Teacher-Centered vs.

Student-Centered Philosophies
Most of you are probably familiar with the concepts of teacher-centered classrooms vs. student-centered
classrooms.
Here's
a
quick
refresher
of
the
concepts:
In the teacher-centered mod[el:

The teacher is an expert on the subject matter and the students are there to learn from a
"master," if you will.

The teacher is in full control of the course. He or she selects the projects/texts. The work is
produced for and graded by the teacher.

The teacher dispenses wisdom and the students absorb it.

The students are motivated by their grades and other extrinsic rewards. They are graded by how
well they match up to a pre-determined standard of excellence.

In the student-centered model:

Power is decentralized in order to make room for everyone's empowerment. Everyone learns
from each other---including the teacher.

The students actively shape the direction the course will take. They select the projects and texts
based on their interests.

Knowledge and learning is created synergistically by the class.

The students are motivated by their own curiosity and intrinsic desire to learn. The students' work
is produced for a real audience and for real purposes. The students may be graded by their
peers.

Classrooms have historically followed the teacher-centered model. Most universities are pretty much set
up to follow this model. But recent research about teaching methods have led to the growth in teachers
who use the student-centered model. Although they were a little more rare, I had a few professors who
followed the student-centered model from time to time when I was an undergraduate.
It's important to remember that these are not binaries. I find that many teachers use a combination of
these two models, some falling closer to one end of the spectrum than others. During my undergraduate
studies when I was being trained pedagogy and educational philosophy, the student-centered model was
strongly advocated by most of my professors. I don't think it's because the student-centered model is
definitively better (although it does have a lot of research to back it up). I think it was because these
professors assumed we were already familiar with the teacher-centered model and wanted to show us
the benefits of the student-centered model in the hope that we would give it a chance.
For me personally, my native impulse is to be more teacher-centered. I supposedly have a red
personality, which means that I have a strong need to feel that I am in control. For that reason, the
teacher-centered model appeals to me on an instinctual level. But I have also found that the more I
introduce student-centered elements into my curriculum, the more beneficial I find it to be.
This semester I'm experimenting with a fairly student-centered approach when it comes to my class
policies. I have a neighbor who is a psychology professor at UVU and he's been bugging me for a very,
very long time to try letting my students determine the policy. I've finally caved in and I'm giving it a
chance---reluctantly giving up a little bit of that sense of being in control for the sake of the experiment.
Basically, on the second day of class, I had the students engage in a class debate about what our policy
should be for absences, tardies, and late assignments. The debates were fairly interesting. When
discussing absences, one class spent the bulk of the time talking about how missing class was its own
punishment because it causes you to fall behind in the course. (They ended up opting for just letting
people attend as needed with no penalties for poor attendance.) One class decided to allow 4 absences
and give 5 points extra credit for every unused absence. Another class decided to give 30 points extra
credit for having less than 3 absences and -30 points for having more than 5.
In the first two classes that I taught the discussions went fairly smoothly. It surprised me how quickly they
reached a consensus. However, the last class had me second-guessing whether I was ready to give up
control just yet. Many of the student started talking about how coming to class was just a hoop to jump
through in order to get a grade. Their cynicism towards their education admittedly made me feel a little
defensive---and it started to bubble over in my tone during the discussion. At one point I asked them why
they weren't just taking an online class (which only required you to do the work and didn't require
attendance or strict deadlines). I was hoping someone would talk about the value of coming to class, and
a few of them did, but not very powerfully. I honestly began to wonder if any of them would end up
attending the class at all. Finally, when I told them that I really didn't think I could be an effective teacher if
only 3 students showed up because I had planned lots of group work and in-class discussions, that

seemed to shift the discussion a little bit. (They were the class that opted for the +30/-30 policy.)
Anyhow, it's been really interesting. I hope I haven't damaged my rapport with my third class because of
my defensiveness. My sense is that it's not a lost cause, but we'll see how it all plays out by the end of the
semester. I'll let you know how it all turns out when the semester is over.

Students vs. Teachers[edit]

Even though both teacher-centered and student-centered teachers what to help the students learn,
they are like night and day in their approaches. Teacher-centered philosophies focus around
essentialism and perennialism. Some of the most popular student-centered philosophies include
progressivism, social reconstructionism, and existentialism. According to Mary P. Driscoll, teachercentered and student-centered views put primacy on the learning of the student, and all other
aspects of the learning environment and instruction are planned from that initial standpoint

What are Teacher-Centered Philosophies?[edit]

Teacher-centered philosophies are the ones you are probably most familiar with. These philosophies
focus on what the teacher wants his or her students to learn. There are a lot of factors that
determine what kind of teaching philosophies to use. Shawn A. Faulkner and Christopher M. Cook
state that the state tests seem to drive the curriculum and warrant more teacher-focused
instructional methodslecture, worksheets, and whole-class discussion (2006). We remember this
from our own experiences in school. Do you remember when you were in class and the teacher was
in front and she lectured to you? Everyone student remembers taking notes off of the blackboard.
These are just two examples of teacher-centered practices. Kathy Brown clarifies that the teachercentered approach is associated chiefly with the transmission of knowledge (2003). Getting the
knowledge out and to the student is the main focus. The students are accountable for what they
have learned and the teachers are also. Teachers are in control and they plan out activities and
learning strategies according to specific times during the lesson (Teacher Vision). Teacher-centered
philosophies that are mostly used in teaching include essentialism and perennialism. Let us briefly
look at these two philosophies.

1. Essentialism in the Classroom

In the excerpt of the book Teachers, Schools, and Society: A Brief Introduction to Education, authors
David Miller Sadker, Ph.D and Karen R. Zittleman, Ph.D state how Essentialism strives to teach
students the accumulated knowledge of our civilization through core courses in the traditional
academic disciplines (2007). What this means is that our society has certain viewpoints and
practices that schools must pass down to students in a more authoritarian way. According to William

Gaudelli, who is an assistant professor of social studies education at the University of Central
Florida, essentialists concern themselves with teaching students how to survive, succeed in their
lives, and not be a burden to others (Gaudelli, 2002). Essentialist teachers believe that what they
teach will help their students in real-life situations as they grow older (Gaudelli, 2002). In the
classroom, you will most likely see traditional subjects such as math, English, science, and history
as the foundations of learning. Essentialist teachers rely on achievement tests scores to evaluate
progress and teachers expect that students will leave school not only with basic skills, but also
disciplined, practical minds that are capable of applying lessons taught in school in the real world
(Sadker and Zittleman, 2007). In essence, teachers want their students to be able to use what they
have learned in school and use it appropriately in the real world.

2. Perennialism in the Classroom

Perennialism and essentialism may sounds somewhat alike, but perennialists are in fact different in
their approaches. Perennialists recommend that students learn directly from the Great Books
works by historys finest thinkers and writers, books meaningful today as when they where first
written (Sadker and Zittleman, 2007). Perennialist generally prefer a past orientation, because it
tends to be based on historical truth, rather than conjecture about the present and guessing about
the future (Gaudelli, 2002). This means that perennialists believe that a student can be influence by
such heroes in our past like Washington and Lincoln. In a perennialist classroom, the teacher will
focus on the importance of reading and will often use the underlying reading lessons to make a
moral point (Sadker and Zittleman, 2007). These teachers want to teach their students how to be
excellent leaders in society just like history portrays.

What are Student-Centered Philosophies?[edit]

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what a child can do today with assistance, she will be able to do by herself tomorrow. -Lev
Vygotsky.

Student-centered learning is just what is says. It is basically learning by doing. Teachers believe that
education should be child-centered. According to Julie K. Brown, she basically says that studentcentered instruction is when the planning, teaching, and assessment revolve around the needs and
abilities of the students (2008). This is quite the opposite from what you have just read. Regardless

of variations in developmental levels, all children are exposed to the same content in the same time
period and the teachers role is to facilitate growth by utilizing the interests and unique needs of
students as a guide for meaningful instruction (Teacher Vision). According to Becky A. Smerdon
and David T. Burkam, students develop analytic skills that can be applied to other problems and
situations, rather than accept their teachers explanation (1999). This technique gives the students
the chance to use their abilities and experiences to solve problems and find new ways of learning.
One example of this would be if a math teacher lets his or her students work in groups to solve
different problems or let students create their own test. With student centered learning, students and
teachers are committed to working together and finding the best achievable way of learning.

1. Progressivism in the Classroom

Progressivisms build the curriculum around the experiences, interests, and abilities of students, and
encourage students to work together cooperatively (Sadker and Zittleman). The progressivist
teacher would use games like Monopoly or Jeopardy to illustrate important points. Unlike
Perennialists, Progressivists do not believe in teaching Great Books, but use computer
simulations, field trips, and interactive websites on the Internet to offer realistic learning challenges
for students, and build on students multiple intelligences (Sadker and Zittleman, 2007). Many props
are used to expand the students abilities and to make them think a little differently. Instead of just
lecturing to students, teachers try to find more interesting ways to communicate important learning
techniques and this affords students opportunities to explore ideas and construct knowledge based
on their own observations and experiences (Smerdon and Burkam, 1999). Teachers ultimately
serve as their students guide and they want their students to use problem-solving strategies they
have learned in class to help manage the challenges of life.

2. Social Reconstructivism in the Classroom

Social Reconstructionism encourages schools, teachers, and students to focus their studies and
energies on alleviating pervasive inequities, and as the name implies, reconstruct into a new and
more just social order (Sadker and Zittleman, 2007). Social reform is the key to this type of
philosophy and social challenges and problems help guide teachers with their message. A social
reconstructionist teacher wants to not only inform their students, but rouse emotions and point out
the inequalities that surround them and the world (Sadker and Zittleman, 2007). The teacher
engages the students to discuss and address problems such as poverty, homelessness, violence
and many more issues that create disparity. The teachers role is to explore social problems,
suggest alternate perspectives, and assist students examinations of these problems (Sadker and
Zittleman, 2007). For examples in the classroom, one group of students might analyze news

coverage of racial and ethic groups of a community or students might arrest and trial records in order
to determine the role race plays in differential application of the law (Sadker and Zittleman, 2007).
The main focus of this philosophy is to help students find ways to improve society. The teacher
wants the student to value society and realize that there is unfairness in the world and it is important
to be aware and act as advocates for those who are being judged.

3. Existentialism in the Classroom

Existentialism is another student-centered philosophy. Existentialism places the highest degree of
importance on student perceptions, decisions, and actions and individuals are responsible for
determining for themselves what is true or false, right or wrong, beautiful or ugly (Sadker and
Zittleman, 2007). To sum it up, students make choices and then take the time to evaluate those
choices. The teachers role is to help students define their own essence by exposing them to
various paths they may take in life and by creating an environment in which they can freely choose
their way (Sadker and Zittleman, 2007). This philosophy means that students think for themselves
and are aware of responsibilities assigned to them. Existentialism philosophies say no to tradition
and focuses on the students unique talents. The teacher views each student as an individual and
students learn how to achieve their full potential by trying new concepts.

Conclusion[edit]
There are many philosophies that come along with teacher and student-centered teaching. Which
one is the best? It depends on the content being taught. Research indicates that teachers personal
and professional characteristics are related to how they teach (Smerdon and Berkam, 1999). The
way a teacher feels comfortable with the subject matter may influence him or her on how the subject
will be taught. The most important goal is to teach the students and help them prepare for life after
school. Both teacher-centered and student-centered philosophies can achieve that for the student.

Teacher-Centered vs. Student-Centered Philosophies

by Daysha Clark

Contents
[hide]

1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

2 TEACHER-CENTERED PHILOSOPHIES

2.1 Core Ideas

2.2 The Classroom Environment

2.3 The Role of the Teacher

2.4 Assessment

2.5 The Debate

3 STUDENT-CENTERED PHILOSOPHIES
o

3.1 Core Ideas

3.2 Definition of Knowledge

3.3 The Classroom

3.4 The Teacher's Role

3.5 Assesment

3.6 The Debate

4 CONCLUSION

5 REVIEW QUESTIONS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES[edit]
After completing this lesson the learner should:

Understand the basic differences between teacher-centered and studen-centered education

Be able to describe characteristics of each teaching method as they relate to the teacher, the student, the
nature of knowledge, and the classroom environment

Have an understanding of the support for each philosophy

Have an understanding of the drawbacks for each philosophy

As prospective educators, its important to understand how you and your future classroom
will incorporate the crowd of theories and ideas that currently influence education and
learning. Its very easy to get lost in the swirl of educational theories and isms that
crop up in discussions of educational practices. Despite the rich variety of ideas about learning,
most teaching approaches fall into one court or the other teacher centered, or student
centered. These two very different views can themselves be further subdivided in to wildly
different ideas about the role of the teacher, the potential of the child, and the nature of
knowledge. Rather than getting bogged down in semantics that not necessarily helpful, what
will be discussed here is the underlying philosophies of these two views, and how they impact
the teacher, the student, and the classroom environment.

TEACHER-CENTERED PHILOSOPHIES[edit]
Teacher centered philosophies represent a more traditional approach to knowledge and
learning. The philosophical underpinnings of this school of thought are best illustrated by the
following logic: Education implies teaching, teaching implies knowledge, knowledge is truth,
truth is the same everywhere, therefore, education everywhere should be the same
(Jacobson 1999)
Core Ideas[edit]
With origins in Renaissance philosophies, traditional views primarily seek to wrap the student
around a fixed bundle knowledge. Knowledge, within this framework, is the set of skills and
information considered necessary to meet the expectations of real world environments.
(Darling 2003)
Holt (1969) offers and excellent encapsulation of the tradition perspective of the nature of
knowledge:

Of the vast body of human knowledge, there are certain bits and
pieces that can be called essential, that everyone should know. The
extent to which a person can be considered educated, qualified to live
intelligently in todays world and be a useful member of society,
depends on the amount of this essential knowledge that he carries
about with him. It is the duty of schools, therefore, to get as much of
this essential knowledge as possible into the minds of children (as
cited in Blake et al., 2003)

The Classroom Environment[edit]

Instruction takes place in a somewhat passive environment in which the student spends the
majority of in-class time at a desk; the only sensory interface with the subject matter is
auditory, and perhaps marginally tactile in the case of note taking. Lectures and readings are
used in information delivery, making the students predominantly recipients of information.
Rote memorization and repetitive practice are used for reinforcement, and subjects are highly
compartmentalized with little crossover from subject to subject or even beyond the classroom.
The information to be learned takes priority over the learner. (Diseth 2003).

The Role of the Teacher[edit]

The teachers role is that of information distributor and performance evaluator. They will
use drills, memorization, and lectures to disperse information to the students. Instruction is
almost strictly a monolog, with the student body addressed as a collective unit during
instruction. The teacher relates the set goals that each student must attain to be considered
adequate. The teacher possess all of the knowledge that the student must learn, and is
responsible for maintaining a well ordered and structured environment; as a result, the teacher
has absolute authority when instructing and assessing (Smith 2003).
Assessment[edit]
Assessment consists largely of testing and assignments which rely on correctly recalling and
reproducing the expected information. Exams are often in a form-like format that features
short answer, multiple-choice, or essay questions that require students recall course material
and coordinate answers with questions. Successful learning consists of the students
accurate recollection of the information that is required, and is normally given a grade that
represents a raw measure of the ratio of correct to incorrect responses.
The Debate[edit]
A key defense of this method relies on the field of developmental psychology. The human
minds ability to accept and retain new information is at its peak during childhood, while
reasoning and problem-solving skills are at their lifetime low. This means that while young
children have a vast potential to memorize information, their abilities to extrapolate any
further meaning from that information is very limited. (Feldman 2006) Information is being
presented in a way that is compatible with their development. Furthermore, it is argued that
younger students in particular lack self-discipline and the reasoning skills to self-direct, and so
require a rigid and absolute framework is a must in order to facilitate learning at all. (Mayer
2004)
One of the many critiques of this approach hinges on the same developmental realities:
children have difficulty understanding the importance of the body of information they are
expected to learn my heart, and so become frustrated, bored with, or even hostile toward the
process. (Darling 2003) They are simply exposed to information and then held accountable for it
with no valuable context as to why. John Dewey, influential philosopher and educational
reformer, compared a student in such a learning environment to a spectator, simply collecting
information for later use rather using it to learn to produce and manipulate knowledge
themselves. (as cited in Husen and Postlethwaite 1985)
Assessment methods are also seen as problematic, as they focus almost exclusively on
reproducing the information previously received; not only does this require no original thought

(critical thinking) it can result in a failure to learn on a deeper, more permanent level, and
establish within the learner a fear of failure and a need to conform to expectations as
predominant motivators for learning. (Diseth 2007)
The variance in cognitive and rational development from child to child also raises issues and gives rise to
the argument that children who develop more quickly will be held back by the fixed pace of learning,
and that children who lag developmentally will fall through the cracks of a rigid system, and eventually
be identified as unmotivated or unteachable by evaluation methods designed to measure all students
against and arbitrary fixed standard. (Meyer 2004)

STUDENT-CENTERED PHILOSOPHIES[edit]
Core Ideas[edit]
Ideologies that stem from the concept of student oriented education are many and varied. Despite a
myriad of distinct schools that fit in the category there are a few overarching themes that define each as
student-centered, and are largely an amalgam of ideas originally put forth by John Locke and JeanJacque Rouseau:

Structured learning environments impose arbitrary limits on a students natural intellectual

ability

Sensory input is essential to for cognitive development

The value of the learner is greater than that of the learning itself.

Truly functional knowledge can be integrated into applications beyond the subject itself, and
permits the learner to apply subject material to new situations and synthesize new ideas.

Universal standards of learning imposed on every student stifles the individual and promotes
conformity

Students are social and cultural being, therefore utilizing socio-cultural element is crucial to
worthwhile learning.

(Bertrand 1995; Jacobson 1999)

Definition of Knowledge[edit]
Without a heavy curriculum focus, knowledge becomes a framework of information and ideas
that is organic and dynamic. Students should gain not only information about a subject, but the
ability to cross-apply those ideas into other area both academic and otherwise. (Bertrand 1995)
Learning how to learn is an important element of knowledge itself. Information in and of itself
is not considered knowledge education of this type seeks to develop wisdom in the student

as well. Teaching the student how to effectively gain and use knowledge holds value equal to
the knowledge itself.
The Classroom[edit]
Course subject matter is actively explored by the learner for use as a tool for further learning
and achievement and done in a way that is best suited to each individual student. Activities
involve group discussion, dialog with the instructor, field trips, and hand-on projects that
require critical thinking and creativity in addition to familiarity with the subject matter. The
class room should afford opportunities to use what they have gained in the classroom to
synthesize original ideas.
Socialization is also an important classroom element because of the emphasis on
individuality, as well as application skills, it follows that a group of students will have access to
broader collective viewpoint than a solitary student. (Jacobsen 2007)
In some cases, a discovery learning approach may be used, in which students are given
problems to solve or projects to complete, but little specific instruction. They are free to
discover, by their own methods and ideas, how to solve the problem. The teacher only
involvement is to affirm correct solutions, and encourage the student to try again for incorrect
solutions. (Mayer 2004) The theory is that this facilitates a deeper level of learning, and gives
the student a practical knowledge in addition to acquiring new information.
The Teacher's Role[edit]
The teachers role in a child centered classroom environment is often described as that of a
guide, providing direction and leadership and organizing activities and projects designed to
immerse the student in the course material. They are responsible for creating an environment
that provides opporotunity for discovery and interaction.
There is also a sharp focus on supporting the success and psycho-emotional well being of their
students. Teachers must be attuned to each student and their strengths and abilities, and have
access to a broad set of skills and strategies in order to provide appropriate guidance to each
student as an individual, rather than simply master classroom management and information
delivery skills to be applied to the class as a whole.
Assesment[edit]
Assessment in a student centered environment should be proof of learning, rather that
forcing the student to prove what they have learned (Bertrand 1995). Assessment methods
should measure progress without placing emphasis on a pass/fail scenario, which can produce a
sense of rejection or failure leading to discouragement (Bertrand 1995)

As opposed to a curriculum focused method of reproducing the course content, they will be
given assignments that require them to comprehend, synthesize, apply, and evaluate the
course content (LaLopa 2005); It is not unusual for the student to play a role in their own
assessment; peer reviewing and grading is often utilized, and students are frequently given the
opportunity to assess their instructor and their classroom, as well as help to determine how
they themselves should be evaluated.
The Debate[edit]
A collection of studies compiled by Diseth (2007) indicates the extent of students direct
involvement in their education experience is directly proportional to their level of interest and
commitment, which is in turn directly proportional to their overall performance.
One of the counter arguments against the student-focused classroon is the danger of
methods that promote hands-on activity or group discussions [becoming] ends in
themselves (Meyer 2004); the concern is that the exploratory nature of progressive learning
too easily loses its focus and entertains rather that educates, leaving children innappropriately
prepared.
There is also concern that learning based on student exploration wastes times with trial-and-error
activities that do not produce sufficient benefits. Studies reported by Mayer (2004) suggests that
discovery learners actually scored lower on math and language evaluations that their traditional
classroom counterparts.

A summary of key learning theories and the individuals

and ideas behind them. Can you decide which are
student-centered, and which are teacher-centered?
all chart info from Wikipedia articles "Constructivism", "Learning Theories", and
"Essentialism in Education"

CONCLUSION[edit]
Discovering what philosophy (or philosophies) will govern your future classroom is an
important journey for any prospective educator. Too often, it is one that is oversimplified to
What kind of teacher are you questionnaires and dizzying breakdowns of the varieties of
isms for you to shop from. But the true starting point for establishing and earnest
philosophy of education lies in discerning which of these schools of thought studentcentered or teacher-centered best represents your philosophical outlook in general, and
your attitudes and ideals toward yourself as an instructor, the purpose and goal of the
classroom, and the growth and success of your future students.

Learner-Centered Psychological Principles

The following 14 psychological principles pertain to all learners and the learning
process. They are best understood as an organized set of principles; no principle should
be viewed in isolation. This document is adapted from the principles developed by the
American Psychological Association.

1. The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional

process

of

constructing

meaning

from

information

and

experience.

Successful learners are active, goal-oriented, self-regulating, and assume personal

responsibility

for

contributing

Message

to

their

own

for

learning.
Teachers:

Use techniques that aid students in constructing meaning from information, experiences,
and

their

own

thought

and

beliefs.

2. The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can
create

meaningful,

coherent

representations

of

knowledge.

The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal directed. Students must
generate
Message

and

pursue

personally
for

relevant

goals.
Teachers:

Create meaningful student learning goals consistent with their personal and educational
aspirations

and

interests.

3. The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in
meaningful

ways.

Knowledge widens and deepens as student continue to build links between new
information and experiences and their existing knowledge base. Unless new knowledge
become integrated with the learner's prior knowledge and understanding, this new
knowledge remains isolated, cannot be used most effectively in new tasks, and does not

transfer

readily

to

Message

new

situations.

for

Teachers:

Assist learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge by using such strategies as concept
mapping

and

thematic

organization

or

categorizing.

4. The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning
strategies

to

achieve

complex

learning

goals.

Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to learning, reasoning, problem
solving, and concept learning. They understand and can use a variety of strategies to help
them reach learning and performance goals, and to apply their knowledge in novel
situations.
Message

for

Teachers:

Assist learners in developing, applying, and assessing their strategic learning skills.
5. Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate
creative

and

critical

thinking.

Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable learning or
performance goals. select potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods, and
monitor

their

progress

Message

towards

these

goals.

for

Teachers:

Use instructional methods that focus on helping learners develop these higher order
strategies

to

enhance

learning

and

personal

responsibility

for

learning.

6. Learning is influenced by environmental factor, including culture, technology, and

instructional

practices.

Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Cultural or group influences on students impact
many educationally relevant variables: motivation, orientation toward learning, and ways
of thinking. Technologies and instructional practices must be appropriate for learners' level
of prior knowledge, cognitive abilities, and their learning and thinking strategies.

Message

for

Teachers:

Make the classroom environment nurturing to have significant impacts on student learning.
7. What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner's motivation. Motivation
to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual's emotional states, beliefs, interests
and

goals,

and

habits

of

thinking.

Students' belief about themselves as learners and the nature of learning have a marked
influence on motivation. Positive emotions generally enhance motivation and facilitate
learning and performance. Mid anxiety can also enhance learning and performance by
focusing

the

learner's

Message

attention

on

particular

for

task.
Teachers:

Help students avoid intense negative emotions (e.g., anxiety, panic, rage, insecurity) and
related thoughts (e.g., worrying about competence, ruminating about failure, fearing
punishment,

ridicule,

or

stigmatizing

labels).

8. The learner's creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to
motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and
difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal choice and
control.
Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and creativity are major indicators of the
learners'

intrinsic

Message

motivation

to

for

learn.
Teachers:

Encourage and support learners' natural curiosity and motivation to learn by attending to
individual differences in learners' perceptions of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevance,
and

personal

choice

and

control.

9. Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and
guided practice. Without learners' motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this
effort

is

unlikely

without

coercion.

Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills demands the investment of considerable

learner

energy

and

strategic

effort,

along

with

persistence

over

time.

Message

for

Teachers:

Facilitate motivation by using strategies that enhance learner effort and commitment to
learning and to achieving high standards of comprehension and understanding.
10. As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for learning.
Learning is most effective when differential development within and across physical,
intellectual,

emotional,

and

social

domains

is

taken

into

account.

Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental level and is
presented

in

an

enjoyable

Message

and

interesting

for

way.
Teachers:

Be aware of and understand developmental differences among students with and without
emotional, physical, or intellectual disabilities, to facilitate the creation of optimal learning
contexts.
11. Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and
communication

with

others.

Setting that allow for social interactions, and that respect diversity, encourage flexible
thinking,

and

social

competence

Message

can

enhance

for

learning.
Teachers:

Allow for interactive and collaborative instructional contexts to provide individuals an

opportunity for perspective taking and reflective thinking that may lead to higher levels of
cognitive,

social

and

moral

development,

as

well

as

self-esteem.

12. Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are
a

function

Individuals
Message

are

of
born

with

prior
and

experience

develop
for

their

own

and
capabilities

heredity.
and

talents.

Teachers:

Help student examine their learning preferences and expand or modify them, if necessary.

13. Learning is most effective when differences in learners' linguistic, cultural, and social
backgrounds

are

taken

into

account.

Language, ethnicity, race, beliefs, and socioeconomic status all influence learning.
Message

for

Teachers:

Paying careful attention to these factors in the instructional setting enhances the
possibilities for designing and implementing appropriate learning environments.
14. Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as
well as learning progress - including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment are

integral

parts

of

the

learning

process.

Ongoing assessment of the learner's understanding of curricular material can provide

valuable feedback to both learners and teachers about progress towards the learning goals.
Message

for

Teachers:

Use of varied types of assessment will provide a clearer picture of student learning.

http://cetl.olemiss.edu/scholarship.html

Student-Centered and Teacher-Centered Philosophies

Teachers are bound to have different ideas in the areas of classroom management, teaching styles,
motivation, etc. The eight education philosophies are broken down into two categories: teachercentered and student-centered. The eight philosophies are perennialism, essentialism, behaviorism,
positivism, progressivism, humanism, reconstructionism, and constructivism.
Teacher-Centered Educational Philosophies
Perennialism is a theory focused on humans and ideas. Ideas are relevant and meaningful throughout
time. Little importance is placed on what students are interested in. They believe in the importance of
ideas that are universal to everyone. There is a strong focus on scientific reasoning and mathematics
because they never change.
Essentialism is a theory that wants to achieve a common core of information and skills for all individuals
in a given culture. Essentialists believe in working hard and mental discipline. They put more focus on
basic core information that will help students survive today, and therefore spend less time on ideas of
the past. They accept that the core information will change as time goes on. Subject matters include

literature, history, foreign languages, and religion. Teachers use a variety of methods: required reading,
lectures, memorization, repetition and exams.
Behaviorism is a psychological theory and educational philosophy that holds that ones behavior is
determined by environment, not heredity (Johnson et al., 110). One argument of this theory is that the
classroom environment can have a large effect on how students will behave. The most effective
environment is one that is organized. Reinforcement plays another important role in behaviorism. This
includes both positive (praise, privileges, good grades) and negative (reprimands, extra homework, low
grades) reinforcers. The way a teacher reacts to the action of a student determines whether or not that
student will repeat the action.
Positivism rejects any information that cannot be formally measured. It limits knowledge to statements
of observable fact based on sense perceptions and the investigation of objective reality (111-12). It is
the teachers job to make sure directions are clear and students understand what and how they will be
learning. Through repetition and practice with different media, students are expected to have a clear
understanding of the topic studied. Heavy focus is placed on testing students to ensure that all criteria
have been met.
Student-Centered Educational Philosophies
Progressivism is a more developed version of pragmatism, emphasizing that ideas should be tested by
experimentation and that learning is rooted in questions developed by learners (114). They believe that
human experience is far more important than authority when it comes to learning. Like pragmatists,
progressivists believe that change is occurring and should be embraced rather than ignored.
Progressivism is all about organized freedom that allows students to take responsibility for their actions
in the classroom.
Humanism is concerned with enhancing the innate goodness of the individual (115). Its focus is on
individual development through a process of developing a free, self-actualizing person. Education should
start with the individual and the choices made by the individual. The humanistic classroom is welcoming
and caring. Students feel comfortable to share their thoughts, feelings, beliefs, fears, and aspirations
with each other.
Reconstructionism is a philosophy that centers on the idea of constant change. The world is always
changing and we need to change in order to adapt to the changes that are occurring. Reconstructionists
like to focus on reconstructing one area of society. Curriculum is focused on student experience and
taking social action on real issues such as violence, hunger, inequality, etc. Students are taught how to
deal and ultimately fix these issues.
Constructivism emphasizes developing personal meaning through hands-on, activity-based teaching
and learning (117). Teachers are responsible for creating effective learning situations rather than
constantly lecturing students. Personal meaning is the best way for students to connect to the material
being taught. Constructivist theorists encourage the development of critical thinking and the
understanding of big ideas rather than the mastery of factual information (117). They believe that
students will be more prepared for the ever-changing world if they learn how to develop critical thinking

skills. Unlike traditional ways of learning, the constructivist classroom focuses on the way a learner
internalizes, shapes, or transforms information.
Reflection
Although I see a small piece of most of these philosophies within myself, I think the one I can connect to
the most is constructivism. I strongly believe in hands-on, activity based learning that is focused on the
students as individuals. It is important for students to learn in a way that is interesting to them. I also
like the idea of creating learning situations instead of lecturing students. This gives students the chance
to learn the same material in a much more personal and interactive way. Another philosophy I find
myself relating to is progressivism. It is very similar to pragmatism (which is another theory I connect to)
in the sense that theorists in this philosophy are always moving forward. I agree that it is important for
students to take part of the responsibility in the classroom.

Teacher-centered philosophies of education require that children are educated using

certain methods put into action by their teacher, as opposed to student-centered
philosophies, in which teaching methods are formed according to the needs and
learning styles of individual students. In short, teacher-centered philosophies force the
student to adjust to the teacher; with student-centered philosophies, the teacher
adjusts to the student. Essentialism and perennialism are the two teacher-centered
philosophies that are prominent in the United States.

Essentialism
Essentialism is a teacher-centered philosophy that stresses rigorous practice with the
traditional subjects: reading, writing, math, and science. An essentialist curriculum is
structured to develop discipline and a common culture of knowledge. Essentialists value
deep knowledge on a few core subjects, as opposed to more general knowledge on a
wider array of subjects.
In 1938, education reformist William C. Bagley pioneered essentialism in America. As
outlined in his publicationEssentialist's Platform, he pushed for a strong, common core
curriculum to help Americas school systems compete with higher-ranking countries. He
believed that the influx of immigrants was threatening American culture by weakening
the schools, and responded with his attempt to raise academic standards.
The Essentialist's Platform detailed three main components of essentialism in the
classroom. First, students were to be taught by an essentialist teacher who is welleducated and knowledgeable in the core curriculum. In Bagleys book Craftsmanship in
Teaching, he framed the teacher as the center of the essentialist classroom. The
teachers role in essentialism was to teach a strict curriculum with knowledge and
authority, but the method was at the teachers discretion.

The second component was to weave community into the curriculum. The essentialist
reform was set to promote the customs of American culture to each student regardless
of the school, to ensure that all schools of varying demographics had a common
foundation. This element of essentialism is in direct contrast to student-centered
philosophies of education, which focus on the growth of the student as an individual.
Third in the Essentialist's Platform, Bagley pushed for a higher standard for all students in
the essentials. He took a pass or fail approach to promoting students to the next
educational level; the only way a student could progress was to prove knowledge of the
required subjects through grades and testing. If education abandons rigorous
standards and consequently provides no effective stimulus, many persons will pass
through twelve years of schooling to find themselves in a world in which ignorance and
lack of fundamental training are heavy handicaps, Bagley said.
Today, essentialist advocate E. D. Hirsch Jr. is the chairman and founder of the Core
Knowledge Foundation. Hirschs ideas of education reform begin with common cultural
literacy. As stated on the foundations website, Our society cannot afford a two-tiered
system in which the affluent have access to superior education, while everyone else is
subjected to a dull and incoherent classroom experience. Academic excellence,
educational equity, and fairness demand a strong foundation of knowledge for all
learners.

http://www.education.com/reference/article/Ref_Teacher_Centered/?page=2

Perennialism
Perennialism is a teacher-centered educational philosophy that focuses on everlasting
ideas and universal truths learned from art, history, and literature. The curriculum of
perennialism stems from the Great Books, a collection of literature deemed in
Western culture to be foundational, significant, and relevant, regardless of the time
period. These books include the works of Socrates, Aristotle, Homer, Plato, Geoffrey
Chaucer, and William Shakespeare.
The Great Books were the most promising avenue to liberal education if only because
they are teacher-proof, said prominent perennialist Robert Hutchins in 1973. If there
were a Socrates behind every teachers desk, you would not need to worry about the
curriculum.
Perennialism is similar to essentialism in that teachers guide the educational process. It
is also closely associated with the Socratic method of teaching, which promotes an open
dialogue between teacher and student. Perennialism in the classroom involves students gaining

cultural literacy through the Great Books and proving their understanding through tests, writing, and behavior.
A perennialism teacher has a duty to help students to become cultural citizens and to understand the principles
of human knowledge.
Hutchins believed that students should be taught basic universal truths and an
understanding of eternal ideals. Following the principles of perennialism, he
implemented education reform at the University of Chicago, encouraging modern
critical thinking of old ideals. He did away with traditional grades and requirements,
instead focusing on a more broad curriculum and comprehension through exams. He
sought to open up the dialogue between teachers and students, and to foster an
environment of debate that could help students relate to these ancient values. The
purpose of the university is nothing less than to procure a moral, intellectual, and
spiritual revolution throughout the world, he said.

Teacher-Centered Philosophies in American Education

In his 2003 book Exemplars of Curriculum Theory, education professor Arthur K. Ellis writes
that perennialism dominated the American education system from colonial times to the
19th century, but today the back to basics essentialist curriculum is prominent in
American public education. The ancient and religious values of perennialism have been
removed from the public school system in an effort to promote a separation of church
and state. Perennialism is still popular in many non-secular schools and universities.
Critics claim that both educational theories are one-sided, only preparing students for
one aspect of their futureessentialism is too pragmatic while perennialism is
undemocratic. Both have the same goal of training up a student in a certain image, but
those images are different. Perennialism aims to raise an enlightened citizen;
essentialism aims to raise a knowledgeable student.

http://www.education.com/reference/article/Ref_Teacher_Centered/?page=2
paradigm