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Multilevel analysis of teacher work attitudes: The influence of principal leadership and
teacher collaboration
Ibrahim Duyar Sedat Gumus Mehmet Sukru Bellibas
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Ibrahim Duyar Sedat Gumus Mehmet Sukru Bellibas, (2013),"Multilevel analysis of teacher work attitudes",
International Journal of Educational Management, Vol. 27 Iss 7 pp. 700 - 719
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IJEM
27,7
700
Received 16 September 2012
Revised 6 December 2012
11 January 2013
Accepted 1 February 2013
A persuasive body of research has linked teachers to student achievement and other
educational outcomes. The infamous Coleman report (Coleman et al., 1996) and the
subsequent studies have consistently documented significant effects from teacher
quality and effectiveness on educational outcomes. The Coleman report stated that
teacher quality is the strongest predictor of student achievement among all of the
teacher- and school-level exogenous variables. Recent research concurs with this
finding that teachers matter (Borman and Kimball, 2005; Ingersoll, 2001; Rockoff,
2004). For instance, Rivkin et al. (2005) estimated that teacher quality alone can account
for 7 percent of the variance in student achievement. Using the Tennessee Value-Added
Assessment, Sanders and Rivers (1996) found that the quality and effectiveness of
teachers have enduring effects for student attainment. These and many other studies
(e.g. Aaronson et al., 2007; Koedel, 2009; Sanders and Horn, 1998) concluded that highquality teaching is beneficial for all students; more importantly, the lower achieving
students are the first to benefit as teacher effectiveness increases.
Equipped with the guidance of relevant research, one of the main goals of
educational policies across the globe has quickly become to leverage educational
outcomes through improvements in the teacher workforce. For instance, teacher
quality remains the focus of most policy initiatives at all three levels of government in
the USA. The Title II of 1998 legislation (Teacher Quality Enhancement Grants for
States and Partnerships) encouraged states to institute mandated teacher testing as
part of the initial state teacher certification. The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001
required a highly qualified teacher in all classrooms and the public reporting of
teacher qualifications. In Turkey, although the relevant interventions either have not
been up to par or have experienced implementation problems, all parties agree on the
significance of teacher quality (Cakiroglu and Cakiroglu, 2003). Although the research
community and policy makers agree on the vital role of teachers, the current landscape
does not appear to be very conducive for teachers. On the contrary, it is common for
teachers to express low job satisfaction (Caprara et al., 2006), which traditionally lead
to low job commitment (Currall et al., 2005), ineffective teaching ( Judge et al., 2001),
and high turnover among teachers (Cha and Cohen-Vogel, 2011). Because teachers play
a key role in creating an environment that is conducive to childrens educational
attainments, it is critical to understand the key elements that contribute to their work
attitudes, mainly to their self-efficacy and job satisfaction. The identification of factors
affecting teacher work attitudes retains an important informative role for researchers,
policy makers, and practitioners. The studies that identify the factors influencing
teacher self-efficacy and job satisfaction may inform all parties and give them an edge
in their efforts to enhance teacher self-efficacy and job satisfaction, consequently
improving the effectiveness of school systems.
The purpose of the current study was to investigate whether the instructional and
administrative leadership practices of principals and the professional collaboration
among teachers influence teachers self-efficacy and job satisfaction in schools, net of
several school characteristics (e.g. school size, average class size, etc.), and demographic
characteristics for the teachers (e.g. level of education, years of experience, etc.).
Exploring the factors that influence teacher work attitudes can inform policy and
practice about the role and significance of principals practices and teacher
collaborative efforts in promoting teacher self-efficacy and job satisfaction.
Theoretical foundations
Kozlowski and Klein (2000) recommend that researchers developing theoretical
foundations and conceptual frameworks should start with a discussion of dependent
constructs because these variables drive the identification of the necessary levels,
constructs, and processes within the theory. By following the lead of Kozlowski and
Klein, the current study first identified the dependent variables and then moved to
a discussion of the relationships between the dependent and the independent variables.
Teacher work attitudes: self-efficacy and job satisfaction
The link between employee attitude, behavior, and performance is perhaps one of
the best established relationships in the behavioral and organizational sciences
(Walumbwa et al., 2004). Starting with Chris Argyriss (1964) pioneering works,
organizational psychologists have discovered that work attitudes drive employee
Teacher work
attitudes
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behaviors and performance. Among the work attitudes, self-efficacy and job
satisfaction stand out as two of the most studied. In an educational context, a
persuasive body of research has linked teachers self-efficacy (Chacon, 2005; Goddard,
2002; Ross and Gray, 2006) and job satisfaction (Currall et al., 2005; Judge et al., 2001) to
educational outcomes, including student achievement.
The pioneering work of Bandura (1986) noted that self-efficacy plays a significant
role in task and extra-role performance. From a social psychology perspective,
perceived self-efficacy refers to beliefs in ones capabilities to organize and execute
courses of action required to manage prospective situations (Bandura, 1995, p. 2).
In an organizational setting, self-efficacy refers to how capably the employee can
perform actions to respond to the apparent circumstances (Kurt et al., 2012). In the
educational context, Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy (2001) defined the teachers
self-efficacy as their [y] capabilities to bring about desired outcomes of student
engagement and learning, even among those students who may be difficult or
unmotivated (p. 783). Teachers self-efficacy beliefs determine their capacity to influence
different student variables such as student motivation, identification, and performance
(Klassen and Chiu, 2010). Research has shown that the efficacy beliefs of teachers
powerfully predict task choice, effort, persistence, and, ultimately, the level of
performance (Bandura, 2001). Teachers with a strong sense of self-efficacy are more
willing to take risks, employ new strategies, be less critical of student behavioral
issues, and work harder with academically struggling students (Gibson and Dembo,
1984). In addition, the students of teachers with high self-efficacy exhibit higher
motivation, participation, self-efficacy, and achievement (Ross and Gray, 2006).
Similarly, a large body of research attests to the relationship between teacher job
satisfaction and several educational outcomes. The teachers level of job satisfaction
plays an important role in how they fulfill their professional mission in the field
of education (Bogler, 2001). High job satisfaction stimulates teachers eagerness,
enthusiasm, commitment, and motivation to devote extra time and energy to enhance
student learning (Nguni et al., 2006; Anderman et al., 1991). The research on the
mechanisms of interaction yielded the presence of an indirect relationship between
teacher job satisfaction and student learning (Caprara et al., 2006).
Several studies emphasized the multifaceted relationship between teachers selfefficacy beliefs, their job satisfaction, and educational outcomes. For instance, Caprara
et al. (2006) noted that teachers satisfaction most likely derives from their sense of
competence, which is one of the determinants of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy beliefs
influence teachers job satisfaction directly to the extent that it meets their intrinsic
need for competence. The relationship becomes indirect when self-efficacy induces
performance from which teachers may derive pride and rewards. Ryan and Deci (2000)
reported similar relationships between these two teacher work attitudes. Teachers with
high levels of self-efficacy beliefs are more likely to be able to engage in interpersonal
networks that nourish and sustain their job satisfaction.
Despite their proven influence on educational outcomes, a number of observers
warn that poor job satisfaction and low self-efficacy among teachers has a widespread
presence. The overwhelming task and extra-role expectations from teachers, poor
organizational support, and the declining prestige of the profession have created
a downfall in the teaching workforce (Caprara et al., 2006; Evans, 1998). In a national
sample of teachers surveyed who indicated that they left their position because they
were dissatisfied; 21 percent of private school teachers and 33 percent of public school
teachers left as a result of school workplace conditions (Ingersoll and Smith, 2003).
The off-target and failing policies that have been implemented to change this downfall
require an in-depth analysis of the issue. As Cerit (2009) warned, the current policies in
Turkey appear to focus mostly on monetary incentives and neglect intrinsic elements
such as developing the self-efficacy and job satisfaction of teachers. Because little
attention is paid to self-efficacy beliefs and job satisfaction, few resources are provided
for interventions aimed at building teachers self-efficacy and increasing their
job satisfaction. A relevant issue is the lack of studies on the determinants of teachers
self-efficacy beliefs and job satisfaction (Littrell et al., 1994; Ghaith and Yaghi, 1997;
Guo et al., 2010; Klassen and Chiu, 2010). The current study addressed the latter by
examining the role of principal leadership and teacher collaboration on teacher
work attitudes.
Principal leadership and teacher work attitudes
A growing body of research supports the notion that the principals leadership is
second to the teachers in contributing to student learning (Louis et al., 2010). The
relationship between the principals leadership and educational outcomes occurs
through the principals influence on teachers. The strategic positions of principals in
schools help them to influence teachers extrinsic and intrinsic sources of motivation
and job satisfaction (Hipp, 1997; Hirschfeld, 2000). Early research on the principals
influence on teacher job satisfaction primarily focussed on extrinsic factors and the
managerial practices of principals. This line of research examined the principals
managerial practices for creating appealing work conditions for teachers (Hipp, 1997;
NCES, 1997; Shann, 1998; Whaley, 1994). A review of the early research reveals some
common principal managerial practices that influence teachers job satisfaction. Some
of these practices include creating safe environments by controlling student behavioral
issues, protecting teachers from external forces, providing personal and professional
support, and recognizing teachers efforts and accomplishments. These studies
provided some evidence that managerial actions by school administrators create
environments that are conducive to the job satisfaction of the teaching staff.
Parallel with the highlighted demands for increased accountability for educational
outcomes, a number of studies examined the relationships between teacher job
satisfaction and principal instructional leadership practices. For instance Anderman
et al. (1991) examined whether the principals practices (i.e. curriculum and instructional
issues including the clarification of school vision, curriculum management, the
supervision of teaching, the creation of an effective instructional climate, and the
monitoring of student success) influence teachers job satisfaction. Their study identified
the presence of significant indirect relationships between all dimensions of principal
instructional leadership and teacher job satisfaction. Cerit (2009) examined the
relationships between teacher job satisfaction and principal servant leadership. This
study revealed similar results to those of Bogler and Griffith. The principals who make
teachers a priority, consider their emotions, listen to them, and provide them with needed
support are more likely to foster the teachers job satisfaction.
Although there is no shortage of research supporting the relationship between the
principals leadership and teacher job satisfaction, the relevant literature suffers from
incoherent or disjointed efforts. As part of the theory development process, there is
a need for a parsimonious understanding about the role of principal managerial
and instructional elements in influencing teacher work attitudes such as teacher selfefficacy and job satisfaction. The current study examined these relationships in the
Turkish context where such studies are scarce.
Teacher work
attitudes
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Teacher work
attitudes
Principal Leadership
Administrative
Instructional
Teacher Self-efficacy
705
Teacher Attributes
School Attributes
Teacher Job
Satisfaction
Teacher
Collaboration
Note: The arrows do not show causal relationship; rather, they indicate the direction
of association
satisfaction. Teacher- and school-level input variables were also included in the
study as covariates.
In addition to Walbergs theory of educational productivity, the newly emerging
perspective (Reynolds et al., 2002) that incorporates school effectiveness research and
school improvement research also ascertained the foundations of the conceptual
framework. School effectiveness research has emerged as a response to the recent calls
for accountability for educational outcomes (Creemers and Kyriakides, 2007; Teddlie
and Reynolds, 2000). Although there has been some controversy about this perspectives
sole focus on educational outcomes, the pressure upon schools to increase educational
outcomes is unlikely to recede in the near future (Harris and Bennett, 2002). Educational
policy remains firmly focussed on securing increased student learning, suggesting that
policies for school effectiveness will persist in being influential with researchers, policy
makers, and practitioners alike.
The current study employed a multilevel model would not be possible for separate
individuals working independently to examine relationships between two process
variables (i.e. school leadership and teacher collaboration) and two outcome variables
(i.e. teacher self-efficacy and job satisfaction). Specifically, the study attempted to
answer the following research questions:
(1)
Does teacher collaboration significantly explain the variation in teacher selfefficacy and teacher job satisfaction within and across schools?
(2)
Method
The current study employed a naturalistic causal comparative methodology and
utilized secondary data analysis. A naturalistic methodology was appropriate because
Figure 1.
Principal leadership
and teacher collaboration
as the predictors of
teacher self-efficacy and
job satisfaction
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Teacher work
attitudes
707
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Table I.
Descriptive statistics
for teacher and school
level variables
Variables
Dependent variables
SELFEFa
SATISFAC
Level-1
COLLABa
EXCHANa
GEN
EDUC
EXP
STATUS
Level-2
MANGGOALa
INSTRMANa
SUPINSTRa
ACCROLEa
BURRULEFa
TYPE
CLSIZE
SCSIZE
Mean
SD
Minimum
Maximum
2,889
2,882
0.14
3.08
1.13
0.74
2.93
1.00
2.18
4.00
2,883
2,883
2,967
2,956
2,939
2,887
0.27
0.97
0.56
2.98
4.30
0.82
0.80
1.03
0.50
0.40
1.67
0.38
1.71
3.07
0.00
1.00
1.00
0.00
2.49
2.36
1.00
5.00
7.00
1.00
178
178
178
178
178
178
178
178
0.45
0.43
0.36
0.71
1.08
0.74
30.49
1,151.84
0.89
0.91
0.72
0.84
0.87
0.44
8
801.67
2.54
2.39
1.15
1.80
1.17
0.00
13.17
104
1.36
1.77
1.84
1.72
2.05
1.00
56.38
3,922
Note: aFactor scores are standardised, so that the international mean is 0 and the international
standard deviation equals 1
Source: OECD, 2010
The first step in the data analysis was to develop an unconditional model (one-way
random effects model) for each dependent variable (i.e. teacher self-efficacy and job
satisfaction). The unconditional model helps to identify any accounted variance
between teachers and schools. The unconditional model is shown below:
Level-1 (Teachers) : Yij b0j rij
Level-2 (Schools) : b0j g00 u0j
Yij is the dependent variable for teacher i in school j; b0j the mean of the dependent
variable in school j; g00 the average of school means; rij the level-1 random error; and u0j
the random effect associated with school j.
Based on the results of the unconditional model, the intra-class correlations (ICCs),
which indicated the between-schools variability in teacher self-efficacy and job
satisfaction, were calculated. Then, the final HLM models, which included all teacherlevel and school-level variables, for each dependent variable were developed. The final
model (i.e. level-2) helped to examine the extent of variation in teacher self-efficacy and
job satisfaction accounted for by each independent variable.
The equation for the final model is shown below:
pij b0j b1j TCCOLLAB b2j GEN b3j EDUC b4j EXP b5j STATUS r ij
b0j g00 g01 MANGGOAL g02 INSTRMAN g03 SUPINSTR g04 ACCROLE
g05 BURRULEF g06 TYPE g07 SCSIZE g08 CLSIZE u0j
While b1j, b2j, y., b5j are the slope estimates for the effects of each level-1 variables,
g01, g02, yy, g08 are the coefficients associated with each level-2 variables.
Findings
Prior to conducting the HLM analyses, the correlational relationships between
teacher-level variables and school-level variables were examined and presented
in Tables II and III.
The bivariate correlation coefficients for both the between teacher-level variables
and the between school variables ranged from small to medium, yet were mostly
significant. As presented in Table II, the teacher-level dependent variables, (i.e. teacher
self-efficacy and teacher job satisfaction) were moderately (Cohen, 1988) but
significantly correlated (r 0.42, po0.01). This finding is consistent with the
expectations, indicating that a positive increase in one teachers work attitude may lead
to an increase in the other. Teacher self-efficacy had low, but significant, relationships
with all but one (education) independent variable. Similarly, teacher job satisfaction
was significantly correlated with four of the six independent variables. There was a
small but significant correlation between teacher collaboration and teacher efficacy
(r 0.28, po0.01). Similarly, teacher collaboration was significantly correlated with job
satisfaction (r 0.20, po0.01). These relationships were supportive of the hypothesized
role of teacher professional collaboration in enhancing teacher work attitudes. Some of
the relationships between other independent variables were also noteworthy. For
instance, teaching experience was negatively correlated with the teachers educational
SELFEF
SATISFAC
COLLAB
EXCHAN
GEN
EDUC
EXP
STATUS
1
0.42**
0.28**
0.29**
0.04*
0.02
0.11**
0.05**
1
0.20**
0.22**
0.01
0.04*
0.06**
0.03
1
0.94**
0.04*
0.03
0.04
0.21**
1
0.07**
0.03
0.03
0.22**
1
0.08**
0.09**
0.04*
1
0.32**
0.06**
1
0.26**
MANGGOAL
INSTRMAN
SUPINSTR
ACCROLE
BURRULEF
TYPE
CLSIZE
SCSIZE
1
0.48**
0.66**
0.43**
0.46**
0.39**
0.20**
0.26**
1
0.47**
0.50**
0.55**
0.11
0.05
0.08
1
0.33**
0.42**
0.35**
0.21**
0.23**
1
0.67**
0.25**
0.13
0.10
1
0.12
0.06
0.07
1
0.58**
0.55**
1
0.71**
Teacher work
attitudes
709
Table II.
Correlations among
teacher-level variables
Table III.
Correlations among
school-level variables
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level (r 0.32, po0.01). This negative relationship makes sense in the Turkish context
because many veteran teachers are assigned to teaching positions without holding
a college degree. It is common for veteran teachers to hold associate degrees. The current
policy requires teachers to have a four-year college degree, and because of this policy
change, the young teachers in the profession are more educated than their veteran
colleagues. The negative correlation between teacher collaboration and job status
(r 0.21, po0.01) can be explained by the fact that full-time teachers tend to work in
isolation from the others and are less likely to engage in collaborative activities. Although
they work under temporary contracts, young teachers appear to be more open to
engaging in collaborative activities with their colleagues.
An examination of school-level variable correlations (Table III) revealed moderate
yet significant relationships between leadership dimensions. As expected, managing
school goals and the direct supervision of instruction, the two dimensions of
instructional leadership, maintained a relatively large correlation (r 0.66, po0.01).
Similarly, the accountability role of the principal and bureaucratic rule following
(r 0.67, po0.01), two dimensions of administrative leadership, had a relatively higher
correlation compared to the other leadership dimensions. These results supported the
accurate identification and classification of the principal leadership dimensions.
Negative correlations between school type and several leadership dimensions suggest
that principals in public and private schools engage in different leadership practices.
The negative correlations between school type and all five leadership dimensions
(ranging from r 0.11 to r 0.39, po0.01) indicate that the principals in private
schools opt to engage in different leadership practices than their counterparts in public
schools. As expected, managing school goals and the direct supervision of instruction,
the two dimensions of instructional leadership, were negatively correlated with school
size and average class size. High positive correlations between the school size and the
average class size (r 0.71, po0.01) is indicative of the unfavorable large class sizes in
urban areas where the school sizes are also large. Another striking indicator is that the
public schools, compared to the private schools, house unfavorably larger class sizes
(r 0.58, po0.01).
Results of the unconditional models
Results of the unconditional models indicated that the variance components at level-2
were significant (pp0.001) for both dependent variables. This result means that there
were significant variations in the teachers work attitudes (for both self-efficacy and job
satisfaction) between the Turkish middle schools. The ICCs were calculated to
determine the extent of variance between the schools. As a measure of the clustering
effect due to the contextual level (i.e. the level of schools), the ICC helps to assess the
variance accrued to each dependent variable due to the differences between the schools
(Caprara et al., 2006). The ICC for teacher self-efficacy was 0.08 (0.098/1.175 0.098),
while the ICC for teacher job satisfaction was 0.06 (0.03/0.511 0.03). These results
indicated that 8 percent of the total variance in teacher self-efficacy and 6 percent
of the total variance in teacher job satisfaction was due to differences between the
schools (Table IV).
As suggested by Hox (2002), the general case coefficients from 0.05 to 0.09 indicate
a low grouping effect. The ICCs for both self-efficacy and job satisfaction were slightly
above the threshold of 0.05. These results supported the appropriateness of the HLM
method for the analysis of data. In practical terms, the ICCs supported the presence of
significant differences in teachers work attitudes between Turkish schools. Thus, the
Self-efficacy
Job satisfaction
0.080
0.558
0.098a
1.175
0.060
0.477
0.030b
0.511
ICC
HLM reliability
Between-school parameter variance
Within-school parameter variance
a 2
Self-efficacy coefficient
SE
Satisfaction coefficient
SE
0.366**
0.057
0.003
0.071**
0.058
0.027
0.041
0.047
0.014
0.079
0.163**
0.021
0.071*
0.021*
0.017
0.018
0.031
0.034
0.009
0.046
0.015
0.014
0.094*
0.087*
0.010
0.063
0.004
0.002
0.039
0.034
0.045
0.038
0.039
0.087
0.004
0.004
0.110
0.019
0.048
0.008
0.055*
0.069
0.009*
0.002
0.026
0.021
0.031
0.027
0.024
0.060
0.004
0.004
711
Table IV.
Summary of
unconditional model
b 2
Level-1
TCCOLLAB
GEN
EDUC
EXP
STATUS
Level-2
MANGGOAL
INSTRMAN
SUPINSTR
ACCROLE
BURRULEF
TYPE
CLSIZE
SCSIZE
Teacher work
attitudes
Table V.
Results for final
HLM analyses
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The study highlighted the presence of differing processes and cultures between
schools in Turkish system. This finding also highlights the presence of a caveat in
the implementation of change and reform initiatives in countries with centralized
school systems. All reform initiatives are mainly planned and developed at the
Ministry of National Education and presented to schools with a top-down approach.
A blunt example of this would be the in-service education to teachers to improve teacher
collaboration. Teachers and principals have no or very limited input and involvement
in the planning and development of these in-service programs. As a result, one-fits all
type of programs may have very little buy-in by the teachers and principals of local
schools. The findings of study call for the reconsideration of the nature of the reform
initiatives in centralized systems. For these to be effective, they must address the
unique school culture which influence the processes individual school systems.
The identification of effective conditions for creating collaborative cultures appears
to be an area of importance for the success of current and future teacher development
initiatives. As Peterson (1994) noted, the sustainability of collaborative efforts depends
on the presence of a collaborative culture in schools. This line of research may also help
theory building by identifying the determinants of effective teacher collaboration.
Examining the possible effects of high accountability schemes on teacher collaboration
appears to be a timely topic for future research. Some researchers (Datnow, 2011) warn
about the negative effects of high stakes environments for teacher collaboration. The
future research may investigate whether the recent high accountability environments
support collaborative cultures or create contrived collegiality in schools.
The findings of the current study showed that some select principal leadership
practices played moderate yet significant roles on the level of the teachers self-efficacy
beliefs and job satisfaction. For instance, as part of the instructional leadership practices,
the direct supervision of instruction (b 0.09) significantly predicted teachers selfefficacy beliefs. This finding is consistent with the relevant literature (Bogler, 2001; Cerit,
2009; Griffith, 2004). Some of the principals practices within this role included observing
classrooms, monitoring students work, and providing instructional suggestions to
teachers. When principals engage more in these instructional leadership activities, the
teachers self-efficacy increases significantly. Interestingly, out of the three dimensions,
the supervision of instruction was the only significant principal instructional leadership
dimension. The managing goals and instructional management dimensions did not
exert any significant influence on either of the two teacher work attitudes in Turkish
middle schools. This finding, of course, does not mean that the other two instructional
leadership dimensions were neglected by the Turkish principals. In effect, among the 24
participating countries, Turkey was one of seven countries that scored high on both the
instructional leadership and the administrative leadership dimensions (OECD, 2009).
Another interesting finding about the principals leadership styles was that both
dimensions of administrative leadership significantly influenced teacher work attitudes.
While the principals accountability role (ACCROLE) significantly predicted teacher
self-efficacy (b 0.09), bureaucratic rule following (BURRULEF) (b 0.06)
significantly, but negatively, predicted teacher job satisfaction. These findings have
practical implications, at least in the Turkish context. For instance, the more that
principals engage in accountability roles (such as ensuring the teachers understanding of
educational goals, improving the teachers teaching skills, holding the teachers
accountable for educational results, and involving parents), the higher the teachers selfefficacy will be. The significant influence of the principals administrative accountability
roles on teacher self-efficacy makes sense in the Turkish system where academic results
Teacher work
attitudes
713
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are a pressing issue system-wide. The findings of the study showed that teachers job
satisfaction may be decreased through the principals bureaucratic rule following
practices such as ensuring compliance with rules and regulations, running audits
reporting results, creating orderly environments, and stimulating a task-oriented
atmosphere in their schools. This finding is consistent with similar research in the
relevant literature (Goddard et al., 2007).
The findings must be considered along with the limitations inherent in the study.
For instance, the findings may contain country specific attributes, which may hinder
the applicability of the results in other contexts and countries. The relationships among
the variables in the Turkish context should be verified through the use of other
countries data. The TALIS offer a rich data set for such comparisons. Another
limitation of study was its cross-sectional nature. The study used the first round of the
TALIS data gathered in 2008. The relationship among the study variables can be tested
longitudinally when the second phase TALIS data becomes available in 2014. The
hypothesized relationships among the study variables may also present a limitation.
For instance, principal leadership and teacher collaboration might have interacted with
each other. Yet, the relationships between these process variables were not studied in
the current study. A recent study (Herman et al., 2008) showed that the principals who
were able to turn around schools fostered teacher collaboration by providing
pedagogical and structural supports. Future research may further investigate the
relationships between and among various process variables, including interaction
between teacher collaboration and principal leadership practices.
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718
Appendix
Table AI.
Variables and
questionnaire items
IJEM
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attitudes
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