Beruflich Dokumente
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This comma amongst other commas has led to the introduction of the equal temperament in later times.
Diapason = Octave
Diapente = Fifth
Diatessaron = Fourth
Diezeuctic tone = major Second
Limma ~ minor Second
While diapason, diapente and diatessaron belong, according to theorem XIX, to the unmovable sounds, the diezeuctic tone and the lima belong, according
to theorem XX, to the class of moveable sounds.
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This is, a minor second (15/16) is followed by a small major second (10/9) and a large major second (9/8) which results in a fourth (4/3). This tetrachord
corresponds to just tuning.
What is remarkable about Ptolemy's contribution is not only that he was able to depict intervals in form of fractions
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which in musical
terms can be related to the interval of a minor second (i.e. mi to fa). Taking into account the introduction of the cent calculation, equal temperament and the
discovery of categorical perception, we might conclude that Kepler's Harmonices Mundi appears to be of historical value only. Still, what is truly surprising
is that Kepler's ideas are absurd from a physical point of view. It is true that:
but still:
ran 5 kg."
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They don't know here, that amongst ignorant warmongers of lazy and constrained people who
think and act completely different [to me], in restlessness this work was written for you.
Descartes shows in this compendium his clear understanding of modern and traditional music theoretical ideas, but he delivers apparently for the first time in
history a stringent classification of consonances and dissonances as shown in the figure below taken from his compendium.
Here, Descartes puts the diapasson (octave) in the centre (most consonant), the diapente (fifths) and diatessaron (fourth) both into the next layer (less
consonant), the hexachordon minus (minor sixth) and the diatonis (major third) into the next layer (even less consonant) and in the outside layer he places the
tertia minor (minor third) and hexachordon majus (major sixth). Tritone and seconds are considered to be dissonant. It is interesting to note, that HofmannEngl's virtual pitch model computes for the octave 1 Schouten, the fifth 0.75 Schouten, the fourth 0.679 Schouten, the major third 0.56 Schouten, the minor
sixth 0.513 Schouten, the major sixth 0.511 Schouten and for the minor third 0.49 Schouten. The minor second on the other end of the spectrum drops down
to 0.182 Schouten. These computations might be seen as supporting Descartes's approach.
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With Werckmeister, questions on how to tune instruments draws to a close even if the introduction of the cent calculation still lies away more than 100 years
from here. Werckmeister proposes a number of different tunings called Wohltemperierte Stimmung (well-proportioned tuning) leading towards equal
temperament as outlined in his Musicalische Temperatur (1691). Particularly, the tuning with the fifths D - A, F# - C#, C# - G# and F - C narrowed down
by a (Pythagorean) comma and the fifth G# - D# widened by the same amount we obtain a tuning which deviates from equal temperament by a mean of 2.6
cent only. Starting on C with 0 cent, we obtain the interval series:
0 96 204 300 396 504 600 702 792 900 1002 1098 [cent]
with c as a constant
It is interesting to note that Ptolemy's understanding that ratio multiplication correlates to the addition of intervals implies, as shown by Hofmann-Engl (1989),
the Fechner law.
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In 1885, Ellis published his paper called On the Musical Scales of various Nations in the Journal of the Society of Arts. Being aware that, in order to
compare various scales and tuning system against each other, a robust measurement is needed, he introduced the cent calculation. The logarithmic definition is:
At times, the definition is given in the from that 1 cent is the 1200 th part of an octave written as:
1.12. Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz (31 August 1821 8 September 1894)
Helmhotltz's general importance as his specific importance within music might have been exaggerated by historians (not essentially different to the exaggeration
of Albert Einstein's importance). In terms of music theory, Helmholtz wrote: Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen als physiologische Grundlage fr die
Theorie der Musik (translated by Ellis in 1875 as On the Sensations of Tones and more literally: The teachings of sound sensations as the basis of music
theory) which was published in 1863. Here, Helmholtz attaches dashes as pre- and suffixes to the musical letters (capital ones for the lower and lower case
ones for the upper octaves) in order to differentiate between octaves.
Fusion Degree
(experiment 1)
(experiment 2)
Octave
76%
Fifth
62%
50%
Fourth
36%
36%
Interval
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Major Third
30%
27%
Minor Third
30%
Minor Sixth
19%
Triton
15%
24%
It appears that for the first time ion history, a music theorist uses statistical tools measuring human responses in order to answer a question of music perceptual
nature.
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with
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What this team attempted to demonstrate with this analysis is to show that over a period of nearly 500 years musical compositions had gained complexity
measured as an increase in sigma and entropy values. Within the following chapters they continue to apply similar measures to various other parameters
producing similar results.
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Retrograde as:
Arpeggio as:
He then defines a melody as a vector consisting of a pitch component x and a time component y as:
matrix, we obtain:
This is, the time line is now reversed. However as pointed out by Hofmann-Engl (2003), inversion is not a reversal in time, but reversing the order of the pitch
sequence. Similar issues are pointed out by Hofmann-Engl (2003) with the three remaining matrices and particularly with the parameter change which is:
, which means that Mazzola now treats the time/duration and the frequency/pitch dimension as interchangeable which is absurd from a
physical as well as from a cognitive point of view. However, it must be noted that it appears that it was Mazzola who, for the first time in history, used matrices
in the context of melodic transformations.
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. He then computes the percentage of each pitch class occurring using the formula:
concludes that the pitch classes d, e, g, a occur significantly more often, c and b occur regularly, c#, f and f# are non-significantly underrepresented and d#, g#
and a# are significantly underrepresented. After some further computation he arrives at the following graph:
Here, the graph shows that c-major/a-minor are the key(s) which underpin the composition. Supported by a further harmonic analysis, Hofmann-Engl
concludes that this composition is in a-minor leading to the summary conclusion that Ligeti made use of more contemporary harmonies in order to disguise the
fact that the piece is actually in a traditional key.
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where V(t) is the strength of the virtual tone t, ws(si) the spectral weight of the ith subharmonic of the chord, wp (si) the weight of the ith subharmonic according to the position of
the tone within the chord, n the number of tones the chord consists of and the constant c = 6 Hh
A second part of the model calculates the consonance/dissonance degree, called the sonance to any given chord and is given as:
where S(ch) is the sonance (with unit Sh = Schouten) of the chord ch, vmax is the virtuality of the strongest root, k = 6 Hh/Sh, m is the number of virtual pitches produced by the
chord ch, vpmax is the virtuality of the strongest root in percent (= vmax divided by the sum of all virtual pitches of the chord ch), c = 0.223 (the maximal limit the strongest root can
fetch), n the number of tones the chord ch consists of and i the ith tone of the chord ch.
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This vectors are then transformed via transformation matrices of the following two types:
These matrices are used later to define similarity and interval vectors. The chronotonic similarity vector has found it's application in form of the chronotonic
distance in the works of Toussaint and others. Of particular interest may be the application of the chronotonic distance in the context of Flamenco Music.
Acknowledgment
A thank you to Yan-Tak Lau-Davies for providing the information on Jing Fang and Sima Biao.
References
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