ECOLOGICAL BALANCE AND INDIAN ETHOS

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Environmental pollution may be traced back to the evolution of Homo
Sapiens on the earth and it was realized 2500 years ago during the time of
Plato1. In the process of metamorphosis of primitive man into a civilized man,
environment was neglected; importance was given to science and technology,
resulting in environmental pollution. When life of human being on planet
Earth was in the stage of embryo, a stage where he was one with nature, he
had no moral relations or determinate obligations. When human being was
roaming in the forests, he knew neither good nor bad. Human being without
any knowledge of shelter, cooking, speech, and industry, he did not need his
fellow creatures and could have no desire to hurt them. Thus when man was
uncivilized and unpolluted, it was said that nothing was more pure than the
state of nature and nothing was more polluted than man in the state of nature.2
4.2 ENVIRONMENTAL JURISPRUDENCE-ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL
PERIOD

India being socialist and secular country a good environmental sense

has been one of the fundamental features of Indian philosophy. The
civilization of India has grown-up in close association with nature. There has
always been a compassionate concern for every form of life in the Indian
mind.
1

Hambro, E. The Human environment Stock and After, year book of world
affairs, 1974, 20.
Rouse all, Jean Lalques) Discourse on Arts and Science and Discourse on
Origin of Inequality1750.

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India being rich in its culture and heritage, inherited the values like
tolerance, non-violence, equity, and compassion for animate objects, apart
from this, nature is the common heritage of human beings. To preserve and
protect nature human being must make sincere efforts. Ecological imbalances
and environmental destructions are good examples to say that human being
failed in his duty voluntarily then compulsory action must take over it. It is
this process of human negligence and careless ness dealing with the
environment gave birth to environmental jurisprudence.

Ancient India was the richest county, where in the gold was said to be
sold and the streets. India has been rich not only financially but also
intellectually. The scientific knowledge which now discovered is not new for
India even with least pollution. But now India after invasion by many
foreigners is suffering from poverty which is the main cause for environmental
degradation and is striving for development. Since development and
degradation, progress and pollution, economics and environment go together,
development cannot be stopped, as it is being a natural instinct of man.
Similarly, there is no escape form pollution because human being himself is
the generator of pollution. The examples are the air he respires and emits, the
odor he emits etc. Industry is the other cause for pollution and if industry is
necessary evil then pollution is surest sufferance. The pollution is unsolved
problem which has been termed as slow poison and is as old as
human civilization itself3. But this does not mean that India has no concern for

Krishna Iyer. V.R, The Dialectics and Dynamics of Human Rights in India, 7
1999.

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environment at all. The instinct of protection of environment is inherent

among Indians which motivated them to lay down certain religious precepts
and rules and to take corresponding measures in an attempt to protect
environment4.
HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF INDIAN LAW
The significance of environment and environment protection are not
new to India. It is traced to 300 B.C. The principles of environment protection
are found in Arthashastra written by Kautilya, the prime minister of the
Magadha dynasty during the period of Chandra Gupta maurya. Arthashastra
also deals with environment protection and lays down various rules in all
angles minutely with great detail5.
The Arthashastra is divided into 14 books which provide in detail the
law, administration, industry, commerce and foreign policy, book two contains
provisions relating to environment. The Arthashastra provides rulers to protect
preserve and improve forests and animal species (protection of wild life).
Killing animals and birds, cutting trees are forbidden, if any harm is caused
or pollution is caused in city, then penalty is prescribed. Even the person
maintaining slaughterhouse shall pay severe fine. Even if the wild animals
from forests are seen where people live, they shall not be killed or inflict
injury to them, they shall be driven out7. This was based on principles of

Sunderlal Bhahuguna, Technology V. Ecology, The Hindusthan Times, Feb 9,

1986.
Armin RosenScanz, Shyam Divan and Martha L. Noble, Environmental Law and
Policy in India- Cases, Materials and Statutes, 1991, p.27.
Supra note 28

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Manusmruti. During the period of Ashoka the 5th pillar edict lays down that
killing different species of animals and birds which are harmless, which are of
utility and are not eaten. Those animals which are with younger ones and are
giving milk should not be killed and during fast days and full moon days
deforestation must be prohibited. The forests maintain ecological balance; they
are reserve of food, and to sustain cultivation on hilly areas and products of
medicinal plants.

The great emperor Chatrapati Shivaji also ordered not to injure animals
and plants. Plantations were made by the road sides to help travelers to have
rest. He commanded the people to protect forests and preserve the water
resources with out polluting.

This kind of gratitude was shown towards nature anciently which

disappeared now. Despite of all ancient wisdom, with the development of
science and technology the environment is damaged and ecological balance is
disturbed. To control these ecological imbalances and to protect environment,
India has developed a form of environmental jurisprudence which is unique.
The Indian environmental jurisprudence has relied on three inter-connected
elements. First, it manifests the new Indian Constitutional law rationale which
clearly accords importance to public concerns rather than to protecting private
interests. Secondly, it reflects certain aspects of Indian legal culture through
implicit and explicit reliance on autochthonous values based on ancient, precolonial indigenous nations and concepts of law. Thirdly, it bears testimony to

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the uniquely activist role of the higher Indian judiciary in promoting this new
rationale. These three elements characterize the manner and approach adopted
in the recent development of Indian environmental jurisprudence. The Indian
environmental jurisprudence proceeds closely in line with legal ideologies
towards creating a human right for a clean environment which has been
frequently voiced in international fora8. After discussing a traditional approach
towards environmental jurisprudence of India there is need for discussion of
Indian environmental jurisprudence regarding early legislations.

Environmental Care in Pre Indian Era:

The cultural and religious heritage of India has concern for protection
and preservation of environment; it has realized the relationship of human
being with nature. Environmental ethics in ancient India can be studied under
the following heads. (1)Religious and cultural or spiritual traditions.

1. Religious and Cultural or Spiritual Traditions of India:

The religion and culture awakes the human being and make him realize
that human life is not just the material possessions but is beyond conspicuous
consumption. Spiritual traditions recognize divinity in nature and worship
nature. The instinct of self-preservation and desire to multidimensional
perfection motivated all religions and cultures to conserve and protect
environment. Each religion has some injunction that can form a code for
environmentally sustainable development. The precepts of environmental
protection under each religion are discussed.

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Hinduism
Hinduism is one of the ancient religions on earth. Cosmology began
with Thales in the west and the Vedas in the East. Both the texts declare water
to be the original being of reality. The apah stands for water as it had the
quality to pervade or break through. Fire is considered as the life principle in
the Rigveda and defines as immortal light in mortals8.

According to Hindu religion god and nature are not different aspects,
they are one and the same. The different aspects of nature are worshipped, for
example plants like Tulasi, trees like Peepul, and birds like Garuda and
animals like Lion are worshipped. Thus the nature has direct link with religion
and God.

In Hinduism, environmental ethics are a part of religious philosophy

from Vedic period. In Rig-Veda the basic elements of Earth, air, water, fire
and space provide basis for life and no body shall destroy or damage these five
elements. According to Indian spiritual tradition, Nature does not need to be
controlled or transformed or decorated; she needs to be accepted in her entirety
as a whole She can be loved and celebrated as she is But she is alive and
must not be diminished or reduced9.

8
9

Rigveda, 10/79/1; 6/9/4; 6/4/2.

Ravi, Ravindra, Science and spirit, New York, 1991, p.38.

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Vedas considered the five elements to be Gods. The earth is described

as mother Goddess. Atharvaveda provided that she is at times mother and
father and product of Antariksha. Every thing has been and is being and will
be created due to Earth. Water is source of all living being and strength of
Earth or cause of the earth. Water may also be called Jeevan which means life
as said in Chandogya Upanishad and considered as Varuna Deva and
Gangamatha. Air is source of energy, it is treated as Vayu Deva. Fire is
considered as life principle in rig Veda and may be prayed as Agni Deva,
Surya Deva. Chandogya Upanishad held the celestial region is the fire, sun
alone is fuel, the sun-beams are ember, the day is the blaze; the moon is the
ignition; and stars are the sparks; with this fire, the oblation given is shraddha
or the favour from which the soma is begotten.

The forests are rich source of natural energy and act as balancers of the
ecology and are held by Vana Devata. The trees and plants were worshipped
as they symbolize the various attributes of God. For example Lotus flower
symbolizing Laxmi, Banyan tree attributed to Brahman, Peepal to Vishnu, Fig
is attributed to Rudra. Tree is Vriksha Devata and it is said that Vriksho
Rakshati Rakshitaha. Varaha and Matsya puranas regarded planting trees as a
pious activity and treated one tree is equal to ten sons and those who plant
trees will not go to hell10. Atharva Veda speaks about protection of wild life
and domestic cattle.

10

Varaha Purana 172, 39

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In Bhagavatha purana, the evolutionary process of life on earth is

symbolically represented by a series of divine incarnations i.e. Matsya avatar,
fish moving in water and amphibious forms like tortoise i.e. Kurma Avathar,
then Varaha animal form, Narashimha mammals like form of animal and man
and then to human incarnations like Parasu Rama, Sri Rama. Thus man did not
formed to dominate the lower species but he evolved out of these forms and is
there fore inter-dependent with the environment11.

The Ancient scripture, the Chandogya Upanishad has explained the

inter-relationship and co-relation between human beings and environment. The
ancient Mahatmas and Rishis have revealed that God sleeps in minerals,
wakes in animals and thinks in man12. Hinduism believes that God is Omni
potent and omnipresent, the environment is treated accordingly and thus any
injury caused to the environment is an injury to God. The evolution of human
life is exposed by the Upanishads as The earth is essence of nature; water is
the essence of earth; Vegetation is the essence of water, human life is essence
of vegetation, meditation is the essence of human life, recitation, essence of
balance or harmony is the existence of human beings in totally13.

11

12
13

Karan Singh, The Hindu Declaration on Nature, The Assisi declaration on

Religion and Nature, Assisi, Italy 29, Sept, 1986.
Inaugural Address by Justice Iyer, on Waste Management, dated: 25-02-1995.
Dr. Chaturvedi, R.G. and M.M. Chaturvedi, Law on Protection of Environment
and Prevention of Pollution, p.6,9, 235-236.

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During ancient days there use to be gratitude towards nature, sages use to
pray for recovery of nature, if he has inflicted any injury. In Atharva Veda, it
is chanted that, whatever I dig out form thee let that quickly grow over again,
O God let me not injure that vital heart. This principle is similar to Right to
life with environmental sustainability, thus principle of sustainable
development is not evolved recently, it is established principle from Vedic
times. But man neglected it and more importance is given to economic
development, not after realization, we are re-establishing this principle for
very sustenance of life. Rig, Yajur and Sama Vadas are highlighting
importance of yagna there it helps in purifying atmosphere, purity and quality
of water is highlighted in Atharva veda i.e., why going to punya thirtha is
given importance.

In Bhagwad gita, Lord Krishna says to Arjuna; that I am the essence of

water, the brightness and light of sun and moon, sound in the ether, the heat or
temperature and light in the fire and Prana in all creatures14. The origin and
dissolution of whole world, whether material or spiritual, every thing is me,
By my will, every thing is created and is existing and annihilated at the end15
Lord says that I am the universe and nature, I am the purifier, I am the sun and
rain and I am the life and death, I am the origin and existence and the
maintainer16 and also said that I am Peepal tree among trees. I am uchaisrava
among horses, Gajendra among elephants, among cows I am kamadenu,

14
15
16

Bhagwad gita, 7th Chapter , 8and 9 slokas.

Bhagwad gita, 9th Chapter: 8.
Bhagwad gita, 9th Chapter: 17, 18, 19.

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Vasuki among snakes, I am Varuna among Jaladevatas, among animals the

king lion, Garuda among birds, Ganga among rivers, crocodile among those
creatures live in water, I am the origin, existence and end, I am omni potent
and omnipresent ..17 With out me nothing will exist. I am the basis for
everything; No one shall harm living and non-living things. Thus God and
Nature are one and the same.
Smritis like Manu and Yagnavalkya smritis also stress on the
importance of environment protection. Menu Smriti mentions about the
optimum use of natural resources i.e., one of the principles of sustainable
development, not only through, puranas, vadas, Itihasas but also through
various stories and through exhortations and writings Hinduism has been and
is protecting environment. It is conserving environment and imbibed in it the
principle of sustainable development.
Buddhism
Gautama Buddha was the greatest humanist and environmentalist,
following the principles of Ahimsa, compassion, tolerance and respect towards
all living and non-living things. Buddhism respects norms of ecology, they are
forbidden to cut trees, destroy animals, birds and pollute water. Universal
compassion, non-violence love and service and mutual protection are all
attributes of Buddhism18.

17
18

Bhagwad gita, 10th Chapter: Stanzas 19-42.

Tripathi, S.S. and Acharya Bhante, Buddhism and the Ecological Crisis in
O.P.Dwivedi, World Religions New Delhi: Gitanjali Publishers, 1989 , p.
187-207.

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Jainism
Jain scriptures preach, not to injure, abuse or oppress, enslave, insult,
torment, torture and kill any creature or any living being. Ahimsa is the Jain
way of life and for them environmental harmony through spirituality may be
attained by adhering to 3 precepts, right belief, right conduct and right
knowledge19. Lord Mahaveera says that nothing is so subtler and smaller than
an atom and so vast than space and no quality is more subtle than the quality
of non-violence and no is virtue greater than reverence for life. He profoundly
declares that those who neglect the five elements and vegetation, neglects his
own sustenance20.

Sikhism
People should identify their position in universe and should respect the
creation of god. They believe that the every survival depends on
environment21. According to Holy Scripture of Sikhs, Guru Granth Sahib, the
creation and dissolution of universe occurs from divine command; God is the
source of birth, substance and destruction. Thus for sikhs divinity lies in
nature and to meet their needs without over exploiting the nature.

19

20
21

Gopilal Amar, Jainism and the Environmental Harmony in O.P.Dwivedi,

World Religions, p. 208-281., (New Delhi: Gitanjali Publishers, 1989, p. 282295.
Our Planet, Vol. 8, No. 2, 1996.
Surjif Jolly, Sikhism and the Environment in O.P.Dwivedi, World Religions,
New Delhi: Gitanjali Publishers, 1989.

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Zoroastrianism
This is one of the oldest religions on earth founded by Zorathushtra.
Zoroastrians are more conscious of nature, not only in their words but also in
their thoughts and deeds. They have reverence towards natures gifts i.e., air,
water, earth, fire, animals, plants etc.
Christianity
The Biblical verses in old and new testaments provide that it is the
duty of man to protect nature and Humanity must safeguard or care for the
environment. Christianity prescribes a harmonious relationship between man
and nature22.
Islam
The holy Qurans message is unity, harmony, balance and order
representing the sustainable development. One should not alter the
environment or disrupt the balance. If any such damage is caused to
environment, it is considered as fasad (mischief)23. God is owner and man is
the guardian of all creatures. Allah has created nature, thus destruction of
nature is injury to Allah. A1-Quran reveals that those who damage nature
excessively i.e., destruction of Allah are said to be oppressing them selves.
Islam says that man is replica of universe and is duty of every man is to safe
guard the health of universe.

22

Rev. Anand Veeraraj, Christianity and the Environment, in O.P.Dwivedi,

World Religions, New Delhi: Gitanjali Publishers, 1989, p. 36-118.

23

Rafig, M. and Muhammad Ajmal, Islam and the Present Ecological crisis,
In O.P.Dwivedi, World Religions, New Delhi: Gitanjali Publishers,1989.
p.119-137.

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Judaism
Jews are more concerned for the environment. The foundation for
Judaism is safeguarding the living creatures. Jews regard humanity as
custodian of the world and warn them not to destroy the world. If done there
will be no one to set it right. The fundamental Jewish principle is to preserve,
protect and safeguard the environment24.

Thus every religion provided precepts for protecting environment. It

has been one of the fundamental principles in each religion. The people also
have strong faith in religion. This faith effectuates people to follow the
religious injunctions in their day to day life. Especially Hindus has much faith
in their spiritual and cultural traditions and principles. The examples for this
philosophy are Bishnois cults and Chipko Movement. The Bishnois is an off
shoot of Hinduism found by Guru Maharaj Jambaji he formed some 29
injunctions including ban on cutting trees and killing animals or birds. This
community use to practice environmental protection as a religious precept the
soldiers of the king of Jodhpur were sent to Bishnois forest to cut wood. The
Bishnois protested and some of the women encircled trees to protect them,
though soldiers started killing them, they sacrificed their lives for the honor of
their religion. This is an example of satyagraha for environmental protection.
This became inspiration for chipko movement of 1973.

24

Rabbi Lawrance Truster, Created in the image of God: Humanity and Divinity in
an age of Environmentalism, conservative Judaism, Vol XLIV, No.1, Fll 1991,
p.17.

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The villagers of U.P formed a human chain and protested against

cutting trees. The same event of protest was followed by villagers near
Himalayas in 1974, forcing contractors not to fell trees. Since then the chipko
movement has developed into eco-development movement25. Both chipko and
Bishnois movement are due to religious belief as well as environmental
concern and for their sustenance. Greater involvement of woman is notable
aspect.
Thus absolute faith, the role of religious and cultural traditions of India,
the human values and concept of Vasudhaika Kutumbam plays an important
role in environment protection and right to sustainable life. Study of
environmental jurisprudence also includes the discussion of historical aspects
of Indian law.
4.3 GANDHIAN PERSPECTIVES
The world as emerged after 1945 was completely damaged. Though
India was rich in its heritage, the Indians have lost faith on tradition and
culture apart from their lives. At this juncture we surely remember the great
humanist and environmentalist, Mahatma Gandhi. He says environment is a
repository of human spirit. He thought of the consequences of industrialization
and urbanization. He tried to reestablish Indian culture and ancient
tradition but due to mesmerism of science and technology no one cared
25

Chandi Prasad Bhatt, The Chipko Andolan; Forest Conservation Based on

Peoples Power, in Anil Agarwal, Daruyl D Monte, and Ujwala Samarth (Eds),
The Fight for Survival , New Delhi: Centre for Science and Environment, 1987,
p.51.

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for it. He initiated Swadeshi movement. He believed that Indias back bone is
villages according to him by perishing the very foundation of India we have
been perishing the very survival. Being a great scholar of India according to
ancient environmental prudence, he said, environmental up-gradation was
more on ecological ethics. Comrade Stalin also evaluated that the therapeutics
of ecological ethics is the beginning of antipollution strategy in Gandhis
India26.

Mahatma Gandhi, while anticipating the ecological crisis of the current

days, told that the policy makers whenever are in doubt, have to recall the
face of the poorest and weakest man they have seen and ask themselves if the
step they contemplated was going to be of any use for him? Will it restore him
to control over his own life and destiny? In other words, Gandhis remarkable
foresight and ability to go to the root cause of ecological problems told that the
need of the poorest should receive the topmost priority in development
planning. It helps the sustainable development. Gandhi stated quite clearly
that the greed of a few people and their tendency to pursue a highly affluent
and wasteful lifestyle could prove very destructive to nature. This is evident
today in global warming, air and water pollution and various other ecological
problems. His solution to environmental crisis is clearly curb this greed.
And, therefore, he said, the earth has enough for every ones need but not for
everyones greed. Due to the unequal distribution of power, it is possible for

26

Justice V.R.Krishna Iyer, Environmental Pollution and Laws, 2004, p.9.

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a relatively small number of people to corner an extremely large share of the

earths resources, which ultimately lead to ecology imbalance.
The Gandhjis words were not cared for as there was greater urge for
development and civilization, but development led to deprivation and
degradation. The civilization impaired the culture of man. The progress
degraded the standard of life, Maurice strong commented that it is through the
process of development process, given a new perspective and fuller meaning
that they must deal with-UN environmental planning with a long journey of
hope27. Thus UN Organization also felt the need to have Co-ordination
between development and protection of environment a raised leading to
legislative urge. The development leads to industrialization, urbanization
which in turn leads to pollution and environmental degradation. Thus once
humanity wanted to become civilized, but now civilized man has to be
humanized.
4.4 MODERN PERIOD
Environment has been defined as the aggregate of all the external
conditions and influence affecting the life and development of an organism28.
Planet Earth is vital with diverse life forms living in harmony. Every thing in
the environment is an interconnected network which depends on one another
for its sustenance. In the Eco-system on Earth each eco-component is part in
balancing the environment where man is one of the holistic entities29.
27

Khanna, Environmental Problems and United Nations,2006, p.7,8

28

Websters New Collegiate Dictionary.

29

N.R.Inamdar, Environmentalism and Development.The Indian Journal of Public

Administration, Vol.XXXV, July-Sept, 1989, p.355.

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Environment is an all-encompassing term and there has never been a

more appropriate time to consider environmental law than now. Globalization
and technological innovations have changed the industrial composition
typically from resource and agricultural based industries to heavy industries,
high-tech manufacturing etc., which has precipitated a massive environmental
change. At the Earth Summit in 1992 we saw United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development, emphasizing the significance of "Sustainable
Development", describing it as "a dynamic program". With the passing of each
day, the need to disseminate information and initiate a dialogue on
Environmental law, its enforcement and the evolution of the concept of
Sustainable Development, is increasing manifolds.
In modern India, Environmental Jurisprudence has gone a long way in
acquiring a very seminal importance leaving behind the engraved British
Juristic notions as out dated and insufficient. The damage caused to
environment by poisonous gases and emissions, industrial effluents, urban
sewage, garbage, plastic waste, chemicals, exploitation of natural resources
like soil, forests, water supplemented by other equally important factors like
poverty, growing population, health hazards, degeneration in quality of life
have acquired alarming proportions which cry for a new environmental ethic,
order and justice in Indian society. Regrettably in India, the initial phase of
judicial response to the problems of environment has been of insensitivity and
apathy towards environmental issues and problems.

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The word 'environment' includes all parts of nature necessary for health
and happiness of man. Nature constitutes the environment or the ecology of
man. Not only the beauty but the very existence of life depends on nature. The
interaction with the components of natural world shaped the evolution of
man30. In nature Homo sapiens are the most crucial element creating new
ecologies31. The human beings differ from all other life forms due to his
intellectual ingenuity. This innate intellectual instinct resulted in progress of
man, the stress on the ecosystem. Though in the initial stages man was a weak
animal often crushed by nature, his instinct of survival made him to over come
his primitive life style32.
Man during his initial stages of life was in harmony with nature and the
stress on environment was less. If at all stress is caused, it is caused by
depositions of human body waste residues, which was known as entopic
stress33 Further, man developed and started exploiting nature for his happy
life leading to exploitative stress. Man desired to acquire materialistic
dimensions to lead a sophisticated life involved many modifications in the
structure of ecosystems leading to disruptive stress.
This is an ultimate exploitation of environment and ecosystem. Further,
modernization and rapid development using energy and resource created
dynamic relationship between man and his surroundings34 Cyret Black defined
30

31

32

33

34

M.W. Holdgate, A perspective of Environmental pollution, Cambridge,

Cambridge University press, 1979, p.1.
Michael Pollan et. al., Only Mans presence can save nature, Harpers
Magazine, April, 1990, p.30.
Rajyalakshmi.V, Environment and Sustainable Development, Asian Law House,
New Delhi, 2004, p.3-4.
Shekar singh, The Global Environmental Debate, The Indian Journal of Public
Administration, Vol XXXV,1989, P.388.
Allen L. Springer, The International Law of Pollution; protecting the Global
Environment in a world of sovereign states, West Port, Conn. Quorum books,
1983. p.3.

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modernization as the process by which historically evolved institutions are

adopted to rapidly changing functions that reflect the unprecedented increase
in mans knowledge, permitting control over his environment35. The endless
exploitation disrupted the unity in the life forms36. Totally the man-nature
relationship has been disturbed by modern man with his technological
power37. Man in his quest-for economic development disregarded the advance
impacts caused to nature by his activities instead he thought that he is
conquering the nature38. Man exists in nature but his thoughts always centered
on technological and materialistic world which destabilized the nature.
During early stages of industrial and technological era the effects
caused on environment by human activities were ignored. But in course of
time the environmental issues assumed greater importance since and since
slowly experiencing the reactions that are arising in the environment.
Nature is always tolerant and productive. But the heavy disturbances
caused in the eco-systems, unlimited extraction of natural products made
nature intolerable and started showing the consequences of such activities. As
a result man developed concern for the protection of environment in the name
of environmentalism39. Environmentalism is a social movement to protect the
natural environment and the philosophical concern about its protection. There
is a list of environmental issues that is due to human activity. These issues
relate to the anthropogenic effects on the natural environment.
35

36
37

38

39

Cyril Black, The Dynamics of Moderization, P.7 quoted in David.W.Orr and

Marvin S.Soroos The Global Predicament: Ecological perspectives in world
order. Chapel Hill, The University of North Caroline press, 1979, p.78.
Ibid
B.Das, Distortion of Social Welfare Function, The Indian Journal of Economics,
Vol.LXXI, p.284.
Barry commoner, The closing circle: Man, Nature and Technology, New York,
Knopf. 1972, p.299.
Environmentalism has been variously categorized. Marx it, Capitalistic, Gandhian,
etc. and there are those who claim that they are neither left nor right but in front,
quoted by Ramachandra guha, Ideological trends in India Environmentalism.,
Economic and Political weeks, 3rd Dec, 1988, p.1978

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They are:
1.

Climate change- global warming, fossil fuels, sea level rise, effect of
automobile on societies

2.

Conservation - genetic erosion, Holocene extinction event, invasive

species, extinction of species, habitat destruction, habitat fragmentation,
pollinator decline, coral bleaching, whaling

3.

Dams - environmental impacts of Dams

4.

Energy - energy conservation, renewable energy, efficient energy use,

renewable energy commercialization,

5.

Genetic engineering - genetic pollution,

6.

Intensive farming - over grazing, irrigation, monoculture

7.

Land degradation-desertification, land pollution, soil erosion, soil

contamination, soil conservation, soil salination

8.

Nano technology - nanotoxicology, nanopollution

9.

Nuclear issues- nuclear power, nuclear fallout, nuclear meltdown,

10. Over population, Urban sprawl - burial, excess consumption of natural

resources
11. Ozone depletion- green house effects
12. Pollution- air pollution, noise light and thermal pollutions, water
pollution- water crisis, Ocean dumping, oil spills, acid rain,
Eutrophication
13. Resource depletion-. Exploitation of natural resources, environmental
effects of fishing, mining, deforestation, illegal mining

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14. Waste disposal incidents

15. Toxinschlorofluorocarbons, DDT, dioxins, heavy metals, toxic wastes,
herbicides and pesticides. The arguments regarding various forms of
environmentalism arouse a consciousness about environmental
protection40. A move in this direction has been already made through a
claim for a clean environment such a claim attracted various
jurisprudential arguments regarding its content and the direction in
which the claim ought to proceed. Environmentalism is spawned from
the environmental ethics.

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
Human beings are bound by morals in their ways of life. They are
bound to follow these moral propositions and should lead an ethical life.
Ethics is a branch of philosophy that primarily discusses issues dealing with
human behavior and character. Ethics attempts to establish a basis for judging
right from wrong and good from bad. Environmental ethics employs concepts
from the entire field of philosophy, especially aesthetics, metaphysics,
epistemology, philosophy of science, and social and political philosophy.
Aesthetics deals with perceptions of physical properties such as color, sound,
smell, texture, and taste. Since environmental ethics are often involved with
issues dealing with the protection of plants and animals, its appeal is often to
aesthetic experiences of nature.

40

Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Environmental Ethics, First published

Mon Jun 3, 2002; substantive revision Thu Jan 3, 2008

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Environmental ethics is the discipline that studies the moral

relationship of human beings to, and also the value and moral status of the
environment and its nonhuman contents cover: the challenge of environmental
ethics to the anthropocentrism i.e., human-centeredness embedded in
traditional western ethical thinking; the early development of the discipline;
the connection of deep ecology, environmental ethics, and social ecology ;
the attempt to apply traditional ethical theories, including consequentialism,
deontology, and virtue ethics, to support contemporary environmental
concerns; and

the focus of environmental literature on wilderness, and

possible future developments of the discipline. Ethics is followed by man even

in their interaction with environment.

These ethical values towards

environment are known as environmental ethics. Environmental ethics are also

interconnected with political and social structures concerning the use of
natural resources, so the field also touches the areas of social and political
philosophy. In the struggle to conserve the environment, environmental
ethicists also use the knowledge and theories of science, for example, in issues
such as those dealing with global warming and air pollution. The call to
conserve and protect the environment has resulted in the passage of many
laws41
The approaches of man towards environmental ethics are of two kinds42.
One is Eco-centric approach and the other is anthropo-centric or homo-

41

Abraham.C.M, Environmental Jurisprudence in India, 2006, p.1.

42

Holmes, Roslon II. Environmental Ethics, Duties to and values in the Natural
world, Philadelphia, Temple university press, 1988, p.290.

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centric approach. Eco-centric approach is considered to be a broad approach,

where the environmental quality covers the entire ecosphere. In this approach
nature has to be viewed and respected in unified version. Human species and
other species in an ecosystem have interest worth of its own. Therefore ecocentric ethics has concern for whole eco-system. It is not confined only to
these environmental concerns that affect the welfare of human beings.
Ethicists allege that anthropocentric approach is completely devoid of ethical
content. They believe this approach in its content and direction is anti
environmental and confined on to human world. Eco-systems are of value only
because they contribute to human beings.

4.7 CONCLUSION
The problems of environmental degradation including drought, the
preservation of biodiversity, and climate change, etc., has become common
place to refer to the present era as the age of terror. The world is facing
chronic and unprecedented environmental problems; many of them are of
human origin. Indeed, the problems of adjustment to climate change constitute
a far more severe threat to national and international security than does
terrorism itself. Drought, changing weather patterns, the expected burden of
caring for environmental refugees, the effects of consumerism, and the health
decline associated with various forms of pollution are continuing and major
problems for human beings themselves and raise crucial issues about
environmental justice. At the same time, the continuing destruction of natural

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environments and the widespread loss of both plant and animal species pose
increasing problems for other forms of life on the planet. In facing these
problems, there will likely be great opportunities for co-operation and synergy
between philosophers and both natural and social scientists.

The origin of modern environmental crisis and the quandaries we now

face the relation between environmental problems and social injustice, and the
vexed question of how human beings should relate to the natural environment
in their pursuit of happiness and well-being. The moving away from armchair
speculation to link up with a wider community of inquiry may be inevitable
not only in environmental ethics but also in all areas of practical philosophy. It
is essentially anthropocentric attitude towards nature, is the ideological source
of the modern environmental crisis and is the diagnosis of the origins of our
present-day environmental extremities. At the heart of the philosophical cum
cultural-historical analysis seems to be a simple structure. The result of
environmental crisis, environmentalism, and environmental ethics, religious,
cultural and spiritual traditions are to protect the environment and ecological
balance in India, right from the ancient period.

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