Sie sind auf Seite 1von 16

In: Environmental Research Journal

Volume 5, Number 5

ISSN: 1935-3049
2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

UNDERGROUND CAVITY 3D DETECTION USING


LASER SYSTEM [CROSS PUBLICATION]
Liu Xiling1*, Li Xibing1, Anthony Comber2 and Liu Kewei1
1
School of Resources and Safety Engineering, Central South University,
Changsha, 410083, China
2
Measurement Devices Ltd, Silverburn Crescent, Aberdeen, AB23 8EW, Scotland

Abstract
Safe and precise cavity detection, especially of dangerous or inaccessible voids, is
essential to safe production in a working mine. Conventional underground cavity
detection methods are briefly reviewed and their limitations discussed. Accurate 3D laser
measurement systems are introduced. One of these laser systems was used to detect
inaccessible underground cavities from the surface through boreholes at Luanchuan
molybdenum open pit in China. The results from the scanner demonstrated very well the
detailed level of information that can be collected in a cavity using this method, with the
cavities layout under various benches being fully mapped. The processed data can be
imported into existing models in SURPAC and CAD and the roof and floor elevations
from the model of the cavity was used to output sections which would be required at a
later design stage. A minimum number of exploration boreholes can be coordinated based
on the scanned data which therefore not only fully details the extent of the cavity, but
also saves on the costs of exploration drilling. Finally, the advantages and disadvantages
of laser detection systems are analysed, and a combination of laser scanning techniques
and conventional survey methodology is proposed to detect these unknown underground
cavities.

1.

Introduction

The worldwide demand for mineral products is rising due to the increasing shortage
of resources and rising consumption resulting from rapidly expanding economies &
international trade. These conditions have led in the last few years to a particularly
prosperous time for the mining industry. However, in many places, further exploration
has been seriously restricted or been made extremely hazardous due to the presence of
various abandoned, & unmapped underground cavities left over from previous mining
operations. The disasters caused by cavities have been numerous & disastrous[1]. For
example, in Chinese mines in recent years, disasters caused by underground cavities have
*

Email: lxlenglish@163.com

686

Liu Xiling, Li Xibing, Anthony Comber and Liu Kewei

frequently caused multiple fatalities: 29 people dead in a gypsum mine caused by the
collapse of a cavity roof; 81 people dead in a gold mine caused by cavity water inrush in
2001; 13 people dead and 9 injured in a stone mine caused by a cavity roof collapse, 11
people dead in a copper mine cause by cavity water inrush in 2004; 36 people dead and
another 33 injured in a gypsum mine caused by cavity roof collapse in 2005; 6 people
dead and other 4 injured in a gypsum mine caused by large area roof collapse of an old
cavity in 2006. It is clear then that accurate cavity detection & mapping is vital for
dealing with such cavities & for ensuring safe mineral exploitation. Similarly, the
accurate detection of cavities and voids under highways, construction sites and buildings
etc is essential for their operation & the safety of those people who use and work on
them.
Regarding conventional detection methods of detecting & mapping out cavities, these
have required an understanding of the high precision equipment, of the complex theories
behind this equipment, its deployment. It has also required deep analysis of the acquired
data and details of the geology in the vicinity of the cavity. However, the geology around
the cavity is often very complex & this greatly limits ones ability to interpret results,
making accurate detection extremely difficult. Previously, the major goals of attempts to
develop methods of cavity detection have been, firstly, designing more precise equipment
to take the required observations; studying & interpreting the results of the observations
to gain an understanding of the complex geology around the cavity; choosing different
detection methods according to different prevailing geological conditions; and adopting
multiple detection methods for each cavity. This latter point is to try to ensure that the
different techniques verify each other, thus hopefully establishing more accurate &
reliable results. However, cavity detection by these conventional methods can still not
obtain a sufficiently accurate model of the cavity.
3D laser scanning however, does provide a means of highly accurate modelling of
cavities. This method uses a pulsed, infra-red laser, measuring the time-of-flight of the
laser pulse to calculate distance measurements. This method is not affected by the
geology around the cavity and obtains a very clear visual 3D model of the cavity in a
very short time. It is the most accurate way to perform cavity detection.
Currently, the main methods of detecting cavities are: engineering drilling,
geophysical exploration, hydrological experiments, gravity observation and magnetic
observations. The main cavity detection methods are: micro-gravity method, DC
electrical method, transient electromagnetic method (TEM), high-density resistivity
method, ground penetrating radar technique, transient Rayleigh wave method, seismic
tomography method (CT), shallow seismic exploration and radioactive gas measurement
technique etc[2]. Different detection methods are favoured around the world depending
on local conditions & preferred technologies. For example, in the USA, comprehensive
detection techniques are used, particularly - the electrical method, electromagnetic
method, micro-gravity method and seismic method. Japan is one of the leading places in
the world for employing geophysical techniques: most commonly, the seismic wave
method, electrical method, electromagnetic method and geophysical well logging;
electrical method, transient electromagnetic method (TEM), seismic reflecting wave
method, electromagnetic wave transmission method and radioactive gas measurement are

Underground Cavity 3D Detection Using Laser System

687

mostly used in Russia, while ground penetrating radar is well used in many European
countries. Due to severe disasters in China caused by cavity collapses, various
geophysical detection techniques have been used to carry out cavity detection[1,2].
There is much ongoing research into different detection techniques. Ground
penetrating radar can provide a high resolution map at different levels of a geological
body, and carry out scatheless detection of underground objects[3-5]; the high frequency
electromagnetic detection method has the advantage of high detecting speed, low cost
and a large control area, making it an effective method for geological disaster
prevention[6]; based on a 2D simulation model, the 2D electrical method can obtain more
accurate results than a conventional electrical method, and cost less than 3D one, making
it the most economical method for cavity detection[7-9]; seismic share-wave reflection
method can better distinguish the object in shallow stratum, which is difficult for
conventional seismic methods to distinguish by detected shallow seismic
information[10]. An on-site experimental study was performed in paper [11] aiming at
investigating the difficulty of seismic signal interpretation caused by complicated
geological condition; BIE (Boundary Integral Equation) was used to analyze shallow
seismic measurements in paper [12]; the detection results tested by geological radar
method, transient electromagnetic method (TEM), shallow seismic reflecting wave
method, transient Rayleigh wave method and high-density resistivity method were
commented in paper [13].In order to overcome the limitations of single detection
methods, a combined method which integrates different detection techniques was
proposed to carry out cavity detection to achieve more accurate results; and this method
was used to perform cavity detection which proved to be valid, especially for complex
cavities[2,14-17].
In general, these various conventional methods do not easily produce accurate 3D
models of the cavity under investigation. Further, since the detection of abnormalities by
these methods is dependent on the rock mass and geological conditions around the cavity,
different methods must be used according to the local geological condition. Given the
complexity of geological conditions commonly found around cavities, the accurate
interpretation of the results is very difficult. For this reason, various methods are
combined to overcome the limitation of a single detection method, causing the operation
to become more complex & costly.
In recent years, 3D cavity detection methods based on laser range finding techniques
have been widely used in mines around the world. Results have proved it to be a very
successful method of 3D cavity detection. As early as 1989, AFGANDML853 laser
system was tested by the Gasp mining company, its detection range was limited in 60
meters, and the system was not automated in any way. OPTECHG150 laser rangefinder
with 100 meters detection range and 0.05% accuracy was tested also in Gasp in Feb
1990[18]. A laser detector and automatic scanning equipment were fixed on a rigid rod to
measure an excavated space at Norandas technique centre in 1992 with encouraging
performance[19]. Thereafter, laser rangefinders have been increasingly utilised in mines
for automatic measurements, with the measured models being imported into existing,
integrated mine maps & models[20]. These laser rangefinders and scanners have been used
in mines for a wide variety of applications: performing the detection of cavities and

688

Liu Xiling, Li Xibing, Anthony Comber and Liu Kewei

excavation spaces; 3D modelling of underground spaces by mounting the laser on a


moving vehicle[21]; scanning of rock mass joint surfaces[22], and monitoring vehicles in
underground mines and open pits[23] etc. Some of the main manufacturers of laser
surveying systems used in these applications are I-SITE in Australia, MDL in United
Kingdom, OPTECH in Canada, CYPA in Unite states, RIEGL in Austria and
CALLIDUS in Germany. However, for particular, inaccessible cavities such as those
under open pits, cavities under highways or buildings etc, the laser scanner needs to be
deployed through a borehole if we want to carry out laser 3D detection as there is no
other way of entering the void with laser equipment. This laser system therefore needs to
have an extremely small cross-section to fit through the drilled hole. It also needs to be
flexible, rugged, easy to deploy & recover, and to incorporate an orientation system to
automatically correct the resulting data according to the angle of the instrument during
the survey. At present, there are two kinds of laser detection system in the world which
are designed to be suitable for surveys of inaccessible cavities: OPTECHs CMS (Cavity
Monitoring System) and MDLs C-ALS (Cavity Auto-scanning Laser System). The CMS
and C-ALS have been widely used in mines around the world[24-28] since the 1990s, but
their application in mines of China commenced just a few years ago[29,30].
There have been many mines in China which have suffered terrible tragedies
resulting from underground cavities. An open pit run by Luoyang Luanchuan
Molybdenum CO., LTD. is severely threatened by such cavities under the working pit.
Detection of cavities needs to be carried out on the surface, rather than from
underground, and in this case, the laser instrument needs to be deployed through a
borehole. For these reasons, due to its 50mm diameter, the C-ALS is the only suitable
system for underground cavity detection in Luanchuan open pit. This is the mine where
we choose to use the C-ALS to perform accurate 3D cavity detection with the object of
providing detailed information on the layout and extent of the cavities in order to increase
the safety of production on the mine.

2.
2.1.

Cavity Laser 3D Detection Technique


Principle of Laser 3D Detection

A laser is a device which emits light formed by stimulated radiation which is intense,
concentrated and highly monochromatic. The lasers used in 3D cavity measurements are
generally based on a laser measuring technique called time-of-flight. The basic
principle is to measure the time taken for a laser pulse to travel from the receiving optic
to the target and back to the receiving optic. This time is then used to calculate the
distance travelled, L , by the laser pulse. The conversion equation is[31]:
L

1
ct
2

where c is laser propagation speed in the atmosphere, and t is the time taken for the

Underground Cavity 3D Detection Using Laser System

689

laser travelling the measuring distance and back to the laser.


The raw data observed by the 3D laser scanner will be as follows: 1) the horizontal
and vertical direction of the laser beam based either on the angle of a continuously
rotating mirror, used to reflect the laser, or on the angle of the laser head, moved
mechanically by motors in the instrument; 2) the distance between the instrument and the
measured point, calculated from the laser pulses time-offlight; 3) the intensity of the
reflection of the scanned point. The data from 1) and 2) are used to calculate the three
dimensional coordinate values, and the reflection intensity is used to colour the measured
points according to their signal strength[32].
Commonly, 3D laser scanners will uses the instruments own internal reference
frame shown in Figure 1.
z
P( x, y, z)

S
O

Figure 1. Imaging principle of Laser 3D scanning


Axes x and y are in the cross direction scanning plane and are perpendicular to
each other. Axis z is perpendicular to the cross direction plane. Observation value S is
the range observed with the laser, the horizontal scanning angle and vertical scanning
angle of every laser impulse are measured simultaneously through accurate timing.
Using this data, the equation for calculating the 3D laser coordinate is[33]:

x S cos cos

y S cos sin
z S sin

2.2.

Cavity Auto Scanning Laser System (C-ALS)

Having a small cross-sectional profile and accurate, integrated orientation system, MDLs
C-ALS laser scanner was selected to carry out the detection of cavities under the open pit
under investigation. C-ALS scans the cavity by using the time-of-flight laser
measurement technique described above. The C-ALS probe, which incorporates the laser.
is just 50mm in diameter. The unit is designed to be deployed down boreholes up to 300

690

Liu Xiling, Li Xibing, Anthony Comber and Liu Kewei

m long, as well as to be deployed uphole and along horizontally holes up to 100 m long.
Due to the mechanical rotation of the laser head on the probe, a 3D scan can cover the
entire void up to a range of 150 m with an accuracy of 5 cm. The scanned data in its raw
form of a 3D point cloud can be processed into a 3D model, and then exported &
integrated into most current mining software packages such as SURPAC, VULCAN,
AutoCAD, DATAMINE etc[34].
2.2.1. Systems composition and application
The complete C-ALS system is composed of hardware and software. The full hardware
system includes:

the main probe which houses: the laser scan head, the motors which rotate the
scan head horizontally and vertically, and the pitch & roll sensors which monitor
the orientation of the probe, allowing the software to automatically align the scan
appropriately;
the nose cone infra-red camera (Figure 2 (a)) which is also integrated into the
scanning head. This is used to check the condition of the borehole during
deployment, as well as to gauge exactly when the probe enters the cavity;
Boretrack rods (Figure 2 (b)) for deploying the probe at fixed, regular intervals
and to prevent the probe rotating in the borehole which would cause the
orientation of the data to be compromised;
Toughened, load-bearing cable for power, data transmission and to assist
deployment and recovery;
the surface unit (Figure 2 (c)) which manages power & data transmission &
which remains on the surface.

The software includes a module for controlling the C-ALS during operations (Figure
3 (a)), a module allowing real-time viewing of the scan as it is carried out (Figure 3 (b))
and 3D modelling software (Figure 3 (c)) for creating surfaces, models & calculating
volumes.

(a)

(a)

(b)

(b)

(c)

(c)

Figure 2. (a) Ore pass survey; (b) Underground space detection; (c) Underground void
measurement.

Underground Cavity 3D Detection Using Laser System

(a)

(b)

691

(c)

Figure 3. (a) CavityScan software during deployment; (b) CavityScan during a scan; (c)
3D modeling software.

Due to the flexibility of the equipment and various customised deployment methods
which have been devised, the C-ALS is capable of many different types of cavity
scanning operations, including stope surveys, abandoned mine workings, orepass
surveys, pillar recovery areas, backfilling areas, silo or ore bin surveys, tunnel profiling,
structural monitoring, and surveys of any inaccessible location etc.
2.2.2. System detection procedure and data processing
The procedure for using the C-ALS involves the following three steps:
1) Deploying the scanner into the cavity while measuring the deviation of the
borehole;
2) Carrying out the scan through the remote control software module;
3) Processing the measured data using modelling software to obtain a 3D cavity
model.

Figure 4 shows the detecting procedure of C-ALS.

Figure 4. Detection procedure of C-ALS.

692

3.

Liu Xiling, Li Xibing, Anthony Comber and Liu Kewei

C-ALS Detection of Cavity under Open Pit Limit in


Luanchuan Mine

3.1. Present Situation and Problems of Luanchuan Mine


Sandaozhuang mine of Luoyang Luanchuan Molybdenum Co. LTD. is an active mine
with 5.29108 tons molybdenum and tungsten geological reserves. The average
geological grade of molybdenum and tungsten is 0.11%. There are 6.72510 5 tons of
metal reserves, with the verified molybdenum reserve comprising 2.52% of the worlds
total. Sandaozhuang is an open pit mine with 30kt/d production capability and an annual
production value of 2 billion RMB. The mine experienced unreasonable underground
mining for more than 20 years since the 1980s. There have massive cavities left by
sublevel open stope mining and large numbers of unmapped and abandoned cavities have
been left by private mining. There are in total more than 100 cavities of various shapes
and sizes, with a combined volume of around 1107 m3 under the open pit. This has left
the ore body in a perilous state. Since being excavated, these cavities have suffered
ground pressure, weathering and blasting vibration. The rock mass around the cavities is
in a fractured and distorted condition, with the cavities location, size and shape already
having altered. As Sandaozhuang open pit continues exploiting the minerals present, the
layer between the bench surface and the cavities is becoming thinner. Both workers and
their equipment are directly threatened by these underground cavities, and it is possible
for fatal accidents to occur at any time due to surface collapse. The major aim of the mine
is to deal with those cavities under the open pit, and, for this purpose, it is first vital to
accurately detect the shape, location and size of the cavities. Thus, this situation presents
a good stage to investigate the suitability of the C-ALS.

Figure 5. Present Sandaozhuang open pit.

3.2.

Detection Results

The cavities underneath Sandaozhuang open pit will be a source of risk throughout the
exploitation of the mine. To illustrate the problem, in Table 1 below are listed the details

Underground Cavity 3D Detection Using Laser System

693

of some of the cavities already detected. We know from various surveys that safe mine
production is increasingly threatened by those cavities under the open pit boundaries, as
the bench blasting continues to progress. The potential danger from these cavities,
situated at various depths and with various shapes and volumes, is extremely severe. This
is especially true of the largest cavities with complex shapes and which are often
interconnected with other adjacent voids.

Figure 6. Deploying the C-ALS to detect cavities.

Table 1. Detected cavities under various bench


Cavity position
Bench 1330
Bench 1414
Bench 1438-1
Bench 1438-2
Bench 1450
Bench 1462-1
Bench 1462-2

Borehole depth /m
15.2
14
29.4
17.8
21
16
16

Cavity height under


borehole /m
4.2
2.4
70.3
8.1
7.8
5.9
5.4

Cavity volume /m3


647
174
157078
2722
3198
2177
2087

After each cavity was fully surveyed, the scanned data was edited in CavityScan
processing software and a 3D modelling package to form an oriented, geo-referenced
point cloud (Figure 7(a)) and 3D solid model (Figure 7(b)), either of which can be
exported into SURPAC and CAD. The projective ichnography of the cavity was of most
use on-site. This data can be transformed into exploitation ichnography in CAD to outline
the cavity boundary (Figure 7(c)).

694

Liu Xiling, Li Xibing, Anthony Comber and Liu Kewei

Bench 1438

Boundaries of
detected cavities
under bench 1438

Bench 1450

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 7. (a) Oriented laser point cloud under bench 1438-1; (b) 3D solid model of cavity
under bench 1438-1; (c) Cavity boundary under bench 1438-1 in exploitation
ichnography.
1370.431
1363.365

1383.000
1377.452

1385.832
1360.784

1384.083
1358.251

1372.736
1369.048

1392.297
1377.400

1400.462
1367.010

1396.121
1365.976

1391.027
1374.199
4800
6100

1393.965
1375.451

1411.385
1378.300

1408.296
1376.5

1398.778
1385.483

4800
6050

Borehole in bench 1438


S=8683.63 m2
V=157thousand m3
the area circled by this curve in
elevation about 1384 maybe the
interpenetration part between this
cavity and the cavity under it

1412.447
1386.168

4750
6050

1407.56
1389.055

1402.738
1394.288

4750
6100
1406.579
1403.5

1402.380
1379.340

Figure 8 Cavity ichnography with roof and floor elevation of grid intersection point.

Underground Cavity 3D Detection Using Laser System

3.3.

695

Special Cavity Analysis

3.3.1. Huge Cavity Under Bench 1438-1


The cavity under bench 1438-1 is huge, complex and multi-layered and has the cavity
under bench 1438-2 in its cap rock, which was of the most concern in July 2007. Detailed
detection was carried out through a borehole on the surface of bench 1438-1. In order to
provide practical information for cavity disposal and the bench blast, the roof of the
cavity and the elevation of the floor were measured at grid intersection points in
ichnography taken from the laser point cloud (shown in Figure 12). The grid spacing can
be altered according to the required accuracy, with the roof and floor elevation at each
specified point measured from the scan data. This data enabled the creation of section
charts which would be vital for a later design stage. In Figure 11 (a), there is one area of
the cavity which is not covered by the point cloud data. The furthest achievable range to a
good reflection surface is about 150 meters of C-ALS and considering this fact, together
with an analysis of the other scanned data, we conclude that this part may interconnect
with the lower cavity at an elevation of about 1384. The interpenetration part is curve
circled in Figure 8.

Figure 9. Collapsed surface after blast.


After the cavity under bench 1438-1 was fully detected, the blast was performed on
the thinner cap rock of this huge cavity. The collapsed surface (shown in Figure 9) is
spectacular, with an area of 4900 m2 after the blast. The distance between the surface and
the bottom of collapsed pit is about 75 meters as shown in Figure 10. After investigating
the collapse on-site, we found small cavities and laneways in its cap rock as shown in
Figure 11, this is in agreement with the small cavities and laneways detected during
surveys through other boreholes in bench 1438. These are visible in Figure 7 (c). As
further blasting continues on, the collapsed surface is enlarging further. Accurate data
collected with the C-ALS is constantly providing reliable information for blast design.

696

Liu Xiling, Li Xibing, Anthony Comber and Liu Kewei

Figure 10. Side view of the collapse.

Figure 11. Small cavity and laneways in cap rock.


3.3.2. Dangerous cavity under bench 1462
Due to the fragmented cap rock, the cavity under bench 1462 was partly collapsed. We
drilled two boreholes to deploy the laser probe after investigating the collapsed area.
However, this cavity is extremely complex: pillars and collapses make the survey
extremely difficult. The scan data showed that the height throughout the cavity is fairly
constant. Also, from the point cloud it is apparent that there still have other parts of the
cavity beyond the line-of-sight of the laser and thus beyond the extents of the point
cloud. These areas are marked in the cavity ichnography-Figure 12. This illustrates that a
small number of boreholes are insufficient for a full picture of this cavity. More
boreholes need to be drilled, through which the C-ALS can be deployed. The location of
the drilling will be based on the data already collected in previous scans. The final cavity
shape will be obtained by combining data collected from deployments through numerous

Underground Cavity 3D Detection Using Laser System

697

boreholes. Figure 13 is the cavity final ichnography under bench 1462 detected through
multiple boreholes.

there may have


cavities away from
this dashed line

there may have


cavities away from
this dashed line

there may have


cavities away from
this dashed line
Borehole 62-2
1462.8

Borehole 62-1
1462.1

Figure 12. Detected cavity ichnography through two boreholes.

Callpsed area

Figure 13. Final cavity ichnography detected through multiple boreholes.

4.

Conclusion

3D laser scanning is an advanced cavity detection method which can detect and survey
cavities far more precisely than conventional methods. With a small diameter, high
accuracy and unique deployment method, the C-ALS can ensure not only the accurate

698

Liu Xiling, Li Xibing, Anthony Comber and Liu Kewei

cavity analysis, but also the safety of the personnel deploying the equipment who are able
to remain removed from the dangerous areas being investigated. The unit has proved to
be very suitable for underground cavity detection in Sandaozhuang mine of Luoyang
Luanchuan Molybdenum Co. LTD.
The detected laser point cloud can be processed to obtain accurate cavity
ichnography. The cavity roof and floor elevations at grid intersection points are used to
provide detailed information for blast design. Minimal exploration boreholes can be
located based on the scanned data which can therefore not only obtain 3D cavity
information, but can also save on the cost of exploration drilling.
Laser reflections from water and glass back to the receiving optics is almost zero, and
the ability of the laser to measure ranges is limited by the line-of-sight within the
underground cavity. For these reasons, the influence of water, fog (such as blasting
fumes) and humidity in the cavity can have a detrimental affect on laser scanning
technology and continues to be further researched. Further, although laser equipment has
been used in underground coal mine, the C-ALS is not specifically rated as being
intrinsically safe, the detection feasibility of C-ALS in any area where there is risk of
flammable gas (such as gas in coal mine) needs to be validated.
In contrast with other, conventional cavity detection methods, operators using a 3D
laser scanner will need to know in advance the rough location of the cavity and this will
then determine the position of the borehole to be drilled. However, the location of most
cavities and voids encountered is unclear, especially if they are inaccessible. Therefore,
the 3D laser scanning method described should be combined with the conventional
detection methods. The location of the cavity can be determined by conventional
detection methods first, and then the borehole position can be chosen, through which the
C-ALS can be deployed to carry out an accurate, detailed scan of the void. Data from the
C-ALS can then be used to pin-point further locations for drilling and investigation.

References
[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

Tong, Liyuan; Liu, Songyu; Qiu, Yu et al.Current research state of problems


associated with mined-out regions under expressway and future development.
Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering, 2004, 23(7): 1198-1202. (in
Chinese)
Yan, Changbin; Xu, Guoyuan; Zhong, Guosheng. Research of composite
prospecting and its application complicated underground mined-out areas. Journal
of Liaoning Technical University, 2005, 24(4): 481-484. (in Chinese)
Liu, Dunwen; Xu, Guoyuan; Huang, Rendong et al. A new technique for
prospecting exhausted areas in metal mines. China Mining Magazine, 2000, 9(4):
34-37.(in Chinese)
Cheng, Jiulong; Hu, Kefeng; Wang, Yuhe et al. Research on detecting of
underground mined-out areas by using GPR. Rock and Soil Mechanics, 2004,
25(Supp): 79-82. (in Chinese)

Underground Cavity 3D Detection Using Laser System


[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]
[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]
[17]

[18]
[19]

699

Liu, Hongjun; Jia, Yonggang. The application of ground penetrating radar survey in
probing the underground mined area. Journal of Geological Hazards and
Environment Preservation, 1999, 10(4): 73-76. (in Chinese)
Xu, Baishan; Wang, Ende; Chen, Qingkai et al. Determination of coal mine gob
edges by EH-4 system. Journal of Northeastern University (Natural Science), 2006,
27(7): 810-813. (in Chinese)
Hu, Yunbing; Wu, Yanqing; Song, Jing et al. Simulating model and example
analysis of applying electric surveying to detect gob. Mining Safety and
Environmental Protection,33(Supp): 39-41. (in Chinese)
Michael van Schoor. Detection of sinkholes using 2D electrical resistivity imaging.
Journal of Applied Geophysics, 2002, 50(4): 393-399.
Ugur, Yaramanci. Geoelectric exploration and monitoring in rock salt for the safety
assessment of underground waste disposal sites. Journal of Applied Geophysics,
2000, 44(2-3): 181-196.
Xu, Baishan; Wang, Ende; Tian, Gang et al. Determination underground waterbearing caves by seismic transverse wave reflection method. Journal of
Northeastern University (Natural Science), 2006, 27(1): 84-87. (in Chinese)
Gilles, Grandjean; Donatienne, Leparoux. The potential of seismic methods for
detecting cavities and buried objects: experimentation at a test site. Journal of
Applied Geophysics, 2004, 56(2): 93-106.
Bojan, B. Guzina, Sylvain Nintcheu Fata, Marc Bonnet. An Elastodynamic BIE
Approach to Underground Cavity Detection. Electronic Journal of Boundary
Elements, 2002, BETEQ2001 (2), 223-230.
Gao, Yong; Xu, Baishan; Wang, Qijun et al. Study of geophysical sounding effect
on the underground mined-out areas. Contributions to Geology and Mineral
Resources Research, 2003, 18(2): 126-130. (in Chinese)
Li, Xibing; Li, Diyuan; Zhao, Guoyan et al. Detecting, disposal and safety
evaluation of the underground goaf in metal mines. Journal of Mining & Safety
Engineering, 2006, 23(1): 24-29. (in Chinese)
Liu, Jinghua; Wang, Zhuwen; Zhu, Shi et al. The geophysical exploration about
exhausted area and sinking area in coal mine. Journal of China Coal Society, 2005,
30(6): 715-719. (in Chinese)
Shi, Zhichun; Zhao, Guoyan; Li, Faben. Detection of underground complicated
mined-out areas. Mining Technology, 2005, 5(4): 103-104. (in Chinese)
Yan, Changbin; Xu, Guoyuan. Research of composite geophysical methods and its
application in detection complicated mined-out areas. Journal of Hunan University
of Science & Technology (Natural Science Edition), 2005, 20(3): 10-14. (in
Chinese)
Miller, F; Potvin, Y; Jacob, D. Laser measurement of open stope dilution. Foreign
Metal Mining Magazine, 1993, (4): 5-7. (in Chinese)
Miller Fabien, Potvin Yves, Jacob Denis. Laser measurement of open stope
dilution. CIM Bulletin, 1992, 85(962): 96-102.

700

Liu Xiling, Li Xibing, Anthony Comber and Liu Kewei

[20] Shaffer Gray; Stentz Anthony. Automated surveying of mines using a laser
rangefinder. Emerging Computer Techniques for the Minerals Industry, 1993: 363370.
[21] Huber, Daniel; Vandapel, Nicolas. Automatic three-dimensional underground mine
mapping. International Journal of Robotics Research, 2006, 25(1): 7-17.
[22] Fardin, N; Feng, Q; Stephansson, O. Application of a new in situ 3D laser scanner
to study the scale effect on the rock joint surface roughness. International Journal
of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences, 2003, 41(2): 329-335.
[23] Syddell, M. Company maps way forward for mining (laser scanning and digital
imaging system). Australian Mining, 2005, 97(4): 30.
[24] Gilbertson, R. J. The Application of the cavity monitoring system at olympic dam
operations. Proc. Underground Operators Conference, Kalgoorlie, Western
Australia, 1995: 245-252.
[25] Jarosz, A; Shepherd, L. Application of cavity monitoring system for the control of
dilution and ore loss in open stopes. 11th International Congress of ISM, 2000,
Cracow, Poland: 155-164.
[26] John, D. Lupton. Cavity monitoring system and stope analysis. Proceedings,
MassMin Chile 2004, Santiago, Chile, August 2004: 56-62.
[27] Stuttle, MC. Combined probe drilling and laser surveying for complex underground
mapping. Canadian Mining Journal, 1998, 119(6): 21-23.
[28] Stuttle, MC. Laser scanning aids underground mine mapping. Mining Engineering,
1999, 51(3): 45-46.
[29] LIU, Xi-ling; LI, Xi-bing; LI, Fa-ben, et al. 3D cavity detection technique and its
application based on cavity auto scanning laser system. J.Cent.South Univ.Technol.
2008, 15(2): 285-288
[30] Guo, Jiang; Luo, Zhouquan; Deng, Jian. Application of cavity monitoring system in
underground mines. Chinese Journal of Underground Space and Engineering,
2005, 1(7): 994-996. (in Chinese)
[31] LI, Xiang-yin; YAO, Min-yu; LI, Zhuo et al. Laser principle technic and
application. HarbinHarbin Institute of Technology Press, 2004. (in Chinese)
[32] ZHANG, Yuan-zhi; HU, Guang-yang; LIU, Yu-tong et al. Application of 3D laser
scanning system in engineering projection. Highway Transportation, 2001 (9): 3840. (in Chinese)
[33] GAO, Shan. Application of the I-SITE 3D laser imagery system in mine survey.
Railway Investigation and Surveying, 2004, 30(6): 38-40. (in Chinese)
[34] Measurement Devices Ltd. Cavity Auto Scanning Laser System (C-ALS) Manual.
v[1].2.0, 2006, York, UK

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen