Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Volume 5, Number 5
ISSN: 1935-3049
2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Abstract
Safe and precise cavity detection, especially of dangerous or inaccessible voids, is
essential to safe production in a working mine. Conventional underground cavity
detection methods are briefly reviewed and their limitations discussed. Accurate 3D laser
measurement systems are introduced. One of these laser systems was used to detect
inaccessible underground cavities from the surface through boreholes at Luanchuan
molybdenum open pit in China. The results from the scanner demonstrated very well the
detailed level of information that can be collected in a cavity using this method, with the
cavities layout under various benches being fully mapped. The processed data can be
imported into existing models in SURPAC and CAD and the roof and floor elevations
from the model of the cavity was used to output sections which would be required at a
later design stage. A minimum number of exploration boreholes can be coordinated based
on the scanned data which therefore not only fully details the extent of the cavity, but
also saves on the costs of exploration drilling. Finally, the advantages and disadvantages
of laser detection systems are analysed, and a combination of laser scanning techniques
and conventional survey methodology is proposed to detect these unknown underground
cavities.
1.
Introduction
The worldwide demand for mineral products is rising due to the increasing shortage
of resources and rising consumption resulting from rapidly expanding economies &
international trade. These conditions have led in the last few years to a particularly
prosperous time for the mining industry. However, in many places, further exploration
has been seriously restricted or been made extremely hazardous due to the presence of
various abandoned, & unmapped underground cavities left over from previous mining
operations. The disasters caused by cavities have been numerous & disastrous[1]. For
example, in Chinese mines in recent years, disasters caused by underground cavities have
*
Email: lxlenglish@163.com
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frequently caused multiple fatalities: 29 people dead in a gypsum mine caused by the
collapse of a cavity roof; 81 people dead in a gold mine caused by cavity water inrush in
2001; 13 people dead and 9 injured in a stone mine caused by a cavity roof collapse, 11
people dead in a copper mine cause by cavity water inrush in 2004; 36 people dead and
another 33 injured in a gypsum mine caused by cavity roof collapse in 2005; 6 people
dead and other 4 injured in a gypsum mine caused by large area roof collapse of an old
cavity in 2006. It is clear then that accurate cavity detection & mapping is vital for
dealing with such cavities & for ensuring safe mineral exploitation. Similarly, the
accurate detection of cavities and voids under highways, construction sites and buildings
etc is essential for their operation & the safety of those people who use and work on
them.
Regarding conventional detection methods of detecting & mapping out cavities, these
have required an understanding of the high precision equipment, of the complex theories
behind this equipment, its deployment. It has also required deep analysis of the acquired
data and details of the geology in the vicinity of the cavity. However, the geology around
the cavity is often very complex & this greatly limits ones ability to interpret results,
making accurate detection extremely difficult. Previously, the major goals of attempts to
develop methods of cavity detection have been, firstly, designing more precise equipment
to take the required observations; studying & interpreting the results of the observations
to gain an understanding of the complex geology around the cavity; choosing different
detection methods according to different prevailing geological conditions; and adopting
multiple detection methods for each cavity. This latter point is to try to ensure that the
different techniques verify each other, thus hopefully establishing more accurate &
reliable results. However, cavity detection by these conventional methods can still not
obtain a sufficiently accurate model of the cavity.
3D laser scanning however, does provide a means of highly accurate modelling of
cavities. This method uses a pulsed, infra-red laser, measuring the time-of-flight of the
laser pulse to calculate distance measurements. This method is not affected by the
geology around the cavity and obtains a very clear visual 3D model of the cavity in a
very short time. It is the most accurate way to perform cavity detection.
Currently, the main methods of detecting cavities are: engineering drilling,
geophysical exploration, hydrological experiments, gravity observation and magnetic
observations. The main cavity detection methods are: micro-gravity method, DC
electrical method, transient electromagnetic method (TEM), high-density resistivity
method, ground penetrating radar technique, transient Rayleigh wave method, seismic
tomography method (CT), shallow seismic exploration and radioactive gas measurement
technique etc[2]. Different detection methods are favoured around the world depending
on local conditions & preferred technologies. For example, in the USA, comprehensive
detection techniques are used, particularly - the electrical method, electromagnetic
method, micro-gravity method and seismic method. Japan is one of the leading places in
the world for employing geophysical techniques: most commonly, the seismic wave
method, electrical method, electromagnetic method and geophysical well logging;
electrical method, transient electromagnetic method (TEM), seismic reflecting wave
method, electromagnetic wave transmission method and radioactive gas measurement are
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mostly used in Russia, while ground penetrating radar is well used in many European
countries. Due to severe disasters in China caused by cavity collapses, various
geophysical detection techniques have been used to carry out cavity detection[1,2].
There is much ongoing research into different detection techniques. Ground
penetrating radar can provide a high resolution map at different levels of a geological
body, and carry out scatheless detection of underground objects[3-5]; the high frequency
electromagnetic detection method has the advantage of high detecting speed, low cost
and a large control area, making it an effective method for geological disaster
prevention[6]; based on a 2D simulation model, the 2D electrical method can obtain more
accurate results than a conventional electrical method, and cost less than 3D one, making
it the most economical method for cavity detection[7-9]; seismic share-wave reflection
method can better distinguish the object in shallow stratum, which is difficult for
conventional seismic methods to distinguish by detected shallow seismic
information[10]. An on-site experimental study was performed in paper [11] aiming at
investigating the difficulty of seismic signal interpretation caused by complicated
geological condition; BIE (Boundary Integral Equation) was used to analyze shallow
seismic measurements in paper [12]; the detection results tested by geological radar
method, transient electromagnetic method (TEM), shallow seismic reflecting wave
method, transient Rayleigh wave method and high-density resistivity method were
commented in paper [13].In order to overcome the limitations of single detection
methods, a combined method which integrates different detection techniques was
proposed to carry out cavity detection to achieve more accurate results; and this method
was used to perform cavity detection which proved to be valid, especially for complex
cavities[2,14-17].
In general, these various conventional methods do not easily produce accurate 3D
models of the cavity under investigation. Further, since the detection of abnormalities by
these methods is dependent on the rock mass and geological conditions around the cavity,
different methods must be used according to the local geological condition. Given the
complexity of geological conditions commonly found around cavities, the accurate
interpretation of the results is very difficult. For this reason, various methods are
combined to overcome the limitation of a single detection method, causing the operation
to become more complex & costly.
In recent years, 3D cavity detection methods based on laser range finding techniques
have been widely used in mines around the world. Results have proved it to be a very
successful method of 3D cavity detection. As early as 1989, AFGANDML853 laser
system was tested by the Gasp mining company, its detection range was limited in 60
meters, and the system was not automated in any way. OPTECHG150 laser rangefinder
with 100 meters detection range and 0.05% accuracy was tested also in Gasp in Feb
1990[18]. A laser detector and automatic scanning equipment were fixed on a rigid rod to
measure an excavated space at Norandas technique centre in 1992 with encouraging
performance[19]. Thereafter, laser rangefinders have been increasingly utilised in mines
for automatic measurements, with the measured models being imported into existing,
integrated mine maps & models[20]. These laser rangefinders and scanners have been used
in mines for a wide variety of applications: performing the detection of cavities and
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2.
2.1.
A laser is a device which emits light formed by stimulated radiation which is intense,
concentrated and highly monochromatic. The lasers used in 3D cavity measurements are
generally based on a laser measuring technique called time-of-flight. The basic
principle is to measure the time taken for a laser pulse to travel from the receiving optic
to the target and back to the receiving optic. This time is then used to calculate the
distance travelled, L , by the laser pulse. The conversion equation is[31]:
L
1
ct
2
where c is laser propagation speed in the atmosphere, and t is the time taken for the
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S
O
x S cos cos
y S cos sin
z S sin
2.2.
Having a small cross-sectional profile and accurate, integrated orientation system, MDLs
C-ALS laser scanner was selected to carry out the detection of cavities under the open pit
under investigation. C-ALS scans the cavity by using the time-of-flight laser
measurement technique described above. The C-ALS probe, which incorporates the laser.
is just 50mm in diameter. The unit is designed to be deployed down boreholes up to 300
690
m long, as well as to be deployed uphole and along horizontally holes up to 100 m long.
Due to the mechanical rotation of the laser head on the probe, a 3D scan can cover the
entire void up to a range of 150 m with an accuracy of 5 cm. The scanned data in its raw
form of a 3D point cloud can be processed into a 3D model, and then exported &
integrated into most current mining software packages such as SURPAC, VULCAN,
AutoCAD, DATAMINE etc[34].
2.2.1. Systems composition and application
The complete C-ALS system is composed of hardware and software. The full hardware
system includes:
the main probe which houses: the laser scan head, the motors which rotate the
scan head horizontally and vertically, and the pitch & roll sensors which monitor
the orientation of the probe, allowing the software to automatically align the scan
appropriately;
the nose cone infra-red camera (Figure 2 (a)) which is also integrated into the
scanning head. This is used to check the condition of the borehole during
deployment, as well as to gauge exactly when the probe enters the cavity;
Boretrack rods (Figure 2 (b)) for deploying the probe at fixed, regular intervals
and to prevent the probe rotating in the borehole which would cause the
orientation of the data to be compromised;
Toughened, load-bearing cable for power, data transmission and to assist
deployment and recovery;
the surface unit (Figure 2 (c)) which manages power & data transmission &
which remains on the surface.
The software includes a module for controlling the C-ALS during operations (Figure
3 (a)), a module allowing real-time viewing of the scan as it is carried out (Figure 3 (b))
and 3D modelling software (Figure 3 (c)) for creating surfaces, models & calculating
volumes.
(a)
(a)
(b)
(b)
(c)
(c)
Figure 2. (a) Ore pass survey; (b) Underground space detection; (c) Underground void
measurement.
(a)
(b)
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(c)
Figure 3. (a) CavityScan software during deployment; (b) CavityScan during a scan; (c)
3D modeling software.
Due to the flexibility of the equipment and various customised deployment methods
which have been devised, the C-ALS is capable of many different types of cavity
scanning operations, including stope surveys, abandoned mine workings, orepass
surveys, pillar recovery areas, backfilling areas, silo or ore bin surveys, tunnel profiling,
structural monitoring, and surveys of any inaccessible location etc.
2.2.2. System detection procedure and data processing
The procedure for using the C-ALS involves the following three steps:
1) Deploying the scanner into the cavity while measuring the deviation of the
borehole;
2) Carrying out the scan through the remote control software module;
3) Processing the measured data using modelling software to obtain a 3D cavity
model.
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3.
3.2.
Detection Results
The cavities underneath Sandaozhuang open pit will be a source of risk throughout the
exploitation of the mine. To illustrate the problem, in Table 1 below are listed the details
693
of some of the cavities already detected. We know from various surveys that safe mine
production is increasingly threatened by those cavities under the open pit boundaries, as
the bench blasting continues to progress. The potential danger from these cavities,
situated at various depths and with various shapes and volumes, is extremely severe. This
is especially true of the largest cavities with complex shapes and which are often
interconnected with other adjacent voids.
Borehole depth /m
15.2
14
29.4
17.8
21
16
16
After each cavity was fully surveyed, the scanned data was edited in CavityScan
processing software and a 3D modelling package to form an oriented, geo-referenced
point cloud (Figure 7(a)) and 3D solid model (Figure 7(b)), either of which can be
exported into SURPAC and CAD. The projective ichnography of the cavity was of most
use on-site. This data can be transformed into exploitation ichnography in CAD to outline
the cavity boundary (Figure 7(c)).
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Bench 1438
Boundaries of
detected cavities
under bench 1438
Bench 1450
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 7. (a) Oriented laser point cloud under bench 1438-1; (b) 3D solid model of cavity
under bench 1438-1; (c) Cavity boundary under bench 1438-1 in exploitation
ichnography.
1370.431
1363.365
1383.000
1377.452
1385.832
1360.784
1384.083
1358.251
1372.736
1369.048
1392.297
1377.400
1400.462
1367.010
1396.121
1365.976
1391.027
1374.199
4800
6100
1393.965
1375.451
1411.385
1378.300
1408.296
1376.5
1398.778
1385.483
4800
6050
1412.447
1386.168
4750
6050
1407.56
1389.055
1402.738
1394.288
4750
6100
1406.579
1403.5
1402.380
1379.340
Figure 8 Cavity ichnography with roof and floor elevation of grid intersection point.
3.3.
695
696
697
boreholes. Figure 13 is the cavity final ichnography under bench 1462 detected through
multiple boreholes.
Borehole 62-1
1462.1
Callpsed area
4.
Conclusion
3D laser scanning is an advanced cavity detection method which can detect and survey
cavities far more precisely than conventional methods. With a small diameter, high
accuracy and unique deployment method, the C-ALS can ensure not only the accurate
698
cavity analysis, but also the safety of the personnel deploying the equipment who are able
to remain removed from the dangerous areas being investigated. The unit has proved to
be very suitable for underground cavity detection in Sandaozhuang mine of Luoyang
Luanchuan Molybdenum Co. LTD.
The detected laser point cloud can be processed to obtain accurate cavity
ichnography. The cavity roof and floor elevations at grid intersection points are used to
provide detailed information for blast design. Minimal exploration boreholes can be
located based on the scanned data which can therefore not only obtain 3D cavity
information, but can also save on the cost of exploration drilling.
Laser reflections from water and glass back to the receiving optics is almost zero, and
the ability of the laser to measure ranges is limited by the line-of-sight within the
underground cavity. For these reasons, the influence of water, fog (such as blasting
fumes) and humidity in the cavity can have a detrimental affect on laser scanning
technology and continues to be further researched. Further, although laser equipment has
been used in underground coal mine, the C-ALS is not specifically rated as being
intrinsically safe, the detection feasibility of C-ALS in any area where there is risk of
flammable gas (such as gas in coal mine) needs to be validated.
In contrast with other, conventional cavity detection methods, operators using a 3D
laser scanner will need to know in advance the rough location of the cavity and this will
then determine the position of the borehole to be drilled. However, the location of most
cavities and voids encountered is unclear, especially if they are inaccessible. Therefore,
the 3D laser scanning method described should be combined with the conventional
detection methods. The location of the cavity can be determined by conventional
detection methods first, and then the borehole position can be chosen, through which the
C-ALS can be deployed to carry out an accurate, detailed scan of the void. Data from the
C-ALS can then be used to pin-point further locations for drilling and investigation.
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