Chapter 8:

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

Introduction
The operational amplifier is arguably the most useful single device in analog electronic circuitry. With only
a handful of external components, it can be made to perform a wide variety of analog signal processing
tasks. It is also quite affordable, most general-purpose amplifiers selling for under a dollar apiece. Modern
designs have been engineered with durability in mind as well: several "op-amps" are manufactured that
can sustain direct short-circuits on their outputs without damage.
One key to the usefulness of these little circuits is in the engineering principle of feedback, particularly
negative feedback, which constitutes the foundation of almost all automatic control processes. The
principles presented here in operational amplifier circuits, therefore, extend well beyond the immediate
scope of electronics. It is well worth the electronics student's time to learn these principles and learn them
well.

Chapter 8:
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

Single-ended and differential amplifiers

For ease of drawing complex circuit diagrams, electronic amplifiers are often symbolized by a simple
triangle shape, where the internal components are not individually represented. This symbology is very
handy for cases where an amplifier's construction is irrelevant to the greater function of the overall circuit,
and it is worthy of familiarization:

The +V and -V connections denote the positive and negative sides of the DC power supply, respectively.
The input and output voltage connections are shown as single conductors, because it is assumed that all
signal voltages are referenced to a common connection in the circuit called ground. Often (but not
always!), one pole of the DC power supply, either positive or negative, is that ground reference point. A
practical amplifier circuit (showing the input voltage source, load resistance, and power supply) might look
like this:

Without having to analyze the actual transistor design of the amplifier, you can readily discern the whole
circuit's function: to take an input signal (Vin), amplify it, and drive a load resistance (Rload). To complete
the above schematic, it would be good to specify the gains of that amplifier (A V, AI, AP) and the Q (bias)
point for any needed mathematical analysis.
If it is necessary for an amplifier to be able to output true AC voltage (reversing polarity) to the load, a split
DC power supply may be used, whereby the ground point is electrically "centered" between +V and -V.
Sometimes the split power supply configuration is referred to as a dual power supply.

The amplifier is still being supplied with 30 volts overall, but with the split voltage DC power supply, the
output voltage across the load resistor can now swing from a theoretical maximum of +15 volts to -15
volts, instead of +30 volts to 0 volts. This is an easy way to get true alternating current (AC) output from
an amplifier without resorting to capacitive or inductive (transformer) coupling on the output. The peak-topeak amplitude of this amplifier's output between cutoff and saturation remains unchanged.
By signifying a transistor amplifier within a larger circuit with a triangle symbol, we ease the task of
studying and analyzing more complex amplifiers and circuits. One of these more complex amplifier types
that we'll be studying is called the differential amplifier. Unlike normal amplifiers, which amplify a single
input signal (often called single-ended amplifiers), differential amplifiers amplify the voltage difference
between two input signals. Using the simplified triangle amplifier symbol, a differential amplifier looks like
this:

The two input leads can be seen on the left-hand side of the triangular amplifier symbol, the output lead
on the right-hand side, and the +V and -V power supply leads on top and bottom. As with the other
example, all voltages are referenced to the circuit's ground point. Notice that one input lead is marked
with a (-) and the other is marked with a (+). Because a differential amplifier amplifies the difference in
voltage between the two inputs, each input influences the output voltage in opposite ways. Consider the
following table of input/output voltages for a differential amplifier with a voltage gain of 4:

An increasingly positive voltage on the (+) input tends to drive the output voltage more positive, and an
increasingly positive voltage on the (-) input tends to drive the output voltage more negative. Likewise, an
increasingly negative voltage on the (+) input tends to drive the output negative as well, and an
increasingly negative voltage on the (-) input does just the opposite. Because of this relationship between
inputs and polarities, the (-) input is commonly referred to as the inverting input and the (+) as the
noninverting input.
It may be helpful to think of a differential amplifier as a variable voltage source controlled by a sensitive
voltmeter, as such:

Bear in mind that the above illustration is only a model to aid in understanding the behavior of a
differential amplifier. It is not a realistic schematic of its actual design. The "G" symbol represents a
galvanometer, a sensitive voltmeter movement. The potentiometer connected between +V and -V
provides a variable voltage at the output pin (with reference to one side of the DC power supply), that
variable voltage set by the reading of the galvanometer. It must be understood that any load powered by
the output of a differential amplifier gets its current from the DC power source (battery), not the input
signal. The input signal (to the galvanometer) merely controls the output.
This concept may at first be confusing to students new to amplifiers. With all these polarities and polarity
markings (- and +) around, it's easy to get confused and not know what the output of a differential
amplifier will be. To address this potential confusion, here's a simple rule to remember:

When the polarity of the differential voltage matches the markings for inverting and noninverting inputs,
the output will be positive. When the polarity of the differential voltage clashes with the input markings,
the output will be negative. This bears some similarity to the mathematical sign displayed by digital
voltmeters based on input voltage polarity. The red test lead of the voltmeter (often called the "positive"
lead because of the color red's popular association with the positive side of a power supply in electronic
wiring) is more positive than the black, the meter will display a positive voltage figure, and visa-versa:

Just as a voltmeter will only display the voltage between its two test leads, an ideal differential amplifier
only amplifies the potential difference between its two input connections, not the voltage between any one
of those connections and ground. The output polarity of a differential amplifier, just like the signed
indication of a digital voltmeter, depends on the relative polarities of the differential voltage between the
two input connections.
If the input voltages to this amplifier represented mathematical quantities (as is the case within analog
computer circuitry), or physical process measurements (as is the case within analog electronic
instrumentation circuitry), you can see how a device such as a differential amplifier could be very useful.
We could use it to compare two quantities to see which is greater (by the polarity of the output voltage), or
perhaps we could compare the difference between two quantities (such as the level of liquid in two tanks)
and flag an alarm (based on the absolute value of the amplifier output) if the difference became too great.
In basic automatic control circuitry, the quantity being controlled (called the process variable) is compared
with a target value (called the setpoint), and decisions are made as to how to act based on the
discrepancy between these two values. The first step in electronically controlling such a scheme is to
amplify the difference between the process variable and the setpoint with a differential amplifier. In simple

controller designs, the output of this differential amplifier can be directly utilized to drive the final control
element (such as a valve) and keep the process reasonably close to setpoint.

REVIEW:
A "shorthand" symbol for an electronic amplifier is a triangle, the wide end signifying the input
side and the narrow end signifying the output. Power supply lines are often omitted in the drawing
for simplicity.
To facilitate true AC output from an amplifier, we can use what is called a split or dual power
supply, with two DC voltage sources connected in series with the middle point grounded, giving a
positive voltage to ground (+V) and a negative voltage to ground (-V). Split power supplies like
this are frequently used in differential amplifier circuits.
Most amplifiers have one input and one output. Differential amplifiers have two inputs and one
output, the output signal being proportional to the difference in signals between the two inputs.
The voltage output of a differential amplifier is determined by the following equation: V out =
AV(Vnoninv - Vinv)

Chapter 8:
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

The "operational" amplifier

Long before the advent of digital electronic technology, computers were built to electronically perform
calculations by employing voltages and currents to represent numerical quantities. This was especially
useful for the simulation of physical processes. A variable voltage, for instance, might represent velocity
or force in a physical system. Through the use of resistive voltage dividers and voltage amplifiers, the
mathematical operations of division and multiplication could be easily performed on these signals.
The reactive properties of capacitors and inductors lend themselves well to the simulation of variables
related by calculus functions. Remember how the current through a capacitor was a function of the
voltage's rate of change, and how that rate of change was designated in calculus as the derivative? Well,
if voltage across a capacitor were made to represent the velocity of an object, the current through the
capacitor would represent the force required to accelerate or decelerate that object, the capacitor's
capacitance representing the object's mass:

This analog electronic computation of the calculus derivative function is technically known as
differentiation, and it is a natural function of a capacitor's current in relation to the voltage applied across
it. Note that this circuit requires no "programming" to perform this relatively advanced mathematical
function as a digital computer would.
Electronic circuits are very easy and inexpensive to create compared to complex physical systems, so
this kind of analog electronic simulation was widely used in the research and development of mechanical
systems. For realistic simulation, though, amplifier circuits of high accuracy and easy configurability were
needed in these early computers.
It was found in the course of analog computer design that differential amplifiers with extremely high
voltage gains met these requirements of accuracy and configurability better than single-ended amplifiers
with custom-designed gains. Using simple components connected to the inputs and output of the highgain differential amplifier, virtually any gain and any function could be obtained from the circuit, overall,
without adjusting or modifying the internal circuitry of the amplifier itself. These high-gain differential
amplifiers came to be known as operational amplifiers, or op-amps, because of their application in analog
computers' mathematical operations.
Modern op-amps, like the popular model 741, are high-performance, inexpensive integrated circuits. Their
input impedances are quite high, the inputs drawing currents in the range of half a microamp (maximum)
for the 741, and far less for op-amps utilizing field-effect input transistors. Output impedance is typically
quite low, about 75 for the model 741, and many models have built-in output short circuit protection,
meaning that their outputs can be directly shorted to ground without causing harm to the internal circuitry.
With direct coupling between op-amps' internal transistor stages, they can amplify DC signals just as well
as AC (up to certain maximum voltage-risetime limits). It would cost far more in money and time to design

a comparable discrete-transistor amplifier circuit to match that kind of performance, unless high power
capability was required. For these reasons, op-amps have all but obsoleted discrete-transistor signal
amplifiers in many applications.
The following diagram shows the pin connections for single op-amps (741 included) when housed in an 8pin DIP (Dual Inline Package) integrated circuit:

Some models of op-amp come two to a package, including the popular models TL082 and 1458. These
are called "dual" units, and are typically housed in an 8-pin DIP package as well, with the following pin
connections:

Operational amplifiers are also available four to a package, usually in 14-pin DIP arrangements.
Unfortunately, pin assignments aren't as standard for these "quad" op-amps as they are for the "dual" or
single units. Consult the manufacturer datasheet(s) for details.
Practical operational amplifier voltage gains are in the range of 200,000 or more, which makes them
almost useless as an analog differential amplifier by themselves. For an op-amp with a voltage gain (AV)
of 200,000 and a maximum output voltage swing of +15V/-15V, all it would take is a differential input
voltage of 75 V (microvolts) to drive it to saturation or cutoff! Before we take a look at how external
components are used to bring the gain down to a reasonable level, let's investigate applications for the
"bare" op-amp by itself.
One application is called the comparator. For all practical purposes, we can say that the output of an opamp will be saturated fully positive if the (+) input is more positive than the (-) input, and saturated fully
negative if the (+) input is less positive than the (-) input. In other words, an op-amp's extremely high
voltage gain makes it useful as a device to compare two voltages and change output voltage states when
one input exceeds the other in magnitude.

In the above circuit, we have an op-amp connected as a comparator, comparing the input voltage with a

reference voltage set by the potentiometer (R1). If Vin drops below the voltage set by R1, the op-amp's
output will saturate to +V, thereby lighting up the LED. Otherwise, if Vin is above the reference voltage, the
LED will remain off. If Vin is a voltage signal produced by a measuring instrument, this comparator circuit
could function as a "low" alarm, with the trip-point set by R1. Instead of an LED, the op-amp output could
drive a relay, a transistor, an SCR, or any other device capable of switching power to a load such as a
solenoid valve, to take action in the event of a low alarm.
Another application for the comparator circuit shown is a square-wave converter. Suppose that the input
voltage applied to the inverting (-) input was an AC sine wave rather than a stable DC voltage. In that
case, the output voltage would transition between opposing states of saturation whenever the input
voltage was equal to the reference voltage produced by the potentiometer. The result would be a square
wave:

Adjustments to the potentiometer setting would change the reference voltage applied to the noninverting
(+) input, which would change the points at which the sine wave would cross, changing the on/off times,
or duty cycle of the square wave:

It should be evident that the AC input voltage would not have to be a sine wave in particular for this circuit
to perform the same function. The input voltage could be a triangle wave, sawtooth wave, or any other
sort of wave that ramped smoothly from positive to negative to positive again. This sort of comparator
circuit is very useful for creating square waves of varying duty cycle. This technique is sometimes referred
to as pulse-width modulation, or PWM (varying, or modulating a waveform according to a controlling
signal, in this case the signal produced by the potentiometer).
Another comparator application is that of the bargraph driver. If we had several op-amps connected as
comparators, each with its own reference voltage connected to the inverting input, but each one
monitoring the same voltage signal on their noninverting inputs, we could build a bargraph-style meter
such as what is commonly seen on the face of stereo tuners and graphic equalizers. As the signal voltage
(representing radio signal strength or audio sound level) increased, each comparator would "turn on" in
sequence and send power to its respective LED. With each comparator switching "on" at a different level
of audio sound, the number of LED's illuminated would indicate how strong the signal was.

In the circuit shown above, LED1 would be the first to light up as the input voltage increased in a positive
direction. As the input voltage continued to increase, the other LED's would illuminate in succession, until
all were lit.
This very same technology is used in some analog-to-digital signal converters, namely the flash
converter, to translate an analog signal quantity into a series of on/off voltages representing a digital
number.

REVIEW:
A triangle shape is the generic symbol for an amplifier circuit, the wide end signifying the input
and the narrow end signifying the output.
Unless otherwise specified, all voltages in amplifier circuits are referenced to a common ground
point, usually connected to one terminal of the power supply. This way, we can speak of a certain
amount of voltage being "on" a single wire, while realizing that voltage is always measured
between two points.
A differential amplifier is one amplifying the voltage difference between two signal inputs. In such
a circuit, one input tends to drive the output voltage to the same polarity of the input signal, while
the other input does just the opposite. Consequently, the first input is called the noninverting (+)
input and the second is called the inverting (-) input.
An operational amplifier (or op-amp for short) is a differential amplifier with an extremely high
voltage gain (AV = 200,000 or more). Its name hails from its original use in analog computer
circuitry (performing mathematical operations).
Op-amps typically have very high input impedances and fairly low output impedances.

Sometimes op-amps are used as signal comparators, operating in full cutoff or saturation mode
depending on which input (inverting or noninverting) has the greatest voltage. Comparators are
useful in detecting "greater-than" signal conditions (comparing one to the other).
One comparator application is called the pulse-width modulator, and is made by comparing a
sine-wave AC signal against a DC reference voltage. As the DC reference voltage is adjusted,
the square-wave output of the comparator changes its duty cycle (positive versus negative times).
Thus, the DC reference voltage controls, or modulates the pulse width of the output voltage.

Chapter 8:
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

Negative feedback
If we connect the output of an op-amp to its inverting input and apply a voltage signal to the noninverting
input, we find that the output voltage of the op-amp closely follows that input voltage (I've neglected to
draw in the power supply, +V/-V wires, and ground symbol for simplicity):

As Vin increases, Vout will increase in accordance with the differential gain. However, as Vout increases,
that output voltage is fed back to the inverting input, thereby acting to decrease the voltage differential
between inputs, which acts to bring the output down. What will happen for any given voltage input is that
the op-amp will output a voltage very nearly equal to Vin, but just low enough so that there's enough
voltage difference left between Vin and the (-) input to be amplified to generate the output voltage.
The circuit will quickly reach a point of stability (known as equilibrium in physics), where the output
voltage is just the right amount to maintain the right amount of differential, which in turn produces the right
amount of output voltage. Taking the op-amp's output voltage and coupling it to the inverting input is a
technique known as negative feedback, and it is the key to having a self-stabilizing system (this is true not
only of op-amps, but of any dynamic system in general). This stability gives the op-amp the capacity to
work in its linear (active) mode, as opposed to merely being saturated fully "on" or "off" as it was when
used as a comparator, with no feedback at all.
Because the op-amp's gain is so high, the voltage on the inverting input can be maintained almost equal
to Vin. Let's say that our op-amp has a differential voltage gain of 200,000. If Vin equals 6 volts, the output
voltage will be 5.999970000149999 volts. This creates just enough differential voltage (6 volts 5.999970000149999 volts = 29.99985 V) to cause 5.999970000149999 volts to be manifested at the
output terminal, and the system holds there in balance. As you can see, 29.99985 V is not a lot of
differential, so for practical calculations, we can assume that the differential voltage between the two input
wires is held by negative feedback exactly at 0 volts.

One great advantage to using an op-amp with negative feedback is that the actual voltage gain of the opamp doesn't matter, so long as it's very large. If the op-amp's differential gain were 250,000 instead of
200,000, all it would mean is that the output voltage would hold just a little closer to Vin (less differential
voltage needed between inputs to generate the required output). In the circuit just illustrated, the output
voltage would still be (for all practical purposes) equal to the non-inverting input voltage. Op-amp gains,
therefore, do not have to be precisely set by the factory in order for the circuit designer to build an
amplifier circuit with precise gain. Negative feedback makes the system self-correcting. The above circuit
as a whole will simply follow the input voltage with a stable gain of 1.
Going back to our differential amplifier model, we can think of the operational amplifier as being a variable
voltage source controlled by an extremely sensitive null detector, the kind of meter movement or other
sensitive measurement device used in bridge circuits to detect a condition of balance (zero volts). The
"potentiometer" inside the op-amp creating the variable voltage will move to whatever position it must to
"balance" the inverting and noninverting input voltages so that the "null detector" has zero voltage across

it:

As the "potentiometer" will move to provide an output voltage necessary to satisfy the "null detector" at an
"indication" of zero volts, the output voltage becomes equal to the input voltage: in this case, 6 volts. If the
input voltage changes at all, the "potentiometer" inside the op-amp will change position to hold the "null
detector" in balance (indicating zero volts), resulting in an output voltage approximately equal to the input
voltage at all times.
This will hold true within the range of voltages that the op-amp can output. With a power supply of +15V/15V, and an ideal amplifier that can swing its output voltage just as far, it will faithfully "follow" the input
voltage between the limits of +15 volts and -15 volts. For this reason, the above circuit is known as a
voltage follower. Like its one-transistor counterpart, the common-collector ("emitter-follower") amplifier, it
has a voltage gain of 1, a high input impedance, a low output impedance, and a high current gain.
Voltage followers are also known as voltage buffers, and are used to boost the current-sourcing ability of
voltage signals too weak (too high of source impedance) to directly drive a load. The op-amp model
shown in the last illustration depicts how the output voltage is essentially isolated from the input voltage,
so that current on the output pin is not supplied by the input voltage source at all, but rather from the
power supply powering the op-amp.
It should be mentioned that many op-amps cannot swing their output voltages exactly to +V/-V power
supply rail voltages. The model 741 is one of those that cannot: when saturated, its output voltage peaks
within about one volt of the +V power supply voltage and within about 2 volts of the -V power supply
voltage. Therefore, with a split power supply of +15/-15 volts, a 741 op-amp's output may go as high as
+14 volts or as low as -13 volts (approximately), but no further. This is due to its bipolar transistor design.
These two voltage limits are known as the positive saturation voltage and negative saturation voltage,
respectively. Other op-amps, such as the model 3130 with field-effect transistors in the final output stage,
have the ability to swing their output voltages within millivolts of either power supply rail voltage.
Consequently, their positive and negative saturation voltages are practically equal to the supply voltages.

REVIEW:
Connecting the output of an op-amp to its inverting (-) input is called negative feedback. This term
can be broadly applied to any dynamic system where the output signal is "fed back" to the input
somehow so as to reach a point of equilibrium (balance).
When the output of an op-amp is directly connected to its inverting (-) input, a voltage follower will

be created. Whatever signal voltage is impressed upon the noninverting (+) input will be seen on
the output.
An op-amp with negative feedback will try to drive its output voltage to whatever level necessary
so that the differential voltage between the two inputs is practically zero. The higher the op-amp
differential gain, the closer that differential voltage will be to zero.
Some op-amps cannot produce an output voltage equal to their supply voltage when saturated.
The model 741 is one of these. The upper and lower limits of an op-amp's output voltage swing
are known as positive saturation voltage and negative saturation voltage, respectively.

Chapter 8:
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

Divided feedback
If we add a voltage divider to the negative feedback wiring so that only a fraction of the output voltage is
fed back to the inverting input instead of the full amount, the output voltage will be a multiple of the input
voltage (please bear in mind that the power supply connections to the op-amp have been omitted once
again for simplicity's sake):

If R1 and R2 are both equal and Vin is 6 volts, the op-amp will output whatever voltage is needed to drop 6
volts across R1 (to make the inverting input voltage equal to 6 volts, as well, keeping the voltage
difference between the two inputs equal to zero). With the 2:1 voltage divider of R1 and R2, this will take
12 volts at the output of the op-amp to accomplish.
Another way of analyzing this circuit is to start by calculating the magnitude and direction of current
through R1, knowing the voltage on either side (and therefore, by subtraction, the voltage across R 1), and
R1's resistance. Since the left-hand side of R1 is connected to ground (0 volts) and the right-hand side is
at a potential of 6 volts (due to the negative feedback holding that point equal to Vin), we can see that we
have 6 volts across R1. This gives us 6 mA of current through R1 from left to right. Because we know that
both inputs of the op-amp have extremely high impedance, we can safely assume they won't add or
subtract any current through the divider. In other words, we can treat R 1 and R2 as being in series with
each other: all of the electrons flowing through R1 must flow through R2. Knowing the current through R2
and the resistance of R2, we can calculate the voltage across R2 (6 volts), and its polarity. Counting up
voltages from ground (0 volts) to the right-hand side of R2, we arrive at 12 volts on the output.
Upon examining the last illustration, one might wonder, "where does that 1 mA of current go?" The last
illustration doesn't show the entire current path, but in reality it comes from the negative side of the DC
power supply, through ground, through R1, through R2, through the output pin of the op-amp, and then
back to the positive side of the DC power supply through the output transistor(s) of the op-amp. Using the
null detector/potentiometer model of the op-amp, the current path looks like this:

The 6 volt signal source does not have to supply any current for the circuit: it merely commands the opamp to balance voltage between the inverting (-) and noninverting (+) input pins, and in so doing produce
an output voltage that is twice the input due to the dividing effect of the two 1 k resistors.
We can change the voltage gain of this circuit, overall, just by adjusting the values of R1 and R2 (changing
the ratio of output voltage that is fed back to the inverting input). Gain can be calculated by the following
formula:

Note that the voltage gain for this design of amplifier circuit can never be less than 1. If we were to lower
R2 to a value of zero ohms, our circuit would be essentially identical to the voltage follower, with the
output directly connected to the inverting input. Since the voltage follower has a gain of 1, this sets the
lower gain limit of the noninverting amplifier. However, the gain can be increased far beyond 1, by
increasing R2 in proportion to R1.
Also note that the polarity of the output matches that of the input, just as with a voltage follower. A
positive input voltage results in a positive output voltage, and visa-versa (with respect to ground). For this
reason, this circuit is referred to as a noninverting amplifier.
Just as with the voltage follower, we see that the differential gain of the op-amp is irrelevant, so long as
it's very high. The voltages and currents in this circuit would hardly change at all if the op-amp's voltage
gain were 250,000 instead of 200,000. This stands as a stark contrast to single-transistor amplifier circuit
designs, where the Beta of the individual transistor greatly influenced the overall gains of the amplifier.
With negative feedback, we have a self-correcting system that amplifies voltage according to the ratios
set by the feedback resistors, not the gains internal to the op-amp.
Let's see what happens if we retain negative feedback through a voltage divider, but apply the input
voltage at a different location:

By grounding the noninverting input, the negative feedback from the output seeks to hold the inverting
input's voltage at 0 volts, as well. For this reason, the inverting input is referred to in this circuit as a virtual
ground, being held at ground potential (0 volts) by the feedback, yet not directly connected to (electrically
common with) ground. The input voltage this time is applied to the left-hand end of the voltage divider (R1
= R2 = 1 k again), so the output voltage must swing to -6 volts in order to balance the middle at ground
potential (0 volts). Using the same techniques as with the noninverting amplifier, we can analyze this
circuit's operation by determining current magnitudes and directions, starting with R 1, and continuing on to
determining the output voltage.
We can change the overall voltage gain of this circuit, overall, just by adjusting the values of R 1 and R2
(changing the ratio of output voltage that is fed back to the inverting input). Gain can be calculated by the
following formula:

Note that this circuit's voltage gain can be less than 1, depending solely on the ratio of R2 to R1. Also note
that the output voltage is always the opposite polarity of the input voltage. A positive input voltage results
in a negative output voltage, and visa-versa (with respect to ground). For this reason, this circuit is
referred to as an inverting amplifier. Sometimes, the gain formula contains a negative sign (before the
R2/R1 fraction) to reflect this reversal of polarities.
These two amplifier circuits we've just investigated serve the purpose of multiplying or dividing the
magnitude of the input voltage signal. This is exactly how the mathematical operations of multiplication
and division are typically handled in analog computer circuitry.

REVIEW:
By connecting the inverting (-) input of an op-amp directly to the output, we get negative
feedback, which gives us a voltage follower circuit. By connecting that negative feedback through
a resistive voltage divider (feeding back a fraction of the output voltage to the inverting input), the
output voltage becomes a multiple of the input voltage.
A negative-feedback op-amp circuit with the input signal going to the noninverting (+) input is
called a noninverting amplifier. The output voltage will be the same polarity as the input. Voltage
gain is given by the following equation: AV = (R2/R1) + 1
A negative-feedback op-amp circuit with the input signal going to the "bottom" of the resistive
voltage divider, with the noninverting (+) input grounded, is called an inverting amplifier. Its output
voltage will be the opposite polarity of the input. Voltage gain is given by the following equation:
AV = R2/R1

Chapter 8:
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

An analogy for divided feedback

A helpful analogy for understanding divided feedback amplifier circuits is that of a mechanical lever, with
relative motion of the lever's ends representing change in input and output voltages, and the fulcrum
(pivot point) representing the location of the ground point, real or virtual.
Take for example the following noninverting op-amp circuit. We know from the prior section that the
voltage gain of a noninverting amplifier configuration can never be less than unity (1). If we draw a lever
diagram next to the amplifier schematic, with the distance between fulcrum and lever ends representative
of resistor values, the motion of the lever will signify changes in voltage at the input and output terminals
of the amplifier:

Physicists call this type of lever, with the input force (effort) applied between the fulcrum and output
(load), a third-class lever. It is characterized by an output displacement (motion) at least as large than the
input displacement -- a "gain" of at least 1 -- and in the same direction. Applying a positive input voltage to
this op-amp circuit is analogous to displacing the "input" point on the lever upward:

Due to the displacement-amplifying characteristics of the lever, the "output" point will move twice as far as
the "input" point, and in the same direction. In the electronic circuit, the output voltage will equal twice the
input, with the same polarity. Applying a negative input voltage is analogous to moving the lever
downward from its level "zero" position, resulting in an amplified output displacement that is also negative:

If we alter the resistor ratio R2/R1, we change the gain of the op-amp circuit. In lever terms, this means
moving the input point in relation to the fulcrum and lever end, which similarly changes the displacement
"gain" of the machine:

Now, any input signal will become amplified by a factor of four instead of by a factor of two:

Inverting op-amp circuits may be modeled using the lever analogy as well. With the inverting
configuration, the ground point of the feedback voltage divider is the op-amp's inverting input with the
input to the left and the output to the right. This is mechanically equivalent to a first-class lever, where the
input force (effort) is on the opposite side of the fulcrum from the output (load):

With equal-value resistors (equal-lengths of lever on each side of the fulcrum), the output voltage
(displacement) will be equal in magnitude to the input voltage (displacement), but of the opposite polarity
(direction). A positive input results in a negative output:

Changing the resistor ratio R2/R1 changes the gain of the amplifier circuit, just as changing the fulcrum
position on the lever changes its mechanical displacement "gain." Consider the following example, where
R2 is made twice as large as R1:

With the inverting amplifier configuration, though, gains of less than 1 are possible, just as with first-class
levers. Reversing R2 and R1 values is analogous to moving the fulcrum to its complementary position on
the lever: one-third of the way from the output end. There, the output displacement will be one-half the
input displacement:

Chapter 8:
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

Voltage-to-current signal conversion

In instrumentation circuitry, DC signals are often used as analog representations of physical
measurements such as temperature, pressure, flow, weight, and motion. Most commonly, DC current
signals are used in preference to DC voltage signals, because current signals are exactly equal in
magnitude throughout the series circuit loop carrying current from the source (measuring device) to the
load (indicator, recorder, or controller), whereas voltage signals in a parallel circuit may vary from one end
to the other due to resistive wire losses. Furthermore, current-sensing instruments typically have low
impedances (while voltage-sensing instruments have high impedances), which gives current-sensing
instruments greater electrical noise immunity.
In order to use current as an analog representation of a physical quantity, we have to have some way of
generating a precise amount of current within the signal circuit. But how do we generate a precise current
signal when we might not know the resistance of the loop? The answer is to use an amplifier designed to
hold current to a prescribed value, applying as much or as little voltage as necessary to the load circuit to
maintain that value. Such an amplifier performs the function of a current source. An op-amp with negative
feedback is a perfect candidate for such a task:

The input voltage to this circuit is assumed to be coming from some type of physical transducer/amplifier
arrangement, calibrated to produce 1 volt at 0 percent of physical measurement, and 5 volts at 100
percent of physical measurement. The standard analog current signal range is 4 mA to 20 mA, signifying
0% to 100% of measurement range, respectively. At 5 volts input, the 250 (precision) resistor will have
5 volts applied across it, resulting in 20 mA of current in the large loop circuit (with R load). It does not
matter what resistance value Rload is, or how much wire resistance is present in that large loop, so long as
the op-amp has a high enough power supply voltage to output the voltage necessary to get 20 mA flowing
through Rload. The 250 resistor establishes the relationship between input voltage and output current, in
this case creating the equivalence of 1-5 V in / 4-20 mA out. If we were converting the 1-5 volt input signal
to a 10-50 mA output signal (an older, obsolete instrumentation standard for industry), we'd use a 100
precision resistor instead.
Another name for this circuit is transconductance amplifier. In electronics, transconductance is the
mathematical ratio of current change divided by voltage change (I / V), and it is measured in the unit
of Siemens, the same unit used to express conductance (the mathematical reciprocal of resistance:
current/voltage). In this circuit, the transconductance ratio is fixed by the value of the 250 resistor,
giving a linear current-out/voltage-in relationship.

REVIEW:
In industry, DC current signals are often used in preference to DC voltage signals as analog
representations of physical quantities. Current in a series circuit is absolutely equal at all points in
that circuit regardless of wiring resistance, whereas voltage in a parallel-connected circuit may
vary from end to end because of wire resistance, making current-signaling more accurate from
the "transmitting" to the "receiving" instrument.
Voltage signals are relatively easy to produce directly from transducer devices, whereas accurate
current signals are not. Op-amps can be used to "convert" a voltage signal into a current signal
quite easily. In this mode, the op-amp will output whatever voltage is necessary to maintain
current through the signaling circuit at the proper value.

Chapter 8:
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

Averager and summer circuits

If we take three equal resistors and connect one end of each to a common point, then apply three input
voltages (one to each of the resistors' free ends), the voltage seen at the common point will be the
mathematical average of the three.

This circuit is really nothing more than a practical application of Millman's Theorem:

This circuit is commonly known as a passive averager, because it generates an average voltage with
non-amplifying components. Passive simply means that it is an unamplified circuit. The large equation to
the right of the averager circuit comes from Millman's Theorem, which describes the voltage produced by
multiple voltage sources connected together through individual resistances. Since the three resistors in
the averager circuit are equal to each other, we can simplify Millman's formula by writing R 1, R2, and R3
simply as R (one, equal resistance instead of three individual resistances):

If we take a passive averager and use it to connect three input voltages into an op-amp amplifier circuit
with a gain of 3, we can turn this averaging function into an addition function. The result is called a
noninverting summer circuit:

With a voltage divider composed of a 2 k / 1 k combination, the noninverting amplifier circuit will have
a voltage gain of 3. By taking the voltage from the passive averager, which is the sum of V 1, V2, and V3
divided by 3, and multiplying that average by 3, we arrive at an output voltage equal to the sum of V1, V2,
and V3:

Much the same can be done with an inverting op-amp amplifier, using a passive averager as part of the
voltage divider feedback circuit. The result is called an inverting summer circuit:

Now, with the right-hand sides of the three averaging resistors connected to the virtual ground point of the
op-amp's inverting input, Millman's Theorem no longer directly applies as it did before. The voltage at the
virtual ground is now held at 0 volts by the op-amp's negative feedback, whereas before it was free to
float to the average value of V1, V2, and V3. However, with all resistor values equal to each other, the
currents through each of the three resistors will be proportional to their respective input voltages. Since
those three currents will add at the virtual ground node, the algebraic sum of those currents through the
feedback resistor will produce a voltage at Vout equal to V1 + V2 + V3, except with reversed polarity. The
reversal in polarity is what makes this circuit an inverting summer:

Summer (adder) circuits are quite useful in analog computer design, just as multiplier and divider circuits
would be. Again, it is the extremely high differential gain of the op-amp which allows us to build these
useful circuits with a bare minimum of components.

REVIEW:
A summer circuit is one that sums, or adds, multiple analog voltage signals together. There are
two basic varieties of op-amp summer circuits: noninverting and inverting.

Chapter 8:
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

Building a differential amplifier

An op-amp with no feedback is already a differential amplifier, amplifying the voltage difference between
the two inputs. However, its gain cannot be controlled, and it is generally too high to be of any practical
use. So far, our application of negative feedback to op-amps has resulting in the practical loss of one of
the inputs, the resulting amplifier only good for amplifying a single voltage signal input. With a little
ingenuity, however, we can construct an op-amp circuit maintaining both voltage inputs, yet with a
controlled gain set by external resistors.

If all the resistor values are equal, this amplifier will have a differential voltage gain of 1. The analysis of
this circuit is essentially the same as that of an inverting amplifier, except that the noninverting input (+) of
the op-amp is at a voltage equal to a fraction of V2, rather than being connected directly to ground. As
would stand to reason, V2 functions as the noninverting input and V1 functions as the inverting input of the
final amplifier circuit. Therefore:

If we wanted to provide a differential gain of anything other than 1, we would have to adjust the
resistances in both upper and lower voltage dividers, necessitating multiple resistor changes and
balancing between the two dividers for symmetrical operation. This is not always practical, for obvious
reasons.
Another limitation of this amplifier design is the fact that its input impedances are rather low compared to
that of some other op-amp configurations, most notably the noninverting (single-ended input) amplifier.
Each input voltage source has to drive current through a resistance, which constitutes far less impedance
than the bare input of an op-amp alone. The solution to this problem, fortunately, is quite simple. All we
need to do is "buffer" each input voltage signal through a voltage follower like this:

Now the V1 and V2 input lines are connected straight to the inputs of two voltage-follower op-amps, giving
very high impedance. The two op-amps on the left now handle the driving of current through the resistors
instead of letting the input voltage sources (whatever they may be) do it. The increased complexity to our
circuit is minimal for a substantial benefit.

Chapter 8:
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

The instrumentation amplifier

As suggested before, it is beneficial to be able to adjust the gain of the amplifier circuit without having to
change more than one resistor value, as is necessary with the previous design of differential amplifier.
The so-called instrumentation builds on the last version of differential amplifier to give us that capability:

This intimidating circuit is constructed from a buffered differential amplifier stage with three new resistors
linking the two buffer circuits together. Consider all resistors to be of equal value except for R gain. The
negative feedback of the upper-left op-amp causes the voltage at point 1 (top of Rgain) to be equal to V1.
Likewise, the voltage at point 2 (bottom of Rgain) is held to a value equal to V2. This establishes a voltage
drop across Rgain equal to the voltage difference between V1 and V2. That voltage drop causes a current
through Rgain, and since the feedback loops of the two input op-amps draw no current, that same amount
of current through Rgain must be going through the two "R" resistors above and below it. This produces a
voltage drop between points 3 and 4 equal to:

The regular differential amplifier on the right-hand side of the circuit then takes this voltage drop between
points 3 and 4, and amplifies it by a gain of 1 (assuming again that all "R" resistors are of equal value).
Though this looks like a cumbersome way to build a differential amplifier, it has the distinct advantages of
possessing extremely high input impedances on the V1 and V2 inputs (because they connect straight into
the noninverting inputs of their respective op-amps), and adjustable gain that can be set by a single
resistor. Manipulating the above formula a bit, we have a general expression for overall voltage gain in
the instrumentation amplifier:

Though it may not be obvious by looking at the schematic, we can change the differential gain of the
instrumentation amplifier simply by changing the value of one resistor: R gain. Yes, we could still change
the overall gain by changing the values of some of the other resistors, but this would necessitate

balanced resistor value changes for the circuit to remain symmetrical. Please note that the lowest gain
possible with the above circuit is obtained with Rgain completely open (infinite resistance), and that gain
value is 1.

REVIEW:
An instrumentation amplifier is a differential op-amp circuit providing high input impedances with
ease of gain adjustment through the variation of a single resistor.

Chapter 8:
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

Differentiator and integrator circuits

By introducing electrical reactance into the feedback loops of op-amp amplifier circuits, we can cause the
output to respond to changes in the input voltage over time. Drawing their names from their respective
calculus functions, the integrator produces a voltage output proportional to the product (multiplication) of
the input voltage and time; and the differentiator (not to be confused with differential) produces a voltage
output proportional to the input voltage's rate of change.
Capacitance can be defined as the measure of a capacitor's opposition to changes in voltage. The
greater the capacitance, the more the opposition. Capacitors oppose voltage change by creating current
in the circuit: that is, they either charge or discharge in response to a change in applied voltage. So, the
more capacitance a capacitor has, the greater its charge or discharge current will be for any given rate of
voltage change across it. The equation for this is quite simple:

The dv/dt fraction is a calculus expression representing the rate of voltage change over time. If the DC
supply in the above circuit were steadily increased from a voltage of 15 volts to a voltage of 16 volts over
a time span of 1 hour, the current through the capacitor would most likely be very small, because of the
very low rate of voltage change (dv/dt = 1 volt / 3600 seconds). However, if we steadily increased the DC
supply from 15 volts to 16 volts over a shorter time span of 1 second, the rate of voltage change would be
much higher, and thus the charging current would be much higher (3600 times higher, to be exact). Same
amount of change in voltage, but vastly different rates of change, resulting in vastly different amounts of
current in the circuit.
To put some definite numbers to this formula, if the voltage across a 47 F capacitor was changing at a
linear rate of 3 volts per second, the current "through" the capacitor would be (47 F)(3 V/s) = 141 A.
We can build an op-amp circuit which measures change in voltage by measuring current through a
capacitor, and outputs a voltage proportional to that current:

The right-hand side of the capacitor is held to a voltage of 0 volts, due to the "virtual ground" effect.
Therefore, current "through" the capacitor is solely due to change in the input voltage. A steady input
voltage won't cause a current through C, but a changing input voltage will.
Capacitor current moves through the feedback resistor, producing a drop across it, which is the same as
the output voltage. A linear, positive rate of input voltage change will result in a steady negative voltage at
the output of the op-amp. Conversely, a linear, negative rate of input voltage change will result in a steady
positive voltage at the output of the op-amp. This polarity inversion from input to output is due to the fact
that the input signal is being sent (essentially) to the inverting input of the op-amp, so it acts like the
inverting amplifier mentioned previously. The faster the rate of voltage change at the input (either positive
or negative), the greater the voltage at the output.
The formula for determining voltage output for the differentiator is as follows:

Applications for this, besides representing the derivative calculus function inside of an analog computer,
include rate-of-change indicators for process instrumentation. One such rate-of-change signal application
might be for monitoring (or controlling) the rate of temperature change in a furnace, where too high or too
low of a temperature rise rate could be detrimental. The DC voltage produced by the differentiator circuit
could be used to drive a comparator, which would signal an alarm or activate a control if the rate of
change exceeded a pre-set level.
In process control, the derivative function is used to make control decisions for maintaining a process at
setpoint, by monitoring the rate of process change over time and taking action to prevent excessive rates
of change, which can lead to an unstable condition. Analog electronic controllers use variations of this
circuitry to perform the derivative function.
On the other hand, there are applications where we need precisely the opposite function, called
integration in calculus. Here, the op-amp circuit would generate an output voltage proportional to the
magnitude and duration that an input voltage signal has deviated from 0 volts. Stated differently, a
constant input signal would generate a certain rate of change in the output voltage: differentiation in
reverse. To do this, all we have to do is swap the capacitor and resistor in the previous circuit:

As before, the negative feedback of the op-amp ensures that the inverting input will be held at 0 volts (the
virtual ground). If the input voltage is exactly 0 volts, there will be no current through the resistor,
therefore no charging of the capacitor, and therefore the output voltage will not change. We cannot
guarantee what voltage will be at the output with respect to ground in this condition, but we can say that
the output voltage will be constant.
However, if we apply a constant, positive voltage to the input, the op-amp output will fall negative at a
linear rate, in an attempt to produce the changing voltage across the capacitor necessary to maintain the
current established by the voltage difference across the resistor. Conversely, a constant, negative voltage
at the input results in a linear, rising (positive) voltage at the output. The output voltage rate-of-change will
be proportional to the value of the input voltage.
The formula for determining voltage output for the integrator is as follows:

One application for this device would be to keep a "running total" of radiation exposure, or dosage, if the
input voltage was a proportional signal supplied by an electronic radiation detector. Nuclear radiation can
be just as damaging at low intensities for long periods of time as it is at high intensities for short periods of
time. An integrator circuit would take both the intensity (input voltage magnitude) and time into account,
generating an output voltage representing total radiation dosage.
Another application would be to integrate a signal representing water flow, producing a signal
representing total quantity of water that has passed by the flowmeter. This application of an integrator is

sometimes called a totalizer in the industrial instrumentation trade.

REVIEW:
A differentiator circuit produces a constant output voltage for a steadily changing input voltage.
An integrator circuit produces a steadily changing output voltage for a constant input voltage.
Both types of devices are easily constructed, using reactive components (usually capacitors
rather than inductors) in the feedback part of the circuit

Chapter 8:
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

Positive feedback
As we've seen, negative feedback is an incredibly useful principle when applied to operational amplifiers.
It is what allows us to create all these practical circuits, being able to precisely set gains, rates, and other
significant parameters with just a few changes of resistor values. Negative feedback makes all these
circuits stable and self-correcting.
The basic principle of negative feedback is that the output tends to drive in a direction that creates a
condition of equilibrium (balance). In an op-amp circuit with no feedback, there is no corrective
mechanism, and the output voltage will saturate with the tiniest amount of differential voltage applied
between the inputs. The result is a comparator:
With negative feedback (the output voltage "fed back" somehow to the inverting input), the circuit tends to
prevent itself from driving the output to full saturation. Rather, the output voltage drives only as high or as
low as needed to balance the two inputs' voltages:

Whether the output is directly fed back to the inverting (-) input or coupled through a set of components,
the effect is the same: the extremely high differential voltage gain of the op-amp will be "tamed" and the
circuit will respond according to the dictates of the feedback "loop" connecting output to inverting input.
Another type of feedback, namely positive feedback, also finds application in op-amp circuits. Unlike
negative feedback, where the output voltage is "fed back" to the inverting (-) input, with positive feedback
the output voltage is somehow routed back to the noninverting (+) input. In its simplest form, we could
connect a straight piece of wire from output to noninverting input and see what happens:

The inverting input remains disconnected from the feedback loop, and is free to receive an external
voltage. Let's see what happens if we ground the inverting input:

With the inverting input grounded (maintained at zero volts), the output voltage will be dictated by the
magnitude and polarity of the voltage at the noninverting input. If that voltage happens to be positive, the
op-amp will drive its output positive as well, feeding that positive voltage back to the noninverting input,
which will result in full positive output saturation. On the other hand, if the voltage on the noninverting
input happens to start out negative, the op-amp's output will drive in the negative direction, feeding back
to the noninverting input and resulting in full negative saturation.
What we have here is a circuit whose output is bistable: stable in one of two states (saturated positive or
saturated negative). Once it has reached one of those saturated states, it will tend to remain in that state,
unchanging. What is necessary to get it to switch states is a voltage placed upon the inverting (-) input of
the same polarity, but of a slightly greater magnitude. For example, if our circuit is saturated at an output
voltage of +12 volts, it will take an input voltage at the inverting input of at least +12 volts to get the output
to change. When it changes, it will saturate fully negative.
So, an op-amp with positive feedback tends to stay in whatever output state it's already in. It "latches"
between one of two states, saturated positive or saturated negative. Technically, this is known as
hysteresis.
Hysteresis can be a useful property for a comparator circuit to have. As we've seen before, comparators
can be used to produce a square wave from any sort of ramping waveform (sine wave, triangle wave,
sawtooth wave, etc.) input. If the incoming AC waveform is noise-free (that is, a "pure" waveform), a
simple comparator will work just fine.

However, if there exist any anomalies in the waveform such as harmonics or "spikes" which cause the
voltage to rise and fall significantly within the timespan of a single cycle, a comparator's output might
switch states unexpectedly:

Any time there is a transition through the reference voltage level, no matter how tiny that transition may
be, the output of the comparator will switch states, producing a square wave with "glitches."
If we add a little positive feedback to the comparator circuit, we will introduce hysteresis into the output.
This hysteresis will cause the output to remain in its current state unless the AC input voltage undergoes

a major change in magnitude.

What this feedback resistor creates is a dual-reference for the comparator circuit. The voltage applied to
the noninverting (+) input as a reference which to compare with the incoming AC voltage changes
depending on the value of the op-amp's output voltage. When the op-amp output is saturated positive, the
reference voltage at the noninverting input will be more positive than before. Conversely, when the opamp output is saturated negative, the reference voltage at the noninverting input will be more negative
than before. The result is easier to understand on a graph:

When the op-amp output is saturated positive, the upper reference voltage is in effect, and the output
won't drop to a negative saturation level unless the AC input rises above that upper reference level.
Conversely, when the op-amp output is saturated negative, the lower reference voltage is in effect, and
the output won't rise to a positive saturation level unless the AC input drops below that lower reference
level. The result is a clean square-wave output again, despite significant amounts of distortion in the AC
input signal. In order for a "glitch" to cause the comparator to switch from one state to another, it would
have to be at least as big (tall) as the difference between the upper and lower reference voltage levels,
and at the right point in time to cross both those levels.
Another application of positive feedback in op-amp circuits is in the construction of oscillator circuits. An
oscillator is a device that produces an alternating (AC), or at least pulsing, output voltage. Technically, it
is known as an astable device: having no stable output state (no equilibrium whatsoever). Oscillators are
very useful devices, and they are easily made with just an op-amp and a few external components.

When the output is saturated positive, the Vref will be positive, and the capacitor will charge up in a
positive direction. When Vramp exceeds Vref by the tiniest margin, the output will saturate negative, and the
capacitor will charge in the opposite direction (polarity). Oscillation occurs because the positive feedback
is instantaneous and the negative feedback is delayed (by means of an RC time constant). The frequency
of this oscillator may be adjusted by varying the size of any component.

REVIEW:
Negative feedback creates a condition of equilibrium (balance). Positive feedback creates a
condition of hysteresis (the tendency to "latch" in one of two extreme states).
An oscillator is a device producing an alternating or pulsing output voltage.