R(s)

(7)

from which, for a given R=R(s) the function C=C(s) can be obtained.

R(s )
Input signal

G(s)

C(s )
Output signal

Fig. 4 Schematic of the system response in the Laplace domain

Example. A system is characterized by the transfer function G(s)

2s 3
.
(s 1) (s 6)

Find out how the system respond to a exponentially decaying input r(t ) e- 2t .
Answer:
The Laplace transformation of r gives, using expression (2), R(s) =
The output signal, in the Laplace domain , is then given by, C(s)

1
s2
2s 3
1
(s 1) (s 6) s 2

In a typical procedure, when possible, C(s) is re-written in the following form:

C(s)

K
K1
K
2 3 , with K1, K2, K3, to be determined.
s 1 s 6 s 2

Notice, K1 C(s)(s 1) 1 0.8

K 2 C(s)(s 6) 6 - 0.3
K 3 C(s)(s 2) 2 - 0.5

Thus,

C(s)

0.8
- 0.3
- 0.5

s 1 s 6 s 2

Now, using (2) we identify the time dependent functions these individual Laplace
transforms come from,

c( t ) 0.8 e- t 0.3 e- 6t 0.5e- 2t

Answer.

Recapitulating the process,

c( t ) 0.8 e - t 0.3 e- 6t

r (t ) e - 2 t
Difficult solution

Original problem
r(t )

System
Differential Eq
Integral Eq.

0.5e - 2t

Solution of original
problem
c (t )

Laplace
Transform

Problem in
Laplace space

R(s)
R(s) =

1
s2

Inverse
transform
G(s)
+ algebraic operations

2s 3
G(s)
(s 1) (s 6)

Solution in Laplace
space

C(s)
C(s)

0.8
- 0.3
- 0.5

s 1 s 6 s 2

Fig. 5 Schematic representation of the solution procedure in the previous example.

In the previous example, the transfer function was given. In the next section we will figure out
the transfer function for the case of electrical systems.

4. ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Lets analyze the three basic elements R, C and L individually.

Let

I I(s) be the Laplace transform of i= i (t).

vL

vc

vR
R

Fig. 6 Elementary passive circuit elements

Capacitor
vc (t) =
=

q( t )
C
1
C

i (u) du
0

1
using (5)
Vc (s) =
C
Vc (s)

i (u) du
0

1
I(s )
Cs

1 1
I(s )
C s
(8)

Defining the capacitance impedance,

1
Zc
(9)
Cs
we can express,
Vc (s) = Zc I(s)

(10)

Inductor
vL (t) = L

d i (t )
dt

using (3)'

VL (s) L s I(s)

(11)

Defining the inductor impedance,

ZL L s
(12)
we can express,
VL (s) = ZL I(s )

(13)

Resistor
vR (t) = R i (t )
Time domain

VR (s) R I(s)
Laplace domain

(14)

Analysis of a simple lag network

Solving the Kirchoff law in the time-domain and in the Laplace -domain

vin (t)

R
vout (t)

q
i

Fig. 7 Low pass filter in the time domain.

vin (t) = R i (t ) +
= R i (t ) +

q( t )
C
1 t
i (u) du
C 0

using (5)

Vin (s) R I(s)

1
I(s )
Cs

R
I(s)
Cs

(15)

On the other hand

vout (t)

q( t )
C
1 t i (u ) du
C 0

using (5)

Vout (s)

1
I(s )
Cs

(16)

From (15) and (16)

Vout (s)

G(s)

Vin (s )

G(s)

1
RCs 1

Input signal
Fig. 8 Low pass filter in the Laplace domain.

Vin
1
Cs R 1/Cs

Vout
1

Vin RCs 1

Vout (s )
Output signal

(17)

Analysis of a simple lag network

Method using the complex impedance in the Laplace domain

Vin (s)

Vout (s)
I(s)

ZC

Vin (s) = ( R ZC ) I(s)

I(s )

Vin (s )
( R ZC )

On the other hand,

Vout (s) ZC I(s)

ZC

Vin (s)
( R ZC )

Using expression (9), Zc

Vout (s)

G(s)

1
,
Cs

Vin
1
1

Vin (s)
1
Cs ( R
R
Cs

1
)
Cs

Vout (s)
1

Vin (s)
RCs 1