Behavioral consultation evolved out of the need for professionals with expertise in behavior

modification to efficiently address the individual concerns of their clients across a variety of
treatment settings. Over the last two decades, behavioral consultation has become increasingly
researched, and advances in the definitions, standardization, psychometric criteria, training,
generalizability of consultation research, methodology, and outcomes for this type of
consultation are now documented. Although many models of behavioral consultation have
been developed, most models include components that strive to accurately analyze the
presenting problem in behavioral terms (i.e., using a functional analysis of behavior), creating
a behavioral intervention that will correct the problem, and evaluating the efficacy of the
intervention developed.
In a broader sense, the behavioral consultation model may be conceptualized as a problemsolving process involving a triadic relationship comprised of the client (i.e., a child), the
consultee (i.e., teacher or parent), and the consultant (i.e., social worker or psychologist).
Throughout this relationship, the consultant concentrates on targeting specific behavioral
objectives in the client's environment and providing the necessary skills to the consultee in
order to maintain the behavioral objectives or modifications established for the client. The
ultimate goal of this model is to produce a behavior change in the client, which may be
accomplished via a five-phase process that includes (1) gathering information and baseline
data about the client, (2) selecting intervention objectives for the client, (3) designing a
behavior plan for the client, (4) teaching specific management skills to the consultee, and (5)
conducting a progress evaluation and/or follow-up sessions.
The first phase of the behavioral consultation process is to collect data on the problem
behaviors of interest. Assessment of behavior is both an initial step and ongoing process in
which specific problem behaviors are identified, a history of the client's behavior is gathered,
rates of target behaviors are estimated or observed, previous attempts to ameliorate those
problem behaviors are documented, and base-line rates of behaviors are gathered. To identify
specific problem behaviors, consultants may interview consultees and clients, use behavior
rating scales, and/or conduct a functional analysis in which the relationships of antecedents
and consequences to the problem behavior are identified. Many methods exist for
measurement of specific problem behaviors, including activity occurrence (determining if the
target behavior occurred within a certain period of time), spot checks (randomly checking to
observe whether or not the client is engaging in the target behavior), and frequency (recording
each occurrence of the target behavior). To gain a history of problem behaviors, consultants
may also use interview questions focusing on the age at which the problem behavior began,
how long the problem behavior has been present, and changes in the rate and severity of the
problem behavior over time. Next, the current rate of the problem behavior may be estimated
through direct questioning of the consultee. This allows the consultant to quickly gain basic
information about the severity and frequency of the problem behaviors, although this
estimation is likely to be somewhat inaccurate. Gathering history about previously attempted
strategies allows the consultant to understand what was both previously effective and
ineffective for the client and what modifications may be made to previously ineffective
strategies, in order to improve their efficacy.
The second phase of behavioral consultation involves selecting objectives and interventions
on the basis of data collected. A list of behavioral objectives is created from which the
consultant and consultee determine what objectives seem most important to focus on, based
on the severity and chronicity of the behavior problems observed. Once priority has been
given to the behavioral objectives, the third phase of consultation involves the establishment

of a behavior plan designed by the consultant. Based on previously gathered data, the
consultant determines which strategies may be most effective in altering the frequency,
severity, or pervasiveness of identified problem behaviors. During this phase, the consultee
must be taught to modify the consequences of problem behavior. For instance, the consultee
may be instructed to alter his or her behavior so that positive consequences do not follow the
problem behavior (i.e., the client gaining attention or tangible reinforcers after engaging in the
problem behavior) but do follow when the client does not demonstrate the problem behavior
in a situation that may have previously evoked such behavior (i.e., the client receiving a
reinforcer for not engaging in the problem behavior when the opportunity is available).
The fourth phase of behavioral consultation entails the consultant, typically someone with
expertise in behavior management strategies, teaching the consultee, usually a teacher or
parent, the skills to manage a behavior plan for the client, usually a child, once the consultant
is phased out of the behavior plan implementation process. In doing so, the consultant
provides a detailed explanation about the specific skills required to maintain the behavior plan
for the client over time. Implementation of the plan rests with the consultee and must be
consistently implemented in order to bring about the most efficacious changes in behaviors.
Finally, Phase 5 includes following up on the progress of the behavior plan. This step is highly
important, as one-session consultations often have a high rate of failure. During this phase,
data on the client's problem behavior(s) are reviewed and monitored in order to discover if the
behavior plan is effective or needs additional modifications. In addition, integrity checks are
performed with the consultee to determine whether he or she is continuing to properly
implement the behavior plan. The major goals of this phase, therefore, are to collect
information regarding client progress and parent/teacher implementation, as well as address
necessary modifications to the behavior plan and/or consultee concerns about the plan.
The main purpose of behavioral consultation is to deliver efficient and effective services. To
accomplish this, several assumptions must be met. First, measurement of the problem
behavior must be conducted with direct, valid, and reliable methods in order to obtain a more
accurate conceptualization of what a behavior plan should include. Second, assessment and
intervention must be continually conducted and revised throughout the consultation process so
that behavior change can be accomplished as efficiently as possible. Third, consultees must be
trained in the implementation of the behavior plan so that positive behavioral changes may be
maintained once the consultant leaves the client's environment. Fourth, the implementation of
the behavior plan must be consistent across time and environments in order to generalize
behavior change. Finally, the behavior plan needs to produce an observable behavior change
over a short period of time that may be effectively maintained through the contingencies
presented. Without these parameters, behavioral consultation may lack in both effectiveness
and efficiency.

RESEARCH BASIS
When specific behavior problems can be readily identified and need to be quickly corrected,
behavioral consultation, an indirect service model, has been shown to be superior to some
other forms of direct intervention, such as counseling. Behavioral consultation appears to lead
to positive outcomes for those involved. In addition, behavioral consultation may even be
more efficient than direct interventions, in that it requires less time to implement, it permits
delivery of services in the client's own environment via the consultee, and it may be the only
feasible alternative in some situations, considering the large volume of responsibilities
handled by some consultants such as school psychologists. Behavioral consultation is most

effective when it is carried out in the client's environment and conducted collaboratively
between the consultant and consultee. This maximizes the generalizability and consistency of
the behavioral consultation plans developed. Although behavioral consultation may lack the
overall efficacy that more direct services offer, behavioral consultation's great strength is that
it allows for an efficient, pragmatic intervention when more extensive interventions are not
feasible.

RELEVANT TARGET POPULATIONS AND

EXCEPTIONS
Behavioral consultation is primarily used in schools, with teachers serving as consultees and
students serving as clients. Behavioral consultation, however, can be applied to a variety of
settings, including households where parents wish to bring about behavioral changes with
their children, work settings where employers may want to bring about behavioral changes to
facilitate higher productivity in their employees, or even in sports where coaches may want to
make behavioral changes that lead to better performances among their players. In addition,
this process can be applied to community and residential care settings, such as foster care or
group homes, where child behavior may need to be modified quickly. In sum, behavioral
consultation can be applied to most situations in which a behavioral change is the desired
outcome and resources are lacking to the extent that more comprehensive interventions are
not feasible.

COMPLICATIONS
Many studies demonstrating the efficacy of behavioral consultation lack adequate
experimental control, and therefore the generalizability and interpretability of results are
limited. Although the research methodology in behavioral consultation has become more
rigorous over time, many studies only demonstrate that behavioral consultation is better than
no treatment instead of directly comparing it to other treatments, thereby failing to clearly
demonstrate greater efficacy versus other methods of intervention. In addition, a large amount
of behavioral consultation research relies on teacher-report data instead of direct observation
of behavior, leading some to criticize that behavioral consultation may lack an assessmentrelated behavioral emphasis. One major problem with reliance on questionnaire measures is
that teachers often report changes in behavior due to their expectations that students may
improve with treatment, even though no change in behavior has occurred. Many behavioral
consultation studies also fail to investigate differences in outcomes associated with having the
consultee collaborate on the implementation of the behavior plan with the consultant versus
having the consultant alone direct the behavior plan. Although a majority of models stress a
collaborative process between the consultant and consultee, recent studies have demonstrated
the effectiveness of a more directive style of behavioral consultation.
Other limitations of behavioral consultation involve the consultee failing to properly
implement the consultant's behavior plan for the client after the consultant has left the
intervention environment. In addition, the consultant may not always be adequately trained to
properly identify problem behaviors, as some training programs fail to emphasize the applied
aspects of behavior analysis. Another limitation of behavioral consultation research is that an
overwhelming majority of this research focuses on school settings and pays little attention to
other settings. Some research has also demonstrated that even though behavioral consultation
may be cost effective and efficient, a wider range of assessment techniques may be more

useful in identifying and treating problems. A possible direct result of inconsistent research
design methodologies is that some research clearly demonstrates behavioral consultation to be
efficacious in ameliorating behavior problems while other research disputes that finding.

CASE ILLUSTRATION
Andre is a 5-year-old African American male evidencing an array of disruptive behavior
problems in his preschool classroom. His classroom teacher, Ms. M. (the consultee),
characterizes Andre's most problematic behaviors as aggressive in nature, with physical
fighting being the most common form of aggressive action described to the preschool's
behavioral consultant. Ms. M. also indicates that Andre recurrently displays oppositional and
defiant behaviors in the classroom, such as refusing to follow classroom rules or stated
instructions, arguing with teachers, blaming other children for his own mistakes, and
evidencing temper tantrums in the classroom when denied a preferred object or activity. These
disruptive behaviors appear to significantly impair Andre's social, behavioral, and academic
functioning in his school environment. Similar problem behaviors are also reportedly a source
of stress and concern inAndre's home. However, Andre's parents were unable to participate in
any intervention program for these behaviors in the preschool setting, owing to scheduling
conflicts.
Following initial discussion of Andre's problem behaviors with Ms. M. and gathering of
historical information regarding both Andre's behavior and previous classroom-based
intervention attempts, the consultant conducted a functional analysis of Andre's behavior in
the classroom setting. In doing so, the consultant detailed the antecedents (or setting events),
overt behavioral actions, and consequences (or events/actions that followed a given behavior)
for each of the following actions: (a) physical fighting with peers, (b) refusing to comply with
stated rules, (c) arguing with teachers or other adults in the classroom, (d) verbally assigning
blame to another child for inappropriate behavior, and (e) evidencing a temper tantrum in the
classroom setting. Prior to the onset of this functional analysis, each of the five problem
behaviors was operationally defined to ensure consistency in the coding of observed actions.
Next, the consultant observed Andre's behavior during a set number of 30-minute intervals,
occurring over a week-long span, with careful attention paid to making observations at a
variety of points during the school day. Assessing disruptive behavior across different time
periods and levels of task demand allowed the consultant to determine the full range of
antecedent and consequent conditions that may be maintaining behavior. This same functional
analysis procedure was also repeated postintervention, to allow for the assessment of
behavioral change.
Following this functional analysis, a list of behavioral objectives was generated with the
assistance and continual feedback of the consultee. In this case, the consultant concluded that
the consultee appeared to assign a relatively high amount of attention and reinforcement to
Andre, as a consequence, when he engaged in disruptive actions. While most of Andre's
problem behaviors appeared to be preceded by a relatively mild psychosocial stressor, the
consultant observed classroom activity to come to a virtual standstill after Andre became
aggressive or defiant, due in part to Ms. M.'s high level of attention and responsiveness to his
behaviors. Ms. M. frequently appeared to try and reason with Andre during temper tantrums
or aggressive behavioral actions, often resulting in further exacerbation of problem behaviors.
Therefore, a behavior plan was established to allow for initiation of alternative teacher
responses to Andre's disruptive actions in the classroom. Following education about the
function of Ms. M.'s observed behavior during and after Andre's disruptive actions, Ms. M.

and the consultant worked together to generate a listing of alternative consequences for
Andre's disruptive actions. Prominent components of the resulting behavior plan included use
of planned ignoring strategies during tantrums, redirection strategies for more minor
disruptive responses, increased positive reinforcement for appropriate behavior, and the
introduction of a brief time-out strategy in the classroom. The consultant remained in the
classroom setting to assist the consultee in the implementation of this behavior plan for
several days, with the consultant providing both oral and written feedback to Ms. M.
regarding her progress and the consultee also providing daily oral feedback about her
satisfaction with the behavior plan.
To ensure maintenance of the behavior plan provided, a feedback meeting was held with Ms.
M. prior to the consultant's departure from the classroom setting, with the objective of
discussing any additional frustrations with or desired revisions of the stated behavior plan.
The consultant also indicated that she would be available to Ms. M. on a recurrent basis to
allow for any needed assistance or further modifications of the existent behavior plan. Finally,
several weeks after the consultee took over full management of Andre's behavior plan, the
consultant returned to the classroom to complete a follow-up functional assessment to observe
whether the implementation of this behavior plan resulted in the occurrence and maintenance
of positive behavioral changes.
Jill T. Ehrenreich and Cliff McKinney
Further Reading

Entry Citation:
Ehrenreich, Jill T., and Cliff McKinney. "Behavioral Consultation." Encyclopedia of Behavior
Modification and Cognitive Behavior Therapy. 2007. SAGE Publications. 15 Apr. 2008.
<http://sage-ereference.com/cbt/Article_n2015.html>.