Principles-and-Strategies-of-Teaching-Lecture MPAS PDF

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1
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Chapter I
COMPONENTS OF EFFECTIVE TEACHING
Introduction
What are the components of effective teaching? Before one can really answer this, it is
important that the term teaching be defined. Many authors view teaching as organized,
purposeful, and deliberate efforts designed to bring about certain specifically desirable ends in an
individual. Garcia quotes Ronald Hyman (1970) and states that a teacher must know what
teaching is because his concept of teaching guides his behavior and his own interpretation of
teaching becomes essential to his performance as a teacher. It serves as his guide as well as
direction in every classroom work he conducts for his students.
According to Navarro, et al., teaching is an activity that, is not really new to the education
students as they have been exposed to it since they first enrolled in Grade I. Teaching and
learning are two aspects of the process called Education. Learning is the expected end of
teaching in a school setting. Hence, teaching has always been directed at learning.
Aquino (1974:27) identified six important elements or factors of the teaching-learning
process: teacher; learner; classroom; curriculum; materials of instruction; and administration.
A. The Teacher
"Teachers, like leaves, everywhere abound
Effective teachers, like fruits, are rarely found."
An effective teacher is one who has honed his skills in the art of teaching. He
demonstrates proficiency in the use of language, adopts varied teaching strategies, recognizes
change, applies innovations, revises techniques for optimum results, and allows himself to be
guided by acknowledged principles and theories in education.
More than knowledge and skills, an effective teacher is compassionate and
understanding. He gives allowance for personal limitations. He looks at every learner as a unique
individual with peculiar needs and interests.
Above all, an effective teacher is one who allows himself to grow professionally. His
efficient performance is always a result of his educational preparation including attendance at
seminars and workshops.
Under the close supervision of an effective teacher, the individual gradually, slowly, and
cumulatively learns things appropriate to his age and grade level.
To become an effective teacher is the aspiration of every mentor whether new or has been
in it for years.
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What then constitutes an effective teacher? A great, deal has been said of teaching as one
of the important professions from the standpoint of human welfare. It is also one of the most
technical, difficult, and challenging professions. A teacher can be effective if he has mastery of
the subject matter, in which case, he must be an authority on the subject he is teaching.
A teacher can only speak with authority on anything about which he has acquired familiarity.
Personal Qualities of an Effective Teacher
These personal characteristics are related to the five aspects of personality: intellectual;
social; physical; emotional; and moral. Among those rated highly are the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Pleasing personal appearance, manner, courtesy, pleasant voice;

Intelligence, emotional stability, and self-control;
Sympathy, kindness, helpfulness, patience;
Integrity, trustworthiness, honesty, loyalty;
Flexibility, creativity, resourcefulness;
Sociability, friendliness, cooperativeness;
Fairness, impartiality, tolerance; and
Sense of humor, cheerfulness, enthusiasm.
Mehl, et aI., pointed out that in analyzing teacher personality, it is necessary to consider
the total impact of the total pattern of these qualities upon the pupil. The individual qualities
which make for excellence are not identical in all effective teachers. It would be useless to
attempt to fit all teachers into a common mold. The individuality and uniqueness of teacher
personality is a priceless ingredient of a teaching staff.
Teachers are the most important part of the learner's educational environment. Without
them, the other elements of the educational environment would be ineffective, for they guide,
direct, and stimulate youth in their goal-seeking (Bent, et al., 1970, as cited by Aquino, 1988:5).
From day to day, the teacher plays many roles in the classt06In. These roles include the
following:
1. Manager. As manager, the teacher is responsible for the effective management of her
class from the start to the finish. The teacher carries throughout the day systematic
activities to develop the pupils' cognitive, psychomotor, and effective aspects of the
teaching-learning process. The pupils' eagerness and interest, therefore, to participate in
all the learning activities prepared and conducted by the teachers in the classroom is a
manifestation of an orderly classroom management by the teacher-manager.
2. Counselor. Every teacher is a guidance teacher. He acts as counselor to the pupils
especially when the pupils are beset by problems. In general, teachers comfort and make
the pupils feel they have a ready shoulder to cry on. As counselor, the teacher religiously
keeps tab of all the activities of the children under his care, carefully noting important
information regarding the children's moods, health, and progress in their studies that will
help him assess the over-all performance of the learners.
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3. Motivator. Encouraging and motivating pupils to study well and behave properly in and
outside the classroom is an enormous task. Despite the constraints, however, the teacher
should use effective ways to awaken the drives and motives of children as he knows fully
well the role played by motivation in the learning of the pupils. Motivation sets the mood
for learning. It enlivens the interest of the learners and gets them more involved in the
class activities. A dynamic teacher is always good at motivating learners to listen,
participate, and eventually get the message.
4. Leader. A leader directs, coaches, supports, and delegates depending on the needs of the
situation. A leader is always looked upon as somebody dependable and responsible. A
teacher always assumes the position of a leader and he has to be credible in this regard.
He should, therefore, manifest the highest leadership potentials demanded of his role as
teacher and leader. The teacher should set the example to emphasize his role of being a
leader. He should also be aware that to be a good leader, he must first be a good follower.
5. Model. A teacher is an exemplar. He serves as model to his pupils. Pupils idolize
teachers; they believe the things the teacher says, especially if the teacher is kind,
approachable, and sympathetic to their needs. As a model, the teacher must look his best
all the time, master his lessons, show his interest in the children's welfare, show good
behavior, and inculcate good work and attitudes, especially during trying moments inside
the classroom; be fair in dealing with pupils; and exhibit good judgment when the
situation calls for it.
6. Public Relations Specialist. The credibility of the school is attributed most of the time to
the ways the teachers deal with people outside the school, like the schools' benefactors,
parents of the pupils, church leaders, government employees, and others. The teacher, in
his role as a public relations specialist, will be able to solicit important donations in cash
or in kind for the development of both the school and the pupils. More than this, the
teacher who has good public relations will always make a name for his school.
7. Parent-surrogate. In the school, the teachers are the parents of the pupils/students.
Parents have a feeling of security knowing that their children are in good hands. Added to
their main function of developing the pupils intellectually, teachers are also expected to
train the pupils socially and emotionally and to look after their physical and mental wellbeing. In school, teachers take over the role of the parents, attending to the needs of the
pupils and offering them the comforts away from home. In the process, he guarantees that
the individual rights of the pupils to education and safety are respected.
8. Facilitator. The teacher is the facilitator of learning. The pupils must be given the chance
to discuss things under the close supervision and monitoring of the teacher. As a
facilitator, the teacher prepares guidelines which will serve as the focus of discussion and
activities. The teacher oversees the activities inside the classroom. He allows pupils to
discuss spontaneously with only his very minimal affirmation and confirmation. In the
event, however, that some clarifications are needed, he can clarify vague points and
correct wrong notions of the pupils.
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9. Instructor. The main function of the teacher is instruction. All the other roles
aforementioned are corollary to teaching. To effectively carry out this aspect of teaching,
the pre-service education of teachers must be more than adequate to prepare them for a
job involving varied responsibilities.
B. The Learner
The learner is the subject of the schooling process. Without him, the educational system
will not exist. The learner is a person who is receiving instruction or lessons from a particular
teacher. There are two classifications of the learners, namely: pupil and student. The term pupil
is applied to a child in the elementary level and the term student is applied to one attending an
educational institution above the elementary level.
To make teaching effective and learning productive, the teacher must know the nature of
the child to be motivated, directed, guided, and evaluated.
To understand the child, the teacher must know:
a) the child as a biological organism with needs, abilities, and goals;
b) the social and psychological environment; and
c) the cultural forces of which he is a part.
The learners differ from one another physically, intellectually, socially, and emotionally.
Every learner is a unique personality, separate and distinct from the rest. It is from this premise
that the teacher defines his role in the classroom to ensure the educational growth and
development of the learner. He, therefore, takes into account the learner's varied interests,
intellectual preparedness, emotional stability, and task readiness along with his levels of aptitude
and degree of maturity.
C. The Classroom
The classroom is a place where formal learning occurs. This could be a standard
classroom with a standard measurement or an outdoor space where both the teacher and the
pupils/students are interacting. The important thing is that, it is a place that can offer a
wholesome venue for learning activities which can be realized only in an atmosphere conducive
to both teaching and learning process.
A good classroom is conducive to the teaching-learning process because:
a) its activities are well-organized;
b) there is mutual sharing of responsibility in establishing and maintaining a state of
order and democratic living; and
c) pleasant and hygienic conditions prevail.
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According to Aquino, a good classroom has a stimulating climate - one that results not
only from desirable physical surroundings and healthful conditions but also from social
relationship and emotional attitudes.
Classroom Environment Encompasses Four Factors
1. Physical Environment. This includes the location, size, shape, construction of the room
itself; the furniture in the room; instructional supplies or resources for learning;
provisions for lighting, heating and ventilating; acoustics of the room; provisions for
sanitation, cleanliness, and orderliness.
2. Intellectual Climate. This refers to patterns of behavior, the interaction pattern, qualities
of interaction, and attributes that help the learners think clearly, critically, and creatively.
The general atmosphere should be characterized by intellectual activities and pursuits for
excellence.
The teacher should understand that problem-solving develops through several stages,
which include: recognizing the problem; collecting all the facts that bear on the problem;
and forming tentative solutions and trying out the tentative solutions to see whether they
work.
In other words, the teacher is creating an intellectual environment in which the
learners are free to work out under guidance the solutions to their own problems and thus,
grow in the ability to be intelligent, self-directing citizens.
3. Social Climate. There are three types of social climate existing in the classroom:
a) autocratic;
b) laissez-faire; and
c) democratic.
In the autocratic climate, the teacher makes all the important decisions, directs all the
activities, and evaluates pupil progress in terms of arbitrary standards. There is very little
communication between teacher and pupils, hence, the learners find little opportunity in this type
of climate for initiative, participation in group planning, or self-evaluation.
In the laissez-faire climate, each learner operates as an individual, strives for recognition
of his own achievement, and develops little regard for the rights and accomplishments of others.
In this climate, the human relationships are in terms of coactions rather than interaction, there is
little emphasis in group living.
In the democratic climate, the goals are established by group participation and plans are
made on the basis of cooperative group planning. There is, therefore, a great deal of cooperative
teamwork resulting from a wide circle of communication. The role of the teacher in this kind of
climate is neither that of dictator nor of an interested spectator but that of a mature person
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responsible for guiding the performance of the children as they work out goals, plan activities,
and evaluate achievements.
Leadership, likewise, is not regarded as the exclusive privilege of a few gifted learners. It
is a shared role where every individual can contribute to the work of the group as a whole. In this
kind of setting, participation affords the long-run potential for the realization of the best learning
performance in terms of visible output.
4. Emotional Climate. This pertains to the emotional adjustment and mental health of the
children.
To foster the right kind of emotional climate, the teacher must see that the personality
needs of the learner are met in the classroom.
The learner needs to feel secure in his group. He must have opportunities to make
decisions and become increasingly self-directing. It is only the effective teacher who can provide
these opportunities.
D. The Curriculum
The term comes from the Latin root currere which means "to run." In educational usage,
the "course of the race," became "course of study."
The academic curriculum refers to the formal list of courses offered by a school.
The extra curriculum refers to those planned but voluntary activities that are sponsored
by a school, such as sports, drama, or social clubs.
The hidden curriculum refers to those unplanned learning activities (e.g. learning how to
cope with school bureaucracy and boredom or learning how to gain popularity with one's peers)
that are a natural by-product of school life (Aquino, 1988:48).
According to Hessong and Weeks, the hidden curriculum is the informal part of the
curriculum that you know is there, but is difficult to see and study. Ballantine (1983) described
the hidden curriculum as the part of the curriculum that refers to the three Rs - rules, regulations,
and routines, to which the school must adapt.
Guthrie and Reed (1991) have this to say about the hidden curriculum:
The formal content of courses may not constitute the only knowledge conveyed by
schools. Some social scientists contend that the overall school environment presents a powerful
instructional message, a message which may not always be consistent with learning outcomes
intended by district policy or the content conveyed by instructors in their classes. For example, it
is alleged that a rigidly hierarchical school climate, where students are permitted little discretion
and are seldom encouraged to make decisions, eviscerates formal course content extolling the
virtues of democracy. Similarly, students observing what may be unfair segregation of their
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peers into ability tracks may be "learning more," acquiring a cynicism regarding equal
opportunity and social mobility than from the abstract academic ideals they are being taught in
history and civic courses.
In its broad sense, curriculum is the sum total of all learning content, learning
experiences, and resources that are properly selected, organized, and implemented by the school
in pursuit of its peculiar mandate as a distinct institution of learning and human development.
Curriculum, therefore, can be viewed as having two mutually inclusive components,
namely:
a) the blueprint or master plan of selected and organized learning content which can be
referred to as "curriculum" per se; and
b) the actual implementation of this plan through contrived experiences in the classroom
which is called instruction (Palma, 1992:78).
E. Materials of Instruction
Materials of instruction refer to the various resources available to the teachers and
learners which help facilitate instruction and learning. These materials represent elements found
in the environment and which are meant to help students understand and explain reality.
If the school has an Instructional Learning Center, the teacher should pay a visit to the
center to find out what materials he can use for his course.
The effective use also of non-book materials in the teaching-learning process will capture
the students' interest and develop good attitude towards the topic being discussed.
The non-book materials refer to the other members of the instructional media family that
should be a part of the library collections but somehow are housed in another place called the
Instructional Learning Center. Examples of non-book materials are audio-visual materials, audiovisual aids, instructional aids, educational media, etc.
The types of audio-visual aids commonly used include the following:
1. Two-dimensional Materials. Any visual appearing to have height and width.
a) Flat picture. They are sometimes referred to as a universal language because anybody
can read pictures, although people have different ability in reading pictures.
Pictures must have emphasis on key idea, must be suitable to the needs of the students,
must provide correct and accurate impression or information as to size, color, or
movement of unfamiliar objects.
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b) Graphics. Webster defines it as the art or science of drawing, especially mechanical

drawing. It includes a variety of visual forms, such as: graphs; diagrams; charts; posters;
cartoons; comics; and maps and globes. These materials are very valuable for instruction
because of their capacity to attract attention and to convey certain types of information in
condensed, summarized form.
2. Three-dimensional Materials. Visual materials appearing to have depth or thickness in
addition to height and width. Examples of these are the following:
a) Model. It is a representation of a real thing that is infinitely large, like the earth, or a
thing that is small, like an atom. A model, therefore, reduces or enlarges objects to
sizes we can observe. It provides the interior view of objects like a model of the
human heart.
b) Realia. It is an inclusive term that covers the tangible or visible things which serve
the purpose of teaching. It is classified into objects, specimens, relics, replicas, and
exhibits.
c) Mock-up. It is a full-size dummy or structural model designed to be worked with
directly by the learner for analysis or training.
d) Diorama. It is a three-dimensional material scene in depth using a group of modeled
objects and figures in a natural setting.
e) Puppets. Small, usually jointed figures in the forms of human beings, animals, etc.
moved with the hands or by strings, wires, or rods, usually in a puppet show.
Puppetry can present ideas with extreme simplicity, without elaborate scenery or
costume, yet they are effective. Puppets are classified into: shadow puppet; simple
rod puppet; hand puppet; finger puppet; and marionettes or string puppets.
3. Audio-recording Materials. These auditory materials are used to provide learning
experiences of a specific type - experiences of pure listening.
a) Recordings - This registers sound or visual images in some permanent form as on a
phonograph disc, magnetic tape, etc. for reproduction on a playback device.
b) Radio - This is an audio device used by teachers in social studies, music, science, etc.
The radio is an effective audio-device inasmuch as it can be used anywhere with or
without electricity.
4. Projected Materials. They are materials which use a machine for throwing images on
the screen as from a transparent slide or motion picture film. The term includes all
instructional materials which are enlarged on a viewing screen.
a) Still projection. Slides, transparencies, filmstrips, overhead projection, opaque projection,
microfilm, microfiche, microprojection.
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b) Motion pictures. Motion picture is an edited version of reality. This editing, which may
involve manipulation of time, space, objects that can heighten reality by eliminating
distractions and by pointing up relationships that might well be overlooked. Motion
picture can bring the distant past and the present into the classroom.
c) Educational television. TV can provide enrichment and meaning, teach skills, perform
drills, encourage research work and other projects, and stimulate students to new insights,
perceptions, and discoveries.
F. Administration
Administration is defined as the organization, direction, coordination, and control of
human and material resources to achieve desired ends. According to Moehlman, administration
is exercised in a series of closely related and complementary specializations or activities. He
calls this phase of administration the executive activity which he defines as all the acts or
processes required to make policies and procedures effective.
The principal function of administration is to provide optimum educational opportunities
for all children in school. Among these are the school plant, equipment and supplies, finance,
curriculum, faculty, and other support personnel. The administration, therefore, is a means
toward the achievement of instructional objectives.
What are the functions of school administration? According to Aquino (1974), one
commonly accepted view is that school administration has the following functions:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
a)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
Seeing that all school money is economically expanded and accounted for;
Preparing the school budget;
Selecting and purchasing school sites;
Planning, erecting, and equipping the school buildings;
Operating the school plant and keeping it in an excellent state of repair;
D Selecting, training, and supervising teachers;
Providing supplies;
Providing textbooks;
Assisting in curriculum construction;
Organizing an instructional program;
Keeping the public informed of the aims, accomplishments, and needs of the schools;
and
k) Keeping school records and accounts.
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Chapter II
VARIOUS CONCEPTS OF TEACHING
TEACHING CONCEPTS
A. Teaching Is a Complex Human Activity
It is so because teaching involves a wide range of human interactions, organizational
arrangements, and material resources that converge on the teaching-learning process.
Varied activities inherent in teaching are identified in this definition by Garcia (1989:1516):
1. Human Interactions. Teaching is considered a system of actions varied in form and
content but directed toward learning. It is in the performance of these actions and in the
interactions of the teacher with his students that learning takes place.
These actions and interactions are personal but they are also logical in that they
have a certain structure, a certain order, such that no matter, where in the world teaching
takes place, it does so in accordance with operations that reflect the very nature of a
teaching-learning situation.
The logical operations involve three variables such as:
a) the teacher's behavior (IV);
b) the learner's behavior (DV); and
c) various postulated entities such as memories, beliefs, needs, interferences, which are
intervening variables.
The independent variables in the teacher's behavior consist of linguistic behavior,
expressive behavior, and performatory behavior.
Linguistic behavior - otherwise known as verbal communication whereby teachers
verbalize their thoughts through language that is characterized by spontaneity, precision, and
naturalness.
Expressive behavior - patterns of communication achieved through changes in the tone of
voice, facial expressions, and kinesis - motions of the hands, arms, eyes, head, or other
parts of the body. Expressive behavior is intended to emphasize ideas to inject humor, to
indicate seriousness, irritation as well as approval and disapproval.
Performatory behavior includes all physical activities such as:
a) writing on the blackboard;
b) operating projectors and record players;
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c) manipulating models; and

d) using laboratory equipment, tools, machines, computers, and other instructional
materials.
2. Organizational Arrangements. Teaching is an activity with four phases:
a)
b)
c)
e)
curriculum planning phase;

an instructing phase;
a measuring phase; and
an evaluating phase.
Such phases are spelled out more specifically, respectively, as:

a) Helping to formulate the goals of education, selecting content and stating objectives;
b) Creating intentions regarding instructional strategies and tactics, interacting and
acting on situational feedback about instruction;
c) Selecting or creating measurement devices: measuring, learning, organizing, and
analyzing measurement data; and
d) Evaluating the appropriateness of objectives of instruction and the validity and
reliability o the devices used to measure learning (John Hough, 1970).
3. Material Resources. The process of teaching includes:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
the selection and development of instructional units;

planning individual lessons;
organizing material for instructional purposes;
designing the methods to be used;
classroom management;
evaluation of pupils' achievements; and
reporting of pupils' grades (B.J. Chandler and Daniel Powell, 1970).
B. Teaching Is Both a Science and an Art

Teaching involves imparting a body of systematized knowledge. It affords the
development of a level of consciousness of everything about the world and the totality of facts
about life. But more than the knowledge about realities, teaching also taps the performance skills
of the learners to make them physically, intellectually, and socially equipped despite varied
interventions.
More than a science, teaching is also an art. It must provide avenues for achieving
pleasure and delight in learning. Every learning experience, therefore, must find its way to the
learners' heart. Anything that is satisfying is readily appreciated because it meets the needs and
interests of the individual learners. As an art, teaching is a continuous process responding to the
demands of the time and the changes in the learners' perspective. It is never static, it adheres to
novelty.
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Garcia (1989) quoted Eisher (1983) when he pointed out a couple of distinguishing marks
between these two facets of teaching.
Science
Art
1. Teaching as a science is primarily
1. Teaching as an art is more suited to
directed to inform the head.
satisfy the soul.
Therefore, teaching as a science
emphasizes the cognitive and psychomotor
aspects of learning or simply the subject matter
that must be put across into the learners' level
of awareness as well as the skillful
performance that they should be able to
develop in and by themselves.
Therefore, teaching as an art

presupposes the need for the learner to
appreciate and improve on whatever
knowledge he has gained and skills he has
acquired. Hence, this facet tends to give more
credence to the affective aspects of learning.
The knowledge and skill they will acquire are

indispensable to their everyday living
especially in decision-making and in solving
crucial problems.
Which of the two is more important? Both are equally important as far as the total
personality development of the learner is concerned. It follows then that the learner must know
something before he can appreciate it. He can never appreciate something that he does not know
of or something that does not exist in him. Something is derived from something, nothing can be
taken from nothing.
2. The second difference presents a more in-depth perspective.
Teaching as a science views the teacher
Teaching as an art goes beyond the
prescribed level of instruction. This facet views
as an academician as well as a craftsman.
the teacher as an innovator, one who is willing
As an academician, he is pictured to be to modify and to create new forms of teaching.
disciplined, organized, systematic in his
teaching. As such he is expected to:
The teachers' artistry comes in when
they consider the varying mixture of these
a) have a mastery of the subject matter; young people and through processes that are
basically intuitive build up meaningful
and
programs of study for them. These teachers
b) organize it well in a form that is believe teaching requires an ability to see
through and respond to individual differences'
comprehensible to his learners.
among the learners.
As a craftsman, he has a repertoire of
teaching methods and is quite skillful in their
use.
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Teaching as a science regards teaching

Teaching as an art looks at teaching as
as mechanical and routinized in order to make a dynamic and imaginative process.
it more systematic and more efficient.
Teaching as an art makes teaching more
Teaching as a science calls for skillful
teaching.
relevant and' responsive to the learner's needs,
interests, and abilities.
Teaching as a science aims at optimum Teaching as an art is destined to come out with
efficiency devoid of creating something new.
something novel or innovative.
C. Teaching as a System
According to Navarro, et al. (1988), teaching as a system requires an understanding of the
role of the more mature, experienced members of society in stimulating, directing, managing,
and guiding the immature and inexperienced members in their adjustments to life.
With the young and immature students as inputs into the system, the processing takes
place in the school setting with the teacher playing a major role in instructing the inexperienced
so that they can develop into upright and useful members of society and well-adjusted citizens
with wholesome personalities imbued with:
a)
b)
c)
d)
love of country;
duties of citizenship;
moral character;
personal discipline; and e) scientific, technological, and vocational efficiency.
A schematic presentation of this concept is shown in Figure 1 on the next page.

D. Teaching Is One of the Most Exalted Forms of Social Service
Gregorio (1976) states that the classroom is a society made up of teachers and learners
working together for the purpose of human growth and betterment. The opportunities of the
teachers and the learners for good or evil are boundless. For this reason, society has insisted that
teachers should be known for their high character, honesty, integrity, and skill.
Teaching is guided by the spirit of service. Service may be defined as the performance of
a task for the benefit of others given voluntarily, by request, or by fulfilling a social need.
People look at it as the beginning and end of the teaching profession.
It is the beginning because service is the guiding, stabilizing, and directing factor of the
teaching profession. Service can build the organization or destroy it. Service can give life, honor,
and beauty or it can bring disappointments and dishonor to each member in the profession.
Teaching in a democracy is rich in opportunities for service.
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It is an end because service is the ultimate goal of the teaching profession. The success of
any professional organization in a civilized world is measured not by the size of the members of
the profession, but by the services they have rendered in the community and to the nation.
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The true measure of service is not what the teaching organization has planned but what
the members have done to improve the living conditions in the community and to save humanity.
E. Teaching Is the Responsibility of the Teacher While Learning Is the Responsibility of
the Learner
Teaching is always a two-way track. The stimulus is teaching and the response is
learning. It involves a process intended to bring about a desired result.
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According to Palma (1992), learning involves a process and brings about an outcome.
Figure 2 illustrates in simplified form the process and product of learning as gleaned from the
psychology of learning.
All learning begins with things around us. They may be objects, persons, or phenomena
that we "experience" or that we become aware of through any of our five senses.
The S- R bond as explained in behavioristic psychology holds that every stimulus elicits
an automatic response. Such behavior is not only true of human beings where the animalistic
nature is concerned but animals as well, as they operate on the instinctive or sensitive level.
However, such reaction may not always be true in situations where human beings behave on a
higher or rational-moral level.
According to humanistic psychology, learning on the human level becomes a more
intricate process, primarily because it takes a different, more circuitous route that involves the
mind, the intellect, and the will.
The conscious mind receives the stimulus and passes it on to the subconscious until a
connection is established between the stimulus and the previous learning and experiences.
In the process, the intellect analyzes, discerns the new experience, and attaches a new
meaning until the will accepts it as part of a new experience. The individual then makes a
conscious attempt to respond to it.
he conscious, willful repetition of the response will then result in a modified behavior
that may be expressed in the form of a new knowledge gained, a new skill acquired, or a new
attitude or value imbibed.
The new behavior is characterized as permanent or lasting, purposeful or willful, and
progressive. Such changes in the behavioral pattern will contribute to the total transformation of
the individual which is the outcome of learning and the byproduct of education.
It is to be noted that the learning process is a joint endeavor between the teacher who
provides the adult help and supervision and the learner who recognizes his personal
responsibility to make the most of the learning situations.
Figure 3 presents the intervention points in relation to the learning process. There are five
such intervention or helping points in the continuum: A, B, C, D, and E. These points encompass
the key elements or the so-called 8 Ms of teaching.
The 8 Ms of Teaching (as conceptualized by Palma (1992))
1. Milieu. The Learning Environment. Milieu is the physical environment, the place of
work, the classroom, the laboratory, workshop, or even the school campus where learning
activities can be done. Learning starts from reacting to stimuli in the environment, for
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that matter the environment assumes an important role in the teaching and learning
process.
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2. Matter. Matter refers to the content. It embraces everything there is that has to be
covered and, therefore, learned. A basic tenet in organizing matter is mastery of the
subject matter. The role of the teacher is to see to it that the subject matter is not only
covered but mastered as well. It is mastery that will add to the pupil's level of proficiency
and understanding of the content. A little of every lesson works to the disadvantage of the
learners.
3. Method. They are the purposeful, planned activities and tasks that are undertaken by the
teacher and the students in the classroom to bring about the intended instructional
objective.
An effective teacher employs a variety of teaching strategies that will set the mood
for classroom work-activities. The teacher must not limit his strategies to chalktalk or
lectures. He should devise a way where students can engage in wholesome activities that
will not only arouse their interests but tap whatever potentials they have. When activities
are varied, pupils/students are challenged, participation is encouraged, and thinking is
enhanced.
4. Materials. Materials are the resources, both human or physical object, made available for
use by the teachers and learners. These materials serve as stimuli in the teaching-learning
situation.
These materials are meant for the learners to understand the world they live in and,
therefore, the basic realities each learner has to contend himself with.
Figure 4 shows several ways of portraying reality. One closest to reality, the direct,
purposeful experience where the learner makes use of practically all the five senses in
establishing contact with true-to-life objects, artifacts, views, sounds, etc. This is
sometimes referred to as experiential learning where learners acquire knowledge about
particular situations, events, through experiences. An educational field trip provides a
type of learning obtained from real-life situations.
Figure 4: Ways of Portraying Reality

Source: Palma's Curriculum Development System
Another way of showing reality is through a reproduction, where one creates a vividlike impression of the real thing. However, such approach makes use of one or both of
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two senses, seeing and hearing. Included in this classification are the so-called audiovisual materials used by teachers such as films and video cassette tapes.
Still another way of portraying reality is through a representation of reality. While it
may not be too successful in re-creating the original, it is the idea conveyed that will help
understand that of reality which is under study. This approach is limited to only one
sense, the sense of sight. Examples of representation are materials such as illustrations,
dioramas, mock-ups, puppets and moppets, maps and globes, and graphs.
Considered as the least effective of all the ways of portraying reality is the abstraction
of reality. This is done through lecture or teacher talk. Abstract explanations do not at all
contribute to the learner's ability to concretize.
There is nothing in the mind that was not first in the senses. Learning, therefore, is
better achieved by allowing learners to touch, taste, hear, smell, and see objects being
studied.
5. Media. It is the system of communication in the teaching-learning process aimed at
promoting common understanding in instruction and setting and maintaining a healthy
climate in the classroom conducive to learning.
Since oral communication is inevitable and necessary in teaching, the teacher should
keep certain helpful tips in mind. First, he should make an effort to use language
efficiently and effectively. He is supposed to serve as a model of a good language user,
regardless of the language used. Every lesson in any subject becomes a lesson in
communication. This is particularly true of pupils who are highly impressionable and that
they learn much through plain imitation.
Second, the teacher should keep in mind the principle of parsimony in the use of
language. He should strive to keep his communication clear, concise, and comprehensible
at all times. Language should, therefore, be simple and familiar to the learners.
6. Motivation. Motivation is a cardinal principle in learning. A learner will learn only those
things he wants to learn. If a student is not interested in what he is learning, he will
simply "go through the motions," or worse, he will not engage himself in the learning act
at all. The teacher should, therefore, usher in every lesson or unit with some form of
motivation. A good teacher is a good motivator. He starts every lesson about something
that will call the attention and will evoke the interest of the listeners. Effective teachers
are good at motivating learners because they know how to hold captive the learner's
attention. When a learner feels disinterested in the lesson, there is no chance at all for
learning to take place.
Motivation is always associated with the learner's understanding of a value in the
learning act based on a "felt need" (present gratification) or a "reward" as the case may
be. In other words, every learning situation must be a gratifying experience to the learner.
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7. Mastery: The Be-all and End-all of Learning. Mastery means habitual or automatic
change in behavior brought about by the learners having internalized what they have
acquired through repetition and application.
Mastery denotes ability to put to constant use what' has been fixed in the mind and to
apply such in future situations and where need arises.
Mastery is the last stage in the learning circle illustrated in Figure 5. The circle of
learning is a graphic presentation of the four stages involved in the acquisition of
knowledge which starts with the state of unconscious incompetence till the stage of
unconscious competence or mastery.
Stages in the Circle of Learning
Stage 1: Stage of Unconscious Incompetence. The state of not desiring to know because he does
not know what is there to know (blissful ignorance).
Stage 2: Stage of Conscious Incompetence. A situation referred to as the "teachable moment"
when, by accident the learner realizes there is a need to know about things around him.
He consciously develops a desire to know the need to develop personal interests. He
now has a "motive" for and consequently an "interest" in learning (motivation).
Stage 3: Stage of Conscious Competence. The learner is helped by a teacher who starts coaching
after telling him what to know. He is, therefore, guided into gathering information, aided
and corrected when need be, and made to engage in constant independent applications
over a period of time. This stage includes content, coaching, guided practice, feedback,
and application.
Figure 5: The Circle of Learning

Source: Palma's Curriculum Development System
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Stage 4: Stage of Unconscious Competence. The point where a learner achieves a degree of
competence in a particular area, exhibiting skills honed through constant practice. The
learner, therefore, becomes knowledgeable because he has acquired mastery of the
subject matter: conscious effort.
8. Measurement: Getting Evidence of Learning. It is the final measure of how much a learner
has acquired and mastered as revealed by an instrument "test" in the form of a "test score."
The score has to be referenced to the stated criterion or norm so a judgment can be
rendered as to the acceptability or non-acceptability of the performance. Measurement then is but
one aspect of a process called evaluation.
Benjamin Bloom defines evaluation as "the systematic collection of evidence to
determine whether in fact certain changes are taking place in the learner as well as to determine
the amount or degree of change in the individual students."
Two aspects of evaluation can be gleaned from this definition.
The first, which is quantitative: the gathering of data on student learning in terms of
scores in a test.
The second, qualitative: the judgment as to the acceptability or non-acceptability of the
learning level based on present standards.
The first is referred to as measurement, the second, valuation. Thus, the term evaluation consists
of a measurement aspect and a valuation aspect (Palma, 1992:114).
F. Teaching Is Providing the Teachers with Opportunities to Make Desirable Changes in
the Thinking, Attitudes, and Behavior of their Pupils
In a child's development, three important factors should be given utmost consideration,
namely:
a) objectives;
b) learning activities; and
c) evaluation.
The interrelationships between these three factors show that the focus of the teacher's
effort is the child. The child is the core of the teaching-learning process that is aimed at the
development of a mature individual.
To guide the development and learning systematically and effectively, schools are
established and maintained by society. The school has an instructional program that
accomplishes these objectives and evaluation determines if these objectives are being attained
and if the learning activities (or learning experiences) contribute toward the attainment of such
objectives (Aquino, et al. 1988:18).
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Figure 6: Interrelationships among Objectives, Learning Activities, and Evaluation

1. Objectives. Educational objectives, specific or otherwise, serve a valuable function in the
educational process. Effective instruction occurs when learners are provided with
instructional experiences that are designed to help them achieve goals stated in instructional
objectives. They require specification of student learning in terms of observable and
measurable behavior.
Statement of educational objectives in behavioral terms facilitates the evaluation of
educational programs and improves the validity of the measures and scales used in the evaluation
process.
Basic Concepts in Writing Educational Objectives
Instructional objectives should contain the following five elements:
a) Who is to perform the desired behavior (e.g. the pupil, the student, or the learner).
b) The actual behavior to be employed in demonstrating mastery of the objective (e.g. to
write, to identify, or to distinguish).
c) The result (i.e., the product or performance) of the behavior which will be evaluated
to determine whether the objective is mastered (e.g. an essay or a speech).
d) The relevant conditions under which the behavior is to be performed (e.g. in a onehour quiz or at the end of a forty-minute period).
e) The standard that will be used to evaluate the success of the product or performance
(e.g. 90 percent correct or eight out often correct) (Lardizabal, et at., 1991:42-43).
2. Learning Activities. These refer to certain activities that the learner undergoes in reaction to
the environment with which he has an opportunity to interact. An experience is personal to
the learner and what he gets out of it depends a lot on his total personal life space.
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Since learning results directly from personal experiences, its selection becomes a vital
concern in the classroom. The central problem of schooling, then, is that of determining the
kinds of experiences likely to produce the given objectives.
The main concern of the teacher is how to set up situations and conditions in the
classroom which will stimulate the students to pursue the objectives laid out before them
(Palma, 1992:77-78).
The teacher should provide students the opportunities to engage in a variety of
experiences to increase the depth of meaning of important concepts. Likewise, the teacher
should be able to devise many activities which will give students concrete experiences
instead of verbal abstractions. Learning activity to be effective must be properly distributed.
The following are some suggestions for making material meaningful by gearing it to the
learner's experiences:
a) evaluate the learner's experience;
b) provide variety of experiences;
c) use pictorial illustrations, objects or models, or examples frequently; and
d) create situations for applications of concepts or skills learned (Gregorio, 1976:167168).
3. Evaluation. Evaluation validates the objectives and points out the affectivity and
propriety of the learning experiences.
Therefore, evaluation cannot be taken apart from teaching. It is not to be considered even as a
mere adjunct of instruction. It is de facto an integral part, that is, part and parcel of the teachinglearning process.
A teacher who teaches without testing for results is in much the same situation as a
person who prepares a meal and serves it without benefit of tasting it beforehand. A popular
saying goes, "the test of the pudding is in the eating." By the same token, the proof of
learning is seen in the testing. (Palma, 1992:113-114).
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Chapter III
PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING AND LEARNING
A. Principles Defined
The term principle has been adopted from the Latin word princeps which means the
beginning or the end of all things. The early Greeks used the term principles not only to express
the origin of things but als1> to express their fundamental laws and to bring out the ultimate
objectives.
Principles are used in many different senses. According to Webster, a principle is a
comprehensible law or doctrine from which others are derived or on which others are founded.
In the language of Hopkins, a principle is a rule for guiding the ship of education so that
it will reach the port designated by the philosophy of education; it is a compass by which the
path of education is directed.
Principles are the chief guides to make teaching and learning effective and productive.
They are the fundamentals through which we proceed from one situation to another.
Principles are important for the governing of actions and the operation of techniques in
any field of education. True principles explain educational processes. They show how things are
done and how educational results are achieved.
For the individual, a principle, when understood and accepted, serves in important ways
to guide his reflective thinking and his choice of activities or actions.
In the field of education, an accepted principle becomes part of one's philosophy which
serves to determine and evaluate his educational aims, activities, practices, and outcomes.
B. How Principles of Teaching Are Derived
Sound principles of teaching are formulated from carefully observed facts or objectively
measured results which are common to a series of similar experiences, as such, they must be
carefully distinguished from the assumptions of so-called arm-chair philosophy which are made
up largely of purely theoretical principles not based on experience, reality, investigation, or
experimentation.
It can be said that principles of teaching are derived:
a) through the pooling of the opinions of experts;
b) through comparative studies of the teaching performance of capable and incapable
teachers;
c) through experimental studies of teaching and learning in the classroom;
d) from the results of experiments which are the universal methods of deducing
principles; and
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e) from critically analyzed experience or from systematic investigations.

C. Function and Scope of Principles
When general principles are used to stimulate, direct, guide, and evaluate the conduct of
life, they are translated into means and measures of actions. Only actions can change things in
the direction of unity and stability.
Organized principles of teaching should serve at least two general purposes:
a) Principles should serve as the bases of intelligent and profitable practice. The nature of
principles is constant and universal but their application varies from one generation to
another or from one situation to another within the same generation, owing to changing
conditions.
b) Principles should serve not only to stimulate, direct, and guide, but also to interpret
school practices. Principles depend upon how well they are founded upon scientific
experimentation, expert opinion, or classroom experience. The function of teaching is to
provide the stimuli so that the best learning may take place.
Principles of teaching are guides so that teachers may better adopt their instruction to the
learner's individual capabilities. They are not rigid, unequivocal laws that apply in all teachinglearning situations. As such, teaching must always be considered as a complex process that may
be better understood by making a broad and discerning application of its various principles.
D. Types of Teaching Principles
1. Starting Principles. These involve the nature of the learner and his psychologi.cal and
physiological endowments which make education possible.
The hereditary endowments are the preliminary concern in all educational endeavor.
It is, therefore, the function of education to make the best use of these hereditary
tendencies to meet human needs, growth, and development.
The primary concern of the teacher is not the subject, but the learner, not knowledge
of specialty, but knowledge oft he laws and principles of human growth and
development, which, like all other natural processes, involve laws and principles.
2. Guiding Principles. These refer to the procedure, methods of instruction, or
agglomerations of techniques by which the learner and the teacher may work together
towards the accomplishment of the goals or objectives of education.
3. Ending Principles. These refer to the educational aims, goals, objectives, outcomes,
purposes, or results of the whole educational scheme to which teaching and learning are
directed.
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These educational aims or objectives may be used as definite, intelligible principles

or guidance by those who seek to educate effectively.
General educational aims may be either philosophical or psychological. Philosophical
aims are based on folkways and mores or ideals of the Filipino people. They are
otherwise known as the ultimate aims of education outlined in our Constitution.
Psychological aims refer to the growth and development of the learner in terms of
knowledge, habits, skills, and abilities or integrated personality. They may be expressed
in behavioral terms. In other words, psychological aims refer to subject matter aims. They
are also known as the immediate aims of education.
E. General statements Concerning Principles
Principles as used in teaching have broad meanings and extensions: The term principles
refer to:
general laws;
doctrines;
rules of actions;
fundamental truths;
general statements;
educational concepts;
accepted tenets; and
the conditions that affect the teaching-learning process.
The meaning of the term principles varies considerably in teaching as well as in learning.
a) Principles are considered sound when they are formulated from carefully observed facts
or objectively measured results which are common to a series of similar experiences.
b) Principles are also considered valid when they are the results of scientific
experimentations, expert opinions, and classroom observations and experiences.
c) Principles, when understood and accepted, serve in important ways to guide the
individual's reflective thinking and his choice of activities.
Principles are the bases in stimulating, directing, guiding, and encouraging the learners
in their learning and the teachers in their teaching. They are used as guides to educational
procedure. They are the guides in making teaching and learning activities effective and
productive.
d) Principles and techniques do not work effectively by themselves. There is constant
interplay which gradually improves the selection and functioning of both principles and
techniques.
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e) Principles are the criteria to be used by the teachers in the evaluation of their teaching and
of the learning of the learners. They also serve to determine and evaluate educational
objectives, practices, and outcomes.
f) Principles are needed to guide techniques, but in no way do they supplant the
fundamental role of techniques in carrying on the process and activities which make up
the day-to-day work of teaching and learning.
g) Principles, although based on enduring concepts and values, are themselves subject to
change. They are dynamic, not static. Principles do change with the discovery of new
facts, with new educational philosophy, and with changes in social and moral values.
h) Principles are workable only under normal conditions. When the classroom conditions
are abnormal, common sense must be the guiding factor in meeting the situation.
Common sense is the ability to do and to say the right thing at the right time in the
right way to the right person.
Common sense is the right kind of personality in action. It is practical intelligence
and tact in behavior. It is a product of individual experience gained through contact with
practical problems of life and through lessons derived from success and failure.
i) Principles are of great value if they are basically true and applied into the learning
situations.
Thus, the use of the general principles in the field of teaching involves considerably
more than a mere statement of sound basic principles. If the principles taught are
acquired in the best way, there can be little question of their validity.
j) Principles oftentimes overlap or even at times conflict with each other. However,
although principles at times overlap, nevertheless, they work out harmoniously in
achieving the desired objectives or aims.
k) Principles are means to ends and never ends in themselves. When abstract principles are
used as guides and evaluate the conduct of life, they must be translated into means and
measures of action (Gregorio, 1976:1-14).
F. John Dewey's Philosophy
Dr. John Dewey (1859-1950) was an outstanding American philosopher and educator.
John Dewey was born on October 20, 1859 in Burlington, Vermont. He graduated from the
University of Vermont in 1879 and received his Ph.D. degree from John Hopkins University in
1884. He was a professor of Philosophy at the University of Minnesota in 1888 and at the
University of Michigan from 1889 to 1894. He served also as head of the Philosophy Department
at the University of Chicago in 1894-1904. Up to his retirement, he was a professor of
Philosophy at Columbia University.
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As a philosopher, he was an outstanding pragmatist and as an educator, he was known as

progressivist or a democratic educator. His philosophical beliefs have been described as: 1)
radical empiricism; 2) experimentalism; 3) intrumentalism; and 4) pragmatism. (Gregorio,
1979:42).
Actually, John Dewey's philosophy was an outgrowth or product of:
a) Rousseau's principles of growth, pupil activity, and individualism;
b) Pestalozzi's discipline of sympathy and his principle that learning proceeds from the
known to the unknown, and his doctrine of interest;
c) Froebel's ideal of learning by doing which depended upon self-principled activities or
creative development which is the basic principle of socialization; and
d) Findings in the study of G. Stanley Hall which stimulated an interest in child nature.
Progressive education owes much to John Dewey's philosophy of instrumentalism, a
philosophy which holds that the various forms of human activity are instruments developed by
man to solve his problems. It bears a close resemblance to' pragmatism, which states that truth is
measured by experimental results and practical outcomes that can be shared and tested by all
who investigate.
The chief tenets of John Dewey's philosophy are the following:
a)
b)
c)
d)
We learn by doing;
Education is life, not a preparation for life;
Education is growth;
The school is primarily a social institution; and e) The center of education is the
child's own social activities.
Out of the foregoing tenets have grown, according to Mills and Douglas, the basic
principles of today's learning, which are as follows:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
Children learn by doing;

Motivation should be intrinsic and natural, not artificial;
Learning should be gradual and continuous, not discrete;
Instruction should be adapted to individual needs;
Natural social settings should constitute learning situations;
Learning depends upon the child's ability; g) Learning comes through sense
impressions;
g) The child can best be educated as a whole, as a unit organism;
h) Teacher-pupil and, inter-pupil relationships should be cooperative; and
i) Education means improving the quality of living. (Aquino, 1988:39-40).
G. Principles of Good Teaching Based on the Educational Philosophy of John Dewey
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a) Teaching is good when it is based on the psychology of learning. This is based on the
concept that the child is made the center of the educative process.
The nature of the child and the nature of the learning process and the laws that govern
its operation determine the type of teaching to be done by the teacher.
b) Teaching is good when it is well-planned such that the activities and experiences of the
learner are continuously related and interrelated into larger, more meaningful, more
inclusive, relation patterns.
c) Teaching is good when the learner is made conscious of the goals or aims to be
accomplished. This concept calls for proper motivation.
d) Learning is good when it provides learning experiences or situations that will insure
understanding. Good teaching requires a rich environment of instructional materials and
devices. Instructional materials and devices will challenge the attention of the learner,
stimulate thinking, and facilitate understanding which make learning more meaningful.
e) Teaching is good when there is provision to meet individual differences. This is based on
the psychological principle tl:1at individuals differ from each other in their learning
potential. To be effective, teaching must treat the learner as he is, but at the same time
with reference to what he might become.
f) Teaching is good when it utilizes the past experiences of the learner. This concept is
based on the principle of apperception. This means that learning is easier when you start
from what the pupils already know.
g) Teaching is good when the learner is stimulated to think and to reason. The best teaching
method is that which liberates and encourages thinking. Effective teaching involves
differentiation and integration or analysis and synthesis. Generalization of facts learned is
important in teaching for transfer.
h) Teaching is good when it is governed by democratic principles. In democratic teaching,
social relationship is placed on a plane of natural respect, cooperation, tolerance, and fair
play. Teaching to be effective must be governed by love and understanding. In other
words, the learners are free from emotional tension.
i) Teaching is good when the method used is supplemented by another method and
instructional devices. It is an accepted fact that good method is a synthesis of many
methods. This is based on the principles that the best learning takes place when a greater
number of senses are stimulated and utilized in the process.
j) Teaching is good when evaluation is made an integral part of the teaching process.
Evaluation is part and parcel of teaching. Evaluation measures the effectiveness of
teaching and learning and completes the function which is essential in teaching. Teaching
is meaningful only when the results of teaching are achieved.
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k) Teaching is good when drill or review is made an integral part of teaching and learning.
The teacher must bear in mind that drill and review have different meanings and
functions. The purpose of review is to bring out relationships of facts learned to give new
view or new meaning. (Gregorio & Gregorio, 1979: 63-65).
A Synthesis of John Dewey's Thoughts on Education
I
Dewey's Education Theories
Education as a Necessity of Life

-
Education makes possible continuance/renewal of social life.

Education is a communication-making experience.
Education is a shared possession.
Education is a self-renewing instrument of a complex society.
Education as a Social Function

-
Education provides the social environment that leads to the development of attitudes
necessary for a continuous and progressive life.
As an educative environment, the school performs three social functions:
a) simplifying/ordering the factor it wishes to develop;
b) purifying and idealizing the existing social function; and
c) creating a wider and better balanced environment.
Education as Direction
-
Education directs the natural impulses of the young to agree with the life customs of the
group through commands, prohibitions, approvals, and disapprovals.
The business of education is to make the young understand the internal controls.
Education as Growth
-
Education is all one with life; life is growth and, therefore, education has no end beyond
growth.
Growth in education is not physical but growth in insight and understanding of
relationship between various experiences and learning episodes.
Education as Preparation
-
Education is preparation when it:
a) progressively realizes present possibilities, thus, making the individual better fitted to
cope with later requirements; and
b) makes the present rich and significant, thus, merging into the future.
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Education as Unfolding
-
Education is unfolding when it draws out from the learner what is desired through
suggestive questioning or other pedagogical device.
Education is unfolding from within.
Education as Training of Faculties

-
Education as training of original impulsive activity is selecting those responses that can
be utilized by the individual.
Education is not mere "exercise" of the faculties of the mind but the development of
initiative, inventiveness, and adaptability.
Education as Formation
-
Education is formation when it consists of the selection and coordination of native

activities so that the subject matter of the social environment is utilized.
Education as Recapitulation and Retrospection

-
Education is not "repeating" the past but utilizing it as a resource in developing the
future.
Education as Reconstruction
-
Education is the reorganization of experience which adds to its meaning, increasing its
ability to direct the course of subsequent experience.
In education as reconstruction, increment of meaning corresponds to increased
perceptions of connections and continuities of experiences.
Education is the fundamental method of social reform.
Education as a Democratic Social Function

-
Education gives the individuals a personal interest in social relationship and controls the
habits of the mind which secure social changes without introducing disorder.
Education emphasizes the cooperative nature of shared human experience which
embraces three key elements:
a) common - represents shared objects, ideas;
b) communication - occurs when people share their experiences; and
c) community - results when individuals discuss common experiences through shared
communication.
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II. Dewey's Thoughts on Education Aims

A. Natural Development Aim. Spontaneous development not only of the bodily organs but
their capacities as well.
B. Social Efficiency Aim. Cultivation of power to join freely and fully in shared/common
activities.
C. Cultural Aim. Expansion of one's range and accuracy of one's perception of meanings.
III. Dewey's Thoughts on the Correlative Aspects of Education
A. Interest and Discipline
-
Interest and discipline are correlative aspects of activity.

Interest means one is identified with the objects and activity up to its realization.
Interest is entering into a situation, continuity of attention, and endurance.
Interest represents the moving force of education.
Discipline is the development of the power of continuous attention.
B. Experience and Thinking

-
Experience involves a connection of doing or trying with something undergone in

consequence.
Experience has two elements:
Active - Experience is trying.

Passive - Experience is undergoing.
Education is an active-passive affair, a separation destroys the vital meaning of an

experience.
Thinking is the accurate and deliberate instituting of connections between what is done
and its consequences.
Thinking includes these steps:
sense of a problem;
observation of the condition;
formation and rational elaboration of a suggested conclusion; and
active experimental testing.
All thinking results in knowledge, ultimately the value of knowledge is subordinate to its
use in thinking.
Experience provides solidity, security, and fertility to education.
Thinking unifies all processes of instruction.
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C. The Nature of Method

-
Method is the way the subject matter of an experience develops most effectively and
fruitfully.
Method is embedded in the child's' own nature which is active rather than passive.
Good methods are straightforward and promote flexible intellectual intere'st, openminded will to learn, integrity of purpose, and acceptance of responsibility for the
consequences of one's activity.
"Project" or "Problem" or situation methods shall replace formalized operation.
Projects and problems should come within the scope and capacities of the experience of
the learner.
Methods must raise new questions, introduce new undertakings, and create fresh
knowledge.
D. The Nature of Subject Matter

-
Subject matter consists of facts observed, recalled, read, and talked about and ideas
suggested in the course of a development of a situation having a purpose.
The subject matter of education consists primarily of the meanings which supply content
to existing social life.
Transmission of subject matter needs special selection, formulation, and organization.
Most subject matters are derived from past col, lective experience,
The educator's task is to develop the pupil's ability to appropriate and reproduce the
subject matter into his activities.
The young begins with social activities and proceed to a scientific insight in the materials
by assimilating into their direct experience the ideas of those who have had a larger
experience.
IV. Dewey's Thoughts on the Curriculum

A. Play and Work in the Curriculum
-
Both play and work involve ends free and intrinsically motivated but differ in time span.
Play and work have means and ends connection.
Play passes gradually into work when it grows more complicated and gains added
meaning by greater attention to specific results.
Work is psychologically an activity which includes regard for consequences as a part of
itself.
B. Geography and the Curriculum

-
The function is to enrich and liberate the more direct and personal contacts of life by
furnishing the context, background" and outlook
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Geography emphasizes the physical and natural side; and history, the social and the
human.
Geography must coordinate the mathematical, astronomical, physiographic, topographic,
political, and commercial phases.
History includes primitive, economic, industrial, and intellectual history.
Geography provides the material and medium of development for mankind.
C. Science
-
It represents the fruition of the cognitive factors in experience.

It aims to reveal the sources, grounds, and consequences of a belief.
Its function:
emancipation from local and temporary incidents of experience; and

opening of intellectual vistas through destruction, generalization, and formulation.
H. Basic Principles of Successful Teaching at Any Academic Level by Olsen, et al.

Edward G. Olsen and his associates have formulated a summary of basic principles of
successful teaching applicable to any academic level. They ate as follows:
1. Educate the whole child. The child is not just a mind to be instructed: he is a physically,
socially, emotionally, ethically, and intellectually growing person. If his powers are to
develop in proper harmony, he needs learning activities which challenge his emerging
interests and abilities in all the areas of growth.
2. Keep the program informal, flexible, and democratic. Children are restless and need
confidence in their own power and achievements. They, therefore, need every chance to ask
questions freely, confer with other children informally, share in planning their individual and
group activities, carry personal responsibility for group projects, and help to judge critically
the results of their efforts.
This requires that the entire classroom atmosphere is friendly and democratic as well as
informal and flexible and that children are not held in unfair competition with standards of
performance beyond their possible ability to achieve.
3. Capitalize upon present pupil interests. It is of utmost importance that the teacher first
discovers what interests and purposes his students already have and then use these drives as
springboards to further desirable learning.
Thus, limited interests may develop into wider interests, undesirable purposes into
praiseworthy purposes as to how the child's educational growth can be best promoted.
4. Let motivation be intrinsic. Most learners find few desirable incentives in the traditional
system of school marks, honors, and penalties. Their most moving incentives are those of
real life itself:
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a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
to explore the new and the interesting;

to associate actively with other people;
to manipulate and construct things;
to compare opinions about matters which seem important; and
to express one's self artistically.
5. Make learning experiences vivid and direct. Generalizations will be mere verbalisms
unless they are based upon meaningful personal experiences.
That is why children need constant opportunity for motion pictures, radio programs,
excursions, interviews, service projects, work experience, and the like. Through such media,
the children receive more concrete, interesting, and meaningful experiences than they are
likely to receive through the printed page alone.
6. Stress problem-solving, the basis of functional learning. Real education comes about
when children intelligently attack real problems, think them through, and then do something
to solve them. Every chance should, therefore, be given for pupils to discover, define, attack,
solve, and interpret both personal and social problems within the limitations of their own
present abilities, interests, and needs.
7. Provide for the achievement of lasting pupil satisfactions. Students who dislike their work
learn little from it and retain that little briefly. Every effort should, therefore, be made to
maintain learning situations wherein children will achieve genuine success, find personal
satisfaction therein, and, thus grow, intellectually, emotionally, and socially.
8. Let the curriculum mirror the community. Learning situations must reflect life in the
pupil's own community if they are to be most effective.
I. Principles of Humanistic Teaching
Humanistic teaching involves three conditions. These are emphatic understanding,
respect or non-possessive warmth, and genuineness which are necessary for the development of
self-actualizing persons. They are necessary for self-initiated, meaningful, experiential learning.
They permit the child to actualize his potentialities.
1. Emphatic understanding. By emphatic understanding is meant understanding of another
from an internal frame of reference, achieved by putting oneself in the place of another,
so that one sees him and the world as closely as possible, as he does.
2. Respect or non-possessive warmth. It is respect which provides for a warm acceptance
for another as a person, with all his faults, deficiencies, or undesirable/unacceptable
behavior. Respect also means a deep interest and concern for his development and
welfare. It involves acceptance of each child as he is, for what he is.
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3. Genuineness. It is the congruence or integration of the therapist in the relationship. The

humanistic teacher is genuine and real. She is not putting an act nor trying to play the role
of the mythical teacher.
The totality of these conditions can be summarized in two ways:
First, they are nonthreatening. The humanistic teacher reduces the tension, fear, and
anxiety which are so prevalent in classrooms and which we know inhibit learning.
Second, the essence of these conditions is love. It is the love which has been recognized
by humanistic teachers as the basic requirement of a good teacher.
J. Principles of Good Teaching
There are certain principles of good teaching that the teacher should familiarize himself
with. These principles are almost important as the stimulation and inspiration of a good teacher.
1. Active Learning. The pupil must be mentally active most of the time and physically
active some of the time. Extensive physical and mental activity on the teacher's part will
not necessarily guarantee learning on the pupils part. In numerous learning situations, the
child learns better if he is engaged in' some physical and mental activities while
concentrating upon a mental task. For example, in an arithmetic lesson, a pupil who is
able to put a group of three objects with another group of two objects will learn more
quickly that 2 + 3 = 5 than if he were merely told the number fact.
2. Many Methods. There is no single correct way to teach a cla.ss. There are many good
ways. A method which fails with one child may be very helpful to another.
3. Motivation. Effective motivation arises from children's interests, needs, problems, and
expressed purposes. Although we humans learn only what we want to learn, it is
nevertheless true that interest in the unfamiliar can be developed by relating the unknown
to the known interests.
4. Well-balanced Curriculum. The curriculum should serve two purposes: to provide
essential skills for the child to enable him to become a useful member of society; and to
satisfy the child's personal and immediate needs. There should be a blend and balance of
the two throughout the day's curriculum.
5. Individual Difference. Good teaching recognizes individual differences. The slowlearning child, the average child, and the bright child, the three commonest categories,
have to be taught in different ways. In addition to children's intellectual differences, there
are differences in emotional, social, physical, spiritual, aesthetic, and moral development.
Good teaching will adapt methods, activities, assignments, and advice to each pupil based
on an understanding of his unique characteristics.
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6. Lesson Planning. Units, lessons, activities, and even housekeeping must be wellplanned. Daily planning should be detailed and classroom management should be made
routine. All planning should be flexible.
7. The Power of Suggestion. Suggestions are more fruitful than dictation. Through the
power of positive suggestions, children are willing to undertake tasks and procedure
which they may have felt inadequate to tackle before. Suggestions may be given as to
which books and materials to use, how to solve problems, and what procedures to follow.
8. Encouragement. Praise, given only when earned, makes pupils aware of their successes.
Constructive criticism may be needed where persistent errors are being made.
9. Remedial Teaching. Good teaching is both diagnostic and remedial.
10. Democratic Environment. Children learn democracy by living it. In return for rights and
privileges within the classroom, children should be aware of their responsibilities to the
group and of group service.
11. Stimulation. Each child can be stimulated within the limits of his abilities to exceed his
present efforts. Challenge can be provided through the teacher's expression of confidence
in her own pupils' aptitudes and skills, through provoking curiosity, and through
encouraging creative endeavor.
12. Integration. By building upon previous knowledge and experience, new learning and
new experiences become more meaningful. Learning involves a reorganization of
previous experience and an integration of what has been completed into the new learning
experience.
13. Life-like Situation. Children should be guided into a realization that their school studies
and activities are a part of life.
14. Independence. A child's increasing independence from adults and ever-increasing
responsibility are signposts of good teaching. The degrees of independence gained at any
given time should measure up with the maturity level of the child.
K. Basic Principles of Today's Teaching
a) Children learn by doing.
b) Motivation should be intrinsic and natural, not artificial.
c) Learning should be 'gradual and continuous, not discrete.
d) Instruction should be adopted to individual needs.
e) Natural social settings should constitute learning situations.
f) Learning depends upon the child's ability.
g) Learning comes through sense impressions.
h) The child can best be educated as a whole, as a unit organism.
i) Teacher-pupil and inter-pupil relationships should be cooperative.
j) Education means improving the quality of learning.
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L. Instructional Principles and School Applications (Aquino, et al., 1988).

The instructional principles presented were based on research and theory. For every
principle, Goodwin and Klausmeier derived a parallel classroom application chiefly for use by
teachers.
According to these two authors, the principles and applications, although based on
research and theory, have been tempered and influenced by their own teaching at every school
level and by their work with educators in cooperative research and development activities
(Goodwin and Klausmeier, 1975:253).
A. Factual Information
Instructional Principle
1. Organizing material into appropriate
learning units facilitates the acquisition
knowledge.
2. Cognizing meaningful relationships
between new material and what one
already knows facilitates the learning of
the new information
3. Organizing complex material into
appropriately arranged sequential parts
facilitates the learning of factual
information.
4. Practicing and utilizing information is
necessary for its mastery and retention
5. Evaluating the accuracy and suitability
of information is important for
achieving independence in learning
factual information.
B. Concepts
1. Discriminating and naming a concept
and its attributes facilitate concept
attainment and use.
2. Identifying examples and non-examples
is critical for concept attainment by the
students at all levels.
3. Ascertaining the correctness of ones
responses is essential in concept
attainment and refinement.
4. Utilizing a concept extends its meaning
for the individual.
School Application
1. Arrange material to appropriate units.
2. Help students to perceive meaningful
relationships.
3. Arrange material in an appropriate

sequence.
4. Provide for appropriate practice.

5. Invite independent evaluation
School Application
1. Define the concept and denote a its
defining attributes.
2. Arrange appropriately the difficult and
sequenced examples and non-examples
of the concept.
3. Establish procedures for feedback.
4. Arrange for the appropriate use of the

concept.
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5. Achieving autonomy in learning

concepts and principles requires selfinitiated inquiry and evaluation.
C. Problem-Solving
1. Maintaining sensitivity to felt needs
and directly analyzing problem
situations are perquisites to operating
on the problems.
2. Retrieving stored or securing new
information and acting on it is essential
to successful problem-solving.
3. Generating hypotheses and testing them
is necessary for successful problemsolving.
4. Determining the effectiveness of ones
own methods and the acceptability of
ones own solution helps independence
in problem-solving.
D. Creativity
1. Producing novel ideas or products is
enhanced by practice in expressing
one's self in verbal, figural, and
physical means.
2. Being reinforced for one's creative
efforts is more effective when
originating from a well regarded
person.
3. Developing a higher level of creative
expression requires a nurturing
environment and successful experience.
4. Acting and thinking in divergent ways
are essential to reactive production.
E. Attitudes and Personality Integration
1. Facilitating
the
learning
and
development of attitudes requires
careful thought and 'a clear statement of
objectives
2. Learning by observation and imitation
5. Guide the students discovery and

invite independent evaluation/
School Application
1. Help pupils to detect and state needs
and directly analyzing solvable
problems.
2. Help pupils to find and process
information.
3. Help students to generate and test
hypothesis.
4. Invite independent evaluation in
hypothesis
and
problem-solving
abilities.
School Application
1. Encourage divergent production in
many media.
2. Develop strong positive relationships in
and out of class.
3. Encourage
expression.
continuing
4. Promote
unique
personalities.
and
creative
creative
School Application
1. Identify the attributes to be facilitated.
2. Provide exemplary models.
3. Provide
pleasant
emotional
and
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3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
takes place often in receptive and

responding individuals.
Strengthening attitudes takes place via
positive reinforcement; and improving
the accuracy of their informational
components of attitudes is appropriate.
Practice an attitude in pertinent
situations increases its stability.
A higher level of moral development is
facilitated by social interaction
centering on moral dilemma.
Acquiring rational methods of coping
with problem situations may reduce
excessive use of defense strategies.
Accepting oneself (adequate selfconcept) and others and being accepted
by them are both interdependent and
necessary for personality integration.
information experiences with attitude

objectives.
4. Arrange for appropriate practice.
5. Provide practice in considering moral
dilemma.
6. Provide practice in meeting conflict
situations.
7. Encourage self-understanding and selfconcept.
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Chapter IV
THE CURRICULUM
Introduction
Through the years, education has seen the coming and going of practices, paradigm
shifts, innovations, and methods, all aimed at the improvement of instruction. Some have left
their imprint, while others have been mere passing fads. Amidst all of these is the child, his
learning and development. It is the function of education to provide the vehicles that shall open
to the child the wide vistas and limitless horizons of his future.
It is, however, unfortunate that in the course ,of time, the educational highway along
which the child has to travel has been built and reshaped by different educators, so that by now,
instead of the smooth and even road that it should be, it has become an artificial obstacle course.
It is, therefore, incumbent upon educators to provide all the necessary facilities and
conveniences for the children in order that their travel may be as comfortable and as enjoyable as
it is finally fruitful.
Definitions
The term comes from the Latin word currere which means "to run." In educational usage,
the "course of the race" with time came to stand for the "course of study." Nowadays, curriculum
has different meanings for different people depending on how it is used.
Palma (1992) defines the curriculum as "the sum of all learning content, experiences, and
responses that are purposely selected, organized, and implemented by the school in pursuit of its
peculiar mandate as a distinct institution of learning and human development."
Doll defines the curriculum as "all the experiences which are offered to students under
the auspices or direction of the school."
Johnson defines the curriculum more narrowly. He refers to it as "a structured series of
learning outcomes that prescribe for the teacher the goals or expected results of instruction."
Romberg, on the other hand, refers to curriculum as a "set of intended learning and the
operational plan for achieving these learning."
Anglin, Goldman, and Anglin defined curriculum as "the planned learning experiences
that a school presents to its students in order to socialize them into the prevailing culture."
The Academic Curriculum refers to the formal list of courses offered by a school.
The Extra Curriculum refers to those planned but voluntary activities that are sponsored
by a school, such as sports, drama, or social clubs. '
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The Hidden Curriculum refers to those unplanned learning activities (e.g., learning to
cope with school bureaucracy and boredom or learning how to gain popularity with one's peers)
that are a natural by-product of school life. (Aquino, 1988).
One area of the curriculum that is probably as important as, or sometimes, even more
important than the actual content offered for study is the so-called "Hidden Curriculum." It is the
informal part of the curriculum that you know is there, but that is difficult to see and study.
Ballantine (1983) described the hidden curriculum as that part of the curriculum that refers to the
three Rs - rules, regulations, and routines - to which the schools must adapt.
Lloyd Trump (1968) wrote that the curriculum is a vital, moving complex interaction of
people and things in a freewheeling setting. It includes questions to debate, forces to rationalize,
goals to illuminate, programs to activate, and outcomes to evaluate.
Formulating Goals
Wiles and Bondi (1989) state that educational goals are statements of the outcomes of
education. The scope of the entire educational program of a school can be found in the goals of
that school. Goals are the basic elements in educational planning. The reflection of societal needs
in educational goals usually results in statements describing categories of human behavior. Goals
relating to "maintaining health" and "carrying out the activities of a citizen in a democratic
society" are examples of societal needs.
Goals may be stated at several levels of generality or specificity. Goals that are general
and broad reflect a philosophical base and are not concerned with particular achievement within
a period of time.
Relating Goals and Objectives to Curriculum Development
Wiles and Bondi (1989) state that anyone familiar with curriculum documents is probably
aware that there is usually a discrepancy between curriculum planned and curriculum
implemented. Curriculum workers using curriculum materials know that statements of goals and
objectives accompanying those materials are not always reflected in the curriculum as it becomes
operative in the classroom. Because most curriculum development projects are cooperative
endeavors involving people, it is sad that goals and objectives of curriculum documents are not
reflected in classroom practice.
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Classifying Goals and Objectives

Learning objectives should be designed at more than one single level of operation. Table
1 illustrates the three levels.
Level of Objective
Level I
Table 1: Levels of Learning Objectives

Type
Origin
Broad goals or
Formulated at the
purposes
district level by
councils or school
board
Level II
General but more
specific than Level I
Formulated at school
or department level
Behaviorally stated
Formulated by teams
of teachers or single
teachers
Features
Seldom revised
Contains an out - line

of processes to
accomplish Level II
objectives
Level III
Describes expected
outcomes, evidence
for assessing
outcomes, and level of
performance.
Level I objectives are stated in very general terms. They are usually found at the system
level. They are sometimes referred to as purposes or goals. They should be accomplished by a
related and complementary policy statement.
Level II objectives are stated in broad or general terms, but are more specific than Level I
statements. They are not, .
however, behaviorally stated as in the case of Level III learning objectives. Level II objectives
support and define Level I objectives. They reflect the same philosophy and are directed toward
the realization of the Level I goals or purposes, as found in Table 2.
Level III objectives are found at the classroom level and are behaviorally stated. These
specific objectives support Level II and Level I objectives. Behavioral objectives are statements
describing what the learner is doing when he is learning. Teachers need to describe the desired
behavior well enough to preclude misinterpretation.
Behaviorally stated objectives contain essential elements:
a) The terminal behavior must be identified by name. An observable action must be named
that shows that learning has taken place;
b) The important conditions under which the behavior is expected to occur should be
described; and
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c) The criteria of acceptable performance should be specified.

A simple method of developing a complete behavioral objective is to apply the A, B, C, D
rule.
A - stands for audience
B - for the behavior
C - for the condition
D - the degree of completion.
The three taxonomies of educational objectives are best illustrated in Tables 2, 3, and 4.
Taxonomies are classification schemes developed by educators to define educational
goals.
The reader is especially encouraged to review the following three sources for a detailed
discussion of the three taxonomy schemes.
Benjamin S. Bloom, ed., Taxonomy of Education Objectives, The Classification of
Education Goals - Handbook I: Cognitive Domain (New York: David McKay Company, Inc.,
1956).
David Krathwohl, Benjamin Bloom, and Bertram Masia, Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives, The Classification of Education Goals - Handbook II: Affective Domain (New York:
David McKay Company, Inc., 1964).
Anita J. Harrow, A Taxonomy of the Psychomotor Domain' - Guide for Developing
Behavioral Objectives (New York: David McKay Company, Inc., 1972).
Evaluation
Applications
Knowledge
(ability to recall;
Comprehension (ability to use

ideas, principles,
(ability
to theories in new
particular
and
comprehend
what is being concentrated
commucated and situations)
make use of the
(ability to judge
the value of
ideas,
Synthesis
procedures,
(ability to put methods, using
Analysis
together
parts appropriate
(ability to break and
elements criteria)
down
a into a unified
communication organization or
into constituents whole)
parts in order to
make
organization of Requires
the whole clear) analysis
Requires
analysis
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to bring to mind idea

without
the appropriate relating it to
material)
other ideas or
materials
or
seeing
fullest Requires
meaning)
comprehension
Requires
knowledge
Requires
knowledge
Requires
application
Requires
application
Requires
comprehension
Requires
comprehension
Requires
knowledge
Requires
knowledge
Requires
application
Requires
comprehension
Requires
knowledge
Table 2: Levels of Cognitive Behavior
Sources: The Classification of Educational Goal, Handbook I: Cognitive Domain by Benjamin

S. Bloom, et al. Copyright @ 1956 by Longman Inc., Reprinted by permission of Longman Inc.,
New York.
Characterization
Valuing
Receiving
(accepts worth of a
thing; an idea or a
behavior; prefers
Responding
it; consistent in
(makes response at responding;
first
with develops
a
compliance, later commitment to it)
willingly and with
satisfaction
(attending;
becomes aware of
an idea, process,
or thing; is willing
to
notice
a
particular
Begins
phenomenon)
attending
Requires
response
Begins
attending
with
(generalizes
certain values into
Organizations
controlling
tendencies;
(organizes values; emphasis
on
determines
internal
relationships;
adapts behavior to
value system
Requires
organization
of
values
Requires
development
of
values
Requires
development
of
values
Requires
response
a
Requires
response
with
Begins
attending
with
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Begins
attending
with
Table 3: Levels of Affective Behavior
Sources: Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goal,

Handbook II: Affective Domain by David R. Krathwohl, et al. Copyright @ 1964 by Longman
Inc., Reprinted by permission of Longman Inc., New York.
Adapting
(makes individual
modification and
adaptation in the
Practicing
process to suit the
(repeats
steps worker and/or the
until some or all situation)
aspects of process
Imitating
become habitual,
(follows
requiring
little Requires practice
directions;
conscious
effort,
Observing
carries out steps performs
(watches process; with
conscious smoothly)
pays attention to awareness
of
Requires imitation
steps
or efforts, performs
techniques and to hesitantly)
Requires imitation
finished product
Requires
or behavior; may
observation
or
read directions.)
Requires
Requires
reading
of
observation,
or observation,
or direction
reading
of reading
of
directions
directions
Table 4: Levels of Psychomotor Behavior
Sources: A Taxonomy of Psychomotor Domain: A Guide for developing Behavior Objectives by

Anita J. Harrow Copyright @ 1972 by Longman Inc., Reprinted by permission of Longman Inc.,
New York.
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Functions of the Curriculum

There are many variables affecting the performance of the school system. However, it is
the educational content itself, the curriculum, that shapes these variables, particularly the
institutional capability requirements for its proper implementation. It defines the human resource
qualifications, the instructional support requirements, the facilities needed, and the amount of
financing required for the successful achievement of goals.
The curriculum has five complementary functions such as:
1. General Education. It is that part of the curriculum that is designed to provide for a
common universe of discourse, understanding, and competence for the purpose of
developing thinking, socially responsible citizens of a free society.
General Education is represented by the core of common learning from which all
other studies emanate. It provides the essential basic knowledge needed by man for a
balanced life. It includes languages, sciences, mathematics, humanities, arts, etc. It forms
the broad base of knowledge stressing the commonality of all academic courses. It
provides a foundation for advancement into a major field of specialization and it seeks to
develop critical thinking, effective communication, sound judgment, and formation of
values.
2. Specialized Education. It is that aspect of the curriculum designed for the major field or
professional program of studies.
At the high school level, the student who aspires to become a scientist will
ordinarily be advised to take a concentration of course work in the sciences and
mathematics, including advanced placement courses in these fields. The student who opts
for vocational studies in the high school may enroll in such program as: 1) agriculture
education; 2) distributive education (distribution and marketing); 3) health occupations
education; 4) home economics education; 5) office occupations education; 6) trade and
industrial education; and 7) pretechnical education (electronics, computer programming,
machine tools).
The student may proceed to enter the world of work in one of these areas after
graduation from high school, or may go to college to prepare for a career in agriculture,
home economics, nursing, machine-tool design, and so on.
3. Exploratory Education. This function provides knowledge beyond those of general
specialized education. This comes in the form of electives, cognates, minor, or allied
subjects.
At the elementary level, the exploratory function is met through a range of
activities and projects extending from within the common core of studies. For example, a
social studies unit on occupations will lead some children into the reading of different
source materials on given occupations, including simple biographical material; others
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may be engaged in surveying the different occupations in the community; and some may
be working on a class mural depicting the different occupations in society.
At the high school or college, a student may elect courses in science with the
intention of deciding whether to pursue a career in science. The exploratory experience
may impel the students towards a scientific career or away from such a career.
4. Enrichment Education. This part of the curriculum is intended to supplement and
deepen one's educative experience beyond those connected with general education,
specialized education, and exploratory education. As in the case of exploratory education,
the enrichment function may be met in the secondary school and college through
controlled or required electives or through free electives.
At the elementary level, the enrichment function is typically provided not through
course options, but through activities growing out of the common learning. Thus, the
children who are working on a class mural depicting the various occupations in society,
or the major historical epochs as part of a unit in the social studies are gaining enrichment
experiences in the visual arts.
In the secondary school, students who have completed the core courses in English
language arts, for example, may be required to elect a course in literature to enrich their
learning experiences beyond the required core studies in English.
5. Special-interest Education. This function of the curriculum in the secondary and college
is typically met through free electives.
At the secondary school and college levels, special interest education is provided
not only through formal course work but also through organized student activities such as
clubs, publications, community services, and so on. Many student organizations in high
school and college are oriented toward career goals as well as toward special interests.
The elementary pupils may have a special interest in photography or crafts and
may be involved in contributing his or her talents to the class work in social studies and
science. Or they may have developed a special interest in writing poetry as the result of
the study of poetry in language arts or one may have developed a special interest in trains
as a results of the social studies unit on transportation.
Obviously, special-interest and enrichment education are not necessarily sharply
demarcated, except that the former is more highly focused and concentrated. (Tanner and
Tanner, 1987).
Elements in Curriculum Development (Palma, 1992)
Tyler introduced the concept of structural cycle whereby evaluation can lead to a
reconsideration of purpose. Such cycle reduces the somewhat cumbersome process of planning
and makes it possible to treat curriculum making in a systematic manner.
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Viewed from this perspective, the school curriculum has three fundamental elements:
1. Purpose. This indicates the goals and directions the school should take;
2. Means. This suggests the learning experiences and resources that are to be selected,
organized, and implemented in pursuit of the purpose; and
3. Assessment of outcomes. This measures the degree to which purposes have been met.
The following model presents this systematic view of the curriculum:
The three subsystems - purpose, means, and assessment - are enclosed in a circle
suggesting that they constitute the totality of the curriculum. The circle is also indicative of the
continuous process of curriculum development.
Curriculum is far from being static. It is never a "finished curriculum." It is always
"tentative" and is meant to undergo a process of development to bring it to ever higher levels of
effectiveness.
The concurrent process of planning, implementing, evaluating, and revising the curriculum goes
on in a never-ending cycle always taking into consideration the constantly shifting needs of the
learners, the emerging thrusts of the school and its sponsors, the changing expectation of the
larger society, and the exigencies of the times.
The two-way arrows indicate the dynamic interaction and relationships that should exist
among the subsystems if the system is to function well. The counter-clockwise arrowheads in the
outer circle indicate the normal sequence in the process of curriculum planning and development.
Logically, the first step should be the determination of purpose and objectives. However,
in curriculum development, it is possible that one can start with any step. One might even begin
with the assessment or evaluation phase. Using the result of this evaluation or assessment, we
can examine and make adjustments in the purpose and the means of attaining this purpose.
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Finally, the all-important process of curriculum development has only one function, the
formation of the "Ideal Graduate." This becomes the ultimate measure of the success or failure of
the total school enterprise. It should be pointed out, however, that the conception of the "Ideal
Graduate" will vary since it depends on the school's clientele, ecology, and thrusts (Palma,
1992).
Areas of Concern in Curriculum Planning

According to Wiles and Bondi (1989), the various areas of concern and influence in
curriculum planning are known as "domains." At least five major domains currently affect
curriculum planning and decision-making. These include philosophy and goal development,
instructional systems, materials development, management of instruction, and teacher training.
Figure 7 on the next page shows the illustration of the five major domains.
PhilosophyGoals
Materials
Development
Instructional
system
Concerns
Management of
Instructions
Teaching
training
Figure 7: Curriculum Domains

Curriculum development is a comprehensive process that:
a)
b)
c)
d)
facilitates an analysis of purpose;

designs a program;
implements a series of related experiences; and
aids in the evaluation of this process.
Philosophy is the clarification of beliefs about the purpose and goals of education which
is essential to curriculum development. Without direction, school programs meander, become
targets for social pressure, or operate in a state of programmatic contradiction. The development
of a philosophy of education is a prerequisite to assuming a leadership function in school
program development.
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Educational goals are statements of the outcomes of education. The scope of the entire
educational program of a school can be found in the goals of that school. Goals are the, basic
elements in educational planning. The reflection of societal needs in educational goals usually
results in statement describing categories of human behavior. Goals relating to "maintaining
health" and "carrying out the activities of a citizen in a democratic society" are examples of
societal needs.
Instructional considerations in curriculum development require planners to move beyond
a theoretical framework to the implementation of such plans at the classroom level.
Instructional considerations at the classroom level include teachers making daily lesson
plans, sequencing of activities, grading, and so on. Each of these small decisions determines
what kind of learning will occur.
In the past, most curriculum experiences were grouped as "curricular" or "extracurricular." The broadening of the definition of the curriculum today has diminished somewhat
the distinction between curricular and extra-curricular experiences. Within a school program all
experiences can be classified under the following headings:
a) The personal development of the individual;
b) Skills for continued learning; and
c) Education for social competence.
The above classification can serve as the basis for planning a school program and
provides direction for instruction at the classroom level. Attention can be given to each of the
three phases of the school program while still recognizing that the three phases are related.
Curriculum Components
According to M. J. Eash (1991), the curricula consist of five widely agreed upon
dimensions or components: a) a framework of assumptions about the learner and society; b) aims
'and objectives; c) content or subject matter with its selection; scope, and sequence; d) modes of
transaction, for example, methodology and learning environments; and e) evaluation.
The components are interdependent in a manner analogous to the systems. Any alteration
in one component affects the structure and functioning of the others. They must all be well
coordinated for the system to grow and develop, yet, they may be separated for purposes of
description, study, and research. When separated for study, curriculum components also serve a
productive analytic function.
The five curriculum components are given below:
1. The Individual and the Society as a Framework. All curriculum organizations begin
with assumptions concerning the learner and the society in which he lives. A first guiding
construct among curriculum planners is the determination of the learner's ability, needs,
interest, motivation, and potential for learning certain cultural content. The learner's
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ability to assimilate and shape experience is the focus of the major studies. What the
learner can assimilate, under what condition, and with what results are among the telling
questions that have historically guided these investigations. Society, its orientation to
nurturing or using the individual, is the second guiding construct in selecting the options
within curriculum components. How the schools select individuals for various curricula,
such as, vocational, liberal arts, sciences, reflects an orientation to the society in which
the individual will be a functioning member. The purpose of the society, its need for
trained personnel, and the preeminence given to society's needs over the individual
purposes of the learner are telling areas for curriculum makers.
2. Aims and Objectives. Aims and objectives map out the arena for a teacher's directed
effort. There is no standardization among statements of aims and objectives; thus, in their
various forms they reflect philosophical assumptions and positions on the pre-eminence
of the learner or society and how these are to be played out in the curriculum.
Aims and objectives evolve and change as cultures and their participants change.
Curricula lag in reflecting these changes - a common problem worldwide is how to
maintain currency in the curriculum (Tanner, 1988).
3. Form of Subject Matter. Subject matter is selected, organized, cultural content which is
packaged for use by teachers and learners. Student experiences are largely shaped from
cultural content, derived from the major areas of human learning, and organized along
subject matter discipline lines for purposes of formal curriculum implementation. The
form of subject matter and its packaging comes in many shapes but the textbook has been
the standard work for use by teachers and students in the study of subject matter in the
curriculum. However, electronics promises to add new dimensions through computers
and word processors which increase the range of subject matter and the power of
manipulation by the teacher and learner for combinatory and recombinatory forms of
learning of the subject matter (Brandt, 1988).
Subject matter may be selected on the basis of the general education of all
students or the specialized development of a selected group of students. The curriculum
planners exercise selection in the choice of subject matter and develops a scope, range,
and the sequence or order in which the subject matter is to be studied (Talmage,
1985).These selections are translated through textbooks, curriculum guides, syllabi,
electronic data banks, and other directives to teachers and learners.
4. Modes of Transactions. As a curriculum component, modes of transactions have been
provisioned as recommended teacher methodology to inculcate subject matter. Modes of
transactions also figure heavily in syllabi as authorities attempt to guide teacher behavior
and influence learner outcomes chiefly for national purposes. They are also viewed as
major determinants in learner outcomes especially as they affect attitudes of students as
well as content mastery. Influences on modes of transaction have swung between teachercentric and pupil-centric emphases, but current developments in electronic presentation
of subject matter and replacement of the standard textbook have induced changes in the
role of the teacher as a mediator of subject matter and repository of a bank of
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methodologies for transmitting the required learning as set forth in the aims and
objectives and presented in the subject matter.
Modes of transactions may also be further classified as direct and indirect. These
classifications stem from the role of the teacher and the role of the learner in the
transaction of learning and their respective degrees of choice in determining the modes of
learning (Joyce and Weil, 1980).
5. Evaluation. Evaluation as a curriculum component may be provisioned in several
dimensions. As an integral element to a curriculum, evaluation may give emphasis to
providing the individual with information on performance to guide the learner to the next
steps in the sequence of the subject matter.
Another form of provisioning evaluation is to obtain information on students'
learning that can be directed to screening and selecting students or providing data on how
well schools are serving national policy. (Walker, 1976).
Evaluation can be directed toward providing information directly to the learner
for guidance, directly to the teacher for orientation of the next instruction activities, and
directly to external agencies for their assessment of schools' functioning in the light of
national purpose.
Evaluation as a way of measuring educational systems' contributions to national
welfare becomes more important as industrial and military strength hinge ever more on
the human resources capital available to these efforts.
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Chapter V
TIME-TESTED METHODS
Objectives
1. Enumerate and explain the time-tested methods of teaching
2. Demonstrate each method of teaching
Required Activities
1. Lecture 2.
2. Demonstration on the different time-tested methods
3. Examinations
Introduction
Lardizabal, et al. (1991) state that the concept of method is probably as old as education
itself. Methods go as far back as antiquity. These include the Socratic method, Commenius
nature teaching, Pestalozzi's object teaching, the Herbartian steps, and others. Only those
methods that have stood the test of time and are still used today will be discussed in this chapter.
THE TIME-TESTED METHODS
A. The Inductive Method
Induction is simply defined as the process of arriving at ' a given generalization. It starts
from the known to the unknown, from the specific to the general, from the particular to the
universal, from simple to complex, and from the concrete to the abstract.
Steps of the Inductive Method
a) Preparation
b) Presentation
c) Comparison and Abstraction
d) Generalization
e) Application
To illustrate the steps of the inductive method, a specific lesson in social studies has been
used:
1. Preparation. Let us close our eyes and make a mental excursion to each of the following
places: Batanes, Baguio City, 110cos region, and Central Plain of Luzon. As I describe
each place, imagine that you are right there in the place. Are you now ready to travel with
me?
(Note: The teacher describes the place and later the class identifies it. Ex., as we go up the
winding roads, it becomes cooler and more pine trees are seen.
Where are we now?)
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2. Presentation. We have a map of the Philippines, can you locate each of these places on
it?
The bulletin board shows us different crops. Can you match these crops with the places?
(Note: The expected results of the activity is the construction of a chart similar to this.)
Place
Batanes
Baguio City
Ilocos region
Central Plain of Luzon
Crops
root crops like camote
fresh
fruits,
flowers,
vegetables
tobacco
rice
and
3. Comparison and Abstraction. Analytical questions are raised at this point like "Can the
110cos region raise as much fresh fruits, flowers, and vegetables as Baguio City? Why
not? Why does tobacco not grow well in Baguio City? Why do people in Batanes prefer
root crops and not other crops like rice, tobacco, and even flowers and vegetable?"
4. Generalization. Why do these places grow different crops? The expected answer: They
differ in prevailing weather conditions. It should be made clear to students that the
Philippines has only one climate - tropical climate - but within that climate are found
different weather types. It is this difference in weather types that explains the various
prevailing weather conditions from one place to another. While Batanes has stormy
weather, Ilocos region has a long dry season, and the Central Plain of Luzon has long
rainy season.
5. Application. Apple growing has been tried many times in our country and so far nobody
has been successful in this undertaking. Similarly, the banana plant cannot grow in places
where the climate is very cold. Can you explain these two situations?
Is difference in weather type only manifested in difference in crops raised in certain
places? What are the other effects of such difference?
B. The Deductive Method
The deductive method begins with a generalization and subsequently all examples and
specific situations to be given are supportive of this generalization.
The deductive method is a process of starting with a generalization and arriving at a
specific statement or conclusion namely: one which is not applicable to a class of objects,
situations, or phenomena.
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We use a generalization or rule or principle to arrive at a specific statement. In a broad

sense, when the pupil thinks in a logical sequence and arrives at a specific item, he is deducting.
One well-known example of a deductive scheme of a formal argument is syllogism. It
usually consists of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion.
Steps of the Deductive Method
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Introduction
Statement of a generality
Explanation of a general idea
Illustration
Evaluation
To illustrate the steps of the deductive method, the lesson in English found below has
been prepared:
1. Introduction. How many of you have a best friend who lives far from your place, let us
say abroad? I am sure the most common way of communicating with your friend is
through letter-writing.
2. Statement of a generality. In writing a friendly letter, the parts are the heading, the
salutation, the body of the letter, the complimentary close, and the signature.
3. Explanations of the general idea. The heading of a letter contains the address of the
letter sender and the date the letter was made.
The salutation is the greeting found at the start of the letter.
The body of the letter is the most important part of the letter because it contains the
message of the sender to the person to whom the letter is addressed.
The complimentary close is a word or a group of words used to end the letter. .
The signature is the name of the person who writes the letter.
4. Illustration. On the board is written a sample friendly letter. See how each of the five
parts is properly written.
Read its part and let us give our observations on how each part is correctly written.
5. Evaluation. I have prepared another friendly letter which is incorrect1y written. I want
you to rewrite this letter and to correct the errors found in it. '
Observations seem to show that students can better grasp the idea presented through the
combination of the explanation and citing examples rather than just mere explanation of the idea.
Lastly, the evaluation phase usually in the form of oral, written, and performance tests is
administered to find out how much the students have absorbed and to provide pertinent data
which could be used later to improve instruction.
Applicability of Inductive and Deductive Methods
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Almost all subject areas in all educational levels can use both methods. Whether it is the
inductive or the deductive to be. employed depends largely on the teacher's instructional
objectives.
The inductive method is best for the following purposes:
a) to make the teaching-learning process more student oriented;
b) to develop the higher levels of thinking among the learners; and
c) to treat every topic in a more in-depth manner.
The deductive method, on the other hand, is designed to facilitate the explanation of
relatively difficult and abstract topics to our students.
c. The Integrated Method
Integration is the process or practice of combining different elements and presenting them
as one unifying whole. It has been, used in several instances like combining two subjects in the
curriculum like science and health, music and physical education, social studies and character
education.
Integration can also take place within a subject as in language teaching in which literature
is usually related to grammar. In fact, the so-called integrated approach stemmed from using the
literature as the springboard or the take-off point of the grammar lesson.
To illustrate, a poem expounding in .the beauty of nature is initially taken up. Naturally, a
lot of words that describe are found in the literary pieces which are used as actual examples in
developing the concept "adjectives" during the grammar portion. In this particular lesson, the
literature topic is well chosen so the structure needed in the grammar part is contained in it. As a
result, the grammar topic becomes more meaningful since actual examples are previously
discussed.
The integrated method combines two given methods or two techniques in one given
lesson. The combination aims at making learning a total process; what is learned in one method
is further strengthened in the other method; or what one teaching method lacks is properly
compensated by the other.
Some of the teaching methods that are usually combined to form the so-called integrated
method include:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
lecture-discussion;
demonstration-lecture;
film showing-discussion;
reporting-discussion; and
inductive-deductive.
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D. The Lecture Method

The lecture method is a teaching procedure for explaining and clarifying a major idea. It
makes use of exposition which may be a narration or a description.
The main aim of the lecture method is to serve as a guide through a great mass of
information characteristic of subject areas. The use of the lecture is justified therefore under the
following conditions:
1. When the teacher can give affective information in one hour of lecture-demonstration
what may be taken up by the class in two or three hours of laboratory work to reinforce
learning;
2. When the teacher has available data that would be hard for the class to obtain.
3. When a new topic is to be introduced so as:
a) to show how the new topic fits the work;
b) to give a bird's eye view of the work to come;
c) to arouse interest in the new work; and
d) to give adequate explanation for students to begin new work.
4. When summaries are needed at the:
a) close of the day's work;
b) close of the topic;
c) end of the chapter; and
d) end of a unit.
5. At the beginning of the hours, to create proper mind set; to generate enthusiasm; or to
arouse appreciation.
6. On occasions where problems arise or questions are asked that are valuable and pertinent.
7. When visual materials such as slides, pictures, graphs, films, and specimens need
explanation.
Garcia (1989) states that the lecture method is predominantly teacher-directed, aimed at
providing needed information. It involves factual presentation and textual explanation of a
particular topic or few selected topics. It is a factual presentation since salient and pertinent
information are given out. Not only are these bits of information merely presented, but also
meanings and insights are to be derived from them. Hence, there is the textual explanation
whereby the lecturer interprets them so they could be better understood. This explanation,
therefore, expands and advances the frontier of knowledge. Without this aspect, lecture becomes
synonymous with the telling process. Lecturing goes beyond the level of telling since it makes
points clearer and clarifies some ' issues, and if successfully done, it should be able to erase
certain doubts in the minds of the learners.
Steps of the Lecture Method
1. Preparation for the lecture. This encompasses salient points like the: '
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a) cognitive framework upon which to develop the topic selected;

b) appropriate language and manner of presentation, that is, considering the kind and nature
of the students;
c) selection of helpful audio-visual aids and instructional materials;
d) planning the motivational technique (recall of interesting anecdotes and life-situations
familiar to the students);
e) anticipating certain difficulties and problems during the lecture; and
f) finding suitable solutions and alternatives to these barriers to a successful lecture.
Significantly, such preparation should include some psychological overtones like plans
on doing away with the unwanted nervousness, wearing presentable but comfortable attire,
becoming more relaxed and rested, and increasing the feeling of self-confidence.
2. Introduction to the lecture. It should be done briefly but effectively for if it were
executed poorly, it could initially kill off the enthusiasm of the students. The art of
breaking the ice in a lecture should be mastered well by the teacher.
Several techniques for an appropriate start are: making the students anticipate what they
expect to learn from the lecture itself; making them aware of the importance of the topic for a
given purpose (examination, interview, etc.); asking them what they know about the topic,
making casual remarks about the topic (prevailing weather condition, present controversy); and
establishing good rapport with the class either by praising the students or by sharing an
interesting joke or a puzzle.
3. Giving the body of the lecture. The teacher should have a given cognitive framework
upon which he relies to achieve a more logical lecture presentation.
4. Conclusion of the lecture. To wrap up the lecture, the teacher may resort to any of the
following techniques:
a) summarizing major points presented;
b) paraphrasing the key ideas shared;
c) forming generalizations; and d) giving implications.
E. Type-study Method
It is an inductive procedure except that only one case is studied. For example, if one were
to study the parts of a river system, it is not necessary to study many river systems. Just one river
would be enough, but it must be representative of other rivers and must have all the parts.
In studying the parts of a flower, one needs to study only one flower which has all the
characteristics of most flowers.
Steps of the Type-study Method
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a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
Selection of the topic

Apperception and motivation
Statement of a typical case
Study of details
Comparing details
Generalization
F. Problem Method
The problem method gives direction to a discussion and prevents wandering off from the
topic. It stimulates reflective thinking and furnishes a guide for organizing ideas. It directs
attention to the task to be done and it encourages concentration.
It may be used in two ways:
1. A whole unit of subject matter may be presented as a problem; or
2. Problem-solving may be one of the methods utilized in a unit of work.
Steps of the Problem Method
a) Recognition and statement of the problem originating in a difficult or perplexing
situation.
b) Statement of hypothesis - inspection and proposal of solution or solutions.
c) Critical evaluation of suggested solution.
d) Verification of accepted solutions.
In the classroom, the procedure is much more detailed, and the teacher has to guide the
pupils' learning. Pupils will probably not be able to recognize the problem without the teacher's
guidance. To raise the problem, the teacher must set the stage. The teacher should assist them by
directing their observation to related data and recalling past experiences that have a bearing on
the problem.
The next step is working on the problem. This involves organization of facts, principles,
and ideas pertinent to the problem, selecting a hypothesis and trying it out, gathering data
through reading, observing, etc., evaluating the solution, and forming a conclusion. The pupils
do the work while the teacher directs.
The last step is checking or verifying results and applying these if necessary. The teacher
also aids the pupils in learning how to check or verify and summarize results. Exercises or
problems must be provided by the teacher for practical application of the understanding gained.
If the teacher has stimulated a desire on the part of the class to use the knowledge gained, the
lesson is successful.
G. The Project Method
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A project is a significant, practical unit of activity of a problematic nature, planned and

carried to completion by the student in a natural manner, and involving the use of physical
materials to complete the unit of experience.
Types of Projects
1. Construction Project. The motive is to do something. Pupils have ideas that they want
to put in concrete form.
2. Employment Project. The motive is participation in an activity that is accompanied by
enjoyment or satisfaction. An example may be planning and taking part in a school
program.
3. Problem Project. The motive is to master some intellectual difficulties which come from
the learner himself. Curiosity or interest in the subject may be the dominant factor.
4. Learning Project. The inner drive is toward acquisition of a skill or some knowledge.
For example, a pupil may want to learn to swim or master certain combinations in
arithmetic.
Another classification of projects according to Risk (1965):
1. Physical or material project (making a table, digging a wall, making a school album,
planning a garden plot, or fencing the garden).
2. Learning projects are study activities on the initiative of the individual, such as a project
to speak English fluently, master Spanish conjugation, write a short story, etc.
3. Intellectual or problem projects are intellectual questions that can be solved by
induction or deduction, such as:
a) to determine whether Maria Clara would survive in modern-day society or not.
b) to determine how Spain lost her colonies.
c) to determine if Romeo is worthy of the love of Juliet.
Steps of the Project Method
1. Purposing. It is important for the teacher to consider the pupils' needs, abilities, and
interests at this step of the lesson. Goals and activities can be decided upon cooperatively
by students and teachers.
2. Planning. No matter how young the pupils are, they can always offer very good
suggestions. When activities are planned and initiated by the pupils, they perform their
parts willingly and enthusiastically.
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3. Executing. This means carrying out activities as planned and envisioned by the class.
This may take one class period, a week, a month, or the whole semester depending on the
project being undertaken.
4. Evaluating. The finished products are displayed and judged by both pupils and teacher.
Here is an excellent chance to help develop critical thinking among the pupils. They
should be trained to look for what is positive and not merely that which is negative.
H. The Laboratory Method
The laboratory method is a teaching procedure dealing with firsthand experiences
regarding materials or facts obtained from investigation or experimentation. It is
experimentation, observation, or application by individuals or small groups dealing with actual
materials. Essentially, it is the experimental method, enlarged and expounded.
Types of Laboratory Method
1. Experimental. Aims to train pupils in problem-solving with incidental acquisition of
information and motor skill. The emphasis is on discovery, original procedure, analysis,
and solution of problems.
2. Observational. The acquisition of facts is the dominant aim of the method. Facts can be
acquired through activities such as visits to museum, exhibits, and art galleries, watching
demonstration, listening to lectures, viewing films, and going on field trips.
Steps of the Laboratory Method
1. Introductory step for orientation and motivation. Includes the determination of work
to be done. Motivation by the teacher is very much needed.
2. Work period. When all the pupils may be working on the same problem or on different
problems on their own, this becomes a supervised work period. No matter what they are
working on, the students will gain experience in scientific procedure, handling raw
materials, and using tools.
3. Culminating activities. After completion or near completion of the work, the class may
get together to discuss and organize their individual findings. They may also decide on
how to present results of their individual work which may take any of the following
forms:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
explaining the nature and importance of the problem the group had worked on;
reporting data gathered on other findings;
c)presenting illustrative materials or special contributions;
special reporting and exhibition of work by those with individual projects; and
exhibiting various projects and explanations by their sponsors.
I. The Demonstration Method
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There are cases when it is better to use the demonstration method instead of the
laboratory method. The chief difference between the two is that in the laboratory method, all the
children perform the experiment and "learn by doing." In the demonstration method, the teacher
does not experiment before the class.
The demonstration method is sometimes called the imitative method (Garcia, 1989).
Learning a skill is faster and more effective when the students are shown how the job is done by
using the actual tools, machines, and materials they are expected to work with on the job.
All the steps involved in the project method are adopted in the demonstration method,
although there is an addition of one very important step.
Steps of the Demonstration Method

1. Purposing. The class decides on an activity which involves the process of demonstration.
The teacher may suggest it but he should not impose it on them, he may encourage them
to go through with it but he should not dictate it on them.
2. Planning. This phase consists of the object of the demonstration, the person or persons to
conduct it, the materials to be needed, and the date, time, and place of the activity. If an
outside resource speaker will be invited, necessary arrangements like a letter or invitation
should be made.
3. Demonstration proper. Before the demonstration is done, all the preliminaries should
have been prepared - materials, procedure, and the physical arrangement of the
classroom.
4. Executing. Students are expected to carry out or repeat the same performance shown
during the activity. During this phase, the teacher should keep a close watch of the
students' performance for they may likely need his assistance and further explanation.
5. Evaluation. This is done to assess how successful the students are in following certain
instructions, in duplicating an observed phenomenon, and in showing their creativity.
J. The Expository Method
The expository method is closely akin to the showing or telling method. It is used a great
deal in the lower grades as there is much that needs explaining. However, it is also used in the
upper grades, in the secondary school, and even in college when something difficult needs
explanation by the teacher.
Steps of the Expository Method
1. Approach. The proper mind set may be established by recalling past experiences related
to the present lesson. The points to be explained must be placed before the class.
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2. Presentation. While explaining, it might be well for the teacher to make use of the
following principles:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
relate the new experience to the previous experiences;

teacher and class should have the same viewpoint regarding what is to be explained;
exposition means not only explaining but also interpreting;
materials should be organized so as to permit thinking; and
to make the explanation clear and effective, devices may be used such as:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
analogies and stories;

illustrations;
models;
diagrams;
demonstration; and
outlines and summaries to set facts in proper relationships.
3. Application. This step will show whether the pupils understood the explanation or not. It
may be given in the form of a test, creative work, or another activity.
K. The Morrisonian Technique or Unit Method (Garcia, 1989)
Henry C. Morrison, former Superintendent of Schools in New Hampshire, is the
proponent of the Unit Method.
The unit method is the process of taking the contents of a particular subject as big blocks
and not as isolated and fragmentary bits of information. The aim is to approach topics as an
organized and integrated body, showing relevance and cognitive relationship. Commonly, the
teacher assigns every unit or every chapter as the subject of the class activity. The activity does
not last in just one sitting; it may certainly take several days before one unit or chapter is
completely taken by the class.
Steps of the Unit Method
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Exploration
Presentation
Assimilation
Organization
Recitation
1. Exploration. The teacher, through questions and tests or in discussion, discovers what
previous knowledge or experience the pupils have about the unit to eliminate repetitions
of subject matter already learned and to decide on the apperceptive basis for the new unit.
2. Presentation. The essential features of the unit are presented and important points
emphasized. The aim is to give the pupils a bird's-eye view of the entire unit, lectures,
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demonstrations, maps, pictures, stories, outlines, models, blackboard exercises, etc. can
be utilized to make presentation successful.
3. Assimilation. The child learns what has been presented by the teacher, absorbs it, and
makes it part of himself. It is really a supervised study. The assimilation period presents
an excellent opportunity for the teacher to check up on the study habits of children. It is
an opportunity to develop valuable habits of study such as outlining, use of reference
materials, getting the gist of paragraphs, etc.
4. Organization. After assimilating the unit, the class is ready for the organization step.
This should he done without books, notes, charts, etc. In this step, cooperative outlining
is usually utilized and adopted in a final form. This is an opportunity for the teacher to
train the pupils in outlining. With this help, the children gradually learn to organized their
thoughts.
5. Recitation. This step is the reverse of presentation where the teacher does most of the
activity while the class listens. Now, the class performs while the teacher and the other
pupils listen. This should be the liveliest part of the lesson because the pupils prepare for
and participate in many activities.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aquino, Gaudencio V. Principles and Methods of Effective Teaching. Manila: National Book
Store, Inc., 1988.
Garcia, Manuel Buenconsejo. Focus on Teaching. Quezon City:
Rex Printing Company, Inc., 1989.
Lardizabal, Amparo S. et al. Principles and Methods of Teaching. Quezon City: Phoenix
Publishing House, Inc., 1991.
Palma, Jesus C. Curriculum Development System. Manila:
National Book Store, Inc., 1992.
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Chapter VI
IMPROVED INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES
Objectives
1. Enumerate and explain selected improved instructional practices
2. Demonstrate each improved instructional practice
Required Activities
1. Lecture-discussion
2. Teacher-demonstration on the improved instructional practices
Introduction
The different kinds of improved instructional practices are the following: discovery
approach; conceptual approach; process approach; inquiry approach; integrative approach;
programmed instruction; modular instruction; and team teaching.
A. Discovery Approach
The discovery approach refers to an inductive method of guiding pupils to discuss and
organize ideas and processes by themselves. It means helping them use ideas already acquired as
a means of discovering new ideas.
According to Lardizabal, et al., the discovery approach is the process by which the
children under subtle direction go through the logical process of observation, comparison, and
abstraction, generalization, and application. Instead of "telling," either by the teacher or a
textbook explanation, self-discovery sets up learning situations whereby children are encouraged
to explore a process or discover rules. The primary concern is with developing a pattern of
thinking instead of merely arriving at an answer.
Definition Given by Other Authors
1. It stresses the learning of concepts, theories, principles, and content through discovery
rather than rote memorization (Anderson, 1969).
2. It is not only the act of finding out something unknown before mankind but also
includes all forms of obtaining knowledge for oneself by the use of one's own mind
(Rowe, 1973).
3. It is the act of an individual using his mental processes (cognitive abilities) to derive a
concept or principle. A discovery activity is a lesson designed to help students
discover concepts or principles for themselves. It is a matter of rearranging data
internally so no concepts are formed. It involves finding the meaning, the
organization, the structure of the ideas (Carin and Bund, 1971).
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4. It incorporates those views of teaching which place greatest emphasis on the selfdirected activity of the student. It incorporates some of the present-day concern for
creativity, child development, and the terminology of cognitive psychology (Myron
and Karplus, 1962).
5. Its main emphasis is on the teacher not telling the students the principle or
generalization or rule when they are supposed to learn (Ausubel, 1961).
6. It is a matter of rearranging or transferring evidence. It is a type of thinking. This type
of thinking occurs in such a way that the individual discovers what goes beyond the
information given to new insights and generalizations (Bruner, 1965).
7. It allows the students to become "active in the learning process." He must engage in
doing, manipulating materials, and interpreting results. As a result, he discovers
something (Hendrix, 1961).
Types of Discovery Approach
1. Guided Discovery -The teacher tries to draw out from his pupils certain bits of
information through properly organized questions and explanations leading them to the
eventual discovery of particular concepts or principles.
2. Pure Discovery - The pupils are expected to arrive at certain concepts and principles
completely by themselves.
Guidelines in the Use or the Discovery Approach
1. There should be a well-planned structured instructional strategy. The students should
understand the problem very well. Data must be arranged systematically.
2. Teacher should not answer questions, although he can give clues and hints.
3. The teacher should not expect the students to find out for themselves all the concepts,
ideas, and generalizations of his course.
B. Conceptual Approach
According to Dr. Liceria Soriano, the conceptual approach is choosing and defining the
content of a certain discipline to be taught through the use of big or pervasive ideas as against the
traditional practice of determining content by isolated topics.
The emphasis is not on the content per se, but in the big ideas that pervade the subject. It
is using the content as a means of leading the students to discover the laws and principles or
generalization that govern a particular subject or discipline.
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According to Garcia (989), the conceptual approach, like other approaches, is not a
particular teaching method with specific steps to follow. It is more of a viewpoint of how facts
and topics under a discipline should be dealt with. As such, information processing becomes
interestingly effective as the learners are guided toward organization of thoughts into
meaningful, bigger ideas.
This approach, like discovery, stresses cognitive learning: the learning of content or the
acquisition of knowledge. However, the conceptual approach requires the categorization of
content from simple to complex level while discovery is generally concerned with the conscious
effort of the learners to find out mere relationships between two given variables.
The conceptual approach involves more data collection usually through research while
the discovery approach actively involves students to undertake experimental and investigative
work.
A teacher should never tell the students the principle or rule which they are supposed to
state at the end of the lesson.
As much as possible, the teacher should help the students gather sufficient data to enable them to
form the expected generalization.
Another equally important role of the teacher using the conceptual approach is that he
should be able to master the cognitive hierarchy of his discipline. He should be able to categorize
all knowledge pertinent to his area: from facts to concepts, from concepts to generalizations;
from generalizations to principles; and all of these should be organized around conceptual
schemes which are the pervasive ideas embodying the whole discipline.
Conceptual
Scheme
Principle
Concept
Generalization
Fact
Hierarchy of Cognition
To explain the abo7e hierarchy of cognition, each level is properly defined and illustrated
on the next page.
Term
Meaning
Example/s
Fact
A simple statement of truth
Ice melts. Water freezes.
Wax liquid solidifies.
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Water vapor condenses.

Mothballs sublimate.
Concept
Synthesis or constellation of Ice, water, wax, water vapor,

and mothballs are all matter.
related facts
Melting,
freezing,
solidification, sublimation are
all physical or phase change.
Generalization
Principle
Conceptual Scheme
General statement relating two By relating matter with

physical change, the general
or more concepts
statement may likely be: "All
matters undergo physical
change."
Statement of fundamental
processes,
true
without The principle involved in the
exception within the stated physical change of matter is
limitations,
capable
of conservation.
demonstration or illustration
The main pervasive theme
underlying a major field of Understanding
the
study
environment through matter
and energy.
Notice that the flow of ideas from facts up to conceptual scheme is from simple to
complex, allowing students to organize their thoughts from bits of information to larger cognitive
level.
Students should be given lots of opportunities to read, listen, and write to expose them to
as many situations as possible and lead them to categorize information.
C. Process Approach
The process approach may be defined as teaching in which knowledge is used as a means
to develop students' learning skills. Students are actively engaged in the activities so the
competencies needed in the subject could eventually be acquired by them. For instance, if they
are to learn cooking, they should actually cook rather than devote a great deal of their time on the
theoretical aspects of cooking.
The essence of the process approach lies on three major points:
1. Emphasis on process implies a corresponding deemphasis on the subject content (the
concern is how to learn and not what to learn);
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2. It centers upon the idea that what is taught to children should be functional and not
theoretical (if you learn math, do what mathematicians do, if you learn science, do
what scientists do, and if you learn music, do what musicians do); and
3. It introduces the consideration of human intellectual development.
The process approach originated from and used to be a monopoly of science instruction.
But today, it is identified primarily with skill-oriented subjects like practical arts, home
economics, and even with knowledge-laden subjects like social studies.
Learning Skill in Selected Subjects
I. Social Studies
A. Thinking Skills. Observing, describing, developing concepts, differentiating, defining,
hypothesizing, comparing and contrasting, generalizing, predicting, explaining, and
offering alternatives.
B. Academic Skills. Reading, viewing, listening, outlining, note-taking, caption-writing,
making charts, reading and interpreting maps, diagramming, tabulating, constructing
timeliness, and asking relevant questions.
1. Social Skills. Planning with others, participating in research projects, participating
productively in group discussion, responding courteously to the questions of others,
leading group discussion, acting responsibly, and helping others.
II. Science
A. Basic Skills. Observing, classifying, using numbers, measuring, using space-time
relationship, communicating, predicting, and inferring.
B. lntegrated Skills. Defining operationally, formulating hypotheses, interpreting data,
controlling variables, and experimenting.
III. Language (English and Filipino)
A. Speaking. Proper pronunciation and enunciation, good diction, voice modulation, quality,
pitch, and timbre, etc.
B. Listening. Concentrating, deciphering ideas, analyzing and interpreting, getting the main
thoughts, etc.
C. Reading. Speed and comprehension, reading between lines, sequencing, comparing and
contrasting, drawing out the main idea or the moral lesson, interpreting a selection,
generalizing, etc.
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D. Writing. Jotting down important notes, outlining, summarizing, mastering the mechanics
of writing like spelling, use of punctuation marks, and use of small and capital letters,
writing a composition following qualities like good grammar, simplicity, cohesiveness,
etc.
IV. Mathematics
A. Basic Skills. Placing numbers in columns, mastering the four fundamental processes,
getting the percentage, finding the least common denominator, changing fractions to
decimals and vice-versa.
B. Complex Skills. Getting the square root, computing mean, median, and standard
deviation, solving one step problem and two or three-step problems, etc.
V. Physical Education
A. Gymnastics. Developing coordination and vigor, practicing alertness, quickness to
respond, poise, and grace, exercising muscular strength, maintaining normal
functioning of the organic system of the body, etc.
B. Organized Games and Relay Skills. Cultivating a general "ball sense" for application
in team games, practicing throwing, catching, bouncing, and aiming the ball,
participating in lead-up activities that will increase interest and ability to play the
games, etc.
C. Rhythmic Skills. Mastering some fundamental dance steps, demonstrating skills in
various rhythmic skills, etc.
D. Body Mechanics. Acquiring a good body posture in different positions (sitting,
walking, standing, running, kneeling, lying, etc.)
E. Locomotor Skills. Demonstrating the ability to move from one place to another with
the greatest degree of safety and speed, exercising to develop body coordination,
agility, and timing, etc.
D. Inquiry Approach
The inquiry approach is the search for truth, information, or knowledge. It pertains to
research and investigation and to seeking for information by asking questions (Kilnkmann,
1970).
The inquiry approach is also a search for the solution to a problem through an exploration
and evaluation of alternatives (Suchman, 1964). '
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The inquiry approach views a given discipline more as an attitude than as a body of
knowledge or as a method. Emphasizing the affective aspects of learning, it uses both the content
and processes as means toward the development of the qualities of the mind as curiosity,
skepticism, intellectual honesty, and others. Hence, the primary aim is the development of a
desirable attitude including proper appreciation and valuing.
The inquiry approach can either be inductive or deductive. Deductive, if the teacher in the
beginning provides the students with background information which will serve as the subject of
the inquiry. It can also be done soon after the students have learned through discovery. The
generalization that they have just formed could be subjected to a closer scrutiny during the
inquiry session so it will lead them toward a more in depth understanding of the generalization.
On the other hand, the inquiry session becomes inductive when through a set of questions
presented, the students are able to come up with certain ideas of their own which are open for
further investigation.
E. Unified Approach
The unified approach is defined as means of treating relationships that exist among the
significant components making up a given body of knowledge. It is a thorough process of
weaving and integrating topics into a general framework or a conceptual scheme. This simply
means that the teacher does not treat each concept as "an isolated island by itself," but rather he
relates the previously learned concept with the new concept, until finally the students are able to
see the interrelationships among the various concepts that serve as the "mainstays" or as the
"cognitive pillars" of an academic subject. Its primary aim is to enhance the students' learning by
making them view things in their entirety or totality.
The Features of the Unified Approach
1. It is highly cognitive (subject content is viewed as a system of interrelated and
interdependent elements).
2. It leads students toward insightful and meaningful learning (learning in this approach
requires students to go through different mental processes like comparison, linking
up, ascertaining the cause-and-effect relationships, determining prerequisites,
predicting results, and even synthesis).
3. It is holistic in treatment (it is based on the premise that parts are nothing unless they
are viewed as one whole).
4. It requires the teacher to present his subject matter in an entirely different manner.
Guidelines in the Use of the Unified Approach
1. Restructure the presentation of the subject matter to show the needed
interrelationships. Determine the major concepts in the subject matter then determine
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their relationships and plan relevant situations and examples to be cited in order to
make certain relationships clear and understandable to the students.
2. Recall the previous lesson and link it up with the present one. Students should be led
to see that the subject taught to him is an integral element of the whole.
3. Include relevant points only. Avoid presenting ideas that would not help establish the
interrelationship desired. If irrelevant ideas are presented, they should be properly
labeled.
4. Start with the most fundamental concepts in presenting the relationships. In every
subject, there is a fundamental unifying concept which could be used as the starting
point which will naturally bring students to other related concepts. For instance, in
biology, the topic "living things" as well as in sociology, the topic "society" are some
examples of these concepts.
The words placed inside the boxes in the diagram are some major concepts. Each concept is
related to another concept as shown by the use of the line and arrow although the more
substantial link is provided by each sentence found in the diagram.
An Illustration of the Unified Approach

The lesson sequence involving all the concepts included in the diagram goes like this:
Day 1 - Discussion of what society is, its nature and its types.
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Day 2 - Discussion of all the salient points about culture stressing the relationship
between society and culture
Day 3 - Relate society with social institutions, discussion of the different types of social
institutions, and enumeration of the functions of each type.
Day 4 - Introduce the concept of "socialization" and integrate it with either previously
learned concepts like "society," "social institution," and "culture."
Day 5 - Stress the kind of socialization that depends on the culture, and more specifically,
on one's social status as properly defined by culture.
It should be understood that the sequence goes beyond the discussion of social status and
social role to include other sociological concepts not included in the diagram. At the end of the
sequence, it is expected that the class is able to form one big cognitive structure embracing all
the concepts of the subject together with their interrelationships. Worthy of mention, too, is the
fact that the planned five recitation days devoted to the discussion of the selected concepts may
not be followed; the recitation days may extend beyond five days if the class is not fast enough.
F. Programmed Instruction
Programmed instruction is an instruction in which the self-pacing method has a rightful
place. Morris Bigge (1982) defined it as a system of teaching and learning within which the
subject matter is broken down into small, discrete steps and carefully organized into a logical
sequence in which it can be learned readily by the students. Barry Harley (1973) likewise pointed
out that it is an auto-instructional approach to teaching which is changing the role of the
classroom teacher.
He specifically described the method as follows:
1. Programming itself is the writing of sequential steps structured so as to bring
about a learning experience. Each programmed lesson consists of steps called
frames. Each frame is associated with content in previous frames. Since the correct
response accompanies each frame, the student is provided with reinforcement when
he answers correctly by the reward of knowing he is right. By the same token, the
fixation of incorrect responses is prevented and remedial reinforcement provided. By
this spiral design, the written sequence leads the student progressively to more
difficult levels of learning in answering question in each frame, he can make two
forms of responses: the linear and the branching. The first form uses structured
responses which require the student to think of or recall the response; the second is
multiple choice questions requiring only recognition of the correct response.
2. Programmed materials are self-instructional. Students direct their learning activity
by themselves with the least interference from their teacher. They actively interact
with the programmed materials, follow the instructions found in them, answer readymade questions, and check own answer as against the correct answer which is given
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either on the same page or on another designated page. Once in a while, the teacher is
consulted in case they do not understand something found in the materials.
3. This type of instruction is highly individualized. Fast, bright students are expected
to cover much more frames than slow, dull ones. The latter may probably need
constant teacher's assistance.
4. It requires the so-called criterion-referenced type of evaluation and not the
norm-referenced type. This mode of instruction has set certain minimum
requirements that even the slowest and dullest students are capable of meeting.
Hence, they are compared to their own selves and not to their classmates which is the
essence of the second type of evaluation.
5. It requires the teacher to play three distinct rules in today's school- director,
analyst, and tutor. The first role requires him to direct the learning experiences of
the students as a specialist in education; the second one has him continually analyzing
and evaluating the progress of students on the basis of results from their daily work
and frequent testing; and the third role finds him monitoring and personally tutoring
students during their study.
Another vital role of the teacher here is his being a consultant. He must possess a more
comprehensive, organized, and ready grasp of his subjects than is ordinarily possessed by other
teachers in a traditional classroom role. This, in part, is because he is called upon to explain
many different parts of the programme to students in any one given class session.
6. It is not a complete instruction by itself. Discussion may occur between the instructor
and one student, between students themselves, or between the instructor and a group
of students. This discussion makes it possible to clarify more difficult and subtle parts
of the programme at the time when the clarification is most needed.
7. Programmed instruction requires a lot of materials. Sets of well-prepared instructional
materials like a programmed textbook, use of audio and video tapes, live television
films, and selected reference reading from the school library should be at the disposal
of the teacher.
Video tapes are used for lecture demonstration on major topics of the course. Audio tapes
should be available in the listening laboratory for students whenever they have free time, while
video tapes should be scheduled for viewing on the closed circuit television of the school at
times other than the regular class sessions. The use of tapes, therefore, is a natural supplement to
programmed instruction. Owing to the need for such educational technology, the teacher must
discharge some nontraditional roles in teaching. That is, he has to write and produce the tapes, to
preview and to select suitable films, and to review and to recommend up to-date resource
materials. Perhaps this last feature of the programmed instruction makes it beyond the reach of
an ordinary school in the country today. Aside from the special teacher's expertise needed here,
he must procure updated instructional materials. Only the exclusive private schools may be able
to realize these desirable modes of instruction.
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G. Modular Instruction
Modules as instructional materials have concretized pretty well the principle of individual
differences, allowing each student to proceed at his own pace. More intellectually superior
students are separated to finish more modules; less bright ones are only capable of taking up
fewer modules. While the use of modules has been widely accepted as a desirable pedagogical
practice, its actual utilization in classroom instruction leaves much to be desired.
Dr. Constantino M. Torralba, the leading proponent of learning modules in the country,
adopted two definitions of module, the first given by Darrel Murray and the second by the
Workshop in the Application of Educational Technology sponsored by DECS-UNESCO held in
Tagaytay City. The first definition goes like this: "A module is a self-contained and independent
unit of instruction with a primary focus on a few well-defined objectives. The substance of a
module consists of materials and instructions needed to accomplish these objectives." The
second definition is stated as: "A module is a set of learning opportunities systematically
organized around a well-defined topic, which contains the elements of instructions - specific
objectives, teaching-learning activities, and evaluation using criterion-referenced measure."
Likewise, Good (1973) described its use in modernizing the teaching process by using a set of
modules suited to each student who is given a chance to advance at his own best rate, bypassing
unnecessary instruction and satisfying his particular needs, and he will thus, as an individual
case, be able to earn his degree in a considerably shorter time.
Components of a Module
According to its proponents, a module to be complete must contain the following
components:
1. Title. It should be briefly, comprehensively, and interestingly stated.
2. Target population. This specifies the level and the kind of students to which the
module is directed.
3. Overview. It gives the students a bird's-eye view of the topic being covered by the
module. Such background is needed to prepare their mental setups and at the same
time to motivate them.
4. Objectives. The students should know exactly what is expected of them in going
through the module in terms of learning objectives. To make these objectives clear
and comprehensible to them, they should be formulated in terms of students' specific
and measurable performance.
5. Instructions to the learners. Since the module is self contained, students are
expected to carry out the suggested activities, to answer specific questions, to
accomplish sheet assignment, and other related activities by themselves. To enable
them to do so, they are to be given instructions which should be worded following
qualities like clarity, brevity, simplicity, and specificity.
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6. Entry behavior and prerequisite skills. The beauty of the module as a learning
material is, it specifies what entry behavior and prerequisite skills are needed to
enable the learner to use it successfully. It does provide him a preliminary assessment
whether the module is within his capability or not. If he feels he does not have the
needed behavior and skills, he may skip the module and instead concentrate on the
development of such requirements before he does try it.
7. Pre-test. One important component of a module is the pre-test which is purposely
given to determine how much the learner already knows about the topic. If the results
show that he has considerably mastered it, he may be given the next module.
8. Pre-test feedback and evaluation. To determine whether his answer to every item in
the pretest is correct or not, a key to correction must be provided within the module.
Such key to correction refers to the so-called pretest feedback. On the other hand,
once the total number of correct answers is counted, it must be given an equivalent
grade to find out whether the learner passes or fails the test given. Such equivalent
grade is contained in the pre-test evaluation.
9. Learning activities. This is the heart of the module, specifying the different activities
that the student must undertake in order to achieve the specific learning objectives.
Such activities include the various lessons, study sheet assignments, tests, and even
suggested projects.
10. Post-test. After the student had done all the learning activities suggested in the
module, he has to take a post-test aimed at finding how far he has learned from it. In
the' absence of other equally well-prepared post-test, the pretest used earlier may be
given as a post-test. An improvement of the test score by the student is most likely to
occur.
11. Post-test feedback and evaluation. The post-test feedback, just like the pre-test
feedback, serves as the key to correction while the post-test evaluation like the pretest evaluation provides the grade equivalents of the different scores obtained by the
students.
12. Teacher's manual or guide. Every instructional material should be effectively used
which means that the module can greatly benefit students if they are properly and
competently guided by their teacher in going through it. Therefore, he needs a manual
which will provide him with the necessary pointers, helpful alternatives, and even
necessary background to strengthen his mastery of the topic. Such manual or guide
can clarify things, provide cautions in the use of module, call the attention of the
teacher to emphasize salient points, and suggest enrichment activities in order to
maximize students' learning.
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H. Team Teaching
According to Lardizabal, et at., team teaching is an approach that involves two or more
teachers who work cooperatively with the same group of students for some period of time.
Hence, many teachers and school administrators claim that teaching is nothing new. As a matter
of fact, they claim they have .been doing it for years. Teachers have been allowed to exchange
classes or to exchange teaching tasks; they have combined their classes with those of others in
specific subjects such as music, dramatic performances, athletics, and allied activities; the older
teachers in a school voluntarily assist a new teacher or the latter requests assistance from the
other.
At best, three or more teachers should be involved in planning actual work with children
and in evaluation. All team members should participate in the formulation of objectives for the
total program, in the planning of daily activities, in teaching functions, and in periodic evaluation
of the entire program.
It is a novel way of organizing the teaching staff, curriculum, and space. Instead of
putting say 12 teachers in charge of from 30 to 40 students, the teachers can be regrouped into
three teams. Each team pools its talents and resources together to plan the curriculum, the
lessons, and even evaluation procedures. Each team takes responsibility for 150 to 200 students.
Each teacher teaches the subject in which he has specialized, thus giving the students the best
possible instruction in all areas. No fixed pattern for teams has yet been evolved.
The discussion, planning, and blending of ideas can surely vitalize the instructional
program and give the curriculum increased breadth and depth. There is team teaching in the
school if the teachers are formally organized as a team which is duly recognized by the school
system. Each of these teachers has his own definite responsibilities and area of specialization.
Rationale for Adopting Team Teaching
1. It allows the more competent teachers to assume leadership in the team. Teachers
are encouraged and stimulated to specialize in those aspects of a course for which
they are best qualified.
2. Teachers are stimulated to do better teaching through close association with other
members of the team, through discussion, and working out problems with their
colleagues.
3. Students benefit from exposure to a variety of points of view and teacher
personalities.
4. Teaching techniques that require more elaborate preparation and administration
like films and transparencies can be utilized better because more time is given to
the teachers in advance for preparation and planning.
5. The teacher is freed from routine tasks, especially when non-professional
assistants are employed to take care of roll call, correction of papers, grading, etc.
The teacher's time can be devoted to more productive pursuits like curriculum
revision or planning for the day's lesson.
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6. Team teaching is applicable to every discipline. It is an excellent set-up for

interdisciplinary combination.
7. It is suitable to almost any kind of situation, whatever the school level, size of
school, subject area, student ability, and type of teacher. Patterns and procedures
of team teaching can be made successful at every school level elementary,
secondary, collegiate, and graduate.
Several Limitations of Team Teaching
1. Time. Planning, recording, and evaluating need time and teachers have to put in extra
time for projects.
2. Space and Facilities. The program needs a lecture room, overhead projectors, sound
system, larger space for projects.
3. The young and inexperienced teacher may be given enough time to learn from his
mistakes, to tryout his own ideas.
Exponents of the approach however, believe that such difficulties can be overcome. The
important part is to get the staff to cooperate. Mature adults can organize and work together as a
team. Team teaching relieved the teacher of some teaching chores and gives him added
responsibility and prestige. It is believed that when teachers work as a group, when their
professional talents are utilized to the fullest extent toward the achievement of specific goals, the
accomplishment of the group will be greater than the sum total of the individual talents of the
teachers working with their own pupils in their self-contained classrooms in almost complete
isolation from the rest of the teachers and pupils of the entire school.
Glossary of Teaching Methodologies
A.
Whole Group Instruction is the most traditional and common form of classroom
organization (Ornstein, 1992). Teachers generally gear their teaching to the
"mythical" average students 'on the assumption that this level of presentation will
meet" the needs of the greatest number of students.
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Behavior Modeling
Acting out a particular behavior the right way.
Case Study
A problematic situation written or described in

narrative form ranging from a paragraph to
several paragraphs.
Cross-impact Analysis
With the occurrence of one or more separate

situations, the learners estimate possible
linkages or causal relationship between or
among these events and come up with action
plan to deal with likely events.
Delphi Procedure
A method for obtaining the consensus of

opinion of a group of experts through
questionnaires with controlled opinion
feedback.
Demonstration
Showing the learner how to perform a

task/activity or how to operate an equipment.
Devil's Advocate
A method of dealing with a complex problem

or conflicting situation in the context of
opposition. Said conflicting views may stem
from different goals, perspectives, and role
requirement. The "devil" serves as a criticattacking idea presented and defended by
learners.
Exercises
Drill, boardwork, writing exercises that require

learner's application of the acquired knowledge
and skills.
Force Field Analysis
Incident Process
A process of assessing a felt need or a

performance problem by identifying the
strengths and weaknesses of an organization,
including outside influence with the aim of
effecting change through an action plan.
A short (one-to-two sentence) description of a
problematic situation.
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Lateral Thinking
The use of techniques in developing new

attitudes and ideas in looking at problems or
issues.
Lecture
A lengthy talk delivered to trainees primarily

designed to inform or impart knowledge.
Mastery Instruction
It is a desired educational goal for all grade

levels and subjects. The teacher must adapt the
instruction to the student, rather than the
student adapting to the instruction. The teacher
must closely monitor each student's work,
provide a variety of instructional materials and
activities, determine what skills and tasks each
student has mastered, and provide immediate
feedback.
Microsimulations
Short informal practice sessions . whereby

learners perform a new task/activity under
artificial conditions to help them develop
necessary knowledge and skills required by the
new job.
Morphological Analysis
A forced-relationship approach '. that divides a

problem into its major dimensions to develop a
matrix of solutions and effects to help the
learners generate new ideas to deal with future
problems before they occur.
Role Play
A dramatic enactment between two or more

people intended to represent a situation.
Scenario Analysis
Building of hypothetical sequence of events

(stories); answers the questions "If, then, etc."
to deter mine the future effects of a problem,
issue, or trend.
Simulations & Games
Similar to a lengthy role play involving several

participants intended to represent a work, a
problem situation, or a real-life situation.
Team World-Webbing/ Mindmapping
Students write simultaneously on a paper

drawing to bridge the main concepts with their
components, supporting elements in order to
show multiple relations among ideas, or to
differentiate concepts presented.
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Think- Pair-Share
Each student thinks about a topic provided by

the teacher, they pair up with another student
to discuss it until they generate a concept, a
conclusion
through
inductive-deductive
reasoning, and an application of the concept
developed. In the end, each pair shares their
thoughts with the entire class.
Trips
Take learners to see something for themselves

like visits to museums, historical spots,
congress. etc.
B.
Small-Group Instruction - According to Ornstein (1992), dividing students into small

groups seems to provide an opportunity for students to become more actively engaged in
learning and for teachers to monitor student progress better. Between five to eight students
seem to be an optimal number to ensure successful small group activity.
Ability Grouping
Grouping learners according to their ability and

mental preparedness, thus, reducing the
problems of heterogeneity in the classroom.
Brainstorming
The process of getting as many ideas as there

are learners in a span of time. Allowing free
expression of ideas without prejudice or
criticism.
Brainwriting
Writing down of ideas in slips of paper by a

group of about six trainees regarding several
photographs or drawings related to a problem.
Buzz Group
A small group (five or six) assembled to work

on common problems or issues and work out a
solution and report such to a larger group.
Cooperative Learning
Students divide the work among themselves by

helping one another, praise, criticize one
another's effort and contributions, and receive a
group performance score.
Group Debate
A method by which learners are divided into

two groups or panels to examine an issue from
different view points, after which synthesis,
consensus or solution, and action plan are
arrived at.
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Interviewing Technique
Students are divided into pairs to share some

personal information (such as hypothesis,
reactions to a literary piece, conclusions from a
unit, etc.) with one another. In the end, each
will share with the whole class his learning
from the interviewing process.
Jigsaw Technique (cooperative instructions)
The whole class is divided into teams or

functional groups. Each student in the team
becomes an "expert" on one topic by working
with members from the other teams who have
been assigned the corresponding similar topic.
Upon returning to their teams, each one in turn
teaches their respective group. Students are
assessed on all aspects of the topic.
Nominal Group Technique
Assembling a small group of knowledgeable

people in a room to work alone to develop
ideas and then share their list of ideas, one item
at a time in round-robin fashion.
Panel
A group of people assembled in front of

trainees to discuss an issue or problem.
Peer Tutoring
Also called pairing students, is the assignment

of students to help one another on a one-to-one
basis or in small groups in a variety of
situations.
Philipps 66
Asking a small group to come up with short,

single answers to a simple problem at the end
of the agreed-on time limit.
Adaptive Instruction
Sometimes called adaptive education, is a

program that occurs on two levels: 1)
developing the abilities and learning skills of
the student; and 2) altering the instructional
environment to correspond to the individual's
abilities and learning skills.
Independent Reading
Reading intended to provide background

information for training or to substitute for
classroom-based instruction.
Independent Study
It involves work conducted by the student on a

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topic using school or non-school resources

under the direction of the teacher.
Computer-Assisted Instruction
It is the use of the computer by the student to

facilitate learning. This involves tutoring and
practice and drill programs.
Computer-Managed Instruction
It is the use of the computer by the teacher and

school for the systematic control and
organization of aspects of instruction including
testing, diagnostic data, learning prescriptions,
and record-keeping.
C. Individualized Instruction attempts to maximize individual learning by diagnosing the

student's entry achievement levels or learning deficiencies, providing a one-to-one, teacherto-teacher, or machine-to-student relationship, introducing sequenced and structured
instructional materials, frequently accompanied by practice and drill and permitting students
to proceed at their own rate.
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Chapter VII
TECHNIQUES OF TEACHING
Introduction
It is not enough that a teacher knows his subject matter; what is important is that he must
be able to impart it properly and effectively to the students.
Garcia (1989) states that a common error among teachers is to use interchangeably terms like
approach, method, and technique. Such pedagogical weakness may be considered as forgivable.
It is a fact that the three foregoing concepts are all closely identified with the procedural aspects
of teaching but they are basically different and distinct although related to one another. The
diagram below is an attempt to distinguish them.
The "How" Dimension of Teaching

Source: Garcia's Focus on Teaching
DIFFERENCES AMONG APPROACH, METHODSI STRATEGIES, AND
TECHNIQUES
Based on the above diagram, a technique is part of method and, likewise, a method is a
component of an approach. This makes approach the broadest of the three. Technique, the most
specific, and method, intermediate between the two.
Approach
-
an enlightened viewpoint of teaching.

provides sound philosophy and orientation to the whole process of teaching in which the
selection of an instructional method is part and parcel of.
embraces the entire spectrum of the process such that:
a) it specifies the major goal of teaching;
b) the given priorities among the three domains, cognitive, psychomotor, and affective;
c) the role of the teacher;
d) the expectations from students;
e) the nature of the teaching-learning process; and
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f) the kind of evaluative techniques and suitable teaching methods/strategies to be

employed.
There are two salient points to remember:
First, all approaches of teaching are viewpoints of teaching, but not all viewpoints of
teaching are considered approaches of teaching.
Second, the selection of an instructional method is based on a given approach.
It may be any of the following:
- a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the process of teaching.
- an axiom that describes the nature of the subject matter to be taught.
- a point of view, a philosophy, an article of faith, something which one believes but
cannot necessarily be proven.
Methods/Strategy
Method/strategy refers to an organized, orderly, systematic, well-planned procedure. It consists
of steps which are logically arranged aimed at achieving the specific aims of instruction, at
enhancing greater teaching and maximizing learning output. Method directs and guides the
teacher in all class activities and involves as well, the organization of materials to get things done
..
Organization of materials can be categorized into two:
1. Logical organization aims to facilitate the recall or location and use off acts, ideas,
materials, procedures, etc; and
2. Psychological organization is designed to facilitate learning of new things.
The logical organization is achieved by any of the following:
a) association of one's ideas and arranging known materials like books, letters, and the
like systematically;
b) organizing ideas of a similar nature under an appropriate heading;
c) using suitable headings for the major divisions; and d) grouping the related subpoints.
The psychological organization is realized through:
a) understanding how pupils learn things normally;
b) selecting those that seem to have a definite bearing on the given task; and
c) making free and controlled associations needed in developing the work.
Strategy in the beginning is a monopoly of other disciplines like military, science,
politics, economics, and even psychology. Later, it has been adopted in the field of education
since it connotes the same idea. Strategy and methodology are now used interchangeably.
Technique
A technique is implementational and that which actually takes place in a classroom. It is a
particular trick, or contrivance, used to accomplish an immediate objective. It is usually
consistent with a method, and, therefore, in harmony with an approach as well. It depends on the
teacher, his individual artistry, and on the composition of the class.
A technique is also defined as a procedural variation of a given method. It involves a
highly personalized style of carrying out a particular step of a given method.
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Variation in technique calls for alternatives which can be in the form of small group
discussion, panel discussion, debate, brainstorming, resource speakers, and others. Although
there can be no specific technique for any given situation, the discussions at the later part of this
chapter will present suggested techniques under the categories of teaching methods.
Classification of Teaching Methods
Criteria:
1. whether methods are addressed to:
a) whole class
b) group of students c) individual students -
lecture method
group discussion
modular learning
2. whether methods are:

a) highly cognitive reporting/unit method
b) highly psychomotor
project method
c) highly affective
role-playing, simulation, sensitivity training, organic
technique, cross-age tutoring, and affective exercises.
Note: There are methods, however, like the laboratory method that gives almost equal
importance to both the acquisition of knowledge and the development of skills.
a) teacher monopolized
b)student monopolized
c) teacher-student collaborated
pure lecture
field trip
socialized classroom discussion
4. Kilgore (1982) categorized teaching styles into two major areas:

a) direct teaching - teacher provides new or additional information to students through:
1) lecturing
2) film showing
3) field trip
b) indirect teaching - teacher structure activities in which the learner is active, such as
1) playing games
2) group role playing
3) inquiry training
4) laboratory work
a) convergent - this mode of teaching makes students come together to 'a point which
means they are expected to accept an idea or set of ideas like what is being done in
the process of generalizing or jotting down the teacher's lecture notes.
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b) divergent - permits students to branch out to different ideas allowing them to share
diverse opinions about a certain topic or issue.
6. The classification of teaching methods is based primarily on the nature of the teachinglearning activity.
For instance, on the basis of teacher-student involvement, the socialized classroom
discussion, the small group discussion, and panel discussion are three different teaching methods
since they present three varying degrees of teacher- student participation.
Categories of Teaching Methods
1. Inductive and Deductive Methods
2. Lecture Method
a)
Outlining technique
b)
Component technique
c)
Sequential technique
d)
Relevance technique e) Transitional technique
3.
Discussion Method
a)
Small group discussion technique
b)
Socialized classroom discussion technique
c)
Direct instruction or classroom teaching technique
d)
Panel discussion technique
e)
Recitation technique f) Interview technique
4.
Reporting Method
a)
Unit or Morrisonian technique
b)
Individual and group techniques
c)
Reading and story-telling techniques
d)
Schematic technique
e)
Symposium
5.
Investigatory Method
a)
Laboratory technique
b)
Problem-solving technique
c)
Research technique
d)
Field study technique
e)
Experimenting technique
6.
Activity Method
a)
Project technique
b)
Field trip technique
c)
Dramatization technique
d)
Role-playing technique
e)
Simulation technique
f)
Brainstorming technique
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g)
Debate
7.
Demonstration Method
a)
Teacher-directed
b)
Student-directed
c)
Teacher and student-directed d) Resource speaker
8.
Self-Pacing Method
a)
Programmed instruction, modules, kits, correspondence course
b) Mastery learning technique
9.
Integrated Method
a)
Lecture-discussion
b)
Demonstration lecture
c)
Film-showing discussion
d)
Reporting discussion
e)
Inductive-deductive
10.
Traditional Method
a)
Textbook technique
b)
Rote-learning technique
c)
Teacher's full-directed technique
d)
Memorization technique
e)
The 2 x 4 x 8 technique of teaching.
Techniques in the Lecture Method

1. The outlining technique involves a cognitive framework in which the subject
matter is presented from general to specific (from a broad topic to sub-topic,
from the sub-topics to sub-sub-topics). This requires the lecturer to present a
ready outline in the beginning - an outline which will guide him in his actual
task of lecturing. In a way, it is similar to the process of analysis which is the
breaking up of the whole into its parts.
In the outlining technique, there is hierarchy of ideas developed from big to small,
from complex to simple, and from general to specific.
2. The component technique is exactly the reverse of the outlining technique.
This time instead of breaking up the whole into parts, the lecturer should
organize his ideas from small to large. Hence, the process of synthesis is
involved. As the lecture proceeds, more pertinent data are presented, resulting
to the crystallization of one pervasive idea.
For instance, in a sociology class, the instructor provides the following
information about progress.
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First Face of Progress
Second Face of Progress
A great pool of knowledge
Social disintegration manifested by the

erosion of traditional practices
Physical and material wellbeing
Weakening social inclinations
Longer and healthier life
Disruption of social order
Opportunities to acquire skills and to develop Increasing gaps between the developed and
talents
the underdeveloped societies
Greater job and leisure opportunities
Obsolescence
Incredible human achievements
III
effects
of
urbanization
and
industrialization
Naturally, as soon as the instructor has presented both faces of progress, the general idea
arrived at is that progress is both good and bad. He may ask his students to state the expected
generalization and for emphasis he could restate it in a more sophisticated manner by uttering
this statement: "So class, I have shown you that progress is both a boon and a bane."
3. The sequential technique provides the most effective, cognitive framework around
which the whole lecture revolves. It provides a very logical presentation of ideas like:
a) the chronological arrangement of events in history;
b) the stages in the cycle of communications;
c) the steps involved in critical analysis;
d) the development of a story plot or a novel; and e) the operation of the law of supply
and demand.
4. The relevance technique consists of four main steps, namely:
a) Presentation of a central thought or the singular idea;
b) Giving all impressions about this idea;
c) Separating the correct impressions from the incorrect ones; and
d) Concentrating the lecture on the explanation of the correct impressions.
In a psychology class, a diagram is drawn on the board presenting the different
perceptions made on the term motive. Such a diagram is as follows:
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As soon as the diagram is completed, the teacher starts his lecture on what motive
actually is. As he proceeds, he checks on a correct perception as he gives more substance on its
veracity. Conversely, too, he erases the wrong perception and explains why such perception has
to be discarded.
5.The transitional technique presents an in-depth treatment of a particular topic. It aims
to expand and provide different but acceptable perspectives about the subject of the
lecture.
In philosophy of education, for example, the aims of education are many and varied
depending on several schools of thought, namely: idealism, realism, naturalism, pragmatism, and
existentialism. Each philosophy views educational goals and priorities distinctively.
Likewise, in a classification lesson in elementary science, pupils are asked to group rocks. There
is not only one way of categorizing them; there are several ways of doing it.
According to color, some rocks are brown, others are gray.
According to shape, some rocks are round, others are oblong, etc.
According to size, some rocks are big, others are small.

Techniques in the Discussion Method
1. The small-group discussion technique is breaking down the whole class into small
groups in order to encourage and maximize free exchange of ideas about a familiar topic.
This technique is more student-directed but it does not mean the teacher leaves the
classroom while it is being done nor he just sits down in front and assumes the "I don't
care attitude." He can go from one group to another to find out the progress of the
discussion. Sometimes, students may ask questions which are indispensable to the
smooth exchange of ideas. At times, he can act as a temporary group moderator if the
group has difficulty of "taking-off." At other times, teacher can add supplements and
necessary information which the panelists fail to include in the discussion.
Ideally, each group should be composed of five to six students in order to ensure
their equal participation. More than six members may likely decrease the amount of
students' participation because the time may not be sufficient for a prolonged discussion.
2. The socialized classroom discussion technique involves a free exchange of ideas
between the class and the teacher. The teacher acts as a moderator, guiding and directing
the class discussion. He does not put a period for every idea presented but rather provides
perplexing situations and good items for inquiry so as to stimulate his students' minds.
At the start of the activity, the students should have a feeling that the teacher is
depending on their answers and ideas, and not the other way round. They should not
regard the teacher as the only fountainhead of knowledge but a co-partner in the teachinglearning situation.
3. The direct instruction or classroom teaching technique resembles most closely the
lecture method. It is a combination of teacher's exposition and follow-up discussion on
the part of the students. In this technique, the teacher initially provides an information
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which will be adopted, supported, and affirmed by the students. The students are
expected to participate during the activity.
The teacher should:
a)
explain further the initial exposition;
b)
provide more and different but pertinent examples;
c)
make another interpretation;
d)
re-state the teacher's point;
e)
substantiate and support the ideas presented; and f) summarize the lesson as
presented by him.
4. The panel discussion technique is a direct, conversational, and interactional discussion
among a small group of experts or well-informed persons (Lardizabal, et al.)
The members of the panel should be well-selected.
Talk shows aired over television stations which employ this technique could attest
that the invited panelists are all knowledgeable of the topic and most of them are
authorities in their respective fields.
In view of this, in the actual panel discussion conducted in the classroom, the
panelists should not ordinarily be the students themselves. Instead, they can be teachers,
school administrators, members of the school staff as well as outside resource persons.
Even the moderator should be one who is adept in conducting a group discussion, after all
the life of the discussion lies in the ability of the moderator to make follow-up questions
or comments to encourage an intellectual discussion. Some bright students who are good
in oral communication could be assigned as panelists but proper orientation and adequate
preparation should be done.
5. The recitation technique (graded or ungraded) is highly cognitive, highly teacherdirected, highly structured, student-dominated, and aimed at developing the study habits
of students.
The recitation type of activity is normally planned ahead. The teacher gives a
bird's-eye view of a new topic to students, presents several specific questions to be
answered, and assigns them the sources from which to get the needed information.
During the activity proper, the class is greatly engaged in a question-and-answer session.
From the preconceived questions assigned to the class, the teacher usually makes followup questions which are all to be answered by students.
This kind of technique actually makes the students study diligently every day and
not only on scheduled examination days.
6. The interview technique involves inviting a resource person to the class and asking him
to answer preconceived questions about a specific topic.
Interview is done to serve certain ends, namely:
a) to make an in-depth treatment of a subject or an issue;
b) to clarify certain points; and
c) to provide the listeners with first-hand information about an interesting topic.
The interview technique calls for an active interaction between the interviewer and the
interviewee. They both should be conversant with the topic. Only one resource speaker is invited
to shed light on a given issue.
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Techniques in the Reporting Method

1. The unit or Morrisonian technique is the process of taking the contents of a particular
subject as big blocks and not as isolated and fragmentary bits of information
The aim is to approach topics as organized and integrated body, showing
relevance, and cognitive relationship. The teacher assigns every unit or every chapter as
the subject of the class activity. The activity may certainly take several days before one
unit or chapter is completely taken by the class.
2. Individual or group reporting technique. Reporting could be done either by individual
students or by groups of students. Each technique has its own particular use. This group
reporting affords better participation. The individual is made to feel he is an important
member of the group. Likewise, group reporting facilitates easy gathering of data as the
members can be given specific tasks to work out.
On the other hand, the individual mode of reporting could be resorted to on a
selective basis - where only the capable students in class are asked to report.
Furthermore, the group mode of reporting provides students with the opportunity
to work together as one body.
To make the reporting highly interesting and enjoyable, the students could be
encouraged to go into contrived situations. The style of reporting could imitate the format
of any of the popular television and radio programs. Reporting could play the role of
known personalities in certain fields like government, movie, press, etc. Some students
could even tape music identified with the pro-gram and others mimic the voice, facial
expression, and manner of dressing of such personalities.
3. Reading or story-telling technique. Pupils could simply be allowed to read from their
books or to narrate their own experiences in relation to a given topic. For instance, after a
Grade IV class read and discuss a selection about the first trip of a 10-year old boy to his
home province, the teacher may ask several pupils to tell their own similar experiences.
Each pupil may be assigned to read some passages or line from a book and consequently
to explain them ..
Both the reading and the story-telling parts of a report have certain aims to
achieve. Reading a passage or two allows the class to focus its attention on particular
point or points. It also makes learning less cumbersome since it does take a bit of
information and not a big "chunk" of knowledge.
On the other hand, story-telling activity has an apperceptive basis since pupils are
able to bring into the consciousness of the whole class their very own experiences. There
are also psychological dimensions involved here - that is, in terms of arousing interests
among themselves and of providing opportunities for self-expression.
4. The schematic technique is a type of reporting which considerably makes use of hard
wares of instruction. Hence, the products of instructional technology are extensively used
to aid the reporter. Although this mode of reporting is ordinarily done by an invited
resource speaker and by the teacher himself; several students; could be taught to conduct
reporting using modern media or communication like phonograph records, film-showing,
film-strips and tapes, slides, tape-recorders, and the like. How to operate these modern
equipment could be an equally significant learning experience for students.
One important principle involved in this reporting technique is stated as: "These
products of instructional technology should be used as means rather than the end of
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teaching." This simply means that they could not be asked to just view a film and when it
is over, the class is automatically dismissed. The film-showing is nothing unless it is
properly explained and evaluated by the reporter himself.
Thus, audio-visual devices should serve several purposes during the reporting
like:
a)
making an interesting vivid and well-done illustration of an idea;
b)
substantiating points shared;
c)
sustaining the interest of the audience in the report; and
d)
ensuring permanency in learning.
Schematic technique of reporting could be less sophisticated and, therefore, less
expensive and elaborate. Students could make use of the diagrams, tables, graphs, etc.
that they personally made for the report. Experiences show that such mode is far more
feasible than the reporting done using the modern means of communication. Schools by
and large are not adequately equipped with them. And probably, another reason is that
most teachers are not conversant in their use. But with the advent of educational
technology nowadays, teachers are better prepared to manage and handle this common
media.
5. The symposium technique entails a lot of preparation and involves certain complexities in
the actual implementation. One symposium a semester is enough. A symposium is
closely identified with school forum which is open to all faculty members and students.
This is particularly true when there are school celebrations being commemorated. This
kind of technique, however, affords more student participation, more so if symposium is
handled efficiently and if it delves on more relevant, current issues.
Symposium involves the following phases:
a)
Identifying the theme of the school celebration;
b)
Breaking down the theme into three or more specific
topics; ,
c)
Selecting the appropriate speaker for each topic;
d)
Allotting adequate time for each speaker; and
e)
Giving time for the open forum whereby the students ask questions to the
designated.
The symposium experience can provide students with opportunities:
a)
to organize, plan, and execute certain courses of action (committees);
b)
to internalize the concepts of good leadership and membership;
c)
to tap, enhance, develop their imagination, creativity, and resourcefulness;
d)
to work in a cooperative and collaborative manner; and
e)
to keep abreast of the timely and pertinent issues.
Techniques in the Investigatory Method
1. Laboratory technique is a technique in which students actively manipulate and study a
given situation upon which a given problem lies. The situation being manipulated is
contrived and it necessarily involves the use of materials. In home economics, several
groups of students make use of different ingredients to improve the preparation of a
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native delicacy. In psychology, an observation of human behavior under controlled or

normal situations is done to confirm and/or to apply certain theories or laws.
Types of Laboratory Technique
a) Laboratory exercise is designed to help the students acquire fundamental knowledge
and skills. The speech exercises commonly done in the speech laboratory like
interpretative reading of poetry, accentuation, intonation patterns, phrasing, pausing,
blending, and the use of science equipment are examples of this type.
b) Laboratory investigation is a deeper and more serious undertaking that requires
careful planning and doing on the part of the researcher.
c) Confirmatory type of laboratory technique tends to be traditional since the teacher
explains the concept or principle to students before they undertake the investigation.
The investigation only concretizes the basic data expounded by the teacher.
d) Exploratory type of laboratory technique approximates more closely a scientific
investigation. In here, the students are not given the expected generalization, instead,
they are made to feel that they are responsible in actively searching for it. It is the
responsibility of the students to work on their own.
Steps of Laboratory Technique
Laboratory work in the elementary level presents more detailed steps while its
counterpart in the high school and collegiate levels gives only three yet more inclusive steps,
namely:
c) pre-laboratory discussion;
d) activity proper; and
e) post laboratory discussion.
The pre-laboratory discussion consists of the following:
a) preparation which includes giving of reminders and safety procedures,
familiarization of materials to be used, etc.;
b) presentation of the laboratory activity which may provide students with
conceptual background;
c) review of hypothesis/ses to be tested and/or assumptions to be verified; and
d) raising of specific questions.
The activity proper is the actual laboratory work done by the students.
The post laboratory discussion includes these phases, namely:
a) the answering of specific questions;
b) the giving of actual observations;
c) analysis and comparison of experimental data;
d) formulation of generalization;
e) the review of principle involved; and
f) the discussion of the application of the generalization formed.
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2. The Problem-solving technique requires a learner to work actively in the solution of a

difficulty or an undesirable situation. Solving a problem has two forms, namely: a) rational
mode; and b) empirical mode.
The rational mode is solving a problem through a process of reasoning done either
qualitatively or quantitatively. On the other hand, the empirical mode is solving a problem
through a carefully laid down procedure. The second one may closely correspond to the so-called
scientific method.
Types of Classroom Problems
The kind of problems that students solve depends on the subject. If it is mathematics,
naturally it is quantitative; if it is logic, it is qualitative; if it is arts, it is concrete; and if it is
philosophy, it is abstract. Problems could be either real (true-to-life) or imaginary (hypothetical
or make-believe). In languages, problems tend to be highly symbolic. One general rule is, as the
levels decrease (from college to elementary), problems tend to be more concrete and real.
Conversely, as the levels increase, problems grow in abstraction and complexity. However, it
does not mean that college students should not be given concrete and real problems. On the
contrary, they should be trained to work out concrete and real problems to improve their critical
thinking abilities.
Steps in the Problem-Solving Technique
a. Identifying and defining a problem. Any problem-solving undertaking should be
purposeful. There must be a real problem that exists. Students find it hard to
identify a particular problem to work on. Even among graduate st1;.dents, topic
selection poses a difficulty to them, hence, they cannot start their thesis-writing
right away.
After the problem is identified, the student should be able to define it. All data
relevant to the problem must be obtained. Reading more about it and interviewing
people who are knowledgeable about this should be done.
b. Formulating a hypothesis. After defining the problem, the student must have
obtained some idea about its solution. This solution which can be expressed as a
short statement or a mathematical relationship should be treated tentatively. Such
statement or relationship which serves as a tentative solution to the problem is
called hypothesis. With this hypothesis, the investigator can predict the result of
his work and it can serve as the basis of the investigation. At the end of the study,
he can either accept or reject it.
c. Verification. It is here that the researcher conducts a formal study. He may
experiment, he may conduct an inquiry, or he may observe people and actual setups. In this phase, he should be keen enough to be able to notice even the minute
details. He should be careful and not hasty in jumping to conclusions. Every
phase of the study must be carefully analyzed and studied.
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d. Collection and organization of data. The outcome of any endeavor that calls for
problem solving should be in an orderly manner. Well-organized data are easily
disseminated and understood.
e. Generalization. The summation of all pertinent data. It could be the hypothesis
that has been fully verified and, therefore, an acceptable solution to the problem
previously formulated. It is a result of a careful and painstaking investigation.
f. Application. Easily provides the so-called transfer of learning which is a process
that makes possible the use of previously learned responses in new situations.
3.
The Research technique is the technique least used by the teachers. Except in
special subjects like educational research, its potentials for instructional purposes are
still untapped.
The research technique is a careful and an organized study designed to serve a
specific purpose. The purpose depends greatly on the specific type of research. Its end is
to seek truth in any kind of study - be it determining actual conditions presently
occurring, ascertaining the authencity of events that have happened, or unlocking the
hidden relationships of two or more phenomena.
Types of Research Activities

The teacher should simplify the process of research so students will be able to do it.
Some suggested types of research activities are as follows:
a) interviewing a chosen subject;
b) making a simple survey;
c) constructing the historical episode of an individual; a community, an institution, etc.;
and
d) doing a simple experiment.
Steps in Doing a Research
a) Preparing for the research work. This phase involves the selection of a research
problem, preparing an introduction which contains the background of the problem,
giving the importance of the study, statement of the problem, definition of terms,
specifying the scope and delimitation of the study, forming a review of related
literature, and identifying the methodology and sources of data used.
b) Collecting and gathering data. For close-ended type of questions, the researcher can
easily tally the answers. However, responses to open-ended type need proper
categorization before they are finally tallied.
c) Organizing the data obtained. The student as a researcher should be taught how to
prepare a table, a graph of each kind and probably a diagram. He should be familiar
with the format of each of these visual representations so he can decide for himself
which of them will be best used in organizing the data he has gathered.
d) Analyzing and interpreting the data organized. One common mistake among
beginners in interpreting the data presented is the tendency to repeat what' is being
shown by the data. Hence, it is not only making a statement like: "The data reveal that
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boys are more politically inclined than girls." For analysis and interpretation, one
must go beyond this level of presentation. They are necessarily done to explain, to
give implications, to confirm or reject previous findings, to identify either the
probable causes or effects, to relate certain variables or phenomena, and to make an
in-depth interpretation.
It is also important to remember that any analysis and interpretation done should
not sound conclusive. In the first place, it is impossible to formulate any given
generalization on the basis of the findings of one or two studies made. Phrases like
"The data seem to show ... , ""They tend to indicate ... ," and the like could be used to
begin a statement of an interpretation.
e) Making a formal report of the research done. How this is done should be formally
discussed in class. The teacher should see to it that the significant points stressed
during the discussion are correctly followed.
4. Field study technique is a technique in which the student investigates a given situation by
being a part or an integral component of it. The ultimate purpose is to get a first-hand
information to clear up some uncertainties and doubts. The more integral he becomes in the
situation, the more truthful the data he can obtain. It is because, the respondents or subjects do
not give the accurate and complete information to an outsider of the locality. Usually, the
residents put up a "front," withholding the more vital facts.
Steps in the Field Study Technique
a) Preparation;
b) Actual investigation;
c) Making a formal report; and d) Class reporting.
5. Experimenting technique is an operation carried out under controlled conditions to discover
an unknown effect or law, to test or establish a hypothesis, or illustrate a known law. The
definition stresses two points: a) experimenting is an active process since it is an operation;
and b) it is highly purposeful.
Another definition of the experimenting technique is that it is not merely a manipulation
of scientific apparatus. In experimentation, a genuine problem or question exists and it is an
attempt to discover or test possible relationships, causes, and effects. This definition gives
importance to the existence of a real problem before any experimental undertaking is done by
the students. It follows, then, that experimenting is not pursued for the sake of doing it.
Students experiment because they must and have to.
Types of Experiments
Experiments can be any of the following: a) structured; b) unstructured; and c) semistructured.
a) Structured experimentation requires students to strictly answer a set of predetermined
questions.
b) Unstructured experimentation represents an "emerging" type of conducting this
activity. This involves giving greater freedom for students as they raise the problem,
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plan out the experimental project which includes the determination of both
experimental and control variables, the formulation of hypotheses, and the choice of
materials and procedures.
c) The semi-structured type of experimentation shows the joint teacher-student
involvement in the planning of an experiment. This type is more commonly done in
the classroom.
Experiments can also be classified based on their specified purposes. Such types are: a)
methodological; b) explanatory or heuristic; c) fact-finding; and d) boundary setting.
a) Methodological experiments serve the purpose of improving some techniques or
procedures. Often, they are experiments done in order to allow the experiments to
progress toward some chosen goal.
b) Explanatory or heuristic experiments are designed to expose relationships among
variables. They provide the data on which to base explanation of phenomena and to
generate laws.
c) Fact-finding experiments are designed to transform the data that are relevant to
specific hypotheses or questions. They are also intended to collect data on the
performance of systems under a greater variety of operating conditions than those
obtained during the explanatory or exploratory phase. Simple problems for such
experiments are: a) Will eggs hatch faster in darkness or light at low temperature?; b)
Could hatching be facilitated by splitting the egg case with a razor?; and c) Is
turncoatism prejudicial to the realization of the party objectives?
d) Boundary setting experiments are a special version of fact-gathering experiments.
They seek to uncover the range of application of some idea or theory or the range of
conditions under which a hypothesized relationship continues to be detectable or the
limitations of the conditions under which the relationships are expected by boundary
studies. Hence, they try to expose parameter values. Some sample problems involving
this experimental type are: a) What is the normal rate of growth?; b) What proportion
of embryos do not hatch?; c) What is the effect of secondary smoke?; and d) What is
the maturity level of an elementary pupil?
Steps in the Experimenting Technique
a)
Designing an experiment;
b)
Preparing for the experiment;
c)
Conducting the experiment; and
d)
Obtaining results of the experiment.
Activity Method
The activity method refers to a classroom encounter whereby students are actively
engaged in a first-hand, direct experience. This is a teaching method in which students'
participation is fully maximized. In the traditional method, it is the teacher who is the main actor
but in the activity method, it is the student who performs the act. The teacher is more of a
consultant or an adviser and no longer the sole disseminator of knowledge.
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The following are the techniques of the activity method:

1. Project technique. It calls for an activity that is directly planned, controlled,
executed, and evaluated by students in order to accomplish a specific goal. The
teacher energizes his students to action to accomplish something.
2. Field trip technique. It is a well-planned excursion, a trip to a special location which
provides students an opportunity to manipulate knowledge they possess (Renner,
Stafford, and Ragan). It is also defined as an out-of-the classroom experience,
primarily for the purpose of observing natural phenomena which cannot be brought
into the classroom or which, because of their immediacy, are best studied in their
natural setting. (Kuslan and Stone).
3. Dramatization technique. Alcantara (1981) defined the dramatization technique as
one that involves telling a story in one's own distinctive way. The story is told
through acting on a stage by actors before an audience. Teachers can initiate
classroom activities which can tap the dramatic prowess of the students and at the
same time make use of these as meaningful learning experiences. There are three
relevant teaching techniques, such as dramatization, role playing, and simulation.
4. Role-playing technique. It involves an activity which a student or a group of
students dramatizes his or their real reactions to certain problematic situations. The
purpose is to find out how students will normally conduct themselves once they are
confronted with a particular kind of conflict or difficulty. The main characteristic of
student participants in this activity is spontaneity. It is an on-the-spot performance
which requires participants to rely primarily on their own personal judgment and on
their ability to make their own decisions.
5. Simulation game technique. Akin to role-playing technique is the simulation game
technique. The term simulation comes from its verb form simulate which means to'
imitate, to pretend, to counterfeit, or to feign. As it is, it may mean an operating
imitation of a real process like the one being done by law students who conduct moot
court proceedings and the students' body organization which conducts a mock
political convention.
The simulation game technique involves a contrived experience previously
prepared and aimed at providing students with an illusion of real experience. It is
characterized as follows:
a)
The learning environment approximates the real situation;
b)
The students' performance is directly geared to the acquisition of the desirable
and acceptable behavioral patterns;
c)
It is a highly student-directed activity; and
d)
It expects student-participants to make a total adjustment to a given situation.
6. Brainstorming technique. It calls for an activity in which a deliberate attempt is made
to think and speak out freely and creatively about all possible approaches and
solutions to a given problem, the group participating in spontaneous and unrestrained
discussion which usually involves evaluative feedback. (Good, 1973).
The following are the characteristics of the brainstorming technique:
a) The technique is problem-centered. The participants are involved in a conscious effort
to solve a perplexing problem.
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b) All possible solutions are exhausted. The giving out of solutions goes on a rotation,
each participant giving one idea per turn. As soon as the last participant shares his
own suggestion, the chance is given back to the first one. All ideas no matter how
weird or impractical are accepted and listed down.
c) It is a highly creative undertaking. Solutions are necessarily the result of originality,
imagination, and resourcefulness of the participants.
d) It recognizes the importance of each participant. Participants are supposed to be on
equal footing. Each one is neither superior nor inferior to others. Every one is
perceived to have is own talents and potentials to share during the group session.
7. Debate technique. According to Good (1973), a debate is a formal presentation of
arguments on both sides of a question before an audience in accordance with
standardized procedure. The purpose of this activity is to present the two sides of an
issue - its merits and demerits, its advantages and disadvantages, its strengths and
weaknesses, or its good and bad points.
Two groups are assigned, each one taking one of the two sides, either affirmative
or negative. The member of each side should have the ability to convince the audience
based on the soundness, logic, and desirability of his reasoning. He should be able to spot
a weak point in the argument of the other side and should capitalize on this to win over
the opponents.
Demonstration Method
Teaching by demonstration comes in different forms, namely: 1) teacher-directed
technique; 2) student-directed technique; 3) teacher-student directed technique; and 4) resource
speaker-directed technique.
1. Teacher-directed technique. The teacher performs the, demonstration, especially
when there is only one set of materials available for instructional purposes, making it
impossible for the students to work in groups. The teacher also does the
demonstration when the activity requires the handling of harmful materials and
delicate, fragile equipment.
2. Student-directed technique. Students, especially the most capable ones could be
taught how to show a demonstration although it could be done with joint teacherstudent participation. The teacher can give the instruction while the selected students
follow them.
3. Teacher-student directed technique. The teacher performs the demonstration with
the students helping in handing the materials over to the teacher as he needs them
during the demonstration.
4. Resource speaker-directed technique. An invited resource speaker could be the
demonstrating teacher himself. The class may likely welcome this change and besides
their teacher may not be in a position to demonstrate such particular lesson or
procedure. The resource speaker may be found more effective as he can provide the
class with the necessary know-what and know-how in line with his own expertise and
special training.
Self-pacing Method
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According to Good (1973), the self-pacing method calls for an activity whereby
provision is made for the individual student to set his own schedule for learning or rate of
achievement, and to monitor his own progress.
1. Programmed instruction is an instruction in which the self-pacing method has a
rightful place. Morris Bigge (1982) defined it as a system of teaching and learning
within which pre-established subject matter is broken down into small, discrete steps
and carefully organized into a logical sequence in which it can be learned readily by
the students. Barry Harley (1973) pointed out that it is an auto-instructional approach
to teaching which is changing the role of the classroom teacher.
2. Mastery learning is a technique which allows the class to be divided into groups,
each group is composed of students who have reached almost the same learning level.
This technique is not new for it has been patterned after Morrison's mastery formula
which is an instructional procedure recommended for securing mastery of subject
matter and defined as "pre-test, teach, test the result, adapt procedure, teach and test
again to the point of actual learning."
3. Modular learning technique is a technique which allows each student to proceed at his
own rate. Darrel Murray defines module as a "self-contained and independent unit of
instruction with a primary focus on a few well-defined objectives. The substance of a
module consists of materials and instructions needed to accomplish the objectives."
Another definition by the Workshop in the Application of Educational Technology
sponsored by the DECS-UNESCO held in Tagaytay, "A module is a set of learning
opportunities systematically organized around a well-defined topic which contains the
elements of instruction - specific objectives, teaching-learning activities, and
evaluation using criterion-referenced measures."
Characteristics of a Good Module
Dr. Constantino M. Torralba listed the following characteristics:
a) It should be self-contained. The content of a module is so prepared that it allows
students to work independently by themselves and if there is a need for some
teacher's assistance, such help will be at its minimum.
b) It should be self-pacing. Within the time frame provided, the forty students in the
class achieve different levels. Some can finish ahead of the others, others are
fairly catching up, and still others are trailing behind.
c) Its topic or subject matter should be short enough and well-defined. Every module
takes up only one particular concept or topic at a time. This allows a more indepth study of it and students could concentrate on one given subject matter.
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d) It should be adequately motivating. If a student is able to achieve successfully the

objectives explicitly stated in a module, certain encouraging statements appear in
it and at the same time they direct him to proceed to the next module. If he is
unable to do so, he comes across certain encouraging remarks that will advise him
to do some remedial works all by himself.
e) It should provide opportunities for interaction with the learner. When a student
reads a module, it seems it were talking to him in a conversational, friendly
manner. Such informal approach encourages him to proceed through the different
parts of the module.
f) Its objectives and activities should be properly sequenced. Logical arrangement of
objectives as well as activities is observed in the preparation of modules. This
arrangement usually follows the inductive pattern from known to unknown, from
concrete to abstract, or from simple to complex.
g) It should be written in clear, correct language suitable to the level of the target
learner. Any module becomes useless if its target learner cannot grasp it in terms
of its incomprehensible and complicated language, unrealistic situations, and
irrelevantly obscure examples.
h) It should be accurate. The knowledge presented in a module should be truthful
and up-to-date. There should not be any room for misleading and obsolete
information. Facts and figures should be checked for accuracy in this regard.
i) It should bear no wrong implications to or conflict with other subject matters or
values. The knowledge contained in a module should, as much as possible, have
universal meaning that it becomes not only acceptable to one field but also to
other academic areas.
j) It should utilize every opportunity to achieve affective outcomes of learning. The
ultimate objectives of learning are concerned with the development of the proper
attitudes, appreciations, and values in individual students. Knowledge and skills
are nothing if they are only self-serving and egoistic. Students should not only be
taught how to exist and survive in this highly competitive world but more
importantly how to live well in close harmony with their fellowmen.
k) It should contain all the necessary components of a module. An effectively
prepared module should contain all its expected parts.
l) Components of the module should be highly supportive of each other. For
instance, parts like objectives, learner's activities and evaluation should be
interrelated with one another, the suggested activities are means used to achieve
the predetermined objectives and likewise evaluation is used to find out the extent
of how much the objectives are realized.
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Integrated Method
3. Lecture-discussion is a technique that uses the "threepronged strategy" which includes
careful organization of the course material, student interaction in lecture, and discussion
activities.
To illustrate the combination of these two methods, the following steps are presented:
a) Divide the class into small groups of about 4-6 members. Such number
becomes desirable in order to maximize students' interaction and participation.
Each group shall elect its leader and rapporteur.
b) Provide for a try-out to check whether the students can apply group dynamics.
Present a very familiar problem to them to find out whether the whole group
can practice: 1) the exchange of ideas, with every member in the group
sharing in the discussion without anyone monopolizing nor showing his lack
of interest to participate; 2) tolerance and respect for the opinions of others;
and 3) democratic procedure in settling disputes and in arriving at a group
consensus.
c) Give pointers on how to conduct group discussion properly. It is proper to
give lectures on this topic. However, it would be better if the lectures were
accompanied by a socialized class discussion during which answers could also
be drawn from the students.
d) Present a problem that will really be good material for active group
discussion. Select a problem that is part of the present lesson of the class that
will make the students think critically so they can start and sustain interesting
group discussions.
e) Have a sharing period when the different groups give their own answer to the
question. It is important that the teacher does not take side with any group so
as to maintain the enthusiasm of the students, the teacher can ask each group
to clarify some points, and to encourage the students to do better for the next
round of group discussion, the teacher can grade each group based on the
answers given.
f) Conduct a lecture session to make the answers to the question clear to the
students. This time lecture becomes very necessary to give further
clarification, to add salient points not given by the students, to correct certain
misinterpretations, and to tighten some loose ends.
When the lecture is given at the last part of the lesson, the activity becomes more
meaningful to the students since the points presented are familiar to them since they have
undergone the searching process themselves.
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2. Lecture-demonstration is a technique wherein the lecture part precedes the

demonstration. The combination aims at concretizing the teacher's lecture with an actual
demonstration.
3. Film-showing-discussion. The use of films, slides, tapes, and even television is still not
widely practiced in our schools in spite of the fact that these forms of media have been
with us for at least six decades now. The common reason given for the inability to use
these technological devices is they are unaffordable to most of our schools.
The technique involves three phases: a) introduction and raising questions about the
film; b) film-reviewing; and c) answering the questions formed and discussing some
other salient points seen in the film.
4. Reporting-discussion is a technique wherein after a student makes a report, the class can
actively engage in an interesting discussion of the various ideas and concepts he has
shared with the classmates. The teacher can enliven the session by asking some questions
and by adding relevant and clarifying ideas. The discussion done after a report can also
tighten up some loose points.
5. Inductive-deductive technique. To strengthen new learning, the lesson should be
initially presented inductively and later deductively. At first, the students are guided to
proceed from the simple to the complex ideas, from particular to general or from known
to the unknown. Later, they use these complex or general ideas to draw out new simple or
particular cases. During the process, whatever generalization they are able to formulate
from the data they have collected, the same generalization is further reinforced by citing a
new set of data to support it.
Traditional Method
1. Textbook learning is the most common instructional material used by both the teacher
and his students. On the part of the teacher, he usually refers to the subject's textbook
in making his daily lesson plan. The students, on the other hand, commonly rely on
the textbook in preparing themselves for the class recitation, doing their daily
assignments, and reviewing for an examination.
The textbook is usually associated with the teaching learning process.
Elwood Cubberley justified the use of textbook for instructional purposes. He wrote:
Textbooks are often very good books and very useful to the pupils. They are usually wellorganized sources of information and valuable aids in instruction for the pupil and for the
beginning teacher. They offer condensed and illustrated outlines of the different subjects
()f the course of study. .
2. Rote learning is a technique that requires students to repeat what the teacher tells
them without understanding. This eventually results in the learners being able to
mouth the words of the teacher, devoid of any understanding. It may also involve
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reciting a piece without necessarily knowing it like being able to deliver a long poem
written in Spanish. The student who does it cannot give justice to it since it means
nothing to him.
3. Directed technique is associated with the well-known practice of spoon-feeding. In
here, the teacher either dictates or let the students copy word for word the lesson.
Since the student's mind is compared to an empty container, the role of the teacher is
to fill it up.
4. Memorization is still acceptable in today's school provided it serves certain learning
purposes and more importantly, if it is done with understanding. Students memorize
because teachers tend to emphasize more on facts rather than on the insights that
could be drawn out from these facts. Memorization without insights makes learning a
meaningless routine, a useless understanding, and therefore, a big waste on student's
time and efforts. Teachers who indulge in this undesirable practice are doing their
students a big disservice since it fails to achieve more legitimate outcomes of learning
like the development of the higher mental processes such ai, analysis, synthesis, and
judgment.
5. The 2 x 4 x 8 concept of teaching. Learning is confined within the three given
dimensions: 2 x 4 x 8 - 2 stands for the two covers of the book; 4 for the four walls of
the classroom; and 8 for the eight hours of student's stay in school. The traditional
teacher then views learning that goes beyond the book, the classroom, and the school
time as something impossible and something that will never be achievable.
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Chapter VIII
PLANNING FOR EFFECTIVE TEACHING
Introduction
Planning for effective learning experiences is one of the skills the teacher has to develop.
Planning insures more or less the direction that his efforts will take. It helps create wholesome
discipline, a pleasant classroom atmosphere, and purposeful teaching-learning activities that are
free from waste in terms of time and effort.
Careful planning can give the teacher a sense of confidence in overcoming nervousness
and preventing wastage and confusion especially during the first days of teaching.
Planning for Purposeful Instruction
Planning for teaching involves a sequence of steps. It calls for decisions with respect to
each of the tasks involved. If all these tasks are accomplished successfully, the prospects that
students will master what has been taught are excellent.
The interrelationships among these tasks are presented as a cycle in Figure 8 on the next
page.
The first task, diagnosing student's needs and abilities, imparts to the teacher the
necessity of discovering the needs, interests, and capabilities of his students.
Systematic techniques are available to the teacher which ~le can use in gathering
information about the student's needs and abilities (Armstrong & Savage, 1983: 114-24): work
samples; conference; anecdotal records; checklist; interest inventory; teacher tests; and cloze test.
The second task, setting up of objectives and selecting content, involves selecting
appropriate learning materials suited to the needs and interests of the students. The instructional
objectives describe what the students are expected to do at the completion of the instructional
sequence to show they have learned.
The third task is preparing the setting for learning and selecting instructional strategies.
Once the objectives have been established, the teacher has to decide on the technique that will
help the students achieve the goals.
To provide for an intellectual setting and an emotional atmosphere conducive to learning,
it will help the teacher to keep in mind that an orderly, well-disciplined class is essential for
successful teaching and learning. Good classroom management is a prerequisite to the
maintenance of discipline and control in a class. Many teachers usually find discipline and
control of classes very difficult.
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Figure 8: The Teaching Cycle

Source: Navarro, et aI's Principle of Teaching and Instructional Technology.
The fourth task is formalizing units and making lesson plans. This involves organizing
information about individual students, objectives, materials, and techniques into a resource unit
that can serve as reference to the teacher as he does his work from day to day.
An instructional unit is a planned sequence of learning activities or lessons covering a
period of several weeks and centered around some major concepts, mainly content-oriented
lessons or semi-individualized, laboratory-oriented, experience oriented unit assignments, or any
of a variety of combinations. Some units may be shorter than two weeks but others may be
longer than six weeks in length (Clark and Starr, 1981:144).
Instructional units provide the teacher with opportunities to use his creativity as he plans
instructional sequences systematically for students. In planning the units, the teacher has to take
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into account the needs and the varying, levels of the students. He has to consider individual
differences among students and has to be selective, taking care that relevant topics are not
omitted.
Units are generally designed to be taught over a number of days. After they have been
developed, the teacher has to prepare more specific plans for a given period. These are called
lesson plans, consisting of very specific outline describing in detail what the teacher and the
students will do on a day to implement the unit's objectives. Lesson plans give a sense of
direction and organization to both teacher and students.
The Lesson Plan
In planning the daily lessons, it would be well for the teacher to keep the following
principles in mind (Clark and Starr, 1981:154):
1. The objectives should contribute directly to the unit and course objectives.
2. The objectives are clear in the teacher's own mind.
3. Each objective is a learning product or a terminal behavior that is definite and specific so
that the teacher can aim at it directly.
4. The lesson is feasible. It is neither too difficult nor too long. It is better to do a little well
than a lot badly.
5. The teaching-learning activities will bring about the accomplishment of the objectives.
6. The teacher should be prepared to carry out the selected activities. He should know what
to do and how to do it with all the materials ready on hand.
7. The teacher has to provide for a suitable introduction an~ a culminating clinching
activity.
The Lesson Plan Format
The format of the lesson plan is not of particular importance. The teacher can use any that
seems easiest for her.
Components of the Lesson Plan
1. Objectives or Targets. They are definite statements of what are to be learned in the
lesson. They may be expressed either from the point of view of the teacher or the
students.
To facilitate evaluation of results, formulating objectives from the point of view of
students expressed as learning outcomes or in behavioral terms is generally
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recommended. To formulate instructional objectives in behavioral terms, the teacher has

to use action words indicating observable behavior.
2. Content or Subject Matter and Materials. The teacher indicates the subject matter that
he believes will help attain his objectives. This may be indicated as generalizations in
outline form. Sometimes, it can be a part of the procedure or it can be written on a
separate sheet of paper if the teacher wants more details in the outline.
The teacher should also consider the materials and equipment that he may need.
Illustrations and posters may be prepared to help students concretize what are to be
emphasized.
3. Procedure or Strategy
a) The teacher should write down in the order of occurrence the activities that he and his
students are going to do during the period.
b) He should avoid skimping the planning of the teaching procedure. He should not just
indicate "lecture on the principle of capillary for 15 minutes."
1) what he will say and the questions he will ask;
2) the main points he will bring out; and
3) the experiments he may ask students to undertake. It is not enough that he
indicates some problems that will be done on the board.
The teacher should plan which problems he should work out the answer to
beforehand. If he plans to ask questions, he should decide what questions to ask and the
answers to the most important ones. Student teachers and new teachers are usually
required to indicate "Teacher Activity" and "Student Activity." The elements under the
procedure may vary according to the subject matter and grade level of students.
4. Evaluation or Application. Evaluation should be continuous from the beginning of the
unit to the end. In planning evaluation activities, the teacher should include those that can
be implemented throughout the unit so that evaluation becomes an "on-going" activity,
not just "an end of the unit" activity. Checklists, rating scales, role-playing situations, and
group-discussions can serve as evaluation exercises.
5. Assignment/Agreement and Special Reminders. The effectiveness of the giving of the
assignment will determine the success of the new lesson the next day. This part is now
called "agreement" - implying that the students agree to undertake further studies after
realizing a need for them.
The last part may be devoted to the giving of reminders.
It includes things that are not ordinary. Some announcements may also be made.
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The fifth task is motivating students and guiding learning activities. This involves
looking into ways by which students may develop interest and desire to learn and
planning interesting activities to achieve the objectives using the appropriate techniques.
In order to learn, the students must do the work and undertake the learning
activities themselves. But, they can only do these if there is discipline, order, and
courtesy. Unless students are properly motivated, these conditions may not be possible in
the classroom. How to motivate students effectively must have top priority with the
teacher as he plans his work.
Importance of Motivation
An individual learns only through his own self-activity. His mind cannot simply absorb
knowledge like a sponge. His learning can result only from his interactions with the environment
- what he does to his environment and his reactions to what his environment does to him. In
short, he can only learn from experience. He may read or he may listen to the teacher but unless
he does something to what he read and what he heard, learning may not take place at all.
The task of the teacher is to make students undertake activities that will result in the
desired learning. This is essential both for instruction and discipline purposes.
The hierarchy of needs by Abraham Maslow is a presentation of human needs in a graded
order from the lowest or the most basic to the highest.
According to Maslow, the basic needs for survival and safety are the most important and
they control the behavior of people when they are not being met. But, once people become
physically comfortable and safe, they begin to pay attention to slightly higher needs, namely: the
social needs of belonging and self-esteem within the social group. Mter these needs have more or
less been satisfied, people turn to the higher level needs of intellectual achievement, aesthetic
appreciation, and, ultimately, self-actualization
Highest Level
Self-actualization - the need for self-fulfillment and the realization of one's potential
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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Middle Level
Self-esteem - the desire for approval and recognition.
Belonging - the need to be accepted and loved.
Security - the need to be physically and psychologically free from any danger.
Lowest Level
Survival - the basic physiological needs for food, water, air and shelter.
The four lower needs of survival, safety, belonging, and self-esteem are deficiency needs;
some call these maintenance needs or motives. As long as they are not satisfied, the person's
motivation to find ways of satisfying them increases. Hence, the hungrier the person becomes,
the harder he looks for food. Once these deficiency needs are satisfied, the person's motivation to
satisfy them decreases.
The three higher level needs of knowledge, understanding, and aesthetic appreciation are
called being needs or growth motives. Unlike the deficiency needs, even when these needs are
satisfied, the individual craves for more or seek for further fulfillment of the same needs. For
example, the more successful a person is in acquiring knowledge and power, the more does he
strive to increase them. Thus, the needs can never be completely satisfied, unlike the deficiency
needs. The tendency to pursue the being needs or growth motives is renewed continuously.
The sixth task relates to plans centering on measuring, evaluating, grading the student
performance and reporting on the progress of students. This involves the development of plans
for testing and for making judgments about the performance of the individual students. Actually,
evaluation should be part of each of the tasks as a built-in mechanism to help in the modification
of plans as previously prepared.
The seventh and final task is following through which means putting up plans for
follow-up lessons on materials that :';'"1e students have learned well as shown by the results of
the ~valuation (Navarro, et aI., 1988).
SAMPLE LESSON PLANS
Lesson Plan in Elementary Mathematics
Grade V
1. Objective
: Solve word problems involving percentage of a number.
II. Subject Matter: Finding the percentage of a number

Reference: Playing and Working with Numbers
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Materials: Fraction circles Illustrations of sets Flip chart with problems

Mathematical Idea:
1. Finding percentage of a number has an important function in everyday living:
a)
b)
c)
d)
determining savings, interest, or capital

loss and profit
sharing of income between partners in business
preparing of income tax
2. Percentage is a certain number of hundreds of the base or the whose base.

3. Formula: P = b x r where
b = base - the number by which the percent is to be found
r = rate - the number of hundredths taken
III. Strategies
1. Preparatory Activities (3 minutes)
a) Drill
1) Express the shaded parts of the circle in percent.
2) Give the equivalent fraction of numbers expressed in percent:

25%
60%
50%
331/3 %
12 % 8
3
/5
1
1
/3
/8
b) Review
On the chart, read a problem situation involving finding the part of a number and ask the
class to analyze and solve.
Problem
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Mrs. Cruz hired Jose and his brother to clean her garden. Mrs. Cruz gave them "45.00.
Jose gave 1/3 of their earnings to his brother. How much did his brother receive?
What is asked in the problem?
How much did Jose's brother receive?
What are given in the problem?
P 45 - amount Jose and his brother earned.
1
/3 - fractional part of the earning which Jose gave to his brother
How will you know the brother's share in the earnings?
What process will you use?
Multiplication
Who can make the arithmetic sentence? Let us use!l to represent the share of Jose's brother.
n = 1/3 x P45.00 3
Correct. Now, who will solve the arithmetic sentence?
n = 1/3 x P45.00 3
= 1 x 45/ 3
= P15.00 - share of Jose's brother
2. Lesson Proper 00 to 15 minutes) (Present a problem situation on finding percentage)
Problem
Edward gathered 20 eggs from their poultry house. He sold 25% of the eggs he gathered.
How many eggs did he sell?
Read the problem.
(A pupil reads the problem)
What are the 5 steps that we should follow in problem-solving?
a) Understand the question asked in the problem.
b) Find the needed data.
c) Plan what to do.
d) Find the answer.
e) Check the answer.
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What is asked in the problem?

How many eggs did Edward sell?
What are given in the problem?
20 - number of eggs Edward gathered from their poultry house
25% - the percentage expression for the number of eggs Edward sold.
What process do you think is involved in solving the problem?
Multiplication
Who could illustrate the idea of the problem? I will help you do it. Answer the questions by
drawing.
a) How many eggs did Edward gather?
00000
00000
00000
00000
b) What is the equivalent fraction of 25%?
c) Based on the equivalent fraction of 25%, into how many small groups will you divide the eggs
Edward gathered? Draw it
00000
00000
00000
00000
d) How many eggs are in each small group?

5 eggs e) What is the problem again?
e) What is 25% of 20 eggs?
f) Write the arithmetic sentence using percent.
n = .25 x 20
g) Use n as the unknown. Use the equivalent function of 25%.
n = of 20
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h) Solve the problem using both sentences.

1) n = .25 x 20 = 5 eggs 2) n = of 20 = 5 eggs
3. Generalization
In the problem that we just solved,
25% = percentage expression rate '@
20 = is the base '(b)
So, who can make a number sentence to find the percentage using the letter symbols?
Repeat. What do the symbols P, r, and b represent?
P = r x b or
P=bxr
4. Fixing Skills - (10 minutes) (application)
(The teacher provides two problem situations where the concepts and principles of
problem-solving may be applied.) \
a) Maria bought 60 chicos. She sold 45% of the chicos.
How many chicos did Maria sell?
Question asked: How many chicos did Maria sell?
Given: 60 chicos
45% = percentage of the chicos sold.
Solution:
P = .45 x 60
= 27 chicos sold
b) In a school of 400 pupils, 62 ~ % are boys. How many boys are there in the school?
Solution: P = .625 x 400
= 250 boys in the school
5. Evaluation (5 minutes)
Solve the following problems:
a) If a man's salary is P1, 800 a month and his expense
is 87 of the amount, how much is the expense?
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b) A man bought 350 chickens and sold 65% of them,.

how many chickens did the man sell?
IV. Agreement (5 minutes) Solve the problem:
Mrs. Castro receives P2, 400.00 a month. She pays 15% of it for board, 8 % for clothing, and
16% for other expenses. List her monthly expenses?
Lesson Plan in Science
Grade V
1.
Objective
II.
Subject Matter:
Body Systems
Reference
To describe what a system is.
Health and Science for Better Life V, page 7.
Materials
: Pictures of different body systems such as digestive, respiratory, circulatory,
reproductive, muscular, etc.
Science Idea : Body system is an organized set of organs in the body working together.
Science Processes: Observing, describing
Vocabulary Words Phrases: Organized set
KBI - awareness, open-mindedness
III.
Developmental Activities
A. Opener: Look at the pictures displayed on the bulletin board.

B. Lesson Proper
1. Motivation
Can you identify the different pictures on the bulletin board?
What systems are they?
What organs are found in the system?
2. Initiation of the Problem
What is a system?
3. Activity Proper (Use Activity Card I-A)
Activity Card I-A
Materials: Pictures of different systems on the bulletin board.
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Do these: 1) Look at the pictures on the bulletin board.

2) Name the pictures you identified and list them on a separate sheet.
3) Prepare the table like this.
As a single organ
With a set of organs
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
4) Answer the following questions:

a) Which body parts did you classify as a single organ by itself?
b) Which of the pictures did you classify as a set of organized organs? Name them.
c) What do you call the pictures with an organized set of organs?
d) What is the common characteristic of all systems of our body?
e) What is a body system?
4. Analysis/Understanding (Activity Card I-A)
5. Generalization - What is a body system?
6. Application
Why can you say that the sun and the planet work as a system?
IV.
Evaluation
A. Give three examples of an organ.

B. Select the letter of the best answer.
1. Which of these is a set of organs?
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a) intestine
b) stomach
c) liver
d) brain
e) spinal cord
f) nerves
2. Which of the following statements describes a body system?

a) composed of an organized set of organs working together
b) composed of an individual organ
c) composed of an organized set of organs doing different works
V.
Assignment
1. Differentiate an organ from a system.
2. Bring to class food like biscuits, chocolates, calamansi, sugar, etc.
Lesson Plan in Communication Arts (English), Grade I
I.
Objectives
GLR
II.
Shows enjoyment in listening to a rhyme
CT
:
MSEL :
TS
:
Answer specific questions about the story

Good morning/Good afternoon with correct intonation
Note similarities in shape
GLR
MSEL
:
:
Good Morning Sky: Big Book

Good Morning/Good Afternoon, Textbook, pp. 1-2.
TS: Reading Readiness:

Visual Discrimination, Shape, Skill book Reading Readiness
III.
GLR: 1. Vocabulary development through the use of visuals

sky
sun
ee
2. Motivation - Identifying things they see outside the room

Flowers
trees
birds
3. Motive question:
What does the girl say to the sun, sky, tree, when she gets up in the morning?
4. Turning into the story
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5. Story telling
6. Comprehension check-up
a) What does the girl say to the birds and bees?
b) What will she do outdoors?
c) What do you do when the sun is up?
d) What games do you play on sunny days?
7. Appreciation/Creativity: Drawing of the sun
MSEL: 1. Motivation: Good morning song
2. Presentation: Greeting the children and let them say: Good morning teacher.
3. Development: Greeting the teacher by group.
Greeting one another.
4. Evaluation: Dialogue:
Good morning, Jose. Good morning, Rita.
TS:
1. Identifying different shapes

2. Comparing different objects according to shapes
3. Drawing the shapes
4. Evaluation: Color the shapes that are alike.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
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Masusing Banghay Aralin sa pagtuturo ng Kasanayan sa Pakikinig ng Tula Ikalimang

Baitang
1. Mga Layunin:
1. Matalinong naipaliliwanag ang nilalaman ng tula
2. Nailalarawan ang isinasaad ng tula
3. N agagamit ang batayang kaalaman sa wastong pakikinig
4. Naiguguhit ang mga bagay na inilalarawan sa tula
II. Paksa: Tula: Ang Aking Pagkain Sining ng Kumunikasyon II, pp. 76-79
Ang Aking Pagkain

Ako'y isang batang anak-maralita.
Sumilang sa isang giri-giring dampa,
Ang aking daigdig ay munting tumana
Sa gilid ng isang liku-likong sapa.
Sa aming tumana'y maraming gulay,
Katulad ng talong, labanos at petsay;
Ang mais at gabi, ampalaya't sitaw,
Upo't kalabasa ay naglalakihan.
Sa likod ng aming maralitang dampa,
May baboy at manok na laging alaga;
Ang kinakain ko'y manok na nilaga
Na maraming sahog na gulay na sariwa.
lsang basong gatas ng aming kalabaw
Ang iniinom ko halos araw-araw,
Itlog na sariwang kaiitlog lainang,
lniinom ko rin nang may kasiyahan.
Kung ako'y sawa na sa kame ng hayop
At nananaba na rin sa itlog ng manok,
Ako'y nangangapa ng isda sa ilog
Ng hipon at ulang, luwalo't lukaok.
Ang aking minindal ginataang pinipig,
Kung minsa'y inihaw o nilagang mais;
Kaya't sasarili'y aking nasambit
Mapalad din ako sa silong ng langit.
IV Pamamaraan:
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III. Kagamitan: Larawan, tsart, plaskard, krayola, papel
Gawaing Guro
A. Panimulang Pagganyak
Gawaing Bata
Pag-awit ng "Wastong Pagkain."
Mga bata, ating awitin ang awit na Magtipid po tayo sa pagkain. Kumain po
"Wastong Pagkain." Ano ang masasabi tayo ng wasto.
ninyo sa ating awit?
Anong mensahe ang ibig ipahiwatig sa atin?
B. Paghahawan ng Balakid
Heto ang ilang salita na maririnig ninyo sa tulang , ating bibigkasin. Basahin natin ang
mga salita upang higit ninyong maunawaan ang kahulugan ng tulang inyong maririnig mamaya.
(Ipabasa ang mga salita sa mga bata)
1. Anak-maralita (ipaliwanag ang kahulugan ng salita)
2. Giri-giring dampa (pagpapakita ng larawan)
3. Tumana (pagpapakita ng larawan)
4. Sapa (pagpapakita ng larawan)
5. Liku-liko (pagsasagawa ng kilos na ibinabadya)
6. Kasiyahan (ipahiwatig ang kaugnay na kahulugan)
7. Sawa (ipahiwatig ang kahulugan)
8. N angapa (pagsasagawa ng kilos na ibinabadya ng salita)
9. Luwalo, ulang, lukad (magpakita ng mga larawan nito)
10. Masambit (ipaliwanag ang kahulugan)
Ngayon, tingnan natin kung sino sa inyo ang makakahula kung anong salita ang
tinutukoy ng ipakikitang larawan 0 ng aking isasagawa. Piliin ninyo ang salitang ito na nakasulat
sa plaskard at ilagay sa ating paskilan.
Gawin ito sa pangungusap.
K. Unang Pagbigkas ng Guro
Makinig kayo at ating bibigkasin ang tula. Kailangan pa ba nating sariwain ang ating
pamantayan sa was tong pakikinig. Anu-ano ang dapat gawin ng isang nakikinig?
1. Makinig nang mabuti.
2. Unawain ang sinasabi ng nagsasalita.
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3. Maupo nang wasto.

4. Iwasan ang paglikha ng anumang ingay na makagagambala sa nagsasalita at nakikinig.
(Bibigkasin ng guro ang tula habang ipinakikita ang larawan)
D. Pagtalakay Pangkagandahan
Sa inyong palagay, saan nangyari ang tulang Sa bukid po.
ito?
Labanos, ampalaya, petsay, sitaw at talong.
Anu-ano ang bungangkahoy at gulay ang bin
abanggit sa tula?
Mahirap po.
Ano sa palagay ninyo ang batang nagsasalita sa
tula, siya kaya ay mayaman 0 mahirap?
E. Pagtalakay na Pangkaisipan
Sa bukid po.
Ano ang ibig sabihin ng salitang tumana?
Sira-sira pong kubo.
Giri-giring dampa?
Ang batang nagsasalita po ay mahirap. Siya po
ay nakatira sa bukid na nasa tabi ng sapa.
Ano ang ibig sabihin ng unang saknong?
Mahirap po subalit malusog.

Ano ang uri ng batang nagsasalita?
Kasi po ay kumakain ng gulay.
Bakit mo nasabing malusog?
Upo, kalabasa, sitaw, ampalaya, labanos,
talong, petsay.
Anu-anong gulay ang nakikita sa tumana?
Nasa bukid po.

Sa inyong palagay, saan naroroon ang kubo ng
batang nagsasalita, sa lungsod 0 sa bukid?
Itlog, gulay, gatas, mais, isda at iba pa. ,.
Anu-anong pagkain ang dapat ninyong kainin
upang kayo'y maging malusog?
Maging masipag po.
Anong kaugalian ang dapat nating ugaliin?
Anong kabutihan ang naidudulot
pagtatanim ng gulay? Ano pa?
Kung tayo'y maraming tanim na gulay,

ng sasagana po ang ating pagkain.
Makakatipid po tayo sa pagkain pagka't di na
po natin bibilhin ang mga ito
Opo.
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Sa palagay mo, angkop ba ang pamagat ng

ating tula?
F. Muling iparirinig ng guro ang tula.
Opo.
G. Naibigan mo ba ang narinig mong tula?
(lpaliliwanag ng bata.)
Ipaliwanag sa sariling pangungusap kungbakit
mo naibigan ang tula.
H. Paglalagom
Pagtitipid.
Anong karagdagang kaalaman ang iyong Hindi na po tayo bibili ng mahal na mga gulay.
napulot sa iyong narinig na tula?
Maging masipag po. Kumain po ng gulay na
sariwa.
Kumuha ng lapis at papel at iguhit ninyo ang
mga larawang ipinahihiwatig sa tulang narinig.
Kulayan ang inyong mga larawan.
IV. Takdang-aralin
Sumulat ng isang talata tungkol sa tulang napakinggan. Isulat kung bakit mahalaga ang wastong
pagkain.
Chapter IX
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
Objectives
1. Explain why classroom management is an integral part of teaching
2. Identify and explain the various approaches to classroom management
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3. Identify the elements of classroom management

Required Activities
2. Buzz session
3. Sharing
Why Is Classroom Management an Integral Part of Teaching
Ornstein (1990) states that in order to teach, one must be able to manage the students
under him. No matter how much potential one has as a teacher, if he is unable to control the
students in his classroom, little learning will take place. Classroom management is an integral
part of teaching and techniques of managing students must be acquired by the teacher.
Inadequate classroom management and discipline are widely considered by the public to
be a major educational problem. In the annual Gallup polls in education, discipline or the lack of
it, is listed as the number one or number two school problem each year for the last 20 years.
The classroom cannot function well without the teacher.
The success of the activities in the classroom depends on the ability of the teacher as classroom
manager. He takes care of two aspects of classroom management: namely, care of routine and
classroom discipline.
Classroom Management Defined
Carter V. Good's Dictionary of Education defines classroom management as the
"Administration or direction of activities with special reference to such problem as discipline,
democratic techniques, use and care of supplies and reference materials, the physical features of
the classroom, general housekeeping, and the social relationships of pupils.
According to Lardizabal, et al. (1991), classroom management includes operation and
control of activities. Such details as seating, attendance, use of instructional materials, classroom
courtesies, and discipline require foresight and planning.
A well-managed class is conducive to mental growth and development. Learning becomes
interesting and enjoyable under favorable working conditions.
Good classroom management establishes an atmosphere which permits activities to be
carried on efficiently and economically. It ensures wise use of both the teacher's and the pupil's
time, efforts, and energies. It spells careful use of the physical facilities of the school.
Approaches to Classroom Management
1. The assertive approach to classroom management expects teachers to specify rules of
behavior and consequences for disobeying them and to communicate these rules and
consequences clearly. The classroom is managed in such a way that students are not
allowed to forget who is in charge of the classroom.
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According to Duke and Mechel, "Students come to realize that the teacher expects
them to behave in a certain way in class." Teachers hold students accountable for their
actions. Students who disobey rules receive "one warning and then are subjected to a
series of increasingly more serious sanctions."
The technique assumes that firm classroom management liberates students because it
allows them to develop their best traits, skills, and abilities and provides them with
psychological security in the classroom and an effective learning environment. It also
assumes that good teachers can handle discipline problems on their own and that teaching
failure is directly related to the inability to maintain adequate classroom discipline.
The approach is probably most effective at the secondary level and in inner-city
classrooms where it is now recognized that chronic student behavior problems often
exist.
This type of approach was criticized in the 1960s as authoritarian, repressive,
militaristic, and prejudicial toward minority students. Its acceptance nowadays is due in
part to the student disruptions of the 1970s and the general public demand in the 1980s
for firmer discipline and higher academic standards for all students.
Suggestions for teachers applying assertive discipline:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
k)
l)
m)
Clearly identify expectations.

Take positions (Say, "I like that" or "I don't like that.")
Use a firm tone of voice.
Use eye contact, gestures, and touches to supplement verbal messages.
Say no without guilt feelings.
Give and receive compliments genuinely.
Place demands on students and enforce them.
Set limits on students and enforce them.
Indicate consequence of behavior and why specific action is necessary.
Be calm and consistent; avoid emotion or threats.
Follow through regularly.
Persist; enforce minimum rules; don't give up.
Establish positive expectations for student behavior, eliminate negative expectations
about students.
n) Gain confidence and skills in working with chronic behavior problems in the
classroom.
2. Business-Academic Approach. This was developed by Evertson and Emmer and
emphasizes the organization and management of students as they engage in academic
work. Task orientation, that is, focusing on the businesslike and orderly accomplishment
of academic work, leads to a clear set of procedures for students and teachers to follow.
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Evertson and Emmer divide organizing and managing student work into three major
categories: establishment and communication of work assignments, standards, and
procedures, monitoring of student work; and feedback to students.
Clear Communication of Assignments and Work Requirements
The teacher must establish and explain clearly to students work assignment, features of
work, standards to be met, and procedures.
a) Instruction for assignments. Explanation should be made in both oral and written forms.
In addition to telling the students about assignments, teachers should post assignments on
the chalkboard or distribute duplicated copies. Students should be required to copy
assignments posted on the chalkboard into their notebooks.
b) Standards for form, neatness, and due dates. Before students start, they should be given
general rules for all assignments: type of paper and writing material to use, page
numbering system, form for headings, due dates, and so forth. Students will then know
what is expected of them without having to be told each time.
c) Procedures far absent students. Routines should be established for make-up work for
absent students. These must include meeting briefly with students at a set time before or
after school, assigning class helpers who will be available at particular times of the day to
help the students, and having a designated place where students can pick up and turn in
makeup work.
Monitoring Student Work
Monitoring student work helps teacher to detect students who are having difficulty and to
encourage students to keep working.
a) Monitoring group work. Before helping any individual student with work, the teacher
mast be sure that all students start work and are able to do the assignment; otherwise,
some students will not even start the assignment and others may start incorrectly.
b) Monitoring individual work. Work can be monitored several ways, including circulating
around the room and giving feedback where needed, having students bring their work to
the teacher one at a time at some designated point during an activity, and establishing due
dates that correspond with stages in an assignment.
c) Monitoring completion of work. Procedures for turning in work must be established and
enforced. When all students are turning in work at the same' time, the best procedure is to
have the work passed in a given direction with no talking until all the work is collected.
d) Maintaining records of student work. It is important for teachers to keep a record of the
students' work and to incorporate it as part of the grade. The record should be divided
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into several headings, such as workbook assignments, major assignments or projects,

daily homework, and quizzes and tests.
Feedback to Students
Frequent, immediate, and specific feedback is important for enhancing academic
monitoring and managerial procedures. Work in progress, homework, completed assignments,
tests, and other work should be checked promptly.
a) Attention to problems. It is important for teachers to pay careful attention at the beginning
of the year to completion of classroom and homework assignments. The first time a
student fails to turn in an assignment without a good reason is the time to talk to the
student.
b) Attention to good work. Part of giving feedback is to acknowledge good work. This may
be done by displaying the work, giving oral recognition, or providing written comments.
The business-academic approach involves a high degree of "time on task" and "academic
engaged time" for students. The idea is that when students are working on their tasks, there is
little opportunity for discipline problems to arise. The teacher organizes students' work, keeps
them on a task, monitors their work, gives them feedback, and holds them accountable by
providing rewards and penalties. It is a no-play, no-frills approach, corresponding to old
fashioned "three Rs" and now packaged as part of the "academic productivity" movement in
education.
3. The behavior modification approach spends little time on the personal history of
students or on searching for the reasons for a particular problem. It strives to increase the
occurrence of appropriate behavior through a system of rewards and reduce the likelihood
of inappropriate behavior through punishments.
The basic principles of the behavior modification approach are as follows:
a) Behavior is shaped by its consequences not by the causes of problems in the history of
the individual or by group conditions.
b) Behavior is strengthened by immediate reinforcers. Positive reinforcers are praise or
rewards. Negative reinforcers take away or stop something that the student doesn't like.
c) Behavior is strengthened by systematic reinforcement (positive or negative). Behavior is
weakened if not followed by reinforcement.
d) Students respond better to positive reinforcers than they do to punishment. Punishment
can be used to reduce inappropriate behavior, but sparingly.
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e) When a student is not rewarded for appropriate or adaptive behavior, inappropriate or

maladaptive behavior may become increasingly dominant and will be utilized to obtain
reinforcement.
f) Constant reinforcement. The reinforcement of a behavior every time it occurs - produces
the best results, especially in new learning or conditioning situations.
g) Once the behavior has been learned, it is best maintained through intermittent
reinforcement - the reinforcement of a behavior only occasionally.
There are a number of systems or variations of behavioral modification that are
applicable to classroom management. They basically build limits and consequences into behavior
and employ various rules, rewards, and punishments. A well-known system utilized in various
social learning situations is termed modeling.
Models are effective in modifying behavior to the degree that they capture attention, hold
attention, and are imitated. Effective models may be parents, teachers, and other adults, public
figures, and peers.
The best models are those that individuals can identify with on the basis of one or more
of the following traits: physical attractiveness, personality, competence, power, and ability to
reward imitators.
4. The group managerial approach is based on Jacob Kounin's research. He emphasizes
the importance of responding immediately to group student behavior that might be
inappropriate or undesirable in order to prevent problems rather than having to deal with
them after they emerge. He describes what he calls the "ripple effect." If a student
misbehaves, and the teacher stops the misbehavior immediately, it remains an isolated
incident and does not develop into a problem. However, if the misbehavior is not noticed,
is ignored, or is allowed to continue for too long, it often spreads throughout the group
and becomes more serious and chronic.
Kounin analyzes classroom activities for purposes of management by dividing them into
categories of pupils' behavior and teacher management behavior.
Major categories of pupil behavior are work involvement and deviancy.
a) Work involvement is the amount of time students spend/engaged in assigned academic
work. It closely resembles what other researchers call "time on task" or "academic
engaged time." Students who are involved in work (writing in a workbook, reciting,
reading, watching a demonstration) exhibit fewer disciplinary problems than students
who are not involved in any assigned task. If the teacher keeps students involved in work,
there is less chance that boredom and discipline problems will arise.
b) Deviancy ranges from no misbehavior to serious misbehavior. No misbehavior means the
student is not purposefully upsetting another student or teacher or is slightly off task.
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Mild misbehavior includes such actions as whispering, making faces, teasing, reading a
comic, passing notes. Serious misbehavior is aggressive or harmful behavior that
interferes with others or violates school or social codes. The point is not to allow mild
misbehavior to generate into serious misbehavior by dealing with the mild misbehavior as
soon as it occurs.
Major categories of teacher behavior are desist techniques, movement management, and
group focus.
a) Desist techniques are teacher actions taken to stop misbehavior Kounin feels that they
depend on two abilities.
1) With-it-ness is the ability to react on target and in a timely fashion. It also involves
communicating to students that one knows what is happening or, as Kounin puts it, that
one "has eyes in the back of one's head."
2) Overlapping behavior refers to the teacher's ability to handle more than one matter at the
same time - say, a student who is reciting and another student who is interrupting with a
question or comment.
b) Movement management is the organization of behavior in transitions from task to task
within and between lessons. Movement may be characterized as smooth or jerky.
Smoothness is an even and calm flow of activities. It involves uninterrupted work periods
and short, fluid transitions that are made automatically and without disruption. In particular, the
teacher:
1) avoids unnecessary announcements and interruptions when students are busy doing work; 2)
finishes one activity before starting on the next; and 3) doesn't abruptly end or start an activity.
Jerking is a disorderly flow of activities. It may result if the teacher tries to do too many
things at once or does not make clear to students procedures for ending one task and changing to
a new one.
Movement management also involves momentum, that is, keeping activities at an
appropriate "pace." Momentum is slowed or impeded if the teacher engages in overdwelling or
fragmentation.
Overdwelling may take the form of giving explanations beyond what is necessary for
most students' understanding or lecturing, preaching, nagging, overemphasizing, or giving too
many directions.
Fragmentation takes the form of giving too much detail, breaking things down into too
many steps, or duplicating or repeating activities. For example, a teacher who calls students to
the desk to read, one by one, when one student can read aloud while the others listen, is engaging
in fragmentation.
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Movement management also refers to the technique of guiding students smoothly from
one activity to another, of the technique of keeping the lessons, and the group moving by
changing the pace or using variety when the need arises. It involves skills in routinizing
housekeeping activities to provide more time for instruction.
Among the housekeeping activities that need to be routinized are the following:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
seating arrangement;
entering and leaving the room;
taking class attendance;
using blackboard and keeping it clean after use;
passing, collecting, handling and putting away books, materials, and equipment; and
collecting and distributing students' papers.
c) Group focus is keeping the students focused on the group activity or task. It can be
achieved by what Kounin calls alerting. Alerting activities include creating suspense,
presenting new material, choosing reciters randomly, and selecting reciters. Group focus
can also be achieved by using accountability.
c) This involves such methods as asking students to hold up props, circulating to check the
products of non-reciters, and requiring students to perform and checking their
performance.
Kounin believes that work performance, smoothness, and momentum are enhanced by
instructional techniques that facilitate learning. Student satiation (boredom) can be avoided in
three ways: by providing a feeling of progress; providing challenges; and adding variety to the
lessons.
Kounin believes that student engagement in lessons and activities is the key to successful
classroom management. Students are expected to work and behave. The successful teacher
monitors student work in a systematic way, clearly defines acceptable and unacceptable
behavior, and exhibits with-it-ness and overlapping activities.
The successful teacher has a clear sense of direction and sequence for tasks. Smooth transitions
are made from one activity to another.
5. The group-guidance approach is based on changing the surface behavior of the students
on a group basis. Since teachers have few opportunities to work with students on an
individual basis, they must learn to work with groups of students and to maintain group
focus on the content and tasks of the group. Discipline and classroom control are
produced through the group atmosphere and enhanced through group rapport.
6. The acceptance approach to discipline is rooted in humanistic psychology and
maintains that every person has a prime need for acceptance. They want to belong and to
be liked by others who are important to them more than they want to learn. This approach
is also based on the democratic model of teaching in which the teacher provides
leadership by establishing rules and consequences, but at the same time allows students to
participate in decisions and to make choices.
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7. Success approach is also rooted in humanistic psycho" logy and the democratic model of
teaching. However, instead of dealing with inappropriate behavior and the consequences
of such behavior, it deals with general psychological and social conditions.
Glasser's view about discipline is simple but powerful. Behavior is a matter of choice.
Good behavior results from good choices, bad behavior results from bad choices. A teacher's job
is to help students make good choices.
Elements of Classroom Management
The elements of classroom management are physical arrangement or environment,
classroom routine, and discipline.
The topic on classroom routine has been discussed under the group managerial approach.
The discussions then of the elements will include only the physical arrangement or physical
environment and discipline.
Physical arrangement or environment includes the location, size, shape, and
construction of the room itself, the furniture in the room, the instructional supplies or resources
for learning, the provisions for lighting, heating and ventilating, the acoustics of the room, and
the provisions for sanitation, cleanliness, and orderliness.
Some factors that are included in the physical condition are not within the teacher's
control, for example, the size of the room and location of the building. But the resourceful and
creative teacher can make even the dullest room attractive and conducive to learning.
Aquino (1974) states that the teacher has many opportunities for creating with and for
children a classroom environment that promotes cooperative group experiences through which
children develop skills for living in a democrative society.
The term "classroom environment" for Aquino encompasses four factors, namely: 1) the physical
environment; 2) the intellectual climate; 3) the social climate; and 4) the emotional climate.
The climate inside the room is as important as the climate outside it. Such a climate is
more than physical; it includes the intellectual, social, and emotional.
Promoting a sound intellectual climate means that teachers must help the learners think
clearly, critically, and creatively. In this regard, the teacher can do a number of things.
He must understand that problem-solving develops through several stages. These stages include
recognizing the problem, collecting all of the facts that bear on the problem, forming tentative
solutions, and trying out the tentative solutions to see whether they work. All of these mean that
the teacher is creating an intellectual environment in which the learners are free to work out
under intelligent guidance the solutions to their own problems and, thus, grow in the ability to be
intelligent, self-directing citizens.
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The social climate of the classroom is as important as th8 intellectual climate. In general,
there are three types of social climate existing in classrooms, such as the autocratic, laissezfaire,
and democratic. In the autocratic climate, the teacher makes all the important decisions, directs
all the activities, and evaluates pupil progress in terms of arbitrary standards. In the laissez-faire
climate, each learner operates as an individual, strives for recognition of his own achievement,
and develops little regard for the rights and accomplishments of others. In the democratic
climate, goals are established and plans are made on the basis of cooperative group planning.
The role of the teacher is neither that of a dictator nor of an interested spectator but that of a
mature person responsible for guiding the work of the children as they work out goals, plan
activities, and evaluate achievements.
The emotional climate pertains to emotional adjustment. It has a great deal to do with
the mental health of children: To foster the right kind of emotional climate, the teacher must. see
that the personality needs of the learners are met in the 'classroom. The learner needs to feel
secure in his group. He must have opportunities to make decisions and to become increasingly
self-directing.
Classroom Discipline
The other big aspect of classroom management has to do with proper conduct of the
learners in the classroom. This is referred to as classroom discipline. The teacher should not only
take care of routine factors, he has also to maintain good discipline in his class to achieve good
classroom management.
Discipline, as applied to classroom instruction, is any means adopted by the teacher for
the orderly behavior of the learners.
Discipline to be effective should be vital, meaningful, and sympathetic. The learner
should know why he is called upon to conform to certain rules and regulations. The advantage of
proper conduct in society should be very clear to him. He should realize that developing
desirable habits will be of value in his future life.
Suggestions and Tips for Classroom Discipline
Lardizabal, et al. (1991) give the following suggestions and tips for classroom discipline:
a) Establish good routine habits and keep the learners busy.
b) Teacher should take stock of his ability to discipline his class by frequent selfevaluation.
c) Punishment should be adjusted to the offender and the offense. Never punish the
whole class for the offense of one individual.
d) Show the right kind of interest in your learners and in their school work.
e) Dress and behave in a manner that becomes a mature individual of your position.
f) Avoid gossip. Never talk about the deficiencies of your co-teachers or those of your
learners.
g) Make the learners believe and trust in you.
h) Never promise anything that you cannot do.
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i) Be genial, amiable, and friendly with your learners but always maintain a dignified
reserve.
j) Learn how to smile. A smile can disarm the most hardened offender.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aquino, Gaudencio V. Fundamentals of Effective Teaching.
Navotas, Rizal: Navotas Press, 1974.
Lardizabal, Amparo S., et al. Principles and Methods of Teaching. Quezon City: Phoenix
Publishing House, 1991.
Ornstein, Allan C. Strategies for Effective Teaching. Novatas, Rizal: Navotas Press, 1990,
Philippine copy.
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Chapter X
THE ASSIGNMENT
Objectives
1. Explain the meaning and importance of assignments
2. Identify the type and explain the functions of assignment
3. Discuss some pointers in the giving of assignments
Required Activities
1. Interview of students on how they perceive assignments and on how they perceive
their teachers' practice of giving assignments
3. Sharing
Introduction
According to Lardizabal, et aI., the value of the assignment in the teaching-learning
process has long been recognized by educators. It is an integral part of any lesson. Good teachers
plan their assignments well because they know that the success of any lesson depends in a large
measure on the kind of assignment given to students. Students do assignments that are clear,
worthwhile, and purposeful. To be able to make such an assignment is not easy especially for
beginning teachers.
Meaning and Importance of the Assignment
The assignment is that part of the lesson which tells the pupils what they are to do and
what they are to accomplish in the lesson. In the past, assignments were regarded as synonymous
with homework.
The modern teacher looks at the assignment as:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
a job to be done either at home or in class;

a lesson to be studied;
a theme to be written;
a project to be accomplished;
an exercise to be explained; f) a selection to be memorized;
a question to be answered;
an interview to be accomplished; and i) a review of the past lesson or lessons.
Such activities are parts of the teaching-learning cycle.
The assignment is the chief means of stimulating and directing learning activities inside
or outside the classrooms. It helps in creating favorable attitudes toward the task to be done. The
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students take pride in their accomplishments and each assignment completed is regarded as an
accomplishment which serves to motivate the students to do better.
The assignment can be the means of developing good study habits and independent work.
They become deterrents to waste of time since a well-planned lesson gives specific tasks and
goals to be accomplished.
Types of Assignment
1. Individual assignment. The most time-and-effort-consuming task for the teacher since
he must consider each pupil's needs, interests, abilities, and achievement level.
2. Group assignment. May be for a small group or it may be for the whole class. Activities
in the small group assignment are tailored to the needs, interests, and abilities of the
pupils belonging to a group.
The class assignment involves every member of the class. Criticism has been leveled
against this type of assignment since it does not provide for individual needs and
interests.
3. Day-to-day assignments. Daily assignments given by the teachers in every subject.
4. Long-range assignments. Projects or activities to be accomplished over a greater length
of time. Examples: panel discussions, dramatizations, debates, symposia and fora.
Projects are making scrap books, relief maps, doing experiments, collecting specimens,
reading of novels, and other activities which involve some time to prepare are long-range
assignments.
Functions of the Assignment
The first function is to set the goal or direction of the learning activity. The pupil must
know what he is supposed to do. His task must be clear and definite to him. Some assignments
stimulate logical and creative thinking. Others may give training in good study habits.
The second function is to review past lessons in preparation for a long test or it may call
for organization of ideas and concepts. Some teachers tell the pupils directly what to do. Others
involve pupils in determining the goals of the activities.
The third function is to motivate the pupils and prepare them for the job to be done. This
preparation includes giving the background of the activity. Pupils should know why they are
doing the task assigned. They should be convinced that the job is worthwhile and that they stand
to benefit from the exercise or project. Some questions to ask at this point should be:
1. Is the activity worthwhile?
2. Is the task within the interest and capability of the student?
3. Does it take into consideration the length and difficulty of the assignment?
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There are varied ways of motivating the students. The teacher can use the challenge
involved in the needs and varying abilities of the students, the natural tendency of pupils to see
what happens or the opportunity to develop necessary traits of character and personality.
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A fourth function deals with setting up definite learning activities to be carried out. Such
activities include practice exercises to reinforce what has been taught, completion of a project
begun in class, follow-up activities to develop certain traits, etc.
A fifth function deals with providing directions for the learning activity. Students must
be given clear instructions as to procedure, sources of materials, and criteria for evaluation of the
finished exercise or project. Many assignments are left undone because directions to the students
are either misleading or inadequate.
A pupil who comprehends the details of a specific piece of work will have the necessary
urge to do it. This stimulation and urge become all the more powerful when he realizes that the
assignment is a natural growth of past lessons.
The sixth function of the assignment has to do with establishment of the habits of
studying regularly. While the fifth function deals with how to study, the sixth function tries to
make students get into the habit of studying regularly.
Some students study only when they have homework or lessons to study. Regular
assignments will therefore help the students develop the habits of studying.
Requisites of a Good Assignment
Authorities on principles and methods of teaching agree that a good assignment should
be:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
clear and definite;

relates new learning to the old;
significant to the learner;
stimulating and challenging;
adapted to the learner's ability;
comprehensive; and
includes large units of work.
When to Give Assignments

There is no fixed time when the assignment should be given. It may be given at any time
during the recitation when the psychological moment arises. If the assignment has no direct
bearing on the lesson at hand, it may be given at the end of the lesson. Giving the assignment
depends upon the subject matter, the type of assignment, and the need for it.
Giving the assignment involves another question: How much time should be devoted to
the assignment? A day-to-day assignment requires a much shorter period than a unit or project
assignment. The whole period or more may have to be devoted to the assignment where
explanations and details are needed for the proper accomplishment of the project or experiment.
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Ordinarily, daily assignments should take no more than ten or fifteen minutes of a 60-minute
class period and from five to ten minutes of a 40-minute period. But certainly, there is no place
for an assignment given a few seconds before the bell rings.
Pointers to Consider in Giving Assignments
1. Make clear to the students the aims of the assigned task. They should know why they
are doing the task. They will do their assignments enthusiastically if they are convinced
that their assignments are worthwhile.
2. Make clear all directions, procedures, steps, cautions involved in the assignments.
Many projects are not realized because instructions are not clear and definite.
3. Clear all difficulties so that learning will be smooth and continuous. Difficult and
vague words or steps should be explained. Difficulties or obstacles to be encountered in
the preparation of the assignments should be anticipated and discussed. Sources of data
and references must be available.
4. Evaluation of the project or task should be very clear. Students should know how
their assigned projects will be evaluated or graded. The bases of grading should be agreed
upon by both teacher and students.
5. Assignments should not be given as punishment. Assignments should be positive,
rather than negative, means of learning.
6. Provisions for enough time to complete the assignment should be given. Teachers
should not compete with one another in giving assignments. It is not true that the
importance of the subject is gauged by the length of assignment given.
7. Teachers should distinguish between homework and assignments. Tedious and
lengthy homework should be avoided so that students will be given enough time to do
their assignments.
8. Assignments should be within the ability of students in amount and difficulty.
9. Assignments must be checked. Teachers should never give any learning task that they
cannot check or evaluate. Some teachers give projects like term papers that they do not
check. This is most unfair to students.
10. Assignments should be varied and interesting. Projects that students like to do will be
done better than teacher-imposed ones.
Evaluation of the Assignment
The following list of questions can help the teacher determine whether his assignment is
good or not.
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1. Are the objectives of the assignment attainable?

2. Are the sources of materials available and accessible to students?
3. Are the directions clear and specific?
4. Are the activities meaningful and worthwhile?
5. Does the assignment make use of past experiences of students?
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Lardizabal, Amparo S. et al. Principles and Methods of Teaching. Quezon City: Phoenix
Publishing House, 1991.
Ornstein, Allan C. Strategies for Effective Teaching. Navotas, Rizal: Navotas Press, 1990.
Philippine copy.
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Chapter XI
THE ART OF QUESTIONING
Objectives
1. Enumerate and explain the characteristics of good questions
2. Explain the principles that must be observed in the art of questioning
Required Activities
1. Library research on the characteristics of good questions
2. Classroom observation with the help of an observation guide
3. Post-classroom observation/discussion
Introduction
Lardizabal, et al., state that one of the teaching tools conveniently placed in the hands of
a teacher is the question. And yet too many teachers either use it carelessly or fail to see its
possibilities for promoting effective learning. Even with the teaching formula of "assign, study,
recite, test," the traditional classroom at all levels was dominated by activities of the question and
answer type.
Although the traditional teaching formula has fallen into disrepute in current educational
practices, questioning still .remains an indispensable part of good teaching.
There are even some who say that the effectiveness of a teacher can be gauged by his
ability to ask good questions.
Skillful questioning involves knowledge of the various uses of the question, the
characteristics of a good question, the techniques of questioning, and the techniques of handling
students' responses and questions.
Uses of Questions
1. To stimulate pupils to think
2. To motivate pupils
3. To diagnose pupils' difficulties
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4. To discover pupils' interests

5. To help pupils organize and evaluate
6. To aid pupils to relate pertinent experiences to the lesson
7. To focus pupils' attention on the key points of the lesson
8. To develop new appreciations and attitudes
9. To provide drill or practice
10. To show relationships, such as cause and effect
11. To encourage the application of concepts
12. To encourage pupil evaluation
1. To stimulate pupils to think. Getting pupils to think intensively about the subject matter
is a common problem of teachers. The effective use of thought-provoking questions
serves well in this connection if the teacher knows when to raise the question and how to
state the question. Emphasis is not upon recall of facts but upon thinking about facts in a
meaningful, interrelated way. Factual knowledge is incidental to learning only if it is
made meaningful through established tasks with actual situations and experiences.
The thought provoking question is used by teachers in all subjects, although it is
probably used more often in such areas as mathematics and social studies, which are
concept-centered.
Example:
What good will it do us if we consent to amending the charter? Would you rather go for
poll computerization this national election? Why?
2. To motivate pupils. Question can be used effectively to arouse and hold the interest of
pupils. Questions must be able to make pupils enthusiastic about learning a new topic,
reacting to a story, and discovering more details previously unknown to them. Often,
questions are used to motivate as initial part of the lesson. They may, however, be
utilized for other purposes like developing good attitude~ toward work in the classroom.
For example, the teacher in a mathematics class may pose the question, "Can you
imagine what else can the depreciated peso buy nowadays?"
On taking up a unit on heavenly bodies in grade five, the teacher may start the lesson
by asking, "Have you even wondered how the planets revolve around the earth? Are there
moonlit nights?"
An example of a motivating question to hold the interest of the class in health
education after a unit on health problems has been started may be as follows:
"If you were the doctor, what would you do to help the barrio folks understand the
need for cleanliness of surroundings?"
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3. To diagnose pupils' difficulties. Questions can be helpful in determining the difficulties

of students in any lesson. By using a wide range of question types - objective or
subjective, oral or written, thought-provoking or simple - a teacher will be able to obtain
a valid appraisal of the pupils' specific weaknesses, indicating what remains to be done to
help the pupils. For example, in diagnosing the difficulties of students in the use of the
present tense, third person, singular number, the following questions may be asked:
What is referred to as the S form of the verb?
What form of the verb is required by a plural subject in the third person?
4. To discover pupils' interest. Some random questions by the teacher may reveal what
children are interested in. By encouraging pupils to raise questions, the teacher will soon
find their interests, which are important factors in learning.
Example:
List down some of your favorite hobbies.
What would you prefer, horseback riding or mountain climbing? Why?
5. To develop the ability to organize and evaluate materials or experiences. Through
questions, teachers can lead the pupils to evaluate carefully the values or merits of the
data gathered and to realize their relative significance.
Example:
Was the King right in abdicating his throne in favor of his cousin?
Do you think parents are to blame for their children's mistakes?
How true is the statement that "Life is pre-destined"?
Aside from developing the ability of the pupils to evaluate, questions can be utilized
further to help the pupils organize the data evaluated into a form that makes for larger
generalizations. The teacher can formulate questions that will lead pupils to see relationships
upon broader interpretation and conclusion. For instance, a teacher may ask the following
questions regarding taxes:
Why do people pay taxes?
What do people get in return for paying their taxes?
Why do some people avoid paying taxes?
How does the BIR ensure effective collection of taxes?
6. To aid pupils to relate pertinent experiences to the lesson. Children come to school
with varying experiences which may have important bearing in the understanding of a
given lesson. To supplement and clarify certain difficult points in a lesson, teachers can
draw upon the experiences of the children through the use of questions. For example, in
teaching about the different kinds of clouds, the teacher may ask:
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Have you ever enjoyed watching the clouds on a bright sunny day? What did you
observe?
What happens to these clouds when it is about to rain?
7. To focus pupils' attention on the key points of the lesson. Some kinds of questions can
help pupils pick out and remember the main ideas in a lesson. These questions can also
help pupils organize their thinking about a lesson in a logical way. For example, in
preparing a report about an educational trip made by pupils to the Rizal Park, the teacher
may pose these questions:
What about Rizal Park did you find most interesting?
Tell something about it as a historical place, as a national park, and as a tourist spot.
Sometimes the class discussion may wander and become quite unrelated to the main idea
of the lesson. In this case, the teacher can pose questions that will reduce the pupils' thinking and
direction to the important items in the lesson being discussed. In a math class, for example, if the
discussion has strayed from the lesson, a question such as the following might be in order.
Going back to the lesson we are discussing, what are the advantages of paying your dues
on time?
How does the school accommodate promissory notes?
8. To develop new appreciations and attitudes. Questions can be used to help pupils
modify, clarify, or expand ideas relating to appreciations and attitudes. A well-directed
series of questions may awaken or change a certain type of response to a given situation
and thus, condition the response thereafter toward similar ideas or modes of behavior that
can develop an appreciation of the beauty of nature, the teacher in literature may ask the
following:
What are the basic life realities mentioned in the poem?
Which is the most common? Why?
What does the. . . symbolize in the poem?
9. To provide drill or practice. For certain types of learning, certain facts need to be fixed
in the mind. Such facts are necessary either to continue to stimulate thought or elicit
automatic response. Questions that involve frequent recall will help pupils' retention of
facts. Such questions are very helpful in subjects like languages and mathematics, for
example:
What verb form is appropriate for expressions like a year ago, last month, last night, an
hour ago?
How can we find the number of times one fraction is contained in another when the
denominators are alike?
When they are unlike?
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10. To show relationships, such as cause and effect. Why questions lead pupils to think
about situations in relation to their causes. Such questions are important to avoid
meaningless repetition of facts without real understanding of their relationships. Figuring
out why story characters feel and act as they do, seeing what scientific principles explain
a health or safety rule, noticing events that lead to other events in history - these involve
perceiving cause-and-effect relationships. Example of some questions of this type are as
follows:
What are the ill-effects of smoking'?
How does drought affect the supply of rice?
Why should the government adopt emergency measures to combat water crisis?
Why are barrio folks superstitious?
11. To encourage the application of concepts. Questions can best be used to help pupils see
how they can apply the new concepts developed in a lesson to new situations or
problems. A lesson takes on personal meaning for pupils when questions that point out
the ways new ideas can be used are asked. Such questions can be used to good advantage
in certain subjects. In mathematics, for example, after children have known a variety of
geometric shapes, they may be taught the wide application of geometric shapes in their
environment by using the following questions:
What objects can you find in the classrooms that are round, square, triangular, etc?
Why are the wheels on your toys like a circle?
Why are the doors of your home like a rectangle?
Why are these shapes used in each particular instance?
Why do you prefer a round table to a rectangle?
Characteristics of a Good Question
What makes a good question? The following criteria are characteristics of a good
question:
1. A good question is simple and clear. It is so constructed that students can easily
understand what is asked, although they may not know the answer to it. The teacher must
avoid ambiguity, confusing constructions, double questions, parenthetical remarks, and
other verbiage which might cause the pupils to miss the point of the question. For
example, "Who called up while I was away?" is a good question, but "Who called?" is a
question that cannot be answered until the learner knows the exact time.
2. A good question is definite. It is so stated as to permit only one answer. "Who was our
President who stayed in power for 20 years, and why was he called a dictator?" is a poor
question, for, it requires two distinctly different lines of thought and should be broken
into two separate questions.
3. A good question is challenging and thought-provoking. It must stimulate the student to
compare, evaluate, draw conclusions, and appraise results. Unless the purpose of
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questioning is drill, a question which can be answered by merely repeating some facts
from a book can never be as stimulating as a thought question. Examples of such
questions are:
How can you tell if a storm is coming?
Why are local fabrics of lesser quality than those imported?
4. A good question is adapted to the age, abilities, and interests of the students. The
general level of ability and interests of students at various grade levels differ. Or, within
an age-grade itself, there may be variations due to different home environments among
pupils. There is no point in embarrassing or frustrating a pupil by asking him questions
which are beyond his capacity. Neither is there much point in asking easy questions
which will not stretch the intellect of bright pupils.
Examples of questions adapted to age and abilities of students are:
Elementary:
Secondary:
College:
Show that Oriental Mindoro is favorably located.

How has the location of Oriental Mindoro made her agriculture-based?
How will the location of Oriental Mindoro promote her status or position
in the MIMAROPA areas?
5. A good question requires an extended response. Unless the purpose of questioning is

drill, a question must not call for a single word or phrase answer. A single word ~or
phrase answer tends to become the simple recall type and it could introduce the element
of guessing in the classrooms. This is especially true with questions that call for either
"yes" or "no" answers. If teachers will raise questions that call for answers in sentence or
paragraph form, the probable results will be extended analysis, synthesis, and
organization of response. For example:
In what ways is the Philippines affected by the financial instabilities in the Asian region?
Why has the peso remained a volatile commodity?
If questions framed by teachers comply with the above criteria, teaching will be improved
tremendously.
Techniques of Questioning
Questioning requires skill. It often takes many years of classroom experience,
professional reading, and self-evaluation for a teacher to be a proficient questioner. All the while
the teacher must make a constant and persistent effort to improve his questioning ability and
technique. Toward this end, the following techniques are suggested.
1. Questions should be asked in a natural and well modulated voice. Questions should
not be asked hurriedly nor in a way that is likely to create nervous tension in the student
and thereby, block the student's thinking.
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2. A teacher should ask the question first and then wait for the class to think about it
before calling on a student to answer the questions. In this way, everyone has a chance
to think before anyone tries to answer it. Students should be given enough time to
formulate the answer. Furthermore, this technique will keep all the students alert. If
students are appraised before hand as to who is to answer the question, inattention will
result.
3. A sufficient number of questions should be asked to stimulate students to activity.
There should not be too many questions to the extent that they require a minimum of
thought and the giving of very short or one word answers. Too many questions lead to so
much teacher activity and not enough on the part of the students.
4. A teacher should refrain from repeating questions. Attention is challenged when
questions are not repeated. However, if for some legitimate reasons, the student did not
hear or understand the question, then, of course, one has to repeat the question. This
technique also applies to repeating answers. Repeating answers merely wastes time and
encourages inattention.
5. Questions should be evenly distributed so that the majority of the pupils can take
part in the discussion. Difficult questions should be asked of bright students. A teacher
should encourage all students to share in the group thinking at all times.
6. A teacher should avoid resorting to any mechanical system of fielding questions to
the class, such as by alphabetical order or row by row. Students catch on to these
devices, thus, resulting in student inattention.
7. A teacher should ask questions that are really interesting and thought-provoking.
Leading questions which give away answers, one-word answer questions, and the like
may result in boredom on the part of the students.
The manner in which the teacher handles the answers of the students is as important as
the asking of questions. The following techniques are suggested for the teacher to observe in
handling student responses to his questions:
1. A teacher should make every effort to show an appreciative attitude toward student
answers. The students should be made to feel free to do their best. They should be
allowed to make mistakes without fear of recrimination, but they should not be abetted in
doing careless work. When the student does not answer correctly, the teacher can ask
further questions to help the student discover for himself why his original answer was
wrong. The teacher should refrain from giving sarcastic comments to wrong answers.
2. A teacher should never allow wrong answers to slip by; otherwise the students will
learn wrong facts and concepts. A portion of an answer that is correct should be
recognized, but any part of an answer that is incorrect should be corrected. This can be
done by the teacher pointing out the error himself or by throwing the question to the class
for discussion.
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3. Correct answers of students should be followed with encouraging remarks by the

teacher. Commendations should be judged by the nature of the response.
4. Clarity in every point expressed by the students should be insisted upon by the
teacher. If a student fails to make a point clear, the teacher can ask him to elaborate.
5. Answering in concert should be discouraged. Allowing the whole class to shout the
answers aloud will result in classroom chaos. It will also give the lazy or inattentive
student the chance to go unnoticed.
6. A teacher should encourage students to answer in a loud and clear voice. A student's
response should be heard by the other students in the class. This is especially important
when the student's answer will be thrown to the class for the other students to comment
on.
7. Students should be encouraged to answer in complete thought units and
grammatically correct statements. Every teacher should be concerned with the
development of correct expression, whatever subject he teaches. He should insist upon
correct forms of expression in order that they may become habitual to the students.
8. A teacher should refrain from marking the students in his record book during the
class recitation. Such a procedure is probably the worst way to handle a student's
response. This will reduce the recitation to the level of traditional recitation. It will create
nervous tension among students and may paralyze critical thinking and hamper
spontaneity.
Techniques in Handling Student Questions
The student, not just the teacher, should ask questions. Student questions should be
encouraged because they reflect their mental activity. A student will be likely to ask questions
only if the teacher will create that type of classroom atmosphere.
How should a teacher handle questioning so that he will be constantly encouraged to ask
questions?
The following are techniques suggested in handling student questions:
1. Student questions should be welcomed by a teacher. If students know that their
questions will be respected by the teacher, then a teacher can expect more students to ask
questions.
2. A teacher should not answer a student question right away. He should first turn over
the question to the class for other students to answer and probably discuss.
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3. Indiscriminate student questions should not be allowed. Trivial and insignificant

questions should be dismissed by the teacher, not automatically but in a brief way such
that the student will realize why the question does not merit attention.
4. A teacher should require students to frame grammatically correct questions.
5. If a teacher is asked questions he cannot answer, as sometimes happens, he should
promptly admit his inability. Perhaps a student in the class does know. If not, the
teacher should help the students to look up the answer. After class, he himself should
look up the answer, too.
Types of Questions
According to Ornstein (1992), questions can be categorized in many ways: (1) according
to the thinking process involved, from low level to high level or (according to the cognitive
taxonomy) from knowledge to evaluation; (2) according to type of answer required convergent
or divergent; and (3) according to the degree of personal exploration or valuing. Some authorities
have also developed descriptive categories of questions that deal with academic tasks and
activities.
According to thinking process involved:
Low-level questions emphasize memory and recall of information. When was Mindoro
divided into Oriental and Occidental? Where is Banaue Rice Terraces? Who obtained the highest
vote in the Senatorial position? These questions focus on facts and do not test understanding or
problem-solving skills.
High-level questions go beyond memory and factual information and deal with complex
and abstract thinking.
Examples: What were the reasons for dividing the province of Mindoro into Oriental and
Occidental? Why is Banaue Rice Terraces considered a scenic spot and one of the wonders of the
world? What are the implications if the Bill on the Magna Carta of Students sponsored by
Congressman Edcel Lagman will be signed into law? What are the effects of the El Nino
phenomenon to the economic, political, and social aspects of our life?
These questions are obviously more advanced, more stimulating, and more challenging
and, in many cases, there are no right and wrong answers. As the questions become more
advanced, they involve more abstractions and points of view. Asking high-level questions
demands patience and clear thinking on the part of the teacher, as creating appropriate timing,
sequencing, and phrasing is no easy task for even the experienced teacher.
According to type of answer required:
Convergent questions tend to have one correct or best answer. For this reason, they are
often mistakenly identified as low-level and knowledge-questions, but they can also be
formulated to demand the selection of relevant concepts and the solution of problems dealing
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with steps and structure. Convergent questions can deal with logic and complex data, abstract
ideas, analogies, and multiple relationships. It can also be used when students work on and
attempt to solve difficult exercises in math and science, especially dealing with analysis of
equations and word problems.
Often convergent questions must be asked first to clarify what students know before
advancing to divergent questions.
Convergent questions usually start with what, who, when, or where.
Divergent questions are often open-ended and usually have many appropriate, different
answers. Starting a "right" answer is not always most important, rather it is how the students
arrive at their answer. Students should be encouraged by the teacher to state their reasoning and
to provide supporting examples and evidence. Divergent questions are associated with high-level
thinking processes and can encourage creative thinking and discovery learning.
Divergent questions usually start with how or why. Divergent questions require more
flexibility on the part of the teacher. For the student, divergent questions require the ability to
cope with not being sure about being right and not always getting approval from the teacher. In
general, the pace of questioning is slower. There is more opportunity for students to exchange
ideas and differing opinions. There is also more chance for disagreement among students and
between students and teacher - which is often discouraged or viewed as tangential by teachers.
According to the degree of personal exploration or valuing:
Valuing is a process in which students explore their feelings and attitudes, analyze their
experiences, and express their ideas. The emphasis is on the personal development of the learner
through clarifying attitudes and aspirations and making choices.
A teacher can stimulate valuing through probing questions. Keep in mind, however, that a
6-year-old cannot be confronted or probed in terms of feelings or attitudes in the same way as a
16-year old. The teacher must also consider how far to get students to express themselves in the
classroom, especially in front of their peers, to avoid unexpected, unintended, or extreme
emotional reactions.
Louis Raths and his colleagues have developed a model for clarifying the values of learners. For
them, valuing consists of seven components:
1. Choosing freely
What made you forego your first real ambition in life?
How long did it take you to decide to abandon your career for good?
What would you have done had not better opportunity come your way?
2. Choosing from alternatives
What other options did you consider before making your final choice?
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How long did it take you to decide which way to go?

Was it a tough decision to make? What made you join the Lakas-NUCD?
3. Choosing after considering the consequences of each alternative.
What possible consequences will your actions bring?
Have you given this thing a serious thought?
I guess you wanted to say. . . (interpret statement)
4. Prizing and cherishing
Are you sorry for having missed the chance to see them off?
How long have you cherished such thought?
Why does it matter so much to you and your family?
5. Affirming the choice to others
Would you explain why you felt bad about the politician's dirty tactics?
Would you consider running for an important position in the government?
Are you saying that male chauvinism is a thing of the past?
6. Acting upon choices
You have been very vocal about your choice. Is there, still anything you want done?
What are your priorities?
Are you willing to invest your fortune despite the consequences?
7. Repeating
Have you been trying hard to have the resolution signed?
How often do you travel?
What are your plans for doing more of it?
Several authorities have formulated their own categories and models of questions. James
Gallagher sorts questions into four categories:
1. Cognitive-memory questions require students to reproduce facts or remember content
through processes such as rote memory or selective recall. For example, "What is the
referred to as the legislative body of the Philippines?"
2. Convergent questions require students to recall information that leads to a correct or
conventional answer. Given or known information is usually the expected response;
novel information is usually considered incorrect. For example, "Summarize the salient
features of a republican system of government."
3. Divergent questions require students to generate their own data or a new perspective on
a given topic. Divergent questions have no right answer, they suggest novel or creative
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responses. For example, "What will happen if the Bill of the Magna Carta of Students
will be signed into a law?"
4. Evaluative questions require students to make value judgments about the quality,
correctness, or adequacy of information, based on some criterion usually set by the
student or by some objective standard. For example, "How would you evaluate the
recently concluded 47th Foundation of Oriental Mindoro?"
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Chapter XII
SMALL COOPERATIVE LEARNING
Introduction
One of the problems encountered by teachers is the inability of the students to
communicate in class. Discussions always drag, but interest is nonetheless high. By working in
small groups, the students may come to know and understand each other better, and
consequently, be able to communicate more effectively.
Dividing the students into small groups aims to provide an opportunity for the students to
become more actively engaged in learning and for the teachers to monitor the student progress
better. Between five and eight students should be the optimum number to ensure successful small
group activity.
Small group instruction works best in rooms with movable furniture, but it can also be
used in classrooms with fixe a furniture. Small groupings can enhance the student cooperation
and social skills. Appropriate group experiences foster the development of democratic values,
cultural pluralism, and appreciation of differences among people. Small group instruction can
provide interesting challenges, permit the students to progress at their own pace, provide a
psychologically safe situation in which to master the material, and encourage them to contribute
to class activities.
SMALL GROUP DISCUSSIONS
A. Group Development
Small groups are typically used in elementary school reading and mathematics. The
teacher divides the class into two or three groups, depending on the number of pupils, their range
of ability, and the number of groups the teacher is able to handle. The teacher usually works with
one group at a time, while the other pupils do seatwork or independent work.
The use of small groups can be extended beyond the typical grouping in elementary
reading and mathematics to all grade levels and subjects. There are seven logical criteria on
which small grouping can be based.
1. Ability. Grouping by ability reduces the problems of heterogeneity in the classroom.
2. Interest. Students have some choice in group membership based on special interests in a
particular subject matter or activity.
3. Skill. The teacher forms groups in order to develop different skills in the students or to
have them learn to work with different types of materials.
4. Viewpoint. Students have some choice in forming groups based on feelings about a
controversial issue.
5. Activity or project. The teacher forms groups to perform a specific assignment.
6. Integration. This grouping considers race, ethnicity, religion, or sex, to enhance human
relations.
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7. Arbitrary. Groupings are made at random or on the basis of alphabetical order, location in
the room, or some other method not related to student or work characteristics.
Groups, like individuals, develop, grow, and pass through discernible stages in this
process. The Schmucks (1988, as cited by Arends, 1994) have adapted general theories about
group development and have created a four-stage developmental model for classroom groups.
These four stages are summarized on the following page.
Figure 5: Schmucks' Stages of Classroom Development
Stage
Stage 1. Inclusion and membership
Group and Members' Needs and Behaviors

Early in classroom life, the students seek to find a
niche for themselves in the peer group. Students want
to present a good image and are on their good
behavior.
Teachers have great influence during this period
because of their assigned authority. Everyone is
sizing up one another and the issues of inclusion and
membership must be resolved before the group can
move along to the next stage.
Stage 2. Influence and collaboration

Members of the class enter into two types of power
struggle. One struggle tests the authority of the
teacher; the other establishes the peer group pecking
order. Tensions will exist between the students and
the teacher and among the students themselves during
this stage. If these tensions cannot be resolved and
power relationships balanced, the group cannot move
along very productively to the next stage.
Stage 3. Individual and academic goals
The classroom enters a stage of development for
working productively on academic goals. Students
during this stage can set and accomplish goals and
work together on tasks. The classroom can also be
pulled back into the earlier stages during this stage.
Stage 4. Self-renewal/adaptive change
This stage is one in which members can think about
their continuous growth and about taking on new and
more challenging tasks. This is also a stage that can
produce conflict because change in tasks will perhaps
upset earlier resolutions of issues around membership
and power.
Source: R. A. Schmuck and P. A. Schmuck, pp. 178-187.

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The Schmucks are quick to point out that the stages of classroom development are not
always sequential. Instead, they are often cyclical in nature, with many of the stages repeating
themselves several times during the school year.
The teachers can assist the development of their classroom groups in two important ways.
They can teach the students that groups grow and learn in some of the ways individuals do. They
can also explain and help the students learn how to work in groups and provide leadership to
group efforts.
Positive communication and discourse is perhaps the single most important variable for
building groups and productive learning environments. It is through classroom discourse that
norms are established and classroom life defined. It is through discourse that the cognitive and
social aspects of learning unite.
David Berliner (as cited by Ornstein, 1992) contends that teachers who engage in small
group instruction seem to attend to five strategies of teaching, as follows:
1. compensation, favoring the shy, quiet, or low-achieving student
2. strategic leniency, ignoring some inappropriate behaviors of students
3. proper sharing, enlisting some students to aid in sharing homework or tutoring
responsibility
4. progressive sharing, compensating, for the problems of low-ability students
5. suppressing emotions, limiting their emotions or feelings because they feel they are
inappropriate or may lead to management problem.
Thus, the apparently simple task of organizing small groups involves numerous complex
decisions and strategies. Regardless of the basis of the grouping, assignments should be specific
enough and within the range of the students' abilities and interests so the group can work on its
own without teacher support. This permits the teacher to single out the group for attention or to
help individuals by explaining, questioning, redirecting, and encouraging.
B. Group Activities
In various kinds of group activities, the teacher's role moves from engineer or director to
facilitator or resource person, and many leadership functions transfer from the teacher to the
students. Although there is no clear research showing that the group techniques correlate with the
student achievement, it is assumed that under appropriate circumstances, instruction in these
groups can be effective rather than relying on the teacher as the major source of learning. It is
also assumed that many kinds of group activities 1) help the teachers deal with differences
among learners, 2) provide opportunity for the students to plan and develop special projects on
which groups can work together, and 3) increase the student interaction and socialization. In
short, they achieve social and emotional as well as cognitive purposes.
There are many ways for teachers to arrange activity in groups. Different group
arrangements, also called group projects, result in different roles and responsibilities for the
students and teacher.
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Possible group projects/activities:

1. A committee is a small group working together in a common venture for a given period
of time. Using committees succeeds to the extent that members grow socially in the
group process and are able to accomplish cognitive tasks apart from close teacher
direction. A committee representative may be chosen to report to the entire class.
2. Brainstorming is a technique to elicit large numbers of imaginative ideas or solutions to
open-ended problems. Group members are encouraged to expand their thinking beyond
the routine sort of suggestions. Everyone's suggestions are accepted without judgment,
and only after all the ideas are put before the group do the members begin to focus on a
possible solution.
3. A buzz session provides an open environment in which group members can discuss their
opinions without fear of being "wrong" or being ridiculed for holding an unpopular
position. Buzz session can also serve to clarify a position or bring new information before
the group to correct misconceptions.
4. The debate and panel are more structured in format than some of the other small group
activities. In a debate, two positions on a controversial issue are presented formally; each
debater is given a certain amount of time to state a position, to respond to questions from
others in the group, and to pose questions. The panel is used to present information on an
issue and, if possible, to arrive at group consensus. Several students (three to eight) may
sit on a panel. Each panel member may make an opening statement, but there are no
debates among panel members.
5. A symposium is not as structured as a debate and not as relaxed as the give-and-take
exchange of a panel. The symposium is appropriate for airing topics that divide into
clear-cut categories or viewpoints. Participants are expected to represent a particular
position and try to convince others, but the method of interaction is more spontaneous
and no one is timed as in a debate.
6. Role playing and improvisation are techniques for stepping outside of one's own role
and feelings and placing oneself in another's situation. Role playing also serves as a
technique for exploring intergroup attitudes and values.
7. Fish bowl is a technique in which group members give their full attention to what one
individual wants to express. The whole group sits in a circle. Two chairs are placed in the
center of the circle. A member who wants to express a point of view does so while sitting
in one of the chairs. Any other member who wants to discuss the view takes the other
chair, and the two converse while the others listen. To get the discussion, the students
must wait for one chair to be vacated.
8. A critiquing session is the examination of members' work by the group. The group offers
constructive comments and suggestions about ways to improve the work.
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9. Round table is a quiet, informal group, usually four or five students who sit around a
table conversing either among themselves (similar to buzz session) or with an audience
(similar to a forum).
10. A forum is a panel approach in which members interact with an audience.
11. Jury trial is a technique in which the class simulates a court room. It is excellent for
evaluating issues.
12. Majority-rule decision making is a technique for arriving at an agreement or selecting
an individual for a task when members of the group hold different opinions. It involves
discussion, working out compromises, and making conclusions or decisions based on the
wishes of the majority.
13. Consensus decision-making requires that group members agree. Consensus requires that
the views of all members of the group be considered, since the group must arrive at a
conclusion or agree on a plan of action.
14. A composite report synthesizes and summarizes the views or information of all
members of a group. Rather than a series 'of reports by individual members, one report is
presented in written or oral form to the class or teacher.
15. An agenda is a formal method of organizing a group task. The students or the teacher can
plan the agenda, and members of the group must keep it.
16. The seminar group is a deliberative body looking for a solution to the problem based on
readings, experiences, and minds of its participants. The discussion is on an issue,
problem, situation, or proposition for which an answer, a solution, or a policy is
formulated.
Using group techniques in flexible and imaginative ways can have important instructional
advantages.
1. They give the students some control over their own personal adjustment as well as over
their cognitive learning.
2. They allow the teacher to plan different lessons to meet the needs and interests of
different groups.
3. They permit the teacher to vary instructional methods, to plan interesting and active
activities.
4. They supplement the lecture, questioning, practice, and drill methods.
The key to the success of group projects is the way the teacher organizes them. Flexible
space and furniture undoubtedly make them easier. All of the group techniques if planned and
implemented properly, tend to promote five group oriented characteristics in the classroom:
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1. task structures that lend themselves to cooperation among group members

2. a chance for students to work at their own pace, but think in terms of group goals
3. the development of social and interpersonal skills among participants - the students learn
to communicate with and trust one another
4. a reward structure based on the performance of the group
5. a variety of team building strategies - the students learn to work together, appreciate
individual diversities, and capitalize on individual strengths.
Based on a five-year longitudinal study, Daniel Solomon (as cited by Ornstein, 1992) lists
five major behaviors that should evolve with an effective group project.
1. Cooperative activities in which the students work on learning tasks or play together.
2. Regular participation in helping and sharing activities.
3. Experiencing the positive expectations of others (that is, the group expect members to be
considerate, cooperative, take responsibility, help, and share). '
4. Role-playing and other activities designed to enhance children's understanding of other
people's needs, intentions, and perspectives.
5. Positive discipline which includes the development and clear communication of rules and
norms that emphasizes the individual's rights and responsibilities with respect to others.
David Johnson (1989) points out that when the students, work on group projects, they
must learn to disclose their attitudes and behaviors in an honest way:
1.
2.
3.
4.
by giving and receiving supportive feedback,

by focusing on specific problems, not personalities,
by providing feedback that the receiver can understand, and
by providing feedback on actions that the receiver can change.
Mutual trust and communication is improved. The giving and receiving of feedback in
this way requires courage, understanding, and respect for others and oneself. The teacher should
stress that honesty and support are important and can be used to improve or hinder people's
attitudes and actions, and therefore they should not be taken' lightly.
Guidelines for Group Activities
In order to organize group activities, the following recommendations are given. They are
basically sequential, although each recommendation should be used only if it coincides with the
circumstances and teaching style of the teacher.
1. Decide on the group project selectively to enhance objectives and outcomes.
2. Consider social and cognitive purposes (intermixing the students by ability, matching the
students and topics, blending personalities, promoting social or racial integration) and
potential managerial problems when assigning members to groups.
3. Solicit volunteers for membership in group projects, reserving the right to decide final
membership.
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4. Go over directions for carrying out each phase of the group activity in writing or orally to
the point of redundancy.
5. Explain the role of participants, the way they are to interact, and whatever problems
might occur. Define roles, interactions, and problems through examples and preliminary
simulations.
6. Be sure that individuals can function socially, emotionally, and intellectually in their
roles as members of a particular group.
7. Allot class time for groups to organize, plan, and develop some of their projects or
assignments, with supervision as needed.
8. Be sure a group is able to function effectively and do a good job before asking it to
perform for the class.
9. Allow group members to decide on the nature of the class presentation, within general
rules that have been established.
10. Do not allow any individual to dominate the activities or responsibilities of the group. All
members of the group should participate, within the limits of their abilities, and assume
responsibilities for the success of the project.
11. Evaluate the completed group project with the students.
1. Discuss the problems and decisions participants had to face and the strategies chosen by
each participant. Note recommendations and revisions that should be implemented with
the next group project.
12. Do not direct a class into a group project unless you are willing to work harder than you
would in large group instruction. The process of organizing and supervising group
projects from behind the scenes of the classroom is almost always more taxing than the
process of direct teaching in the foreground of the classroom.
COOPERATIVE LEARNING
A. Main Features of Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning is a model of teaching with a set of common attributes and features.
Cooperative learning is a set of instructional methods in which the students work in small
mixed ability working groups. It involves the instructional use of small groups so that the
students work together to maximize their own and each other's learning. Cooperative learning
encompasses a wide variety of strategies to promote academic learning through peer cooperation
and communication. It implies that the students help each other, share ideas and resources, and
plan cooperatively what and how to study.
Cooperative learning was basically one of the principles of the progressivists who
differed in many of the theories and practices, but were united in their opposition to certain
traditional practices in school. One of the most famous proponents of it is John Dewey.
Progressive educators and philosophers encourage the students to be involved in cooperative
groups and view the teacher as a facilitator and resource person. They focus on the child as the
learner rather than someone who is just getting information as a form of learning.
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Cooperative learning structures are an integral part of the open environment, but
circumscribed approaches to cooperative learning have been introduced into a variety of setting,
where they may constitute only part of the child's school experience.
The goal of cooperative learning is to maximize the learning of all the students and to
increase the mutuality of their relationships with the children different from their race or
themselves.
B. Situations that Require Cooperative Learning
There are a lot of instances wherein a teacher may use the cooperative learning strategy
but they can be trimmed down into three, since some of them fall under the same purpose.
1. Cooperative learning is best for activities that demand cooperative thoughts or
mathematical thinking. Included in this are solutions where long-term retention is
desired, lessons that require decision making, task where solutions are not readily
apparent, and lessons that need higher level reasoning strategies and critical thinking.
2. Cooperative learning can also be used in open-ended problem solving activities that call
for clarification and a range of strategies for finding the solution. Included in this is a task
that requires hypothesizing, estimating, and experimenting.
3. Cooperative learning can also be used for activities where there are limited resources and
lessons that provide opportunities for students to apply and/or extend skills and concepts.
C. Philosophy of Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning sees the development of an individual in reference to his group's
completion of a task; it also takes into account the collective performance of the group. Seeing
both of these, the groups are rewarded according to how much all the group members learned.
Cooperative learning; can create a positive impact on the individual's self-esteem, helping
behavior, interest, personal liking, mutual concern among peers, cooperation, and attitude toward
school and learning. Students learn to negotiate and to be more tolerant of others.
Cooperative learning leads to greater cohesiveness, susceptibility to peer influence and an
unwillingness to risk disagreement. It provides "a forum in which students ask questions, discuss
ideas, make mistakes, learn to listen to others' ideas, offer constructive criticisms, and summarize
their discoveries in writing." (NCTM's Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School
Mathematics, 1989, p. 79).
The teacher is no longer seen as the authority who dispenses knowledge to students who
merely absorb information.
Students become more important resources for one another in the learning process. They
work together helping each other integrate prior knowledge and new knowledge and discover
their own meanings as they explore, discuss, explain, relate, and question new ideas and
problems that arise in the group.
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D. Basic Elements in Cooperative Learning

1. Positive Interdependence. This means that the students in the group believe they can
work together. The members of the group recognize that there is a need to coordinate
efforts to accomplish the tasks that the teachers assign. There is a link among the
members that the success of one is the success of all. There are four ways to structure
positive interdependence.
a. Establish a positive goal interdependence. Each member's effort should be
directed toward the group's goal. The goal should be part of the lesson. A teacher
may structure the goal for the group or the group itself may formulate its own
goal.
b. Provide a positive reinforcement. Positive reinforcements like rewards can
enhance the quality of cooperation among the members of the group. Rewards
may be individual or joint rewards. In joint rewards, the teacher considers the
group's overall production; individual rewards considers each member's
contribution to the group's performance.
c. Promote positive resource interdependence. Positive resource interdependence is
created when the members of the group are given a limited resource to be shared
by them. For example, one copy of the problem or task is provided to the group.
The students work on the problem or task on scratch paper and share their ideas
and insights on the problem. Another example of promoting positive resource
interdependence is providing each member a part of the resource or material
which they must fit together to form a whole. This is the jigsaw procedure.
d. Create a positive interdependence. Each member should be assigned a role. The
roles should complement one another. These roles include that of a reader,
recorder, checker, encourager, and elaborator. The reader reads the task/problem
to the group. The checker sees to it that each member of the group knows and
understands how to go about the task or problems. The encourager gamely
persuades the members to participate in the group discussion and planning of
ideas and sharing of feelings. The recorder writes down the things discussed in the
group. The elaborator explains further the topics discussed and has the
responsibility of making the topics more understandable to the members of the
group. Assigning roles to the members of the group ensures active participation of
each member in the learning process.
2. Face-to-face promotion interaction. It is the result of positive interdependence among
the members of the group. If the members of the group are able to encourage and assist
one another, in learning a lesson, promotive interaction exists. The generous exchange of
needed resources, efficient and effective processing of information and honest and open
feedback mechanism to improve the performance or roles and responsibilities are some of
the indications of promotive interaction. In cooperative situations,' there is more tutoring
and members more frequently help one another than in competitive and individualistic
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situations. Competitive situations result in individuals obstructing each other's efforts to

achieve, refusing to help, and engaging in antisocial behavior.
3. Individual accountability and personal responsibility. This component entails an
assessment of each student's performance, the result of which is given back to the student
and the group. The group holds the individual responsible for contributing his fair share
to the group's achievement of the goal. It is important that the group knows who among
its members would need more assistance and encouragement to perform the tasks
assigned.
4. Social Skills. This element of cooperative learning involves the use of interpersonal and
small group skills. But the students should be taught these social skills and be motivated
to use them in cooperative groups. To achieve common goals, the members of the group
must know each other, trust each other, communicate openly with each other, accept and
support each other, and resolve conflicts reflectively.
5. Group Processing. It is an act of reflecting on what actions of the group members were
helpful and not helpful to the achievement of the goals and deciding on what actions
should be changed and continued. The main purpose of group processing is to clarify and
improve the effectiveness of the contribution of the members of the group in performing
the tasks and achieving the group's goal.
Group processing can take place at two levels; in a small group and in the whole class. In
small group processing, the teacher allows time after each class session for the group to discuss
how they have performed their assigned tasks that contribute to the attainment of the goal.
Whole class processing includes holding a discussion in front of the class on how the
group worked/performed on the tasks that led to the attainment of the goal.
Both the small group and' whole class processing should allow the students a feeling of
celebration. The feeling of success and being appreciated for having contributed to the
attainment of the groups goal encourages the students to work cooperatively with one another.
Likewise cooperative learning demands specific tasks from the teachers. These tasks
include:
1. specifying objectives of the lesson;
2. making decisions about placing the students in learning groups before the lesson is
taught;
3. explaining the task and goal structure to the students;
4. monitoring the effectiveness of the cooperative learning groups; and
5. evaluating the student's achievement and helping the students discuss how well they
collaborate with each other.
Specifying objectives include academic and social objectives. The academic objectives
must be specified at the correct level for the students and matched to the right level of instruction
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according to a conceptual or task analysis. The social skills objective specified the interpersonal
and small group skills to be emphasized during the lesson.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
size of the group

grouping of the students
physical setting of the classroom
planning instructional materials
assigning roles to create interdependence
Structuring of tasks and goals to promote positive interdependence can be accomplished through
the following steps:
1.
2.
3.
4.
explaining the academic task

explaining the criteria for success
structuring positive interdependence
structuring individual accountability
To be able to monitor and intervene with the learning of the students, the cooperative teacher
should monitor the students' behavior to see what they do and do not understand, and check what
problems they have in working cooperatively. The cooperative teacher should also assist with the
task by clarifying instructions, reviewing important procedures and strategies, and teaching skills
related to the task.
Evaluating learning and processing interactions should mark the end of every cooperative
learning session. A discussion of how the group worked cooperatively, shared of incidents,
reflected on experiences, and determined ways of further improvement will also strengthen
group learning.
Researchers confirm the benefits derived from cooperative learning. It promotes active
learning - the students learn more when they listen positively. The students are motivated to do
more and eventually achieve more. Cooperative learning fosters respect for diversity and
improves language skills. It leads to improvement in self-esteem and in social skills. It bonds
communication interaction, the sharing of ideas, listening, and decision making.
Cooperative learning is a method that leads to academic success as well as social success;
it is not difficult and expensive to implement.
In cooperative learning, students divide the work among themselves, help one another
especially the slow members, praise and criticize one another's efforts and contributions, and
receive a group performance score. Of all the cooperative learning arrangements, the two
developed by Slavin are most popular: the student team achievement divisions (STAD) and team
assisted instruction (TAl). Both arrangements have been found to increase the student
achievement, given the proper implementation. In STAD, teams of four or five members
(preferably four, which contradict) an earlier statement that groups of four tend to pair off) are
balanced by ability, gender, and ethnicity. Students are ranked by previous test scores or grades
and divided into thirds or quarters. Each team consists of one student from each of the thirds or
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quarters of the class ranking, with extra middle-ranked students becoming the fourth or fifth
members. STAD involves five basic steps.
1. The teacher presents the lesson to the whole group in one or two class periods.
2. Team study follows for one or two class periods. Students who have already mastered the
material help slower, teammates with it. Drill is stressed, although the students can
engage in discussion and questioning. In a group of four students, only two copies of the
work sheets and answer sheets are given to each team to encourage team interaction and
support. The students can work alone, if they prefer, or in pairs or threes. The team is not
finished with the assignment until all members can score 100 percent on a practice quiz.
The students are supposed to give one another explanations, not just check answer sheds
and supply answers. The teacher moves around the room to monitor the teams' activities,
and provides additional assistance.
3. Class quizzes are given frequently to see if the students have learned the material while in
the group. The students return to their assigned seats or move their desks apart for
quizzes. The student scores are averaged into a team score, so that group members are
more likely to help each other. Quizzes are scored in terms of progress so that slowperforming groups have the opportunity to gain recognition. The teacher grades the
quizzes promptly, or the students may exchange test papers for faster feedback.
4. Recognition is given teams for high average scores or improvement scores. Recognition
can be given through bulletin boards, certificates, class newsletters, and letters to parents.
Individuals are also recognized for good performance to maintain motivation, but a
balance between individual reward and team accomplishment must be found. Giving too
many individual rewards heightens competition and reduces cooperation.
5. Teams are changed every five or six weeks to give the students an opportunity to work
with other students and to give the members of low scoring teams a new chance.
E. Guidelines for Cooperative learning
Specific strategies for cooperative approaches developed by David and Roger Johnson
are as follows:
1. Arrange the classroom to promote cooperative goals. The students will need to work
in clusters, and seating arrangements should reflect this need. Provide sufficient space
and study areas for the students to share, position media equipment in a way that the
students have easy access as a group.
2. Present the objectives as group objectives. The group and not the individual is the
focus. Gear the reward structure to achieving group objectives.
3. Communicate intentions and expectations. The students need to understand what is
being attempted. They should know what to expect from the teacher and from each
student in the group and what the teacher expects them to accomplish.
4. Encourage a division of labor where appropriate. The students should understand their
roles and responsibilities. This will take time and practice.
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5. Encourage the students to share ideas, materials, and resources. The students should
look to each other and not the teacher. The teacher may act as a catalyst in making
suggestions, but not be the major source of ideas.
6. Supply a variety of materials. Since the sharing of materials is essential to the group,
sufficient quantities and variety are needed. If materials are insufficient, the group may
bog down and perhaps become disruptive.
7. Encourage the students to communicate their ideas clearly. Verbal messages should
be clear and concise. Verbal and nonverbal message should be congruent with each other.
8. Encourage supportive behavior and point out rejecting or hostile behavior.
Behaviors such as silence, ridicule, personal criticism, one-upmanship, and superficial
acceptance of an idea should be discussed and stopped since they hinder cooperation and
productive group behavior.
9. Provide appropriate cues and signals. Point out when the noise level is too high
("Things are getting a little too boisterous.") Direct the group's attention to individual
problems and encourage the students to use the group. ("Check with the group"; "Would
you please add this problem to the group's agenda?")
10. Monitor the group. Check progress of individuals in a group and of the group as a
whole. Explain and discuss problems, assist and give praise when appropriate.
11. Evaluate the individual and group. In evaluation, focus on the group and its progress.
Evaluate the individual in the context of the group's effort and achievement. Provide
prompt feedback.
12. Reward the group for successful completion of its task. After evaluation, recognition
and rewards should be given on a group basis so that individuals will realize that they
benefit from each other's work and will help each other succeed.
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Chapter XII
HIGHER LEVEL THINKING
Introduction
Most experienced teachers would agree that conveying information to students is very
important but that teaching the students how to think is even more important. Experienced
teachers also know that concepts are the basic building blocks for thinking, particularly higher
level thinking. Concepts allow individuals to classify objects and ideas and to derive rules and
principles; they provide the foundations for the idea networks that guide our thinking. The
process of learning concepts begins at an early age and continues throughout life as people
develop more and more complex concepts, both in school and out. The learning of concepts is
critical in schools and in everyday life, because concepts allow mutual understanding among
people and provide the basis for verbal interaction.
Skills are abilities to do things. They are competencies that people possess that enable
them to perform in certain ways. Skills are different from knowledge in that they require more'
than just knowing. They require doing, with some degree of proficiency.
Skills, however, are just as much school content as knowledge. They are part of what the
students need to learn and part of what teachers must teach. Skills differ from both knowledge
and affective learning and are taught differently, but they are an important dimension of school
instructional programs and are central to the reasons that schools exist.
In at least two ways, thinking which is a complex skill or combination of skills, is
especially important as content to be taught in schools. First, all students must learn to think;
second, the extent to which they do affects all their other learning.
When experts explain thinking, they usually use technical terms. Many say it involves at
least three elements - intellectual processes, mental activities, and cognitive strategies.
In combination, they help people make sense out of the information and other stimuli
that they encounter in their lives and relate new information to ideas they already have. Thinking
involves so many skills that people do all of the following: to impose intellectual order or
disorder, to gain insight, to predict consequences, to propose solutions to problems, and to decide
what to do when faced with a decision.
Some educators say thinking is a uniquely human trait. It is the most significant
characteristic that separates human from other forms of life because human thinking is at a
higher and more sophisticated level than that of other worldly creatures. These higher levels of
thinking are described in many ways and often with highly specialized language. Some of the
more common general labels are critical thinking, systematic thinking, theoretical thinking, and
abstract thinking. More specific terms that define particular aspects of thinking are
conceptualizing, comprehending, computing, inferring, interpreting, analyzing, synthesizing,
problem solving, generalizing, applying knowledge, and evaluating.
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Key Features of Higher-order Thinking (Lauren Resnick, 1987 as cited by Arends, 1994)
1. Higher-order thinking is nonalgorithmic. That is, the path of action is not fully specified
in advance.
2. Higher-order thinking tends to be complex. The total path is not visible (mentally
speaking) from any single vantage point.
3. Higher-order thinking often yields multiple solutions, each with costs and benefits, rather
than in unique solution.
4. Higher-order thinking involves nuanced judgment and interpretation.
5. Higher-order thinking involves the application of multiple criteria, which sometimes
conflict with one another.
6. Higher-order thinking skill often involves uncertainty.
1. Not everything that bears on the task at hand is known.
7. Higher-order thinking involves self-regulation of the thinking process. We do not
recognize higher-order thinking in an individual who allows someone else to "call the
plays" at every step.
8. Higher-order thinking involves imposing meaning, finding structure in apparent disorder.
9. Higher-order thinking is effortful. There is considerable mental work involved in the
kinds of elaborations and judgments required.
Higher Level Thinking Skills
1. Concepts are the basic building blocks around which people organize their thinking and
communication. A concept's critical attributes help define it and distinguish it from other
concepts. The various kinds of concepts include:
a) Conjunctive concepts this kind of concept has a constant rule structure. J:he concept
of island, for example, always involves land surrounded by water. A triangle is a
plane, closed figure with three sides and three angles. The rule structure for this
concept is constant. The critical attributes are combined in an additive manner and are
always the same.
b) Disjunctive concepts - this concept is broader and more flexible and permits
alternative sets of attributes. Th8 rule structures are not constant. Example, the
concept of a strike in baseball is based upon a number of alternative conditions. A
strike may be when a batter swings and misses, when an umpire determines that the
pitch was in the strike zone even though the batter did not swing at the ball, or when
the batter hits a foul ball. The concept "noun" is another example of a disjunctive
concept since, a noun may be a person, a place, or a thing, but it cannot be all three at
the same time.
c) Relationship concepts - a concept whose rule structure depends on relationships. The
concept of "aunt" describes a particular relationship between siblings and their
offsprings. The concept "time" and "distance" are also relational concepts.
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Students grasp general concepts mainly by being presented with specific examples and
nonexamples of the concept.
Learning a particular concept involves identifying both examples and nonexamples. For
instance, a cow is an example of a mammal but is a nonexample of a reptile.
Australia is an example of a country in the southern hemisphere, but it is a non example of a
developing country. Cotton and silk are examples of the concept "fabric," but leather and steel
are nonexamples.
2. Concept learning and logical thinking are critical goals for almost everything taught in
schools. These become important scaffolding for building student understanding of
school subjects. Concept learning is essentially a process of putting things into classes or
categories.
3. The knowledge based on concept learning and teaching is extensive. Studies have shown
how age and intellectual development influence readiness to learn concepts. Studies have
also shown how examples and nonexamples should be presented to maximize the student
learning and how the teachers can use such specific practices as visual and mental images
and graphic organizers to support concept learning.
4. The instructional effect of concept teaching is mainly to help learners acquire conceptual
understanding of the subjects they are studying and to provide a basis for higher level
thinking.
5. A concept lesson consists of four major phases, such as:
Phase
Teacher/Behavior
Phase 1. Presenting goals and establishing Teacher explains the goals and procedures for the
setting
lesson and gets the students ready to learn.
Phase 2. Providing
nonexamples
examples
and In the direct presentation approach, the teacher

names the concepts, identifies the critical
attributes, and illustrates them with examples and
nonexamples.
In concept attainment, examples and nonexamples
are given and students inductively arrive at the
concept and its attributes.
Phase 3. Testing for attainment
Phase
4.
Analysis
of
thinking
Teacher presents additional examples and

nonexamples to test the students' understanding of
the concept. Students are asked to provide their
own examples and nonexamples of the concept.
and Teacher gets the students to think about their own
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integration of learning
thinking processes. Students are asked to examine

their decisions and the consequences of their
choices. Teacher helps the students integrate new
learning by relating the concept to other concepts
in a unit of study.
6. There are several different approaches to teaching concepts. Two of the most prevalent
are direct presentation and concept attainment.
In direct presentation, the teacher labels and defines the concept early in the lesson and
then presents the best examples through exposition.
In concept attainment, the teacher presents examples and non examples of a particular
concept but does not define and label the concept until the end of the lesson.
7. Preinstructional tasks include concept selection and analysis, selection of examples and
nonexamples, and decisions regarding the sequence in which to present the examples.
a) Selecting and Analyzing Concepts
The curriculum is the primary source of key concepts for instruction. These concepts may
be embedded in a textbook or contained in local curriculum guides.
Charts, diagrams, and webs, as well as pictures can be employed as visual examples of
abstract concepts. They can also aid the teacher in analyzing the concept for instructional
decisions.
A web provides a visual image of the characteristics and relationships generating from
the core idea of a concept. There are four steps in constructing a web for a particular concept.
Step 1: Create the core, which is the focus of the web.
This would be the name of the concept.
Step 2: Construct strands branching out from the core. These strands are critical attributes of the
concept.
Step 3: Draw strand supports, which connect the critical attributes to the concept.
Step 4: Identify the strand ties, which may show relationships among the various attributes.
b) Selection of Examples and Nonexamples
This is the most difficult phase of concept teaching. Examples serve as the connectors
between the concept's abstraction and the learner's prior knowledge and experiences.
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Examples must be meaningful to the learner and must be as concrete as possible.

Figure 6: List of Easy and Difficult Examples and Nonexamples of Adverbs
1.
2.
3.
4.
Easy Examples
You are so happy.
She has been absent lately.
Slowly; she walked home.
The train chugged loudly.
Medium Examples
Are you fighting mad?
Clouds gathered threateningly.
It was not difficult to explain.
The most dangerous weapon is a gun.
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.
2.
2.
5.
Difficult Examples
1. The small floral print looked pretty.
2. Cats are my No.1 favorite ', pet.
3. He wants the dark purple bicycle.
4. The book had three color pictures
1.
2.
2.
4.
Easy Nonexamples
Sewing makes you happy.
She has been late.
She is slow.
4. The loud train chugged.
Medium Nonexamples
Do you fight?
The threatening clouds gathered.
It is difficult to explain that not is a
negative word.
Most guns are dangerous weapons.
Difficult Nonexamples
The small print looked pretty
One special cat is my
He wants the dark rim to match.
The book had three pictures.
c) Choosing and Sequencing of Examples and Nonexamples

Examples and nonexamples should be sequenced for presentation in a logical fashion,
and normally sets should be ordered from the easiest to the more difficult.
Teachers may also want to plan to give cues to focus students' thinking before each set of three
to five examples.
8. Through questioning and discussion, teachers help the students analyze their thinking and
integrate new learning with old as the final phase of a concept lesson.
9. As with other instructional models, a major post-instructional task requires teachers to
match their testing programs to the model's particular goals.
10. When evaluating the students' understanding of a concept, it is important to ask the
students to do more than merely define the concept. Students should also be asked to
demonstrate their knowledge of the concept's critical attributes and its relationship to
other concepts.
CRITICAL THINKING
Definitions
Critical thinking is a careful and deliberate determination of whether to accept, reject, or
suspend judgment on a claim (Brooke & Parker, 1989).
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Critical thinking is reasonable reflective thinking that is focused on deciding whether; to

believe or not (Ennis, 1987). It is an activity both practical and reflective, that has reasonable
belief or action as its goal.
Critical thinking comprises the mental processes, strategies, and representations people
use to solve problems, make decisions and learn new concepts (Sternberg, 1985).
Critical thinking is the process of assessing conclusions based on evidence. Assessing
conclusions with evidence takes several forms, such as:
Confirming conclusions with facts

Identifying bias, stereotypes, cliches, and propaganda
Identifying unstated assumptions
Recognizing overgeneralizations and undergeneralizations
Identifying relevant and irrelevant information (Eggen, 1996).
Logical reasoning is a complex weave of abilities that helps one to get someone's point, explain a
complicated idea, generate reasons for your viewpoints, evaluate the reasons given by others,
decide what or what not to do, decide what information to accept or reject, see the pros as well as
the cons and so forth (Dowden, 1993). Logical reasoning is also called critical thinking.
Importance of Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is very important. It is needed in the following daily teacher activities:
solving problems
making decisions
evaluating pupil's statements/actions/behavior
assessing the information/data gathered
arguing about issues
judging
making predictions/projections
acting/reacting/pro acting
Students who have developed a high degree of competence in critical thinking can make
judgments about information related to personal, social, economic, political, and other related
issues affecting their lives. They can scrutinize a newspaper editorial, select criteria, judge
information in terms of these criteria and write a persuasive argument justifying a tightly
reasoned judgment. Students' skills in critical thinking will also be applicable more likely to their
personal lives. '
Brandth (1989) suggests that in order to qualitatively improve the students' ability to
think, three approaches should be employed, such as:
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Teaching for thinking

Teaching of thinking
Teaching about thinking
Teaching for thinking calls for creating conditions at the school and classroom level
conducive to thinking. The teacher's strategies include posing problems and questions that
require thinking at different levels.
Teaching of thinking refers to the direct instruction of thinking skills and strategies.
Teachers should be aware of definitions and distinctions among various thinking skills, introduce
skills directly as lessons and incorporate thinking strategies into content areas.
Teaching about thinking focuses on making the students aware of their own and others'
thinking processes and their use in real life situations. This approach called metacognition
involves the students in reflecting on how they solve problems. Teachers guide the students
toward independently planning, monitoring, and assessing their thinking processes.
Only teachers who understand what critical thinking is and deliberately engage in it can
help the students improve their own critical thinking skills.
The Three General Skills in Critical Thinking
Jonassen (1996) states that critical thinking involves the dynamic reorganization of
knowledge in meaning and usable ways. It involves three general skills, such as evaluating,
analyzing, and connecting.
1. Evaluating is making judgments about something by measuring it against a standard.
Evaluating is not expressing a personal attitude or feeling. It involves recognizing and
using criteria in different instances. Recognizing criteria is important when criteria are
unstated, otherwise, the learning is required to use a publicly available set of standards. It
is also important that the students be able to determine which criteria are appropriate.
Skills necessary for evaluating information:
assessing information for its reliability and usefulness, and discriminating between
relevant and irrelevant information (e.g. evaluating the meaningfulness of criticism of
a film based on the ability of the critic; evaluating a historical account in terms of its
accuracy.
determining criteria for judging the merits of ideas or products by identifying relevant
criteria and determining how and when they will be applied (e.g. developing an
evaluation sheet for critiquing research studies, establishing evaluation guidelines for
judging an art show)
prioritizing a set of options according to their relevance or importance (e.g. ranking a
set of interventions for solving a child's behavioral problem; rating a set of bonds for
long-term gain)
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recognizing fallacies and errors in reasoning, such as vagueness, nonsequiturs, and

untruths (e.g. propaganda in political campaigns, sales pitches that promise more than
they can deliver)
verifying arguments and hypotheses through reality testing (e.g. solving proofs in
geometry; checking the accuracy of arguments in court actions)
2. Analyzing involves separating a whole entity into its meaningful parts and understanding
the relationships among those parts. Manipulating part/whole relationships helps learners
understand the underlying organization of ideas. Analyzing knowledge domains involves
skills such as:
recognizing patterns of organization (e.g. meter and rhyme schemes in poetry;

arithmetic series)
classifying objects into categories based on common attributes (e.g. sets in math,
plant/animal classifications; economic, social or political groups)
identifying assumptions, stated or unstated, including suppositions and beliefs that
underlie positions (e.g. postulates in geometry; meaning in advertising campaign)
identifying the main or central ideas in text, data, or creations, and differentiating core
ideas from supporting information (e.g. discovering the theme of a series of paintings;
finding important arguments or themes in a passage or poem)
finding sequences or consecutive order in sequentially organized information (e.g.
determining sequences for preparing dishes in a meal; determining the order of
operation in solving math problems).
3. Connecting involves determining or imposing relationships between the wholes that are
being analyzed. Connecting compares and contrasts things or ideas, looks for cause-effect
relationships, and links the elements together. Connecting builds on analyzing because it
often compares wholes based on the parts that were analyzed. It involves skills such as:
comparing/contrasting similarities and differences between objects or events (e.g.

comparing business plans, contrasting different phyla of animals in terms of
locomotion)
logical thinking, required to analyze or develop an argument, conclusion or

inference; or provide support or assertions (e.g. evaluating the logic used in a
geometric proof or a position paper in economics; using a method for determining
an unknown element in chemistry)
inferring deductively from generalizations or principles to instances (hypotheticodeductive or syllogistic reasoning) (e.g. proving theorems given a set of axioms;
solving logic problems in philosophy)
inferring a theory or principle inductively from data (e.g. developing a theory of

animal behavior from observing animals in the wild; drawing conclusions from
collections of data such as tables or charts)
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identifying causal relationships between events or objects and predicting possible

effects (e.g. predicting the effects of a physics experiment; inferring the causes of
social strife in a country)
Higher Order and Critical Thinking: The Role of Metacognition

Metacognition is the awareness of and control over our cognitive processes. Nickerson
(1988) characterizes the role of metacognition in higher order and critical thinking in this way.
"The fact that an individual has some knowledge that would be useful in a given situation does
not guarantee that it will be accessed and applied in that situation."
Metacognition is the ability to know what we know and what we don't know, or thinking
about the way we think as is now viewed as central to the development of skillful thinkers.
Basic Processes in Thinking
Process
Subprocesses
Observing
Finding patterns and generalizing
Comparing and contrasting Classifying
Forming conclusions based on patterns
Inferring Predicting Hypothesizing
Assessing conclusions based on evidence Confirming

(Critical thinking)
facts/observations
conclusions
with
Checking consistency
Identifying bias, stereotypes, cliches, and
propagandas .
Identifying unstated assumptions
Recognizing overgeneralizations and under
generalizations
Identifying relevant and irrelevant information
A number of attitudes and inclinations associated with higher-order and critical thinking
have been identified.
Some of them include:
A desire to be informed
An inclination to be reflective
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The tendency to look for evidence

An inclination to look for relationships (versus isolated pieces of information)
A desire to know both sides of an issue
An attitude of open-mindedness
Healthy skepticism The tendency to reserve judgment
Respect for others' opinions
Tolerance for ambiguity
Elements of Thinking
Figure 9: Elements of Thinking

Expert teachers go beyond essential teaching skills to promote higher-order and critical
thinking in their students.
Teaching for thinking and deep understanding of content cannot be separated, and expert
teachers simultaneously teach both.
In addition to acquiring a deep understanding of specific content together with using
basic cognitive processes, developing thinking includes training in metacognition and developing
the attitudes and dispositions associated with thinking. Teaching for thinking and deep
understanding of content emphasizes high levels of student involvement and classroom
discussion, the process of acquiring knowledge as well as the knowledge itself, and learning in
context. It deemphasizes learning based on memorization, teacher lecture, passive students, and
knowledge learned as isolated concepts.
Models of Intelligence
Sternberg (1988) believes that any theory of intelligence must be able to do three things:
1. relate intelligence to an individual's internal world and explain what happens when a
person thinks intelligently;
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2. accept the relation between the external world and that person's intelligence, and explain
how intelligence functions in the real world; and
3. relate intelligence to the individual's experiences.
Three current interpretations of intelligence that have particular relevance for the
teaching of thinking skills are: Sternberg's triarchic model, Gardner's multiple intelligences, and
Perkins' thinking frames and mindware.
A. Sternberg's Triarchic Model of Intelligence
Robert Sternberg (1986), a cognitive psychologist and leading theorist on human
intelligence and problem solving, believes that intellectual skills and thinking skills are
inseparable, although there is more to intelligence than thinking.
He developed the triarchic model of intelligence consisting of three elements designed to explain
what intelligence "should do."
1. Componential. Sternberg identified three types of in formation-processing
components that constitute the initial segment of our intelligence: metacomponents,
performance components, and knowledge-acquisition components.
a) Metacomponents are the executive components of intelligence used to plan, monitor, and
evaluate problem-solving strategies.
b) Performance components help us to execute the instructions of the metacomponents; they
are the implementation segment of intelligence. Among these are inferring relations,
applying these relations to new stimuli, and comparing attitudes to stimuli. Students must
learn when to use the various components and to use them in as many situations as
possible. Inference is particularly important. For example, you overheard that your
student is in the hospital. You may infer that he is there because he is doing part-time
work.
c) Knowledge-acquisition components refer primarily to our ability to acquire and use
language, thus enabling us to use contextual cues in solving problems. The key here is to
help the students determine which facts are pertinent. Sternberg (1988) identified three
crucial processes.
First is selective encoding in which the individual detects relevant facts that are not
immediately obvious.
Second is selective combination in which the individual sees a way of combining
unrelated facts.
Third is selective comparison in which the person combines old and new information. For
example, a college instructor who conducts his class according to cognitive principles may
encounter a student who is not doing well in this method. The instructor may recall an
educational psychology course in his undergraduate class, in which the professor, while
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discussing the theory of behaviorism, mentioned that some students need a carefully planned
reinforcement schedule.
The three components are highly interactive; they generally act in teams as they allow a
person to plan, act, and receive feedback.
2. Experiential. This tells us that our experiences increase our ability to deal with novel
tasks and make information processing more automatic. For example, reading about
the use of projective technique tests would not mean that you can now administer,
score, and interpret these tests. You must experience the novelty of actual
administration, scoring, and interpreting the test for you to become competent in the
future.
3. Contextual. This specifies the functions to which components are applied in coping
with the external world. Its major thrust is adaptation. It refers to: (a) adaptation to
this existing environment in order to fit better into them;(b) shaping this existing
environment or changing present environments to more suitably meet one's need; and
(c) selecting a new environment which involves evaluation of the present
environment and selection of new, more favorable environments.
B. Gardner's Multiple Intelligences
Gardner's theory of multiple intelligence is based on his belief that the brain has evolved
separate systems for different adaptive abilities, talents, or mental skills that he calls
"intelligences." According to Gardner (1991), there are seven types of intelligences, each of
which is developed to different degrees in every person. Gardner further assumes that the brain
pathways underlying these intelligences are developed to different extents and the damage to
specific brain pathways interferes with one or more of the intelligences. For example, damage to
speech centers interferes with linguistic intelligence and damage to the cerebellum interferes
with bodily-kinesthetic intelligence.
1. Logico-mathematical - using logical and numerical patterns and deductive reasoning;
used by mathematicians, scientists, and logicians.
2. Linguistic - sensitivity to sounds and meanings of words and language abilities; used by
writers and literature teachers.
3. Musical- sense of rhythm, pitch, and melody, and appreciation of musical expressions;
used by musicians.
4. Spatial - spatial memory and manipulating and transforming perceptions of visual
objects; used by artists and architects.
5. Bodily-kinesthetic - control of bodily movements and pro-prioceptive abilities; used by
athletes and skilled artists.
6. Interpersonal- understanding and dealing with the moods, temperaments, motivations,
and behaviors of other people; used by counselors, social workers, and salespersons.
7. Intrapersonal- understanding one's own feelings, motivations, needs, strengths, and
weaknesses; used in guiding one's own behavior.
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Most individuals used most or all of these kinds of thinking, with varying levels of
skills. And when one engages in complex learning tasks, one uses combinations of these
different kinds of thinking.
C. Perkins' Thinking Frames and Enculturation of Mindware
David Perkins (1986-1987), desiring to help schools in addressing thinking skills, stated
that any perspective on the teaching of thinking must confront the problem of intelligence, if or
no other reason than to help teachers decide whether those they teach are already functioning at
their intellectual "ceilings" or upper levels.
Perkins (1987) stressed that as educators, one should not limit his view of intelligence.
Instead one should identify the psychological factors that contribute to a broader, more
qualitative model of intelligence. For this part, he conceptualized intelligence in this way.
Intelligence = Power + Tactics + Content
1. A power theory of intelligence. This is solely dependent on the neurological efficiency of

the brain (a genetic interpretation).
2. A tactical theory of intelligence. This holds that those who think better do so because
they know more tactics about how to use their minds; or
3. A content theory of intelligence. This reflects a view of intelligence as a rich knowledge
base. Mastery of actual material is at the heart of thinking and problem solving.
In conclusion, Perkins believes that not one of these views contains the answer about
intelligence, but a combination of all three is more promising.
Perkins believes further that thinking skills improve intelligence. Noting that the schools
can do little about the power of intelligence and perhaps have done too much in content, Perkins
focused on tactics or strategies. Describing tactical intelligence as a "bag of tricks" he came up
with term "thinking frame" to mean representations intended to guide the process of thought by
supporting, organizing, and activating that process (Perkins, 1986 as cited by Gines, et aI, 1998).
Perkins further hypothesized that humans or learners acquired these frames through a
three-stage process involving acquisition, internalization, and transfer.
In acquisition, the students encounter and transfer the basics of a frame by direct
instruction or invention. It is the teacher's task to help them forma representation of the topic.
In internalization, the students make the process automatic. Internalization comes about
through practice on simple examples until it becomes fluent and spontaneous. Memory gradually
becomes an' important support, only to recede as the process becomes automatic. Meaningful
practice and memory aids lead to automatic processing.
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In transfer, the students use the "frame" in a wider variety of contexts. Since transfer or
generalization does not occur spontaneously, teachers have to teach it (Perkins, 1987 as cited by
Gines, et al. 1998).
Perkins continues to work on ways to advance instruction of thinking skills or mindware
as he now prefers to call it: The term mindware refers to learnable processes, schemata, and
attitudes that foster good thinking (Perkins, 1993.) He continues to work on new approaches to
teaching thinking skills and calls it enculturation.
The concept of teaching thinking skills or mindware as an enculturation process provides
a broad, less top-down approach to skills development. According to Perkins (1993),
enculturation occurs in four distinct but mutually reinforcing ways:
1. cultural exemplars are artifacts and people, modeling or otherwise exemplifying cultural
knowledge;
Levels of Thinking
Level I.
Remembering Information
Level II.
Understanding Information
Level III.
Applying information
Helping Strategies
Mnemonics
Graphic organizers
Generalizing
Summarizing
A
problem-solving
metacognition
strategy
with
Level IV.
Analyzing information
Level V.
Synthesizing/creating information
Level VI.
Evaluating/Criticizing Information
Fact-opinion analysis
Fact-inference analysis
Good-poor reasoning analysis
Cause-effect analysis
Design of structure analysis
Patterns in sequence analysis
Flexibly relating things
Using random input
Elaborating on usual uses
Evaluating other points of view
Evaluating the reliability of information
Evaluating alternatives
Decision making
Evaluating bias in information
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2. direct transmission of key information is the straightforward teaching of concepts,

vocabularies, and information related to cultural knowledge;
3. involvement in cultural activities entails hands-on practice using aspects of cultural
knowledge; and
4. involvement in cultural interactions refers to learner/ learner and teacher/learner
interpersonal exchange that embodies cultural knowledge.
These four methods of stimulating enculturation can serve as a guideline for organizing
instruction, such that each element of the approach requires specific teaching activities.
Figure 10: Strategies to Develop Levels of Thinking
Benjamin Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives for the cognitive domain as six
levels of cognitive complexity as illustrated below ranging from the knowledge level (simple) to
the evaluation level (most complex).
Cognitive Domain
Highest Level
Least Common
Evaluation
Synthesis
Analysis
Application
Comprehension
Knowledge
Lowest Level
Most Common
Figure 11: Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
The levels are presumed to be hierarchical, meaning, higher-level objectives are assumed
to include, and be dependent on, lower-level cognitive skills. Each level of the taxonomy has
different characteristics as follows:
1. Knowledge. Objectives at this level require the students to remember. Test items require
the students to recall or recognize facts, terminology, problem-solving strategies or rules.
Some action verbs that describe the learning outcomes at the knowledge level are:
Define
Identify
Label
list
match
describe
outline
select
state
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2. Comprehension. Objectives at this level are focused on some level of understanding. Test
items include changing the form of a communication (translate), to restate what has been
read or heard, to see relationship or connection among parts of a communication
(interpretation), or to draw conclusions or consequences from information (references).
Some action verbs that describe learning outcomes are:
Defend
discriminate
explain
extend
generalize
paraphrase
predict
summarize
3. Application. Objectives at this level ask the students to use previously acquired
information in a setting other than that in which it was learned. Application differs from
comprehension in that questions requiring application present the problem in a different
and often applied context. Therefore, the student can rely on neither the question nor the
context to decide what prior learning information may be used to solve the problem.
Some action verbs that describe learning outcomes at the application level are:
change
compute
demonstrate
develop
modify
prepare
produce
solve
use
4. Analysis. Objectives at this level require the students to identify logical errors or to
differentiate among facts, opinions, assumptions, hypothesis, or conclusions. Test
questions at this level ask the students to draw relationships among ideas or to compare
and contrast. Some action verbs that describe learning outcomes at this level are:
deduce
differentiate
distinguish
infer
illustrate
outline
point out
relate
separate
subdivide
track down
5. Synthesis. Objectives at this level ask the students to produce something unique or
original. Test items are focused on solving some unfamiliar problem in a unique way, or
combining parts to form a unique or novel whole. Some action verbs used are:
categorize
compose
create
design
devise
formulate
rewrite
summarize
6. Evaluation. Objectives at this level require the students to form judgments about the
value or worth of methods, ideas, people, "or products that have a specific purpose.
Questions require the students to state the basis/bases for his judgments. Some action
words used are:
appraise
conclude
interpret
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compare
contrast
criticize
defend
justify
validate
Trends in Critical Thinking

The extraordinary pace of change has sparked renewed interest in the teaching of criticalthinking. This rate of change has created not only an unpredictable future but an uncertain school
curriculum as well. Critics believe that schools need to turn away from the traditional curriculum
and to focus on critical-thinking skills required in this information age.
The concern with critical thinking is itself not new. Educators have long advocated that
the students be able to organize ideas, analyze problems, demonstrate creativity, and think
logically; but success in these areas has been limited. Only a few decades ago, some teachers
believed that critical thinking was a natural by-product of studying any subject, "Just teach
history or English and the students will naturally learn how to analyze, evaluate, and create," was
the commonly held belief of both teachers and parents. Educators today believe that criticalthinking skills, like competency in playing a clarinet or skiing or writing clear sentences, must be
taught directly.
Many different programs and approaches have emerged during the past decade to
promote critical thinking as well as creativity, ranging from courses designed to teach thinking
skills to techniques for infusing critical thinking into ongoing course work. The great variety of
approaches being tried indicates that no single curriculum has received widespread acceptance.
David Perkins of Harvard University's Project Zero emphasizes "thinking frames."

Using this approach, the students develop a framework to acquire information,
internalize practices, and transfer information.
Reuven Feuerstein's instrumental enrichment curriculum stresses the development of
mental processes such as comparing, classifying, and predicting. This Israeli
psychologist has developed learning activities to help the students adjust to and
succeed in new environments.
Edward de Bono attempts to teach thinking skills directly by helping the students
restate and diagram problems, break them into smaller parts, and compare them to
similar problems that have already been solved.
Robert Sternberg offers a triarchic theory of intelligence that relies on thinking skills
drawn from an information-processing approach.
Matthew Lipman's philosophy for children program offers classroom activities and a
teacher education approach that emphasizes reasoning with language and philosophy.
Arthur Whimby and J. Lochhead have developed procedures to help the students
become more systematic in their thinking. These exercises encourage the students to
work in pairs and externalize thinking, or think aloud, so that errors and problems can
be identified.
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One of the more widely known approaches was developed by Robert Marzano, and it
may be useful to examine his curriculum in greater detail. Marzano and his colleagues identify
five dimensions of thinking.
1. Metacognition. It is self-awareness of our thinking as we perform various tasks and
operations. It also means using this awareness to enhance the thinking process.
According to Marzano and colleagues, effective use of metacognition can enable the
students to monitor and control their commitment, attitudes, and attention during the
learning process.
2. Critical and creative thinking. Dating back to Socrates, the goal of critical thinking
is to enable the students to become objective, committed to accuracy and clarity. The
goal of creative thinking is to help the students form new combinations of ideas that
lead to creative output or results. According to Marzano, critical and creative thinking
are closely related, can be taught directly, and are at the heart of efforts to teach
thinking.
3. Thinking processes. Thinking processes refer to mental operations including concept
formation, principle formation, comprehension, problem solving, decision making,
research, composition, and oral disclosure. The first three processes - concept
formation, principle formation, and comprehension are directly related to the
acquisition of knowledge. The next four processes are geared to the production of
knowledge. Oral discourse overlaps and includes both the acquisition and production
of knowledge.
4. Core thinking skills. Core thinking skills are essential to the functioning of the
broader dimensions of thinking.
For example, the core thinking skill of goal setting can assist in the larger dimension of
metacognition; the core thinking skill of identifying relationship and patterns serves
the larger dimension of critical and creative thinking.
5. The relationship of content area knowledge to thinking. Educators frequently
debate the question: Can thinking be taught in isolation, or should it be taught as part
of the academic subject areas? Currently, most researchers conclude that instruction
in thinking should be strongly linked with content instruction. Therefore, content
specialists need to identify important models and modes of instruction in their
academic disciplines and relate these to the dimensions of thinking.
CREATIVE THINKING
Jonassen (1996) states that creative thinking requires going beyond accepted knowledge
to generate new knowledge.
Many creative thinking skills are closely tied to critical thinking skills. Critical thinking
makes sense out of information uf1ing more objective skills, such as analyzing and evaluating
information using established, external criteria. Creative thinking, on the other hand, uses more
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personal and subjective skills in the creation of new knowledge, not the analysis of existing
knowledge. The new knowledge may also be analyzing using critical skills so the relationship
between critical and creative thinking is dynamic.
The major components of creative thinking are:
1. synthesizing
2. imagining
3. elaborating
1. Synthesizing involves skills such as:
thinking analogically, which involves creating and using metaphors and analogies to
make information more understandable (e.g. creating characters to describe different
chemicals or chemical groups; finding everyday occurrences to relate to fictional
events in literature).
summarizing main ideas in one's own words (e.g. summarizing the meaning of a story
in English or foreign language; stating a personal method for solving math problems)
hypothesizing about relationships between events and predicting outcomes (e.g.
sampling classmates' attitudes about new laws and projecting their parents' beliefs;
predicting the reaction of chemicals in a laboratory simulation)
planning a process, including a step-by-step procedure for accomplishing activities
(e.g. developing a new study sequence for improving course grades; developing a
plan for completing a term paper)
2. Imagining processes, outcomes, and possibilities. It involves intuition and fluency of

thinking, and often calls on students to visualize actions or objects. Visualization is a
skill that some students will find difficult to develop because of individual differences
in thinking abilities. Although imagining skills are not as concrete or easily taught as
other skills, they are nonetheless important for generating new ideas.
Imagining includes skills such as:
expressing ideas fluently or generating as many ideas as one can (e.g. thinking of
things that are red and round; generating an adjective checklist to describe individuals
in history lessons)
predicting events or actions that are caused by a set of conditions (e.g. predicting the
effects of new seat belt laws on traffic, fatalities; predicting the effects of healthier
diets and exercise on body weights and fat counts)
speculating and wondering about interesting possibilities and solving "what if'
questions without logical evaluation (e.g. speculating about the effects of a major
earthquake in Taiwan; what if certain historical figures had known each other)
visualizing which involves creating mental images or mentally rehearsing actions
(e.g. imagining yourself performing a double flip in a diving class; imagining a battle
between the immune system and an invading virus)
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intuition or hunches about ideas are powerful strategies that are impossible to teach
but worth accepting, at least as hypotheses that can be tested using other skills (e.g.
guessing the worth of a painting in an art class; prediction who will win in an
election).
3. Elaborating on information, that is adding personal meaning to information by relating

it to personal experiences or building on an idea.
Elaborating includes skills such as:
expanding on information by adding details, examples, or other information (e.g.

generating as many examples as possible of a concept such as "value"; developing a
story around solving a type of math problem)
modifying, refining, or changing ideas for different purposes (e.g. change a story line
to have a sad ending rather than a happy one; modifying the form of a musical
composition)
extending ideas by applying them in a different context (e.g. treating science
problems like military battles from history; translating experiences from one culture
to another foreign culture)
shifting categories of thinking by assuming a different point of view (e.g. changing
from the role of a Democrat in a debate to that of a Republican; classifying food
groups and nutritional values of typical meals from different countries)
concretizing general ideas by giving examples and uses (e.g. writing 'a short poem in
different meters; creating a voyage to the center of different atoms).
INQUIRY TEACHING
Inquiry teaching goes by other names such as discovery teaching and discovery learning
(Arends, 1994). When educators discuss strategies to promote higher-level thinking, they most
often are describing approaches very similar to inquiry teaching.
Conceptually, inquiry teaching can be considered comparable to other models such as
concept attainment, direct instruction, and cooperative learning. However, unlike the models that
emphasize presenting ideas or demonstrating concepts and skills, the model teacher in inquiry
teaching poses problems, asks questions, and facilitates dialogue. Inquiry teaching cannot occur
unless teachers and students are skilled in discussion techniques and unless norms exist within
the classroom that allow open and honest exchange of ideas through dialogue and discussion.
The overall goal of inquiry teaching is to help the students learn how to ask questions,
seek answers or solutions to satisfy their curiosity, and build their own theories and ideas about
the world.
Teachers are taking an inductive rather than a deductive orientation. Instead of giving the
students ideas or theories about the world, which is what teachers are doing when they use the
presentation or direct instruction models, teachers using inquiry or discovery approaches pose
questions or problems to students and ask them to come up with their own ideas and theories.
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The teacher is not "instructing" the students on important ideas, but instead facilitating inquiry
and discovery. To do this effectively requires some knowledge of what thinking is and the nature
of human discourse in the process of learning to think.
Thinking Skills and Processes
There is an array of ideas and sometimes bewildering lists of terms used to describe the
ways people think. But what does thinking mean? What are thinking skills? What are higher
order thinking skills? From the many definitions that have been provided, most include
statements which describe abstract intellectual processes and operations. For example:
Thinking is a process involving such mental operations as induction, deduction,

classification, and reasoning;
Thinking is a process of dealing with abstractions and discovering the essential
principles of things, as contrasted to remaining on the concrete level of facts and
specific cases;
Thinking is the ability to analyze and criticize and to reach conclusions based on
sound inference or judgment.
Hyde and Bizar (1989 as cited by Arends, 1994) have provided another conception of
thinking. Based on recent research in cognition, Hyde and Bizar write about thinking as
intellectual processes instead of skills. They point out the complexity of thinking. They also
emphasize the importance of thinking about thinking in context. That is, although thinking
processes have some similarities, they also vary according to what one is thinking about. For
instance, the processes we use when thinking about mathematics differ from those used when
thinking about poetry.
Figure 12: An Overview of the Intellectual Processes
Schema: Using prior knowledge, relating ideas to experience, integrating the old and the
new
relating information to oneself

using tacit knowledge
interpreting
finding analogues, metaphors, and similes
criticizing and evaluating
Focus: Breaking things down, analyzing, encoding, representing, deciding what is

relevant and what are the key units to focus on identifying key aspects, attributes, features,
characteristics
observing events, phenomena, creatures, things

comparing and contrasting
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collecting, recording, and representing
Pattern: Combining, putting together, synthesizing, seeing patterns, forming concepts,

conceiving of the whole entity
organizing information
classifying and categorizing
summarizing
inferring and concluding
predicting and hypothesizing
Extension: Using w4at is known to understand and act upon increasingly complex
problems and situations
decision making
problem solving
conducting investigations and inquiries
Projection: Diverging from the known to create new and different understanding of
forms
imagining
expressing
creating
inventing
designing
Metacognition: Thinking about one's own thinking; using executive/control processes
planning or strategizing
monitoring or checking
regulating
questioning
reflecting
reviewing
Source: AA Hyde and M. Bizar, 1989. Thinking in Context. Teaching Cognitive

processes across the elementary school curriculum.
New York: Longman.
The inquiry teaching model has been developed primarily to accomplish three important
instructional effects:
5. To help the students develop the intellectual skills of asking important questions and
seeking answers,
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6. To help the students acquire the inquiry process skills associated with various
domains of human learning, and
3. To help the students become independent, autonomous learners confident and capable
of learning on their own.
Figure 13: Syntax For Inquiry Teaching
Phase
Teacher Behavior
Phase 1. Providing objectives and setting and Teacher goes over the objectives of the lesson
explaining inquiry procedures
and gets the students ready to inquire. Teacher
explains the ground rules.
Phase 2. Presenting the puzzling situation
Phase 3. Data gathering and experimentation

by the students
Teacher describes the puzzling situation

to the class using the most appropriate
medium.
Teacher encourages the students to ask
questions about the puzzling situation with the
aim of helping them gather information to
assist inquiry.
Phase 4. Hypothesizing and explaining

Teacher encourages the students to
make predictions and to provide explanations
for the puzzling situation.
Phase 5. Analyzing the inquiry process
Teacher gets the students to think about their
own intellectual process and the inquiry
process associated with a specific lesson.
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Chapter XIV
ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION
Introduction
Probably since the time the first test or the first grade was given, there has been
controversy surrounding its use. For instance, some have argued that grades dehumanize
education and establish distrust between teachers and students. Others have said that grading and
comparing students leads to harmful anxiety and to low self-esteem for those who receive poor
grades. Even those who acknowledge the importance of assessment and evaluation have often
condemned current practices for the emphasis on testing basic skills out of context and the
excessive competition which results. Still others have commented that grades are really a "rubber
yardstick" measuring the whims of particular teachers rather than master of important
educational goals. Regardless of the criticisms and controversy surrounding this topic, the
process of assessing and evaluating the students has persisted and basic practices have remained
essentially constant.
Meaning and Nature
The term assessment refers to the full range of information gathered and synthesized by
teachers about their students and their classrooms. Information can be gathered on students in
informal ways such as through observation and verbal exchange. It can also be gathered through
formal means such as homework, tests, and written reports. Information about classrooms and
teacher instruction can also be part of assessment (Arends, 1994).
Measurement is the process of quantifying the degree to which someone or something
possesses a given trait, i.e., quality, characteristic, or feature. It is not synonymous with the
administration of a test since data may also be collected with processes such as observation or
may already be available and retrieved from records (Gines, et al., 1998).
Measurement refers to the process of gathering information in relation to the presence or
absence of a student behavior (Navarro, et al., 1988).
Evaluation is the systematic process involving collection and analysis of data in order to
make decisions. Its purpose is not to determine whether something is "good" or worthwhile as
opposed to "bad" or worthless per se, but rather, to determine the current status of the object of
evaluation, to compare this status with a set of standards or criteria, and to select an alternative
from among two or more in order to arrive at a decision (Gines, et al., 1998).
Evaluation is a continuous process of inquiry concerned with the study, appraisal, and
improvement of all aspects of the educational program. The most ideal is for this process to be
carried out cooperatively by all concerned with the growth and development of children.
Evaluation is the process of determining the changes in the child as a result of teaching
and of his experiences. It is a systematic attempt to ascertaining the amount of progress made in
the education of the child toward the realization of objectives of education. It is an act of judging
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the child's acquisition of all forms of learning outcomes based not only on the definitive data of
the child's subject matter achievement in the learning of fact, skills, and abilities but also on
descriptive, qualitative data about his personality changes such as social attitudes, interests,
ideals, ways of thinking, work habits, and personal and social adaptability.
Evaluation refers to the process of making a value judgment or decision on the basis of
information gathered (Navarro, et al., 1988).
The term evaluation refers to the process of making judgments, assigning value, or
deciding on worth. A test, for example, is an assessment technique to collect information about
how much the students know on a particular topic. Assigning a grade is an evaluative act because
the teacher is placing a value on the information gathered on the test.
To evaluate means to put a value or. to assign worth on something. It includes a
quantitative and/or qualitative description and a value judgment. Judgment is the essential
element in evaluation. This makes it different from measurement. Measurement or assessment
connotes a description of a situation, while evaluation implies judgment of the value of the
situation. .
Types of Evaluation
3. Diagnostic evaluation. This refers to the evaluation the teacher does at the beginning
of the unit or course to determine the different levels to which the students belong to
serve as basis for grouping them into slow, average, or fast group. Diagnostic
evaluation also enables the teacher to discover the reasons for the students'
difficulties. This will help him in planning remedial activities that can meet their
needs.
4. Formative evaluation. This refers to the evaluation the teacher performs in the
course of his teaching to find out how well he is doing and what he needs to do next.
It reveals the stage at which the students have arrived in the learning process. This
should be relayed to the students to give them enough information for self-appraisal.
In this way, they can be motivated to do better work.
Formative evaluations are collected prior to or during instruction and are intended to
inform teachers about their students' prior knowledge and skills in order to assist with
planning. Information from formative evaluations is not used to make judgments
about a students' work; it is used to make judgments about such matters as student
grouping, unit and lesson plans, and instructional strategies.
5. Summative evaluation. This refers to the evaluation the teacher undertakes at the
end of a unit or course in order to grade the students and judge his own teaching
success. Evaluation, therefore, serves as a basis for summarizing and reporting the
student progress, for deciding whether promotion or retention will be better for a
student, and for determining the effectiveness of instruction and planned activities.
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Summative evaluations are efforts to use information about the students or programs after
a set of instructional activities has occurred. Its purpose is to summarize how well a particular
student, group of students, or the teacher has performed on a set of learning goals or objectives.
Summative evaluations are designed so that judgments can be made about accomplishments.
Information obtained from summative evaluations are those used by teachers to determine grades
and inform the reports sent to students and their parents.
Purposes of Evaluation
Besides the aforementioned purposes, evaluation is necessary for the following reasons:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
to maintain standards
to guide teaching
to appraise teachers, teaching methods, book contents, etc.
to predict success in academic subjects
to measure special abilities
Tools for Measurement and Evaluation

In undertaking the different types of evaluation, the teacher tends to use test scores as
basis most of the time. This should not be the case, because the teacher can use various tools or
instruments to gather the information she needs. Among these are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
actual observation of student behavior;

examination of work samples;
rating scales;
check lists;
themes;
notebooks;
recitations;
homework; and
tests.
Observation and Work Samples. Actual observation and examination of work samples
are the two bases for evaluating the students' performance. The teacher should note, however,
that observation has limitations. The students may lose spontaneity in their behavior when they
become aware that they are being watched. To some degree, this may be reduced if the teacher
prepares beforehand a written guide or a rating scale _ to facilitate his observation and observes
as unobtrusively as possible.
Rating Scales. Rating scales are used especially for evaluating skills, procedures, and
personal social behavior. They can also facilitate evaluation of the student projects and other
work. They have the advantage of showing the students an analysis of the rater's evaluation.
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A rating scale identifies a specific set of characteristics or qualities. Indications are made
along the scale in such a way that judgment is made about the degree to which the identified
quality is present.
Checklists. A checklist is different from a rating scale. It only indicates the presence or
absence of characteristics. It is most useful in evaluating products and procedures. It cannot be
used to evaluate personal-social growth.
Themes, Notebooks, Recitations, Reports, and Homework. The written work of the
students like themes, notebooks, recitations, etc. can provide evidences of students' progress.
Hence, all written work should be checked. Practice materials, however, need not be checked by
the teacher himself. The students can check their own work or each other's work under the
supervision of the teacher. Likewise, the participation of the students in classroom recitations
and discussions can provide evidences of the student performance.
Tests. Teachers in an effort to measure and eventually evaluate student learning in the
classroom use a variety of tests.
Tests are systematic procedures for measuring the results or effects of instruction on
learning. They determine how much and how well the students have learned.
Types of Tests
1. Standard survey tests aim to measure the attainment progress or status of the students
or the school. Standard norms are used in the comparison.
2. Standard achievement tests aim to measure the students' achievement as a result of
instruction in a given subject or subjects.
A standardized test is one in which the performance of an individual, or the average of
the class, may be compared with that of a larger population.
Standardized tests as contrasted to tests made by teachers, are those that have been
designed and validated by professional test makers for specific purposes such 'as measuring
academic achievement or literacy levels.
There are two major types of standardized tests to measure the student abilities and
achievement: the norm-referenced and criterion-referenced tests.
a) Norm-referenced tests attempt to evaluate a particular student's performance by
comparing it to the performance of some other well-defined group of students on the
same test. Most norm-referenced tests produce two types of scores - a raw score and a
percentile rank. The raw score is the number of items on the test a student answers
correctly. The percentile rank score is a statistical device that shows how a student
compares with others, specifically the proportion of individuals who had the same or
lower raw scores for a particular section of the test.
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b) Criterion-referenced tests measure the students' performance against some agreedupon level of performance or criterion. The content and skills measured are much
more specific than the norm-referenced tests. This can provide information about a
student's 'level of performance in relation to some specified body of knowledge or list
of agreed-upon objectives. This is important information to have when making a
judgment about the effectiveness of particular instructional programs and activities.
Criterion-referenced measurement is a test that measures whether a learner has
mastered an instructional objective which is specific, observable, achievable,
verifiable, and interpretable. In this way, it is possible to evaluate the success or
failure of the activity by means of direct measurement.
3:
Diagnostic tests aim to locate weaknesses and difficulties of the students and if
possible, the causes of such difficulties in their performance. This kind of test is
usually given at the beginning of the study or during the study of a piece of subject
matter. The results of this kind of tests are not graded but are simply used to indicate
the amount and kind of help needed by the students.
4.
Inventory tests aim to measure the degree of mastery before the teaching of the
subjects. These tests are exploratory in their objective. The teacher uses them to
discover what the students already know and what they do not know yet in connection
with the subject matter to be learned. Based on the results; the teacher may just
concentrate his efforts and the energy of the class on salient points not yet known
thereby making for economy of time and effort.
5. Informal or teacher-made tests aim to measure the achievement, progress, weakness,

or defects of individual students or class, or the effectiveness of methods used.
Teacher-made tests are most commonly used in the classrooms.
Teacher-made tests, may either be of the essay type or objective type of test.
a) Essay test items are best used in assessing thinking at the higher levels like
application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation than at the lower levels of knowledge
and comprehension. Questions can be prepared relatively quickly but scoring can take
more time than the objective type of test.
In an essay test, the student is given the freedom to compose his answer to a question,
drawing from his background knowledge, information on the problem, and presenting
it in the best way he can.
It encourages the student to learn how to organize his ideas and express them effectively.
An advantage that is more apparent than real is its ease of construction. Only a few
questions are needed for an essay test and it seems easy to prepare. The construction
of an essay test, however, requires careful planning. The task must be carefully
defined, general enough to offer some leeway for expression of ideas, but specific
enough to set limits to this.
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b) The objective type of test may take any of the following forms:
1) Completion items are most useful in assessing the students' thinking at the lower
cognitive levels of knowledge and comprehension. It is difficult to prepare
completion items capable of testing higher level thinking abilities of the students.
Completion items are easy to construct but difficult to score because it is not easy to
construct items with only one correct logical answer.
2. Matching items are also used to measure the students' thinking at the lower levels of
knowledge and comprehension. They are relatively easy to construct and can be
corrected quickly. The basic form consists of two unequal columns of items to be
matched. To cut down on guessing, the teacher should put in more responses on the
right-hand column than the stimuli on the left-hand column. It is important that the
entire test appears on the same page. This is in order to avoid accidental errors by the
students if they have to turn the pages back and forth in searching for correct answers.
3.
Multiple choice items have the capacity to test not only knowledge and
comprehension but also some higher-level thinking abilities. They can be adapted to a
variety of subject matter content and they can be scored easily. However, they require
a great deal of time to prepare as the items can be a good means for checking the
students' understanding.
4. True-false items are generally used to assess knowledge level thinking. They can be
prepared and graded relatively quickly. But there are disadvantages that should be
noted. True-false items tend to encourage guessing and it is not simple preparing
items that are absolutely true or absolutely false.
General Principles in Test Construction
Gronlund (1982 as cited by Arends, 1994) provides the basic principles that should guide
the teachers as they design an assessment system and create their own tests.
1. Measure all instructional objectives. Teachers should construct tests to measure
clearly the learning objectives they have communicated to students. The test should
be in harmony with the teacher's instructional objectives.
2. Cover all learning tasks. A good test does not focus entirely on one type of objective
such as factual recall; rather, it should measure a representative sample of the
teacher's learning objectives. Remember that measuring more complex skills such as
higher-level reasoning is more costly and time-consuming.
3. Use appropriate test items. Some types of test items, such as matching or fill-in-the
blanks, are better for measuring recall of specific information; others, such as essay
items, are better for tapping higher-level thinking processes and skills. A good test
includes items that are most appropriate for a particular objective.
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4. Make tests valid and reliable. A test is said to be reliable when it produces
dependable, consistent scores for persons who take it more than once over a period of
time. A test is said to be valid when it measures what it claims to measure. Teachermade tests that are clearly written and that minimize guessing are generally more
reliable than are ambiguous ones that encourage guessing. Likewise, tests containing
a fairly large number of items are generally more reliable than those with just a few
items.
A test that is well-planned and that covers the full range of objectives and topics is most
likely to ensure validity. Teaching the students the necessary skills to take the test also increases
validity because, in some instances, the students may know the information being tested but
simply cannot read or interpret the questions.
No single test, however, can give a completely accurate picture of what a student knows
or can do. Thus, there is always the need to interpret results with caution and to rely on multiple
sources of assessment information before making final judgments about the students' work.
5. Use tests to improve learning. This final principle is meant to remind the teachers
that although tests may be used primarily to diagnose or assess the student achievement, they can
also be a learning experience for the students. Going over test results, for instance, provides the
teachers with opportunities to reteach important information the student may have missed.
Debate and discussion over "right" answers can stimulate further study about a topic. Effective
teachers integrate their testing processes into their total instructional programs for the purpose of
guiding and enhancing the student learning.
Grading and Reporting Student Progress
The purpose of grading and reporting the students' progress can best be understood in
terms of those who use them - the students, parents, teachers, school officials, and employers.
The most important purpose that should be kept in mind is that reports should facilitate the
educational development of each student in relation to his ability. Reports mean the way or
manner the grades may be relayed to the people concerned.
These reports which may take the form of a report card, checklists of improvement in
pupil behavior, personal letters, and teacher-parent conferences. They are effective only insofar
as they improve the likelihood that the students will develop and achieve to the fullest degree
that his potentialities allow.
Uses of Grades
1. To determine who of the students are to be promoted to the next year and who are to
be retained another year or eliminated from a class.
2. To motivate the students to work hard.
3. To guide the planning of the student's current school work.
5. To guide plans for future education.
6. To provide records for the school.
7. To provide reports for student progress for the parents and the student himself.
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Determining Promotion and Retention. The underlying principles that should guide the
teachers at the elementary and secondary levels might be stated as: Help each child become the
best person he is capable of being, considering his natural abilities and regardless of his socioeconomic background. At these levels of schooling, it is not the purpose of education to establish
set standards of performance and then eliminate from the school the children who have not met
standards. This does not mean, however, that there should be "mass promotions" or that every
child should just be passed from one grade to the next because there are also certain minimum
requirements that every child should meet at each level of education. What the teacher should
guard against is adapting such a rigid standard as to emphasize "lock step" education wherein
everybody is expected to learn to spell the same word, to read the same books, recite the same
poem, and sing the same songs. In other words, the teacher should see to it that he is not teaching
the children to adapt exactly the same patterns of behavior.
The main objective of a professional school is to produce skilled people to fulfill an
important function in society. In fact, the primary objective of colleges and universities is to
prepare leaders in the arts, the sciences, and the professions. It is evident that the main focus of
the professional school is on society's needs rather than on the individual's needs. Therefore,
unlike the elementary and secondary schools, the professional college has a screening function in
addition to the teaching function. The school sets standards of competence in the professions and
those who cannot reach the competency levels are eliminated. If a society is to thrive, it has to set
standard for people who will become future leaders who are to fulfill crucial jobs.
The best guide to adopt in any promotion policy should come from the results of research
on the problem. As a general policy, it has been found best to promote the less adequate student
with his class for he will usually do better scholastically than if he is held back to repeat the
grade. This policy is not recommended because research shows that it usually works (Thomas,
1962 as cited by Navarro, et al., 1988). Besides, it has been found out that repeaters do not
become any better, especially if they repeat under the same teacher.
In some cases, it is more desirable for the very slow student to be retained in a grade
especially when he cannot even meet part of the minimum requirements for his grade. He will
find himself so far behind the class in the next higher grade that he may develop general feelings
of inadequacy and insecurity which may affect not only his academic standing but also his total
personality growth.
It is desirable for the gifted to be accelerated beyond his agemates so that he will not lose
interest when he finds it very easy and he can keep the feeling of challenge within him.
Motivating Pupils. One of the most popular techniques used by the teacher to stimulate
the students to learn is the school mark or grade. Fear of failure is believed to produce greater
achievement and knowledge of possible passing is believed to induce lesser efforts from the
students.
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Planning Current Schoolwork. The grades the students receive every grading period
can serve as basis for planning current school work because the grades reflect the areas wherein
the students are weak or strong.
Guiding Plans for Future Education. In spite of the shortcomings of "final grades" they
often function as useful indicators of future success. In general, the student who has achieved
high grades in a particular area of learning in the past can be expected to do relatively well in the
same area in the future. Hence, elementary school marks or grades are useful in predicting
secondary school marks. Likewise, secondary school marks are useful in predicting college
marks.
Bases for Marking or Grading Student Progress. A mark or a grade is a judgment of
the student's progress on the basis of some standards. There are three principal kinds of standards
or bases the teacher can use. These are:
1. Individual performance as compared with group performance
2. Individual performance as compared with a pre-determined standard
3. Individual improvement
Individual Performance and Group Performance. Giving a mark or grade to the
student on the basis of how his performance compares with that of the other students in the class
is a commonly used system. This system is referred to as norm-referenced grading. Based on this
system, the student is graded in reference to the "norm" for the group to which he belongs.
Norm-referenced grading awards higher grades to students scoring below the average.
It is important that norm-referenced grading standards be tied up with some kinds of
assessment that will tell about the level of content mastery of an individual student. Gronlund, an
authority in the field of measurement, suggests that a special mastery test covering minimum
essentials of the course be devised in order to assure that students considered as "passing"
possess certain basic knowledge (Gronlund, as cited by Navarro, et aI., 1988). He pointed out
that even when grading is done on a relative basis (norm-referenced), the pass-fail decision must
be based on an absolute standard of achievement if it is to be educationally sound.
Individual Performance Compared with Predetermined Standards. The system of
grading based on a comparison of student individual performance with a predetermined standard
is generally called criterion-referenced grading. The students are graded according to .how their
scores measure up against a given standard.
Individual Improvement. Awarding marks or grades on the basis of individual
improvement implies comparing the student's present success with his own past performance,
regardless of the level of work being done by his classmates. They require the teacher to
administer an initial test of the students' understanding and then a second test or tests after he has
been exposed to the instructional program. The students who get high improvement scores
received the better grades.
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Reporting Student Progress. If a teacher is to secure the wholehearted cooperation of

parents, he has to inform the parents of the progress of their children in their school work.
Through the marks or grades he gives the parents will know the strengths and weaknesses
of their children and will, therefore, be in a better position to follow-up the instruction being
given by the teacher.
In order to avoid misunderstanding between the parent and the teacher, it is suggested
that the following be borne in mind when preparing reports to parents:
1. The language of the report on the student growth and development should be as
simple and as easy to understand as possible, whether it is in English, in Filipino, or
in the vernacular.
2. The teacher should write down only that information which can help elicit parent
cooperation. Whatever unsavory comments are to be made should be reported to the
parents orally.
3. The report should be brief but clear.
4. The teacher should begin the report or letter with encouraging news and close with an
attitude of optimism.
5. There should be a duplicate copy of every report to be sent to parents.
6. The teacher should put himself in the place of those who will receive the report and
should anticipate the nature of the responses which are likely to result. He should be
prepared to meet criticisms that may be raised.
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PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 1

Pleasing personal appearance, manner, courtesy, pleasant voice;

b) Graphics. Webster defines it as the art or science of drawing, especially mechanical

c) manipulating models; and

curriculum planning phase;

Such phases are spelled out more specifically, respectively, as:

the selection and development of instructional units;

B. Teaching Is Both a Science and an Art

Therefore, teaching as an art

The knowledge and skill they will acquire are

Teaching as a science regards teaching

A schematic presentation of this concept is shown in Figure 1 on the next page.

Figure 4: Ways of Portraying Reality

Figure 5: The Circle of Learning

Figure 6: Interrelationships among Objectives, Learning Activities, and Evaluation

e) from critically analyzed experience or from systematic investigations.

These educational aims or objectives may be used as definite, intelligible principles

As a philosopher, he was an outstanding pragmatist and as an educator, he was known as

Children learn by doing;

Dewey's Education Theories

Education as a Necessity of Life

Education makes possible continuance/renewal of social life.

Education as a Social Function

Education is preparation when it:

Education as Training of Faculties

Education is formation when it consists of the selection and coordination of native

Education as Recapitulation and Retrospection

Education as a Democratic Social Function

II. Dewey's Thoughts on Education Aims

Interest and discipline are correlative aspects of activity.

B. Experience and Thinking

Experience involves a connection of doing or trying with something undergone in

Active - Experience is trying.

Education is an active-passive affair, a separation destroys the vital meaning of an

Experience provides solidity, security, and fertility to education.

Thinking unifies all processes of instruction.

C. The Nature of Method

D. The Nature of Subject Matter

IV. Dewey's Thoughts on the Curriculum

B. Geography and the Curriculum

It represents the fruition of the cognitive factors in experience.

emancipation from local and temporary incidents of experience; and

H. Basic Principles of Successful Teaching at Any Academic Level by Olsen, et al.

to explore the new and the interesting;

3. Genuineness. It is the congruence or integration of the therapist in the relationship. The

L. Instructional Principles and School Applications (Aquino, et al., 1988).

3. Arrange material in an appropriate

4. Provide for appropriate practice.

4. Arrange for the appropriate use of the

5. Achieving autonomy in learning

5. Guide the students discovery and

2. Provide exemplary models.

takes place often in receptive and

information experiences with attitude

Classifying Goals and Objectives

Table 1: Levels of Learning Objectives

Contains an out - line

c) The criteria of acceptable performance should be specified.

Comprehension (ability to use

to bring to mind idea

Table 2: Levels of Cognitive Behavior

Sources: The Classification of Educational Goal, Handbook I: Cognitive Domain by Benjamin

Table 3: Levels of Affective Behavior