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Chapter 6 Bending

6.0 PURE BENDING


Bending of beams is the next form of internal stress after uniform tensile/compressive stress
and torsional shear stress. It is the most significant type of internal load transfer. What we
want to derive in the present chapter is a relationship between the normal stresses in the beam
cross-section and the applied bending moments. To achieve this we need to do three things:
Determine some assumptions to simplify the analysis
Determine the geometric relationships of the deformed beam
Determine the load equilibrium conditions.

6.1 ASSUMPTIONS (SI&4th : 282-283; 5th : 282-283)


In order to be able to simplify the analysis it is best to define some assumptions about the
beam, how it will deform.
M
M

Fig. 6.1 Beam before and after a positive bending moment is applied

Transverse planes before bending remain transverse after bending, Fig. 6.1, ie. no
warping.
Beam material is homogeneous and isotropic and obeys Hook's law with E the same in
tension or compression.
The beam is straight and has constant or slightly tapered cross section.
Loads do not cause twisting or buckling. This is satisfied if the loading plane
coincides with the sections symmetry axis.
Applied load is pure bending moment (recall the B.M.D. in Assignment Q.4.3).

The definition for beams with applied positive and negative bending moments is as Fig. 6.2:

+ve M

-ve M
Fig. 6.2 Diagrams showing beam experiencing positive (left)
and negative (right) bending moments

6.2 GEOMETRIC RELATIONSHIPS OF BEAM (SI&4th:283-285; 5th : 283-285)


To start the analysis we first must establish the nature of the deformation by observing how a
beam deflects when a bending moment is applied to it.
When a beam is subjected to a pure bending moment, it will deform into a curved shape and
this shape is the arc of a circle with a very large radius compared to the size of the beam. Lets
now look at a segment of beam before and after the application of a positive bending moment:
Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 6

Compression

Tension

Fig. 6.3 Beam before and after a positive bending moment is applied
indicating regions of +ve and ve stresses

As you can see from Fig. 6.3, the fibres on the top surface are experiencing a compressive
stresses, and those on the bottom a tensile stress. What this means is that at some point
between these two surfaces, there must be a plane where the normal stresses and strains are
ZERO. We call this plane the Neutral Plane (N.P.) or Neutral Axis (N.A.).
Look now again at a small segment of beam before the application of a bending moment.
O

d
R

M
N.A.

i1
m1

j1

.
N.A

n1

Fig. 6.4 Undeflected segment of beam Fig. 6.5 Beam deformed by positive bending moment

Mark a longitudinal section with a distance y from the Neutral Axis as ij, and another section
on the Neutral Axis as mn, as in Fig. 6.4. Initially, these sections are of equal length as they
define the length between two transverse planes, i.e. ij = mn.
A pure positive bending moment M is then applied to the beam which makes the above
section deform as Fig.6.5, where the applied bending moment causes the segment ij and mn to
deform into concentric arcs i1j1 and m1n1 with an angle d between the segments i1m1 and j1n1.
The distance between these two arcs is still y.
Let R = Radius of curvature of the Neutral Plane, then the strain of segment i1j1 is defined as
length i1j1 minus the original length ij over the original length ij, i.e.:
i j ij
(6.1)
x = 1 1
ij
Now length mn and ij are defined as:
ij = mn = m1 n1 = Rd
and length i1j1 is defined as:
i1 j1 = (R y )d
so the strain becomes:
(R y )d Rd = y
x =
(6.2)
Rd
R
Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 6

which indicates that the strain is linearly varying with y. And since stress is strain times
Young's Modulus E then the stress can be defined by the following equation and is also
linearly varying with y.
Ey
x = E x =
(6.3)
R
In effect, this equation has been derived using geometrical compatibility conditions; we need
also to consider the equilibrium conditions of the beam cross-section.

6.3 APPLIED LOAD EQUILIBRIUM (SI&4th:286-294; 5th:286-294)


The stress equation (6.3) defined as above indicates that the normal stresses induces by the
bending moment vary linearly through the depth of the beam. Look now at a drawing of the
right hand end of the beam showing the normal stress distribution and applied bending
moment as shown in Fig. 6.6.
dA
y

N.A.

N.A.

y
Cross-section

Fig. 6.6 Right hand end of beam showing applied bending moment M
and normal stress distribution

Let dFx = xdA be the component of force acting on the element of area dA. We now use
equilibrium conditions on the stresses generated on the right hand side of the beam:
Force Equilibrium
Fx = dFx = x dA = 0
A

Substituting the above equation (6.3) for stress gives:


E
Ey
A R dA = 0 , or: R A ydA = 0
For materials with E constant the condition,
ydA = 0

(6.4)
(6.5)

gives the origin for the y-axis on the centroid of the section, i.e. the location of the Neutral
Plane. We will look at what this means shortly
Moment Equilibrium
When equating moment equilibrium we have that the applied moment M must be equal to the
moment generated internally by the normal stress caused by the external moment, such that:
(6.6)
dM = y (dFx ) = y x dA = M
A

Substituting for the stress as in equation (6.3) gives :


2
Ey 2
E
M = y x dA =
dA = y dA
A
A
R
R A
We now define the term
2

I = y dA
A

(6.7)
(6.8)

Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 6

as the Second Moment of Area or Moment of Inertia of the beam about the Neutral Axis
(which was actually defined by Eq. (6.5)). It is a measure of the stiffness of the cross
sectional shape from a geometric point of view, without considering the material properties.
Note that the unit of second moment of area is m4. Now substituting I into the equation for
stress gives (from Eqs. (6.3) and (6.7))
x
M
E
=
=
(6.9)
y
I
R
which is called Engineer's Theory of Bending (ETB). The standard form of writing and
using this equation is:
My
(6.10)
x =
I
So, if you know the applied bending moment, the location of the centroid and the sections
second moment of area you can then find the stresses along the depth of the beams section.
Lets now define the location of the centroid and an easier equation to use than Eq. (6.5).

6.4 DETERMINATION OF NEUTRAL AXIS (SI&4th: 775-777; 5th: 775-777)


Look at an arbitrary symmetrical beam cross section, Fig. 6.7:
dA
N.A. to be
determined

y
s

S
Reference Axis

Fig. 6.7 Determination of Neutral Axis of an arbitrary cross section


Centroid of an Arbitrary Area In order to find the centroid it is often best to find it in
reference to the bottom of the beam cross section. If we do this and because the centroid
equation (6.5) is integrated about the neutral plane we firstly need to change the axis from y to s.

Changing beam axis from y (distance away from Neutral Plane) to s (distance away from
bottom of beam) has that:
y=sS
Substituting into Eq. (6.5) gives:
s S dA = sdA S dA = 0
A

but since S is the distance to the centroid, it is a constant and can be taken out of the integral
equation, giving :
S dA = sdA
A

and dividing by total area gives:


sdA
S= A
dA

(6.11)

Composite Areas However as most engineering beams are made of several simpler regular
shapes, for which you know the areas and the centroids of these areas, then this equation can
be used in finite summation form instead of integral form as in (6.11).
Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 6

yi

dAi

Local N.A. of Ai
Global N.A. of entire cross section

si

S
Reference Axis

Fig. 6.8 Parallel axis method for composite area

From Fig.6.8:

sdA =

(s
Ai

S =

+ y i )dAi =

s i Ai
Ai

Ai

s i dAi +

Ai

y i dAi =

s
i

Ai

dAi + 0 =

s A
i

(6.12)

where si represents the reference coordinate for the centroid of each part and Ai is its area.
We can now use Eqs. (6.8), (6.10) and (6.12) to determine the stresses in a beam under an
applied bending moment.
Example 6.1: Determine the second moment of area I for the following T-shaped cross section.
40mm
5mm

A2=405

2
N.A.

40mm

s2=37.5mm
S

A1=355

s1=17.5mm

For all these type of problems it is best to follow the following methodology when solving them:
Step 1: Determine the location of the Neutral Plane
Using Eq. (6.12), do this by firstly subdividing the beams cross section into regular
geometric shapes. In this example the beam can be divided into two rectangular sections 1 and
2 as shown. Substituting the areas of each of the rectangles that make this shape as well as the
distances to their respective centroids gives:
s A +s A
17.5 (35 5) + 37.5 (40 5)
S = 1 1 2 2 =
= 28.167 mm
A1 + A2
(35 5) + (40 5)
Step 2: Coordinate transformation Once the position of the centroid (neutral plane) for the
section has been found, re-draw the section with all new coordinates about the neutral axis:
11.833

6.833

2
N.A.

1
-28.167

Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 6

Step 3: Determine the sections Second Moment of Area


I = y 2 dA = y 2 dA + y 2 dA
A

A1

11.833

which for the section becomes I =

6.883

A2

6.833
2

40dy +

5dy

28.167

I = 17837 + 37777 = 55613 mm4 or I = 5561410-12 m4


(Note that, 1 mm =110-3 m, (1 mm)4 = 1 mm4 = (110-3 m)4 = 110-12 m4)
Regular Shapes:
You can use the following standard solutions to the second moments of areas of regular
shapes. These results can also be found inside the Front Cover of your textbook.

a) Rectangle Sections
h
2
h

N.A.

I =

h/2

bh 3
y bdy =
12
2

A = bh

b) Circular Sections
R 4 D 4
I=
=
4
64
2
A = R

R
N.A.

N.A.
R
4R/3

c) Semi-Circular Sections
I = 0.110 R 4
A = R 2 / 2

2R

t
Rm

N.A.

N.A.

Rm

2Rm/

d) Thin Tubular Sections for t<R/10


I = Rm3 t
A = 2R m t

e) Half-Thin Tubular Sections for t<R/10


I = 0.095Rm3 t
A = Rm t

2Rm

N.A.

h/3
b

f) Triangular Sections
bh 3
I=
36
1
A = bh
2

Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 6

Having said that you can use the above standard solutions to determine the second moment of
area, it is fine if the centroid of the section you are analyzing lies on the neutral plane of the
whole cross section. As you have seen from the examples just done (Example 6.1), the
individual centroids of each of the shapes that the cross section was divided in, did not lie at
the centroid of the cross section. For this reason, and to save the trouble of always having to
determine an integral to find the second moment of area, we need to look at the derivation of
the Parallel Axis theorem for evaluating the second moment of area.

6.5 PARALLEL AXIS THEOREM (SI&4th: 778-781; 5th: 778-781)


If the second moment of an area is known about its centroid, we can use the parallel axis
theorem to find I about a corresponding parallel axis, Fig. 6.8.
dA
y1

local N.A.

y
y
N.A. of entire cross section (global N.A.)

Fig. 6.8 Known section a distance y above neutral axis of section

The equation for the second moment of area can be computed by the integral as:
2

I = y dA

(6.13)

But the distance y about the global Neutral Axis of the entire cross section is given by:
y = y1 + y
Substituting this gives:
I =

( y1 + y )
A

dA = y12 dA + 2 y y1 dA + y 2 dA
A

The first term is the local second moment of area, the second is zero because y1 passes
through the local centroid (Eq. (6.5)) and the third is the distance between the local and global
centroids squared times the area of this shape, such that:
I N .P . = I local + y 2 A
(6.14)
For a cross-section consisted of a number of regular shapes, the total second moment of area
can be computed as
I N .P . = (I i local + y i2 Ai )
(6.15)
here y i is the distance between the global and local centroid (N.A.) of area Ai For the
previous example if Eq. (6.15) was used instead of Eq. (6.8), you would have the following:
Example 6.2: Several concentrated external bending moments are applied over a cantilever
beam as shown. The cross-sectional area is the same as in Example 6.1. Please use parallel axis
theorem to determine I, and then further to analyze the maximum normal stresses in the beam.
MA

Global F.B.D.
MB=40Nm
A
RAY

C
+

B
+
2m

MD=30Nm
I
+D
I

MC=30Nm

2m

1m

Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 6

Step 1: Plot the bending moment diagram to determine the bending moment peaks
F.B.D. (Section I-I)
MB=40Nm

MA=100Nm
A

MC=30Nm

M(x)

C
+

B
+
2m

o
V(x)

2m
x

Equilibrium for FBD of beam cut just before RHS (Section I-I) and take moments about RHS:
0
0
0
+ M O = 0 = 100 x + 40 x 2 + 30 x 4 + M ( x ) = 0
M ( x ) = 100 x

M(x)

40 x 2

30 x 4

Maximum Bending Moment

100Nm

60Nm
0

30Nm

From the bending moment diagram, the bending moments at all cross sections are positive
and the peak occurs between sections A and B with Mmax = 100Nm.
Step 2: Determine the location of the Neutral Plane As in Example 6.1:
s A +s A
17.5 (35 5) + 37.5 (40 5)
S = 1 1 2 2 =
= 28.167 mm
(35 5) + (40 5)
A1 + A2
Step 3: Determine the distances between the global and local N.A.
11.833

Maximum compressive stress


(under a positive bending
moment M=100Nm)
9.333mm

2
N.A.

-10.667mm

1
-28.167

Maximum tensile stress

Step 4: Determine I using Parallel Axis Theorem, Eq. (6.15)


I = I 1 + y12 A1 + I 2 + y 22 A2

) (

40 53
5 353
I =
+ (9.33)2 (40 5) = 55614.6mm 4
+ ( 10.667 )2 (35 5) +

12
12

or I = 5561410-12 m4
Step 5 Compute the normal peak stresses
Substituting this value for I and the maximum bending moment into Eq. (6.10) gives:
M y
100 y
max = max =
I
55614 10 12
and the maximum stresses occur at the furthest points (fibre) away from the neutral plane:
Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 6

at y = 11.833 mm , y = 0.011833 = -21.280 MPa, the compressive stress peak and


at y = -28.167 mm, y = -0.028167 = 50.648 MPa, the tensile stress peak.
Remarks: For a non-symmetrical cross section (w.r.t. N.A.), it is worth noting that the
maximum compressive or tensile stresses may correspond to other bending moment peaks
than the maximum positive one. That is to say that it may be very necessary for an analyst to
carefully examine several sections with both positive and negative moment peaks.

6.6 PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION (SI&4th: 133; 5th:133)


Used to determine the stress or displacement at a point in a structural component which is
subjected to several types of loads.
The Principle of Superposition states that the resultant stress or displacement at a point can be
determined by finding the stress or displacement caused by each load separately on the
structure, and then add their contributions.

6.7 COMBINED LOADINGS (Bending and Tension) (SI&4th: 409; 5th 409)
We now need to look at how to analyze a beam with both a compressive or tensile load and
a bending moment acting simultaneously. We call such analysis Combined Loadings.
Before we do this though we need to define the Principle of Superposition
If a structural element is applied a tensile or compressive axial force and a bending moment
simultaneously, as Fig. 6.10, we can determine the resultant stresses from the loading
condition by using the principle of superposition as in the Table 6.1.
M

M
P

Fig. 6.10 Beam with applied bending moment M and tensile load P
Table 6.1 Superposition method to analyze the combined loads:
Stress
Distributions

Stresses Produced by Each Load Individually

Tensile
Load

P = P/A

Bending
Load

M = -My/I

M
Both Tensile
and Bending
Loads

Stresses

M
P

M =P/A -My/I

Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 6

Section a-a
20

N.A.

40

10mm

10
30
90mm

M=Pe

M=Pe
P

N.A.

N.A.

Fig. 6.11 Beam with an eccentric tensile load P

The combined loading cases can be created by applying an axial load on a beam a distance
away from the beam's the Neutral Plane/Axis as illustrated in Fig. 6.11. This loading can be
considered as a bending moment of magnitude equal to the applied force multiplied by its
distance from the Neutral Plane (i.e. Pe) and the tensile or compressive load P.
Example 6.3 An open-link chain is obtained by bending low-carbon steel rods of 12-mm
diameter into the shape shown in the figure of this example. Knowing that the chain carries a
load of 800N, determine the maximum tensile and compressive stresses in the straight portion
of a link.

Step 1: Determine the internal force and bending moment from section equilibrium of F.B.D.
+ Fx = 0 = P + 800 = 0
P = 800 N
+

M = 0 = Pe M = 0
12mm

M = Pe = 800 0.015 = 12 Nm
e=15mm

M
P

800N

800N

800N

e=15mm

Step 2: Second moment of area


Area of cross section: A = R 2 = 3.14159 0.006 2 = 113.1 10 6 m 2
R 4 0.006 4
Second moment of area: I =
=
= 1.018 10 9 m 4
4
4
(Note that if the cross section is not a regular shape, you may need to use the steps in
Examples 6.1 and 6.2 to determine I)
Step 3: Superposition of P and M
The stress distribution due to the centric tensile force P is uniform as
P
800
a = =
= 7.07 MPa
A 113.1 10 6
The stress distribution due to the bending moment M is linear with a maximum stress as
My
12 0.006
m =
=
= 70.7 MPa
I
1.018 10 9
Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 6

10

It is worth noting that the maximum bending normal stress m is about 10 times of the average
tensile normal stress a. This means that the eccentric load can cause a substantial change in
stress of the structural element.
Superposing these two distributions, the largest tensile and compressive stresses in the section
are found to be respectively
P My
=
= 7.07 70.70
A
I
tensile = 77.8MPa (occurs in the inner fibre)
compressive = 63.6MPa

(occurs in the outer fibre)

So far we have been looking at beams which are made up of a homogeneous material, this
is not always the case. You can have beams where the material properties vary through the
depth of the material. Such beams are called composite beams, and we are now going to
look at how we can modify them so that they can be analysed by the equations and
procedures that have already been derived.

6.8 COMPOSITE BEAMS (SI&4th: 315-321; 5th:315-321)


Beams made of two or more different materials are referred to as composite beams. Such
beams can be made of wood with straps of steel at the top and bottom surfaces, or concrete
beams reinforced with steel. The reason for manufacturing such beams is to develop
structures that can support loads more efficiently. Look at a beam made from 3 materials as
shown in Fig. 6.12:

A1E1
A2E2

A3E3

Fig. 6.12 Beam made from three materials of different Youngs Modulus of Elasticity
Equivalent Second Moment of Area
Going back to the definition of the Neutral Axis equation, (6.4), if E is not a constant, Eq.
(6.4) becomes:
1
EydA = 0
(6.16)
RA
but because the beam is made from 3 materials with different Young's Modulus, we can
divide this into 3 integrals:
(6.17)
E1 ydA1 + E 2 ydA2 + E3 ydA3 = 0
A1

A2

A3

For this beam, the term dA is given by:


dA1 = dA2 = dA3 = bdy
If the cross section was made from the same material we would not have this problem. So
lets pretend that the beam is made from material 1.
Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 6

11

We can achieve this by dividing through by E1.


E
E
E
Then
E1 1 b ydy + 2 b ydy + 3
A
A2 E
A3 E
1
1
1 E1
We define the terms:
E
b3e1 = 1 b ;
E1

b2 e1 =

E2
b;
E1

b3e1 =

b ydy = 0

E3
b
E1

(6.18)

(6.19)

as the Equivalent Sections of Material 1, where E1/E1, E2/E1 and E3/E1 are termed as material
transformation factors. What has been done is to change each section to property number 1 by
altering their widths. This beam made from an equivalent material 1 would look as Fig. 6.13:
By using the dimensions of the equivalent beam cross section, the position of the Neutral Axis can
be calculated in the way as if the beam was made from one material property, using Eq. (6.12).
b
b1e1
b2e1
b3e1

Fig. 6.13 Equivalent beam cross section

The second moment of area can now be found for this equivalent beam cross section. Using
Eq. (6.13) you have that:
I eq1 = y 2 b1e1 dy + y 2 b2e1 dy + y 2 b3e1 dy
(6.20)
A1

A2

A3

Also you can compute the second moment of area by the parallel axis method as Eq. (6.15).
Actual Stresses
What we need to determine, however is the stresses through the composite beam, to do this
look at the strains through the depth.
Although the cross section has been converted to an equivalent section of a homogeneous
material, the strains in this section must be the same to those of the real material for this
assumption to work. This means that, say looking at the bottom fibre of the beam cross
section, the strains there must be the same in the real beam with material property 3 as in the
equivalent beam of material property 1. Such that:
1eq
My 3
3bottomFibre = 1bottomFibre =
=
(6.21)
E1
I eq1 E1
But as we are interested in determining the stress in material 3 then:
E My My
My
(6.22)
3 = E3 3 = E3
= 3
=
I eq1 E1 E1 I eq1 I eq 3
which gives that:

Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 6

12

E
I eq 3 = I eq1 1
E3

(6.23)

E
I eq 2 = I eq1 1
E2
So the general term becomes
E
I eqj = I eqi i
E
j

(6.24)

Similarly

(6.25)

This gives the stresses in the actual materials as

E My

E

and 2 = E 2 2eq = E 2 My (6.26)
3 = 3 3eq = 3
E I
E

E1 I eq1
1 eq1
E1
1

Example 6.4: Determine the maximum stresses in each material if a moment of 20 Nm is


applied to the composite beam shown, where Eal = ES / 3 and EW = ES / 10:
Wood

50mm

Aluminium

50mm

Steel

50mm

100mm

Step 1: Transform this to an equivalent section for one of the three materials,
In this case we select steel.
bweqs=Ew / Es b=10mm
50mm

bAeqs=Ea / Es b=33.33mm
50mm

bSeqs=Es / Es b=100mm
50mm

Steel
100mm

Step 2: Determine the position of Neutral Plane


si Ai = 25 (100 50) + 75 (33.33 50) + 125 (10 50) = 43.6mm
S =
(100 50) + (33.33 50) + (10 50)
Ai
Which gives that:

S = 43.6mm

Step 3: Coordinate transformation and re-draw the section with vertical distances about N.P.

Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 6

13

106.4

3
56.4
y

81.4

31.4

6.4

N.P.

18.6

1
-43.6

Step 4: Determine Ieq S


I eqs = I 1 + I 2 + I 3
I i = I iLocal + y i2 Ai

From the Parallel Axis Theorem:


I iLocal =

whereas

bh 3
12

100 50 3
2
+ (18.6) (100 50) = 2771467 mm 4
12
And similarly: I2 = 1990325 mm4 , and I3 = 3417147 mm4
So adding these three values together and converting the results to metres gives
I eqS = I1 + I2 + I3 = 8.178910-6 m4
Therefore:
So:

I1 =

Step 5: Determine Stresses in each material


My S
20 ( 0.0436)
In Steel :
S =
=
= 106.6kPa
I eqS
8.1789 10 6
In Aluminium;
E
I eqAl = I eqS S
E Al

= 8.1789 10 6 (3) = 24.537 10 6 m 4

and:
Al =

My Al
20 0.0564
=
= 45.97kPa
I eqAl
24.537 10 6

and in Wood:
E
I eqW = I eqS S
EW

= 8.1789 10 6 (10 ) = 24.537 10 5 m 4

MyW
20 0.1064
W =
=
= 26.018kPa
I eqW
8.1789 10 5

Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 6

14

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