Democracy and forms of government

Democracy is a form of government in which the source of power originates from the people,
who participate in political life either directly or indirectly, through their representatives. The
term finds its etymology in the Greek Demos Kratos (demos "peo ple" kratos "power" or
power of the people).
Democracy appeared in the Greek ci ty state of Athens in the 6th century BC (Greece is
considered as the cradle of democracy). The distinction between democracies and other forms
o f government finds its source in the writings of philosophers of the Antiquity such as Plato
and Aristotle. The latter perceived Democracy as opposed to the forms of government where
power was held by an individual (autocracy) or by a group of few (oligarchy). The concept of
democracy was also contrasted with that of anarchy, the absence of a ruler and a form of
government. During the Antiquity most of the autocracies were ruled by despotic and
tyrannical kings who governed without the assent of the people. The democratic form o f
government

best represented in r epub lics, where the people p articipated in the

was

management of public life.

The distinction that was drawn during the Antiquity between forms of government still finds
some echoes in our modem era. New interpretations have emerged, however, as the concept
--

--

--------

of monarchy has stopped being associated with the pejorative notion of autocracy while the
concept of republic could in some cases be associated to tyrannical and despotic regi mes.

1) Historical survey
The concept of democracy has evolved through the centuries. While during the Antiquity
several states allowed their citizens to plan

an

essential role in public life, the systems of

government in place lacked some essential features which are associated to the modem
concept of democracy. Thus, even if the . Athenian democracy included the principle of
elections, a whole pan of the city, women, foreigners, and slaves, for instance, remained
excluded from political life. Likewise, the Roman Republic was democratic up to a certain
extent as whole classes of individuals were rejected from civic life.
In the Middle Ages the feudal system was based on the divine rights of kings and left little

place for democratic principles. In a so ciety dominated by the nobility and the clergy, the
common people did not have a share in politics and remained excluded from state matters.

Democracy And Forms Of Government : 1/5

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When voices emerged asking for a reduction of the arbitrary right of kings and for more
justice they came from members of the nobility itself, asking (E.g.: Magna Carta of 1215 in
England).
Principles which were to remain linked to the concept of democracy first appeared during the
th

17

century, at the time of the English Revolution (1649), when people started putting into

question the absolute power of monarchs. The Bill of

Rights that was adopted by Parliament

in 1689 considerably reduced the power of the English king and marked the beginning of the
constitutional monarchy in Britain. The rest of Europe, however, continued to live under the
despotism of absolute monarchs. In the 18th century, several philosophers pointed out the
necessity of organizing political systems that would take into account the basic rights of
individuals. The denunciation and criticism of the absolute powers of monarchs made by
philosophers of the Enlightenment like Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Rousseau, went hand in
hand with the demand for more political rights for the common people. These innovative
ideas were to influence whole generations and played an essential role in triggering the major
events which were to take place during the period.

"

The American revolution of 1775 and the French revolution of 1789 aimed at getting rid of a
tyrannical power that deprived the people from the most basic of rights. Both the American
Declaration of Independence (1776) and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man (1789)
included essential principles related to the natural rights of men arid heavily.influenced all the
democratic systems that were going to be established afterwards. However, the U.S.
Constitution deprived slaves and Native Americans from political rights while the French
Constitution condoned slavery and did not mention the rights of women.
The democratic systems that exist today in Europe have emerged in the 19th and

20th century

when large parts of the population acquired the right to choose their representatives and were
thus given a share in public life. (E.g.: In Britain the working classes only started playing a
role in the voting system at the end of the 19th century, when several political reforms were
adopted; in the United States women were granted the right to vote only in

1920)

2) Forms of government

There could be several forms of government in organized political systems:

- Monarchy is a form of government in which a monarch (either King or Queen) reigns and
serves

as

the head of state. When kingdoms include very large territories they can evolve into

empires, usually under

monarch called emperor. E.g.: the Roman Empire, the Holy Roman

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Empire, the Russian Empire, etc. However, in some particular cases, monarchs controlling
only one country have styled themselves emperors.
It is the rule to divide monarchies into absolute or constitutional. Monarchies in Europe
include the United Kingdom, Spain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, Norway, and
Sweden. Most of the monarchies still in existence today have evolved through the centuries
from absolute to constitutional. However, absolute monarchies are still present (E.g.: Saudi
Arabia) even though they have covered up their autocratic power behind political institutions
such as parl iaments ; in these countries the legislatures are considered as weak and only play a

symbolic role (E.g.: Kingdom ofBahrein, Sultanate ofBrunei , etc.).

A monarchy could be hereditary or elective. While most monarchs inherit their positions,
there have been through history cases where kings and emperors were elected or chosen and
did not transmit their title to their descendants. Such was the case in the ancient Greek city of

Sparta where kings were chosen according to their courage and strength. In the Middle Ages
the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire was elected by a small council called the Diet. In our
modern world there are very few elective monarchies, these include tJie kingdom of
Cambodia and Malaysia .
- In an oligarchy power is vested on a small group,

usually the elite (the most important

individuals of a city or country). Several ancient Greek cities were governed by a group of
-penple-usually b-elunging-tu the same family (cities of Corinth Thebes, etc). In the Middle
Ages and the Renaissance several Italian cities like Florence (power held by the House of

Medici) and Milan

(power held by the House of Sforza) were considered to be oligarchies.

- A Republic (latin etymology:

government in

res

publica or

"

publi c affair") is the most common form of

tivity today. Republics are usually divided into presiden tial republics (E.g.:

ac

the United States, France, etc . ) and parliamentary republics (E.g.: Germany, Italy, Turkey,
etc.). In a presi dential republic the executive power is exercised by the President, who is also

the head of state and the head of the executive branch. In a parliamentary republic the
president as head of state does not govern the country; this is usually done by
minister, acting as head of the government. In

prime

parliamentary republic also, the executive

branch is held accountable to the legislative branch (parliament).

- A Principality is a territory ruled by a prince who acts as the head of state. Some
independent principalities today include the principality of Monaco and the principality of
Liechtenstein.

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Theocracy is a

E.g.: the Vatican

form of government in which real power is in the hands of religio us men.

where the Pope is the head of state,

the Iranian clergy an d has the title of Ayato llah,

A

di ctatorship

is a state where

the people. In this kind

rights are
and they

of

belongs to

etc.

the ruler governs arbitrarily, without consulting parliamen t or

state the

regime

is tyrannical and despotic

con tinuously violated. There have been numerous

an d human and

civil

dictatorships throughout history

have been several forms: repu blics, monarchies, empires, principalities, etc.

Totalitarianism is a dictatorship

and

Iran where the head of state

seeks not only to control

where the state holds total authority over the

all aspects of public life but also

in vo lves

sphere . Only two po litical regimes have been described by

rest of so ciety

itself into

po liti cal

the p riva te

analysts as being

totalitarian: Nazi Germany and Stalin's Soviet Union.

3) Democracy

Democracy is a

form

repr ese ntative s of

the

of government

in which

power is vested on the pe ople and in which the

people govern according to constitutions, establish ed

rules, and basic

laws. The concept of democracy has come to be associated with several values and

characteristics such as the belief in human and civil rights, the establishment of free elections,
the rule of law, judicial eq uality of citizens and s ubjec ts , the freedom of speech, the freedom
of worship, the freedom of as sociat ion,

and the freedom to petition the government. In a direct

or participatory democracy, the people are more i nvolved in the decision-making process a s
they parti cipate directly, frequently

through referendums, to the adoption

management of the country. This type of dem o cracy is

elective demo cracy,

the

most common form,

of

laws and the

found in parts of Switzerland. In an

the people participate in pol it ic al life

election of representatives. The latter govern the country in the

name

through the

of the people who have

sent them to office.

A consti tutio n

is formed of the basic rules regarding

the manner in

which a

government is set

up and organized. It generally takes t he

form of a sing le document comprising several articles .

While most of the constitutions of the

world are formed of a

single document (e.g.: the U.S.

Constitution, the French Constitution, etc.) there are exceptions. In Britain, for instance,
is

no si ngle document called the constitution but rather

historical

there

several laws, statute s, court cases, and

precedents, which, taken together, serve as a constitution.

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In practical terms democracy is implemented through the application of various concepts such
as separation of powers, checks and balance, etc. The principle of separation of powers holds
that a government should be divided into separate branches in order to avoid the concentration
of power into a single hand. An ideal separation of powers is the division of the government
into three branches, the legislative branch, the executive branch, and the judicial branch.
- First role of a legislative branch: to legislate and adopt laws. The institution which is at the
head of a legislative branch is usually called a parliament or legislature.
- First role of

an

executive branch: to enforce the laws passed by the legislative branch. In

presidential republics a president is at the head of the executive branch.

- First role of a judicial branch: to interpret the laws and apply them to each case. In some
colUltries a supreme court acts

as

the head of the judicial branch.

Each of these branches should have clear and independent powers. According to political

analysts there can be no real democracy if a clear division of powers does not exist between
the branches of government. Checks and balances is

principle according to which each

branch of government should control a.'ld check the other branches to avoid anyone branch
from exceeding its powers.
Amongst the values shared by the people being p of Western Civilization are the beliefs in
I

t
intermingled with Western culture as most of the pep ple cannot conceive of

common aspects linked to the concept of democrac . Indeed, democratic values have become
a

political system

where human and civil liberties would be absent. In the West, democracy has also become
linked with such social and economic values

as

religious tolerance, liberalism, and free trade.

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Part 1: Political Concepts

- The Constitutional Monarchy

A constitutional monarchy is a democratic form of government in w hic h the powers of the

monarch arc limited. It thus differs from an absolute monarchy in that an absolute monarch
has no limits to his powers. The constraints on thepowersof a constitutional monarch usually
originate from constitutions, either written or unwritten. A constitution is generally perceived
as a single document including the principles on \.vhich the political system of a state is built
and the rules

reg ardin g

the organization of the system of government. Unlike the United

States and other countries, Britain does not have a sin gle document called the constitution, as
a number of Acts of Parliament, statutes, charters, codified rules, unwritten conventions. court
cases and legal precedents collectively serve as a constitution.

In a constitutional monarchy real power is in the hands of a parliament, \.vkich exercises its
authority through the work of the prime minister and the other ministers. In B ritain for

instance , both the prime minister and the other ministers are accountable for their policies and
actions to Parliament. Even though he is the head of state , the monarch does not govern the
country; this is done instead by the head of government (the prime

minister) and the various

ministers, acti n g in the name of the monarch. In political life the latter is always neutral and
non-partisan.

The British Monarchy

1) Historical Survey

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (commonly referred to as the
United Kingdom or UK) is the name of an independent state which includes 4 countries,
England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.The British are formed of the E nglish , the
Scots, the Welsh, and the Northern Irish.The UK is a constitutional monarchy having as head
of s tate Queen Elizabeth II. It was fonned after the union of the four countries:

- Although the Welsh were conquered by the English in 1285, the official union between
England and Wales only took place in 1536.

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1536: Act of U nion between Wales and England.

- In 1603 King James VI of Scotland became king of E ngl and under the name of Jam es I. This
marked the beginni ng of Great Britain. Altho ugh England and Scotland had the same king,
the official un i on between the two countries only took place in 1707.
1707: Act of Un i on between England and Scotland

- As for Ireland, the E n gl ish conquest bega n in 1169 and

was

followed by freq uen t and fierce

rebellions. Even th o ugh the Engl ish king Henry VIII had styl ed himself King of Ireland in

1542, no official union took place bet\veen England and Ireland until the l 91h century.
1801: Act of Union bet\veen Great Britain and Ireland. The date marked the creation of the
United Kingdom of Great Bri tain and Ireland. After the creation of the Irish Free State in

1922, and as

part of Northern Ireland chose to remain und er British rule, the name was

reformulated to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ire land.

The British monarchy has existed continuo us ly since the ninth century, with only one short
th
break when th e country was a republic in the mid-17th century. Starting from the 11 century,
different dynasties succeeded to the thron e of England , and later Britain.

The Norm an s: 1066-1154

The Plantagenets:
The Tudors:

1154- 1485

1485- 1603

The Sn1arts: 1603

1714

The Hanover: 1714 - 1901

The \Vi nds or : 1901-

2)The Shift from an Absolute to a Constitutionall\ilonarchy

The B rit is h monarchy has much ev ol v ed through the centuries. D e s pite the fact that attempts
have been made in the Middle Ages to limit the powers of the English monarch (e.g.: Magna
Carta), Bri ta in ' s real shift from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional mo narchy only took
place at the end of the 17th century, \Vhen the Bill of Rights was ad opted .

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The Magna Carta or Great Charter

(1215) was a document limiting the powers of the

English monarch. At a time when medieval kings considered themselves the representatives
of God on earth and were convinced of their divine right to rule, King John governed in a
tyrannical way and was hated by both the nobles and the ordinary people. Following a
rebellion by the most important barons of the kingdom he was forced to ratify a document that
ascertained the right of free men to a fair trial and the due process of law. Individuals could
no longer be deprived of life, liberty, or property without notice and an opportunity to defend
themselves.The Magna Carta is essential because it was the first time in history that the
English monarch saw his arbitrary authority successfully contested. Even though it did not
end the absolute po\ver of the English monarchs, it established limits on the royal
prerogatives, thereby establishing a historical precedent that was to have important
consequences.
The next important attempt at limiting the power of the monarch took place around

400 years

later. In the beginning of the 1 J1hcentury, the English king Charles !accepted to sign the
"

Petition of Right,a document which enumerated the rights and liberties of the people and
imposed limits on the royal power of taxation. However, the intended will of the king to rule
as an absolute monarch and his successive attempts to force Parliament to levy more and more
taxesled the latter to oppose him and enter into an open conflict vvith the crown.After a civil
war (called the English Civil War or the English Revolution) which lasted from
and which opposed the monarch to Parliament,Charles I was beheaded

1642 to 1649

and monarchy

abolished. The republic which vvas established vvas known as the Commonwealth and
remained in existence from

1649 to 1660. In that year, monarchy was restored with Charles II,

the son of the beheaded king (the period following

1660 is known as the Restoration).

When James II,the brother of Charles II, tried again to rule as

overthrown

an

absolute monarch he was

(1688) by Parliament and replaced by his sister Mary and her husband William of

Orange, who became joint monarchs under the names of William III and Mary IL This event
became known as the Glorious Revolution.
The Bill of Rights passed in

1689 severely reduced the powers of the king and ensured that

the authority of the monarch thereafter was limited by the will of parliament. It set down some
key principles to protect the rights of both Parliament and the people, including:
The protection of the law from royal interference.
The right of the people to petition the monarch.
Impossibility for the monarch to levy taxes without the assent of parliament.
No royal interference in elections of Members of Parliament (MPs).

Political Concepts : 3/5

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.t\rnongst other imp ort a nt measures the document consolidated the practice of freedom of
speech in Parliament and called for regular elections to Parliament. With the Bill of Rights the
British monarchy had become the
By the middle of the

first constitutional m ona rchy with a sovereign Parliament. .

18th ce ntury Parliament had taken over many of the monarch's

,

traditional powers; the king did not govern anymore, this was done by a prime minister
instead.
Even though Britainhad been a constitutional monarchy since the 1 ih century, it became a
real parliamentary democracy only at the end of the

191h century and the beginning of the 20th

century, when,through the adoption of sev eral political reforms (e.g.: Reform Act of
Representation of the Pe op le Act of

1884 and

1918). the majority of the population finally acquired the

right to vote for their representatives in Parliament. Before that time women and whole pans

of the working class were deprived from the franchise.

3) Royal Powers and Prerogatives

As historian and constitutional expert Vernon Bogda nor rightly stated, the British monarch

reigns but

does not rule.However, even though he has lost some of his most e ss e ntial

prerogatives, he

still has important powers. First and foremost, the monarch is the Head of

State and the Head of the Anglican Church.

He carries the titles

of Head of the

Commonwealth and Defender of the Faith.

Commonwealth of Nations: international organizati on

of independent states, formed of a

majority of E nglish speaking cou ntr ies and former British colonies. The goal of the
organization is to promote the political, economic, social, and cultural ties between the
member

states.

The British monarch has

to fulfil different governme nta l functions such as:

Appointing the Prime Minister.

Appointing many office holders, including government ministers, judges, governors,
diplomats, and the senior clergy of the Church of England.
Opening and dissolving Parliament.
Approving Ac ts

of Parliament and other goverrunental measures. A bill cannot

become a law until it receives royal assent.

Reading briefing papers on all kinds of govenuncntal business.

Political Concepts : 4/5

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Meeting \Vith the Prime Minister.

The monarch also performs ceremonial duties such as:
Attending Parliament \Vhen it is assembled and dissolved.

Holding receptions for the ambas s adors and other o ffic ial s of foreign countries.
Receiving overseas heads of state.

Going

on

stat e visits to other countries.

The monarch has the power to make war or peace. to give recognition to foreign states and
governments, to make treaties, and

to annex

or give up territory. However, all these different

actions are done by the prime minister, acting in the name of the monarch, and the
govern ment of Britain is referred to as His or Her Majesty's government.
There

are

various limitations imposed on the

monarch

For instance. he must always be

neutral politically and must always act on the advice of his or her ministers.
Monarchy in Britain today appears as the public symbol of national unity; it gives to the
various elements of society a sense of belonging and identity, making the Brrtish feel that they
have a common heritage and tradition.

Political Concepts : 5/5

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Political Parties and the Cabinet

The two-party system has existed iii Bntain since the emergence of political pes. The most

---

important feature of the two-party system is the regular alternation of power between two

majo!'..J?_arties. British political life has_been dominated

over

the last-300 years by the

strttggle

between two parties: the Whigs and Tories in the 18th century, the _herals and Conservatives
th

in the 19 century, and the Labour and Conservative parties in the post-war period.
The Whigs and the Tories, which both emerged at the end of the 17th century, were the first

political parties in the wor)d .

The Whigs were originally a faction which rejected the absolute rule of James II and
supported the establishment of a constitutional monarchy . They evolved into an organized
political party in the beginning

of the-18th-century.

---

The Tories also formed a faction that later transformed into a political party, in the beginning
of the 18th century. They represented the royalist supporters of_the Stuart:9 and favoured astrong monarchy as a counterbalance to the power of Parliament.
The dual party system that exists today in Britain traces its oJ:igin to this opposition between_

- -

- ----

the Whigs and the Tories. In the 19th century the Wliigs evolved into the Liberal Party and the
Tories transformed into the Conservative Party. In the beginning of the 1920's, the Labour
Party replaced the Liberal Party as the 2nd major political party in Britain.

General Elections

In general elections the different political parties put up candidates for seats in the lower

house of Parliament. Throughout British.history, the .gr-eat majority of members of the House
of Commons have represented either one or the other of the 2 major political parties. The
leader of the party which has won most seats in Parliament at a general election is
the sovereign to form the government

as

invited by

the new prime minister.

General elections in Britain take the fot of the ele-c!forr of the rep!_esenves of the people.
who would then sit in the House of Commons as Members of Parliament (MPs). Each MP
represents a

constituency,

an

electoral district where people vote for their representative

(today an MP represents, on average, 67,00() ctors). The candidate having won a majority
of votes in a

constin,qyis le<(ted t\S M{>-; Tbis.systm of eltion is known as the First-pastPolitical Parties And The Cabinet : 1/5

11/24

the-post voting. Since 1945, eight general elections have been won by the Conservative Party
and eight by the Labour Party..--In-the-2010 general elections, no party won

an

overall majority

of seats, leading to a hung parliament (no majority held by one single party). The
Conservative Party was forced to -enter into a coalition with a third party in order to govem-

Powers and functions of the Prime Minister

The Prime Minister is the head of government and the head of the executive branch. His first
task after having been chosen by the monarch is to appoint the members of the government
and the Cabinet.
The Cabinet: the body including the most important members of the government; -it includes
around 20 individuals and serves as both the executive

arm

of the prime minister and his

ad.Yisory council. The Cabinet is <.>haired by the Prime Minister. It decides the

main

orientations of the government and administers the departments and agencies of the executive
ili

The Prime Minister is at the head of her Majesty's government. He governs the country
together with the Cabinet. Acting in the name of the monarch, the Prime Minister_Jias__the -power:
- to make war or peace.
- to give recognition to foreign states and governments.
- to sign treaties.
- to annex or give up territory.
He appoints the members of the government and the Cabinet, top civil servants, top members
of the armed forces, bishops of the Church of England, etc. He establishes governmental
policies and programs and sets-the-political agenda. He creates Cabinet committees to
implement the policies of the government (foreign and military policy, economic policy, etc.).
He advices the monarch on the titles and peerages to be bestowed. He chooses the period in
which to dissolve Parliament and thus has the ultimate decision concerning the establishment

-ef-new general elections. He is-responsible for party discipline and ensures that members-of
his party accept and support governmental policies.

Political Parties And The Cabinet : 2/5

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The Labour Party

--it emerged-at the end of the

19!1LcentUry after the introduction of the universal male-suffrage

( established through the reform acts of 1867, 1872, and 1884) and the decline of the Liberal
Party. Trade unions and other worki ng class organizations played a large role in its creation.

- -Tue-labour Party became -afteF the general -eleeti-0ns of 1922 the 2-lar-gest political party in
Britain.
The Labour ideology:
The Labour Party is the party of the left. At first, it was committed to the Socialist ideology
and to the belief that a government had to intervene into the economy. According to
Socialism, the government should control and regulate the economy and should attempt to
offer to the pop ulat ion a certain number of free services (e.g.: free education, free health care,
etc.). Social is m is opposed to Capitalism and Liberalism in that it is against free trade, the
--laissez-faire policy, and the-non-interference of the government into the economy. Members
of the Labour Party believed that Capitalism led to social inequalities and thus called for more

-- equality and social justice. Public ownership , the fair distribution of wealth <!__the abolition
of class divisions

were

the means to achieve equality. The party was also traditionally

_committed to_economic planning.

In 1945 the Labour Party introduced

program of nationalisations an.d created the Welfare

State.
Privatisation: transfer of property from public to private hands.
Ntionali7..ation: transfer of property from private to public hands.
In the 1990's the Labour Party under Tony Blair operated a radical shift in its ideology. Blair
coined the term 'New Labour' to describe the new orientations of the Labour Party. In the

name of pragmatism, the latter has abandoned some Socialist princ iples and adopted policies
-which-ttmd-to be closely assimilated-with-the liberal ideology (e.g.: New Labour has endorsed

privatisations at the expense of nationalisations).

The party has become characterized by its rejection of the traditional differentiations between

private and pub li c and of the traditionally close relationship between labour and trade unions.
It now-favours an entrepreneunai--out socially aware economy. The trade unions, wliicli were

at the origins of the creation of the party, have lost the influence they once had.
Blair called for new statutes for the party and the abandoning of clause 4 of the Labour Party
constitution which included these words: "to secure for the producers by hand and brain the

full fruits of their industry..... the most equitable distribution. ... upon the common ownership of
the means

of production."

Blair thus moved away from the traditional ideals and beliefs of

Political Parties And The Cabinet : 3/5

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Socialism. He also held that the party is not only representing the working class but also
'middle income Britain,' in other words..Jhe middle_cJas..[.
EveITTh:ough

thetabourf>artyis-stifpre-eminently the party of social justice,

now less on equal ity than on the achiev ement of well-being for all

me

its-emphasis-is

mbers of society. It

tends to emphasize the collective prosperity of society slightly more-than individuaffreedc:im

The Conservative Party

Its origins go b ack

to the l 81h century . The Conservatives are the suc cessors of the Tories (the

members of the party are still referred to as the Tories).

I

The Conservative ideolo

i}r:

The Conservative Party is the party of the right. Conservatives believe in Liberalism, free
enterprise , and economic freedom. According to Liberalism the government should not

interfere into the economy and

populat ion such

as

it isnot

the roleof the state to offer free services to -the -

free education and free health care. The party i s in favour of the

-established-order-and

the status quo,H It supports the existing institutionS---and the traditional

order of society. Conservatives call themselve s the party of law and order.

-The party has suceeeded in adoptingihe image-of-the party of-patriotism:-lt

gi ves emphasis-te-

the importance of order, the maintenance of strong armed forces to protect British interests,

and to an aggressive foreign policy. The Conserva tive Party hold s that social inequality is a
natural phenomenon and tha t class divisions-are-an-inherent of-societies.

The pa rty is in favour of private ownership and supports the defence of property rights. It
favours also a strong government that

would not interfer e into the economy.

The Conservative Party has been tremendously affected by the pol icies adopted by Margaret
Thatcher. Thatcherism is the distinctive ideology, political style and progr amme of polices of
the British Conserv ati ve Party after Thafoher wa5-elected

leader ofthe party-in 1975. Thatcher

was Prime M inister of the United Kingdom from 197 9 to 1990. Thatcher was unusual among
Briti sh Conservative Prime Ministers in that she was a highly ideol ogic al leader.
'Thatcherism' is supposedly characterized by a decreased state intervention via the free

market economy, the priva tisat ion

and

of state owne d industries, the oppositio n to trade unions,

-

a reduction of the size of the Welfare State. The introduction of privatizations was one of

the most important aspects of her policy and marked a clear contrast with the economic
policies of her predecessors.
Under Thatcher, the C onservative governments

attitudes and practices necessary to re-establish

imposed and stimulated the business values,

a

succ essful capitalist economy in Britain. In

Political Parties And The Cabinet : 4/5

14/24

rer, and idustrial/ relations, Ttjatcher sought a strong gov ent:

interestJ of the tvhole ation. She ed to give maximum industrial:
;
;
I

t rms of law, defence, o

presenting
the
.

ernm

!1

opportunities to contribute to British greatn ss and she

I

t4

formed the trade unions (threat to:

national interest) ahd the Welfare S te (too much reliance on the state).

While both parties still dominate British politics, the recent years have witnessed the

emergence of the Liberal Democrats

as

a third political force in Britain.

In the 1980s, the Liberals merged with the Social Democratic Party (created in 1981 by

members of the Labour Party who wanted their party to adopt social democracy instead of
Socialism) atl.d have become known

as

In the recent 2010 general elections,

the Liberal Democrats.

as

the Conservative Party failed to win an overall

majority, the Liberal Democrats entered government for the first time
is likely that the Liberal

as

part of a coalition. It

Qemocrats MJI plan an even mo+, important role in tlie future.

I

Political Parties And The Cabinet : 5/5

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Parliament and the Parliamentary System

Parliament is a concep t used to refer to the highest l e gislative authority in a state. Together
with the executive and j udi c i al branches, it forms one of the three branches of government . A
parliament, also called a legislature, could be bicameral with two chambers (or

two houses) or

unicameral with only one parliamentary chamber (or one house).

A parliamentary system is a system of government in which the e xec utive branch is

accountable to the legislative branch

(parliament). It can be found in both monarchies and

republics. In most parli amentary monarchies and republics the

the country. Real power

head of state does not govern

is in the hands of the head of government, the pri me minister, who,

toge ther with the other ministers, governs the

country.

In such systems the

prime minister

derives his legitimacy from parliament unlike presidential republi cs where the head
derivt!JttlgitimJlY

of state

directly from the peop l e.

The British Parliament

Parliament is the highest legislative authority in the UK. It is housed in the Pal ace of
-------

Westminster. It consists of the Monarc the House of Lords (upper house) and the House of

Commons (lower house). They

normally only

meet

t ogether when the Mo narch calls the

House of Commons to the House of Lo rds for the State

approve new laws: Monarch , Lords and Commons.

Opening of Parliament. All three must

Parliament can pass laws for the whole of

the United Kin gdom or for any part of it . There is no written c o nstitution : Parliament can
legislate

as

it pleases. It can pass new l aw s or dissolve or change old laws . However, in

practice, Members of Parl iament follow ac cepted customs and only pass or ch ange laws when
this

will have pub lic support. The system of party government and the respo nsibility of

ministers to Parliament act as a check on the use or misuse of po wer.

As

a memb er of the European Community, Britain sends 81 elected members to the European

Parliament and recognizes Community laws.

Functions of Parliament:

Parliament and the Parliamentary System : 1/4

16/24

1. To pass laws: a

draft law takes the form of a parliamentary bill. Most of these bills are

public bills implementing government policy. A bill is drafted after exhaustive consultation
with concerned professional, voluntary and other agencies. The process of passing a
government bill is similar

in both houses. Its publication in printed form is announced in the

House of Commons, this announcement is called first reading. Its second reading, usually
after a few weeks, is

an

occasion for a full debate. At the third reading, the revised bill is

considered in its final form and a vote is taken. The bill then passes through the House of
Lords in the same fashion. Once a bill has completed its parliamentary procedures, it is sent to
the Monarch for royal assent by which it passes into law as an act of parliament.
The

Law making process (From bill to Act of Parliament):

I. Preliminary Paper in the House of Commons

II. First reading or form;giintroduction of bill
III. Second reading (debate on general principles)
IV :-o-rrum--:
:tt:---ee_stag_e_(:-':.detailed

discussion and amendment)

V. Report stage (amendments)

VI. Third reading (formal but debate possible)
VII. House of Lords
'/III. Monarch
-----

IX. Act of Parliament

2.To raise money through taxation for the government of the country,

3. To examine government policy and administration, especially proposals for spending

money in financial programs.
-

--

4. To debate the main political issues.

5. To scrutinize European legislation.

Under the Parliament Act of 1 911, the maximum term of a Parliament is 5 years, but it is
often dissolved before that and a general election held in a shorter period.

If both houses

agree, the term can be prolonged without consulting the electorate as it happened in the two
world

wars.

Dissolution and orders for a General Election are made by the Monarch on the

advice of the Prime Minister.

The House of Lords

The house is presided over by the Lord Chancellor who is the Speaker of the house.

Parliament and the Parliamentary System : 2/4

17/24

Composition:

1. The Lords Spiritual: the Archbishops of Canterbury and York, the Bishops of London,
Durham and Winchester and 24 senior bishops of the Church of England.
2. The Lords Temporal: All hereditary peers and peeresses (those who have received their title

by

birth). (800)

3. All other life peers who have rendered political or public service to the nation. (350-400).
The Sovereign gives titles (both hereditary and life titles) on the advice of the Prime Minister.

Peers are appointed for their service to the state, or because the government wants a specific
person to sit in the House of Lords (often to give advice without being involved

in party

politics).

Functions of the House of Lords:

-Legislative function
-Delaying function: the House of Lords has

an

important

which may be used to block government legislation

amending

a.ad delaying function

for up one year or to persuade the

government to have a second look at bills. Until 1911 the Lords were able to reject bills
passed in the ommons. Since then the

!qrds hay been_ t1nabl__:t() cha}le_!!ge fi.p.ancial

__

legislation andliave- only been aole to-delay other legislation (since 1949

for no more than one

session) but not to prevent it.

The House of Lords acts as a safeguard against hasty legislation by the Commons and plays a
considerable role as antidote to powerful governments. This is possible because the house has
a

number of crossbenchers who do not belong to any political party. There is a nominal

Conservative majority in the total

Conservatives
Conservati ve

membership.

The preponderance

in favor of the

arises partly because the hereditary peers sympathize more with the

Party.

The Bouse of Commons

The chief officer is the Speaker of the House, elected by MPs to preside over the House.

There are 2 deputy speakers.

Composition:

Parliament and the Parliamentary System : 3/4

18/24

The House of Commons is elected by universal suffrage (voters) to rep re sent the British in

Parliament;

it consists of 659 MPs: 529 seats are

for England, 40 for Wales, 72 for Scotland

and 18 for Northern Ireland.

Functions of the House of Commons:

1. Legislative Function.

2. Scrutiny of the executive: one major function of the House of Comm ons is to scrutinize the
government policy both by opposition or government's backbenchers. The debate orig inates in
a mo tion (a proposal) proposed by

minister or a member of the house. The speaker then

proposes the question as a subject of debate . Twenty oppositi on days each session allow the
opposition

to choose

the

subjects

for debate.

3. Question Time is held at the beginning of each day sitting for 55mn on Monday, Tuesday,

Wednesday, and Thursday. Ministers answer MP's questions .

On two

afternoons each week,

the Prime Minister answers questions on general policy matters. Parliamentary questions

are

means of seeking information; they are also a way of raising constituency problems for

backbenchers.
4. S elect Committees: in 1979, a se lect committee system was created to examine and monitor
&overnment departments and policies and the manner in which ministers discharge their
responsibilities. The committees have been established by the house ; they may question
ministers, civil servants, interested groups and individuals

in their examination of government

policies, expenditure and administration. They report their conclusions and recommendations

to the house as a whole.

The great majority of members of the House of Commons have re presented either the Labor
or the Conservative Party. The members who have been elected support or oppose the
government policy according to their party and their own views. Today, most governments
can usually count on the voting

strength

of their supporters in the Commons. This

development, which is the result of party disc ipline, has strengthened the hand of the
government and it has increased the importance of opposition .

Parliament and the Parliamentary System : 4/4

19/24

Part 2: Social and Cultural Concepts

Race and Ethnicity

The word

'race'

is defined in

The Oxford Reference Dictionary as each of the major divisions

of mankind with distinct inherited physic al characteristics; the fact or concept of divisi on into
races. The dictionary

insists that the term

"

race" is often used imprecisely and that

among anthropologists (experts in the origins,

there

is no

term has

generally accepted cl assification

even

development, customs and beliefs of mankind)

or terminology . According to the

dictionary

the

been applied to various national or cultural as well as physical group ings and that for

centuries geographical races

were

identified by the most observable physical difforences,

especially the colour of the sldn, hair and eyes.

An ethnic group is

group

conunon heritage that is

of humans whose members identify with each other, through a

real or presumed. Ethnic identity is farther marked by the reco gni tion

from others of a group's distinctiveness and the recognition of common

cultural, linguistic,

religious, behavioural traits as indicators of contrast to other groups .

minority group is

sociological group that does not constitute a politically dominant

voting majority of the total

numerical

population of a given society. A minority is not necessarily a

minority - it may indu_de any group that is subnormal with respect to a dominant

group in terms of social status, education, emp loyment. wealth and political power. In some
cases

minority groups could suffer from discrimination.

Racism is the belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and
that

racial differences produce ill ierent superiority of a particular race. In the case of

institutional racism, ce1tain racial groups may be denied rights or benefits, or get preferential
treatment.

The British

are

fo1med of the

English, the Scots, the Welsh, and the Northern Irish. The

modem British society is a multicultural society co m posed of different races and ethnic

Social And Cultural Concepts : 1/5

20/24

groups. It has emerged after centuries of invasions and the

around the world. Indeed, Britain

immigration from people all

has attracted settlers and immigrants throughout most of its

history. It was also invaded several times,

with

the

last successful invasion taking place in

1066.

Most of the British today are the descendants of people who have settled in
invasions during the

Britain following

Antiquity and the Middle Ages . However, many of them are also the

descendants of peopl e who have immigrated to Britain through

the centuries, especially

people who came from former British colonies after th e end of the

Second World War. The

British society became thus increasingly multiracial and mul ticultural

as

more

and more

immigrants from different races and different cultures started entering the UK.

I.

Historical Survey

1) Invasions
-The first inhabitants of Britain were Celts.
-In AD 43, the Roman Emperor Claudius invaded and

The Romans stayed for

more

made Britain a Roman province.

than three hundred years, and built towns, roads, and villas.

Christian missionaries came from other parts of the Roman Empire to bring Christianity to the
people.
The Romans

finally abandoned Britain in AD 410 and a long period of invasions by Nordic

peoples from northern Germany and Scandinavia started.

-The Angles, Saxons, and Jutes be gan to settle from the fifth to the eighth centuries and the
Angles gave

England its name. The se invaders introduced a new culture to Britain, and even

today British customs

one of the most

-The Vikings

and habits are described as Anglo-Saxon. Ang lo- S axon England

civilised countries in Europe. with organised systems of agriculture and trade.

came

from Scandinavia in the tenth century

and settled in the north of England.

- The last successful invasion of Britain took place in 1066.

better known

was

as

Duke Wi lliam of Nonnandy.

William the Conqueror defeated the Saxons at the Battle of Hastings

(in the

south of the country) and hecame the new king of England. French became the language of
the nobility (the King and Lhe aristocrats) and, with Lati n, the language of the legal system

and of government.

2) Immigration

Social And Cultural Concepts : 2/5

21/24

Britain has attracted immigrants for centuries, especially during the 19th and 20th centuries.
Two major trends could

the_?Oth century

__

be perceived-in-this migration.

most of the

immigrants came

from

In the

19th century mdJlurfust part_of-

Ireland and other

European countries.

Waves

of Irish were allowed to enter England in the 19th century and their numberwa.s f in

exeess

-ef any other immigration. This eotilti be partly explained by-the-fact-that Irelan d was

inc01'p6fftted into the-Yniteti-Kingdem-by the-terms of the 1801 Act--{)f--l:fnion;-Even-when-theFree Irish State was formed in 1922, the Irish retained the

right to enter

freely and-s6ttle--in-

Britain.

During the first part of the 20th century, Britain witnessed the arrival of many other European
immigrants, attracted by the prospect of wealth and a better future.

During and following the 1950's and 1960's, most immigrants came from fonner British

coloni es located all around the world. Hundreds of thousands of immigrants came from newly
-independent countries or from-Britain's-overseas territories, the lands worldwide that were

still occupied by the UK and that chose not to become independent in the t950's and 1960's,
during the decolonization process.
People from the non white new Commonwealth nations of India, Pakistan and the West
-

Indies came to Britain to fill the vacant manual and lower paid jobs of an expanding economy.
The immigration from the Caribbean and the South Asian sbcontinent also dates mainlr

from the 1950's and 1960's. More than 60,000 Indians arrived before 1955.
-Uthe newcomers acqd the British citihip and became full !z the traditional
inhabitants of Britain. They brought with them their languages, their cultures, and their
traditions, and contributed therefore in creating a new multiracial and multicultural British
society

II.

Britishness

Britishness is a term which refers

to the sense of national identity of the British people and

common culture of the United Kingdom.

I he

Bntish. share _many characteristicsastb.ey have the same political, economic,anas!_li!

institutions. They speak the English language, swear allegiance to the crown, and believe in
the sariie ide als

of freedom and justiCe. They have been unified through the centuries oy"

common values, symbols, and traditions. Even though there are multiple ethnic groups
believing in different religious

credos, it is considered that there is a common denominator

Social And Cultural Concepts : 3/5

22/24

which makes the British believe that they share the same national identity and that this
identity, or 'Britishness' is both distinctive and unique.
However, even though this feeling of a commorfidentity-is-'held b:)i niany British, a strong
debate exists amongst sociologists as to how to define it. The multiplicity of races

and

'

cultures inBritajn illustrates in fact how difficult it is to categ(!:tjze Britishness. !s it the result
of

strong

single culture or that of a. ultiplic_ijy _of identities . coexisting_ in the British

.

society?
The fact that the British with a European origin do not all share the same culture is another
reason that explains the difficulty of delineating the concept of Britishness.

The English are Anglo-Sax9n in origin, but the Welsh, the Scottish and the Irish are not. They
have a Celtic origin as they are the descendants of the ancient people who crossed over from
Europe to the British Isles centuries before the

Roman invasion. It was these people whom the

Anglo-Saxons invaded in the 5th century. After the invasion the Celts_es.caped and settled in_
the north (Scotland) and west (Wales and

Ireland). The Celts and Anglo-Saxons lived separate

until.the unification of Wales and England and later on of England and Scotland

White British amongst themselves already find difficulties into achieving a common single
identity as the cultural traits and habits of the English and Scots, or the English and Welsh, are
very different. Despite the fact that they have been attenuated with time the cultural
differences are still marked. Thus, even though a minority of the population in Wales speaks
Gaelic, the Welsh still hold to their language and customs.
All of Scotland, Wales,

and Northern Ireland have tlierr own parliaments which deal wi

local matters like education, housing, etc.

With the increase of nationalism in the recent years, many Scots and Welsh sense that they
belong first and foremost to their own nation before belonging to the British community. hi
Northern

Ireland people tend to identify first to tliei!_religious_group, plac the notion of

British identity well in the second place.

Moreover, the differences between the people having an Anglo-Saxon origin and the people
.

having a Celtic. one are huge but could seem minor if compared, for instance, with 'the
differences that may exist between a white-Englishman-and a British-with-an-African or Asian
origin

...

People from ethnic minorities will probably feel that their loyalty goes first to their family's
country of origin, even if they were born in the UK. Sports events give ample evidence of
this: in cricket matches, for instance, they will support the team of their country of origin or of
their family's country of origin.

Social And Cultural Concepts : 4/5

23/24

While the different ethnic groups in Britain refer to themselves

as

British, many sociologists

consider that the concept of Britishness is vague and may not reflect the cultural inclinations
of many British citizens, especially those having a non-European origin.
Britishness is perceive d by

many

white British

_/

as

being

merely a representation of

Englishness, denoting in other words the Anglo-Saxon culture in terms of particular racial and

cultural attributes. For them Britishness symbolizes i.p. fact the so-called uniqueness and purity
of the English race.

The stereotyp es held b y many white natives towards other whites inside the UK, coupled with
the increasing signs of racism an d hostility expressed towards members of ethnic minorities9

make it even more difficult to accept

as

full granted the concept of Britishness or of a single

British identity. In fact, more and more people are stressing the need to redefine the concept
of Britishness so

as

to bring into forth the notion that the British society reflects instead

multiplicity of identities carrying all the richness of the different culture s composing it.

Social And Cultural Concepts : 5/5

24/24