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CHAPTER 1

READING AND VOCABULARY

1.1 BUILDING VOCABULARY FOCUSING ON SYNONYM, ANTONYM
AND HOMONYM

What is a Synonym?
A synonym is a word or expression that has the same or almost the same meaning as another
word or expression. The noun synonym means equivalent words. The word synonym is a
composite of two Greek words: The prefix syn means together and onoma is name. In
English, a language known for its enormous vocabulary, most words have synonyms. Words that
are synonyms are said to be synonymous, and the state of being a synonym is called synonymy.
For example, the word enormous has many synonyms: huge, massive, giant, immense.
***Synonyms - together naming the same thing***
Examples and observations:
"Good, excellent, superior, above par, nice, fine, choice, rare, priceless, unparagoned,
unparalleled, superfine, superexcellent, of the first water, crack, prime, tip-top, gilt-edged, firstclass, capital, cardinal, couleur de rose, peerless, matchless, inestimable, precious as the apple
of the eye, satisfactory, fair, fresh, unspoiled, sound. GKN: over 80 companies making steel and
steel products." -- (ad campaign for Guest, Keen, & Nettlefolds, Ltd., 1961)

What is an Antonym?
An antonym is a word having a meaning opposite to that of another word. Antonym is the
antonym of synonym. Antonymy is the sense relation that exists between words which are
opposite in meaning. Words that are antonyms are said to be antonymous.
Examples and observations:
"You always pass failure on the way to success." -- (Mickey Rooney)
"Some have been thought to be brave because they were afraid to run away." --(Thomas Fuller)

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"Every day I remind myself that my inner and outer lives are based on the labors of other men,
living and dead, and that I must exert myself in order to give in the same measure as I have
received and am still receiving." -- (Albert Einstein)
What is Homonym?
Two or more words that have the same sound or spelling but differ in meaning are called
homonyms. Words that are homonyms are said to be homonymic or homonymous. Generally,
the term homonym refers both to homophones (words that are pronounced the same but have
different meanings, such as which and witch) and to homographs (words that are spelled the
same but have different meanings, such as "bow your head" and "tied in a bow"). Note that some
dictionaries and textbooks define and distinguish these three terms in different ways. Some
equate homonyms only with homophones (words that sound the same). Others equate homonyms
only with homographs (words that look the same).
Examples and observations:
"The reason that there is confusion and a lack of clarity over homonym is that it is closely related
to two other words, homograph and homophone. I shall, therefore, define these words first:
1) A homograph is a word that is spelt identically to another word but none the less has a
different meaning and probably a different origin. You will doubtless be annoyed if you
tear your trousers while climbing over a fence. Indeed, you may be so upset that you shed
a tear. As you can see, 'tear' and 'tear' are spelt identically, but they are pronounced
differently and have entirely different meanings. They are good examples of a
homograph. Many homographs are not even pronounced differently. Thus the word 'hide'
sounds exactly the same whether you are talking about the skin of an animal, a measure
of land or the verb meaning to conceal or keep out of sight.
2) A homophone is a word that sounds exactly like another word, but has a different
meaning and a different spelling. If you stand on the stair and stare at the picture, you
have a good example of a couple of homophones. . . .
It is possible for a word to be a homograph or a homophone. However, whatever the word may
be, it is also, by definition, a homonym. In other words, homonym is a conceptual word that
embraces both homographs and homophones. . . . [H]omonym is just the collective noun for
homograph and homophone." -- (David Rothwell, Dictionary of Homonyms. Wordsworth, 2007)

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1.2 DERIVING MEANING OF WORDS FROM CONTEXT

Contextual clues are surrounding words, phrases, sentences, ideas, and events that help you arrive at the
meanings of unfamiliar words. It is sometimes possible to work out the meanings of unfamiliar words by
analysing the context in which they occur. There are several forms of contextual clues.
Definitions
A definition is the most direct way to provide readers with a clue of what an unfamiliar word means.
Words such as that is, or, meaning, known as, is called, in other words, refers and is defined
are often used to introduce definition.
Example:

In the last geometry class, Mr. Chin explains that a plane figure of six sides and 6 angles
is called a hexagon.

In some cases, the definition is set off with dashes, brackets or commas.
Example:

Public schools are all both free and egalitarian; all students are considered equal and
learn the same material.

Examples
Examples are used to throw light on the meaning of a new word or term. Words like such as, including,
for example and for instances are used to introduce examples.
Example:

They went to doctors for treatment of a number of symptoms such as tiredness,

headaches, sore throats and respiratory problems.

Synonyms
The meaning of an unfamiliar word can be inferred through the use of a different word or term with a
similar meaning.
Example:

The family doctor said that the medication for Junes sister was innocuous, that is, it was
harmless.

Antonyms
Another type of clue comes in the form of antonyms or opposite expressions to the unknown word. Word
or phrases such as but, however, yet, nevertheless, while, rather than, although, whereas, despite, in
contrast
are used to signal the contrast.
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Example:

Bill is always despondent while his supposed friend is always lighthearted.

1.3 SKIMMING AND SCANNING

Skimming and scanning are two specific speed-reading techniques, which enable readers to
cover a vast amount of material and information very rapidly. These techniques are similar in
process but different in purpose. Quickly looking over an article is neither skimming nor
scanning. Both techniques require specific steps to be followed.
Scanning
In scanning, you usually have a question to, or something specific to look for. It might be a
telephone number, a particular quotation in a book, or supporting facts to use in a discussion you
are having. When you scan, your goal is to find just the information you want and you do not
start from the beginning and read to the end.
The steps involved in the scanning process include:
(1) checking the organization
(2) forming specific questions
(3) anticipating clue words
(4) identifying likely answer locations
(5) using a systematic pattern
(6) confirming your answer
Skimming
In skimming, your purpose is quite different. You may be interested in the gist of an article, or
you may want to sample a book in the library before deciding to take it out. When you skim, you
alternate read and glance, and your goal is to obtain an impression of the whole. When
skimming, you will often skip words, sentences, and paragraphs.
The skimming process is described as containing key actions:
Reading the title and subtitle, headings, introductions, first sentences in paragraphs, key words,
graphic elements, and final paragraphs.

Scan: To look over quickly and systematically; to look over or leaf through hastily
Skim: To give a quick and superficial reading, scrutiny, or consideration; glance
Skimming looks for signposts while scanning looks for specific information
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1.4 DISTINGUISHING MAIN IDEAS FROM SUPPORTING DETAILS

Identifying the Main Idea

One of the skills in reading is to be able to distinguish between the main ideas and the supporting
details in a given text. Most English writing is organized into paragraphs. A paragraph is a group
of sentences that are related to each other and discuss about the same idea. A good paragraph is
made up of sentences that develop a single thought. That thought, is called main idea, may be
expressed in one or more sentences. The main idea is the summary of the essential points of the
paragraph and it excludes detailed information.
Sometimes, the writer summarizes his or her main idea in one sentence called the topic
sentence. The topic sentence is the one sentence from the paragraph, which states the main idea
and explains what the paragraph is about. The topic sentence is often the first sentence of a
paragraph. However, some writers prefer to put the topic sentence as the last sentence or in the
middle of a paragraph.
Identifying the main idea of a text is one of the most important reading strategies used by good
readers. Identifying the main idea helps readers to understand and remember what they have
read.
The following questions can be used as the clues to find the main idea of a paragraph.
Who or what is the passage/text/article about?
The answer to this question will be the topic. The topic is the word or phrase that tells
what the reading is about.
What does the writer want the readers to know about the topic?
The answer to this question is the main idea.

Identifying Supporting Details

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Once you have identified the main idea, you need to look for the sentences that the writer
supports, explains or proves the main idea. These sentences are called supporting details.
Supporting sentences in the paragraph are added details, reasons, examples, facts, and ideas that
prove, explain, support, or give examples to the main idea.
To identify supporting details, follow these steps:
1) Ask yourself the question What additional information does the writer provide to
help readers understand the main idea?
2) Look for signal words.
(signal words: first, second, next, also, in addition, moreover, etc.)
Finding the main idea and supporting details is helpful in many ways: To understand a paragraph and a passage

Identify general point the author is making

Perceive the relationship between the main idea and what is said about the idea

Note: How to find the topic, topic sentence, main idea and supporting details in a paragraph
Decide the topic of the paragraph person, place, things, abstract or idea, even a process
Find the topic sentence can be found in the first sentence, or the last sentence, or in the
middle, or sometimes it is implied.
After locating the topic sentence, turn the statement into a general question. This will help
you focus on supporting details of the topic sentence use 5W 1H question (who, when,
where, what, why, how).
Once the topic sentence and supporting details have been identified, the main idea can be
located.

1.5 DISTINGUISHING THE RELEVANT FROM THE IRRELEVANT

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In a paragraph, if the information supports the author's purpose in the argument, then, it is said to
be relevant, whether or not the information is true. Conversely, if the information does not help
the author's purpose in the argument, it is said to be irrelevant.
Example 1
The patio is the most pleasant place outside my house to relax in.
A. The sofa is wonderfully soft and comfortable.
B. The tinted sunroof makes it beautiful and cool.
C. The jasmine flowers from the garden give off a sweet scent.
D. My neighbour often admires my patio.
Comment: D is not relevant because the information does not help to establish the author's aim
of informing the reader that the patio is a pleasant place to relax in. In fact, your neighbour's
admiration has nothing to do with the pleasantness of the patio.

Example 2
In the following choices, which description is not relevant to the purpose of the writer?
Marjorie is a fish lover.
A. There are pictures of fish on the wall
B. In the room you see two beautiful aquariums with lovely fish swimming in them.
C. Marjorie cooks fantastic fish and chips
D. On the bookshelf is a book, Fishes of the World.
Comment: C is not relevant because "Marjorie is a fish lover" means that she loves to rear fish
and not that she can cook fantastic fish and chips.

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1.6 MAKING INFERENCES

Authors do not always tell readers everything they want them to know. Good readers infer when they
want to understand more than what the author has written. Inferring occurs when you understand
something that is not stated directly. We infer when we try to read facial expressions, body language, and
tone of voice. For example, if you saw a friend looking upset and holding his arm at recess, you might
infer that he hurt himself on the playground. We infer in many ways in our lives.
Inferring when we read is like putting a puzzle together in our minds. Readers combine their own
background experience and what the author has written like pieces of a puzzle. They use their own
background knowledge and clues from the text to create new meaning. Putting the pieces of the puzzle
together helps readers draw conclusions based on clues from the text, make predictions about what will
come, understand underlying themes, and construct new meaning. Inferring makes reading much more
interesting!
Readers also infer because sometimes we have lots of questions that are not answered in the text.
Sometimes authors want readers to think of different possible answers. Sometimes we change our
inferences as we read on and find out more information. Good readers ask themselves questions and make
inferences based on their prior knowledge and clues from the text.
When inferring, readers say things to themselves like:
I think .
This must mean that
Based on this, Im guessing that
I predict because
I think that happened because
Inferences are conclusions that the reader makes based on evidence from the text and his or her own
experience. Here is how you infer:
Ask yourself questions as you read
Think about what the author tells you
Think about your own experiences
Make a conclusion (an inference) based on the information you thought about

1.7 PREDICTING OUTCOMES

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Predicting outcomes is another important reading skill that you need to master. This reading skill actually
helps you to understand the text better by helping you to anticipate or expect how the writer would
develop the ideas and anticipate what the conclusion would be.
Paragraphs or larger readings present information to support a topic, but they do not always state all the
possible results of the events the writer discusses. Predicting outcome is to make a reasonably accurate
guess as to how the reading will end.

CHAPTER 2

GRAMMAR
2.1 WORD CLASSES (PARTS OF SPEECH)
Word Classes, also known as parts of speech, consist of eight parts:
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Nouns
Verbs
Adjectives
Adverbs
Pronouns
Prepositions
Conjunctions
Interjections

Word classes include nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, prepositions, conjunctions
and interjections.
WORD CLASSES
1. NOUNS
2. PRONOUNS
3. VERBS
4. ADVERBS
5. ADJECTIVES
6. PREPOSITIONS
7. CONJUNCTIONS

FUNCTIONS
- the name of person, place, thing or idea
- words used to take the place of one or
more nouns
- the idea of being or action in the
sentence
- words that modify verbs, adjectives or
another verbs
- words that describe or modify another
person or thing in the sentence
- words showing the relation of a noun or
a noun substitute to some other word in
the sentence
- words that connect parts of a sentence

EXAMPLES
beauty
her
beautify
beautifully
beautiful
at
and
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8. INTERJECTIONS

- words used to exclaim, protest or

command

ouch!

Hurrah (interjection)! There is (verb) a wide (adjective) selection (noun) of restaurants (noun)
to choose (verb) from. They (pronoun) serve (verb) the freshest (adjective) seafood (noun). Let
us (pronoun) try (verb) the one (noun) beside (preposition) the hotel (noun). Come (verb)!
Walk (verb) quickly (adverb)! I want (verb) to try (verb) some crabs (noun) and (conjunction)
shrimps (noun).
2.1 SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT
There are many grammatical rules in English. One of the most basic would be subject-verb
agreement.
The basic principle:
Singular subjects need singular verbs.
Plural subjects need plural verbs.

A subject is a person, animal or thing that does a particular action. It is the doer.
A verb is an action or activity that the subject or 'doer' does.
The subject and verb in a sentence would have to 'agree' and complement each other to be
grammatically correct.
Examples:
1. Everyone has completed his or her assignments.
2. Some of the buttons are missing.
3. One of the boys is going to withdraw from this college.

2.2 VERB TENSES

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Verb tenses are used to express time. There are three basic tense forms in English: the present,
the past, and the future.
(a)

The Present Tenses

The present tenses are divided into four categories:

i)

The Simple Present Tense

This tense is used to talk about the following:

repeated actions or habits.

Examples: I drive to work every day.
She stays at home and cooks dinner every evening.

situations which are permanent

Examples: We live in Cheras.
Tom works in Vancouver.

general truths or facts.

Examples: The longest river in Malaysia is Sungai Rajang in Sarawak.
Hindus consider the cow sacred.

ii)

The Present Progressive Tense / Present Continuous Tense

This tense is used to talk about the following:

something which is in progress at the moment of speaking

Examples: Where is Charles?
He is mowing the lawn.
You may turn up the radio. The children are not studying.

iii)

The Present Perfect Tense

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Sentences in this tense connect the past with the present. This tense is used to talk about the
following:

something which started in the past and continues up to the present

Examples: I have studied in Spain for eight months. (= She is still studying in Spain now).
Rajan and Jane have been friends for twelve years. (= They are still friends now).

things which happened during a period of time that continues up to the present
Examples: I have backpacked to Europe and Indochina. (= in my life, up to now)
What's the scariest thing that has ever happened to you? (= in your life, up to
now)

iv)

The Present Perfect Continuous Tense

Sentences in this tense also connect the past with the present. They often talk about the
following:

something which started in the past and has been in progress up to the present
Examples: She has been waiting for her parents for two hours.
How long have you been working in this company?

an action which has been in progress up to the recent past, especially if it has results in the
present
Example: It has been raining. (It is not raining now, but there are puddles everywhere.)

Source: Beaumont, D. & Granger, C. (1998). The Heinemann English Grammar: An

Intermediate Reference and Practice Book. Oxford: Heinemann.

(b)

The Past Tenses

The past tenses are divided into the following categories:

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i)

The Simple Past Tense

This tense is used to talk about actions and situations in the past.
Examples:

ii)

I swam yesterday evening.

They didn't go to Phuket during the May holidays. They went to Pulau
Redang instead.

The Past Progressive Tense / Past Continuous Tense

This tense talks about an action or situation that had started, but had not finished at a past time.
Examples:
iii)

We saw you talking to Jackie this morning.

Were you playing hockey at 6pm yesterday evening.

The Past Perfect Tense

This tense is used to refer back to an earlier past when talking about the past.
Examples:

iv)

They arrived at Suzie's house at 7pm, but she had already left.
He hadn't studied for the exam, so he was very nervous.

The Past Perfect Progressive Tense / Past Perfect Continuous Tense

This tense is also used to refer back to an earlier past when talking about the past.
Examples:

They had been practicing football when the accident happened.

Tim was very tired when he arrived at my house as he had been working
all day.

Source: Beaumont, D. & Granger, C. (1998). The Heinemann English Grammar: An

Intermediate Reference and Practice Book. Oxford: Heinemann.

(c)

The Future Tenses

The future tenses can be divided into the following categories:

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i)

The Simple Future Tense

This tense is used for the following functions:

to make predictions about the future

Examples: That branch looks flimsy. It is going to break.
It will rain today. Look at how dark the sky is.

to talk about what we plan to do in the future

Examples: The room looks messy. I will clean it up.
We are going to Singapore this weekend.
I shall go shopping this evening.

ii)

The Future Progressive Tense / Future Continuous Tense

This tense is used to talk about something that will be in progress at a time in the future.
Examples: We'll be watching a movie tonight.
What will they be doing tomorrow morning?
Don't call him in the evenings. He will be sleeping.
iii)

The Future Perfect Tense

This tense is used to talk about something that will be completed by (not later than) a certain
time in the future.
Examples: I'll have finished my homework by 3.00. We can meet then.
They will have lived in Australia for three years next July.

(iv)

The Future Perfect Progressive Tense / Future Perfect Continuous Tense

This tense is used to talk about actions being in progress over a period of time that will end in the
future.
Example: Anne and Tiong Hoon will have been working in Kuala Pilah for three
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years when they come back to Melaka next June.

Source: Beaumont, D. & Granger, C. (1998). The Heinemann English Grammar: An

Intermediate Reference and Practice Book. Oxford: Heinemann.

CHAPTER 3

WRITING

3.1 SENTENCE PATTERNS

One of the marks of good writer is the ability to use a variety of sentence types. The simple sentence is an
important weapon to have in your writing task, but it is limited in the ways it can be used an in the jobs it
can perform. Compound and complex sentences give you additional alternatives for expressing ideas,
usually in more precise ways.
Simple Sentence
A Simple sentence is a sentence that has only one independent clause. It expresses one idea only.
Mariam works in private firm.
A simple sentence has at least
[subject] [verb]
one subject and one verb.
Mariam and her sister work in a private firm.
A simple sentence can have a
[2 subjects]
compound subject
Mariam works and studies part-time in a private institution. A simple sentence can have a
[2 verbs]
compound verb
Compound Sentence
A compound sentence is a sentence that has 2 or more independent clauses of generally equal importance.
Example:
independent clause 1

independent clause 2

We ate some spaghetti, and we had chocolate cheesecake for dessert.

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independent clause 1 independent clause 2

Laura enjoys dancing; she can dance for hours.
There are 3 ways to join the clauses:
1. with a comma followed by a
coordinator

I wrote to her,
but
she did not reply.
[ind. Clause]; + [coordinator] + [ind. Clause]

Coordinators: for, and, nor, but,

or, yet, so.
2. with a semicolon followed by a I wrote to her;
however ,
she did not reply.
conjunctive adverb and a comma
[ind. Clause]; + [conj. Adverb], + [ ind. Clause]
Common conjunctive adverb:
however, besides, accordingly,
meanwhile, next, then, similarly,
also, furthermore, moreover,
nevertheless
3. with a semicolon
I write to her; she did not reply.
[ind. Clause] +; [ ind. Clause]
Complex Sentence
A complex sentence is a sentence that includes one independent clause and one (or more) subordinate
clause(s). The more important idea is placed in the independent clause, and the less important idea is
placed in the dependent clause.
Example:
independent clause

dependent clause

She is skinny although she eats a lot.

independent clause

dependent clause

All security guards will have to undergo training if they wish to remain employed.
There are 3 kinds of subordinate clauses: adverb; adjective and noun. A variety of connecting words may
be used to join these clauses.

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Adverb dependent clause

Types of relationship
a) Time- after, as, before, since, After we have finished, we will go for a long
until, whenever, when, while
vacation.
b) Cause or reason- as, because, We stopped because the light was red.
since, whereas
c) Purpose or result- so that, that, in She stayed up late so that she can watch the live
order that
telecast football match.
d) Condition- although, though, Although it was raining, we went to the game
even though, while, unless, if,
provided
*Adverb clause can appear either before or after
the independent clause. If it comes before the
independent clause, a comma follows it. If it comes
after the independent clause, no comma is needed.
Adjective dependent clause
(relative Pronouns)
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)

Animals and things- which, that

People- who, whom that
Place- where
Possessives- whose
Reason- why, that
Time- when

Last year we vacationed on the Red Sea, which

features excellent scuba diving
The student, who sits next to the President,
receives an award for Overall Best Student.
* The adjective clause functions as an adjective: it
modifies a noun or a pronoun.

Noun clause
Common connective words:
John said that we should all go for the vacation
Reported speech that Embedded
[Sub.] [v] [object]
questions how, if, when, whether,
why, and all other question words.
* A dependent noun clause can function as either a
subject or an object of the sentence.
Compound-Complex Sentence
It is a combination of two or more independent clauses and one (or more) dependent clauses. Many
combinations are possible, and their punctuation requires careful attention.

Example:
dependent clause

independent clause 1

independent clause 2

Although we were tired, we had to stay up till 3a.m. and study for our Mathematics
examination.
independent clause 1

independent clause 2

dependent clause

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He had washed the dishes, but he had forgotten to turn off the radio before he left this
morning.
I wanted to travel after I graduated from college; however, I had to work immediately.
After I graduated from college, I wanted to travel, but I had to go to work immediately.
I wanted to travel after I graduated from college, but I had to go to work immediately because I had to
support my family.

3.2 THE PROCESS OF WRITING

For many people, writing is a process that involves the following steps:
1. Discovering a thesis (often through prewriting).
2. Developing solid support for the thesis (often through more prewriting).
3. Organizing the thesis and supporting material and writing it out in a first draft.
4. Revising and then editing carefully to ensure an effective, error-free paper.

PROCESS OF WRITING

PRE-WRITING
- identifying the
topic of interest

I.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

WHILE-WRITING
- drafting

POST-WRITING
- revising
- editing

PRE-WRITING
brainstorming
diagramming or clustering
preparing a scratch outline
free-writing
formal outline

Brainstorming - generating ideas, using what, when, why, where, who, how
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To get ideas and stimulate your thoughts, you can use the strategy of brainstorming. You can brainstorm
alone or with a group.
Here are some guidelines to follow when brainstorming:
Give yourself or the group a limited amount of time.
Write down the word or phrase you need to get ideas about.
Write down all the possible ideas that come to mind.
Do not organise your points in any way.
When time is up, look over the ideas to see if any can be grouped together.
Example: VIDEO GAMES
addictive, fun, time consuming, more exciting than TV, bad for eyes, homework, too violent, expensive,
takes time away
Diagramming or Clustering - mind-mapping; using the visual way
Clustering is another way of generating ideas. To cluster you make a visual plan of the connections
among your ideas.
Use the following guidelines for clustering:
Write your topic in the center of your paper and circle it
Draw a line from the circle and write an idea related to it. Circle the idea And from it draw lines and
write ideas related to it. Keep making new circles and connecting them back to the ideas they came
from.
When you have no more ideas, look at your clusters and decide which ideas seem more important
Example:
Heredity

Lack of exercise

Slow metabolic
rate

Psychological
problems

Causes

Overeating

OBESITY
Heredity

Tempted by TV
advertising of
junk food

Health
problems

Effects

Lack of
ambition

Low selfesteem
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Hypertension
Diabetes
Heart
problems

Depression

Stroke

From this diagram, the writer can develop an essay on the causes or effects of obesity.
Preparing a scratch outline - a plan to achieve a unified, supported & organised composition
In a scratch outline; you think carefully about the point you are making, the supporting items for the point
and the order in which you will arrange those items. The scratch outline is a plan or blueprint to help you
achieve a unified, supported, well-organised essay.
When you are planning a traditional essay consisting of an introduction, three supporting paragraphs, and
a conclusion, a' scratch outline is especially important. It may be only a few words, but it will be the
framework on which your whole essay will be built.
Example:
As Diane was working on her list of details, she suddenly realised what the plan of her essay could be.
She could organise many of her details into one of three supporting groups
1) annoyances in going out
2) too many tempting snacks
3) noise by other people
She then went back to her list, crossed out items that she now saw did not fit, and numbered the items
according to the group where they fit. Here is what Diane did with her list
1
3
3
3
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2

Traffic is bad between my house and theater

Noisy patrons
Dont want to run into Jeremy
Kids running in aisles
I'm crowded into seats between strangers who push me off arm rests
Not enough parking
Parking lot needs to be expanded
Too many previews
Cant pause or fast forward as you can with the DVD
Long lines
High ticket prices
Too many temptations at snack stand
Commercial for food on the screen
Can prepare healthy snacks for myself at home
Tubs of popcorn with butter
Candy has always been my downfall
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1
3
3

Movie may be sold out

People who've seen movie before talk along with actors and give away plot twists
People coughing and sneezing

Under the list, Diane was now able to prepare her scratch outline:
Going to the movies offers some real problems.
1. Inconvenience of going out
2. Tempting snacks
3. Other moviegoers
Free-writing - to get the flow, whether it goes well with you, don't have to worry about the
grammar, ideas are more important, read something first, where? usually in diary
Free-writing means jotting down in rough sentences or phrases everything that comes to mind about a
possible topic. See if you can write nonstop for ten minutes or more. Do not worry about spelling or
punctuating correctly, about erasing mistakes, about organising material, or about finding exact words.
Instead, explore an idea by putting down whatever pops into your mind.
Formal (Sentence) outline
Thesis: If women are ever to break through the glass ceiling in significant numbers
business attitudes will have to change, particularly the definition of successful
management styles.
Women face resistance from both men and women in top management.
A. Women are in a double bind: they are expected to act like men, but are criticized when they
do.
B. Women also face resistance from queen bees, other women who are already executives.
1. Queen bees feel that younger women should not have it any easier than they did.
2. Queen bees interfere with working conditions, morale, and promotions.
Business favours a masculine management style over a feminine style.
A. A masculine management style is characterized by a militaristic atmosphere that fosters
competition.
B. Women are not given the option to exercise their own style.
C. When women imitate men, they are subject to sex-role stereostyping and alienation.
1. Brown and Geis found stereotyping in their study.
2. Woman executives pass around a humorous list of characteristics of businessmen
versus businesswomen.
3. Loden says that women are less effective when they imitate men.
A feminine management style must be accommodated in business if women are to make it to the top.
A. An interview with a female manager illustrates a feminine style of co-operation and
participation.
B. Powell emphasize that an androgynous management style take account of both tasks and
emotions.
C. An androgynous style of management will help not only women but business itself.
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23 | P a g e

II. WHILE-WRITING
Drafting
After you have developed some ideas for your essay, it is time to start drafting or actually writing your
essay.
First, you should draft the thesis statement. The thesis statement will have to tell the reader the main
idea you are discussing and your approach to the main idea. A thesis statement cannot simply state what
you are going to do, for example, "In this essay I will describe my brother". It should present your
approach to the main idea as in, "My brother is both an ambitious and sociable character". Here the
words ambitious and energetic will be the focus of your description of your brother.
With the thesis statement written, your focus on the subject will be clear. You would write one
paragraph on the ambitious aspect of your brother with supporting statements and details, and another
paragraph on the sociable character of your brother with supporting statements and details.
The following are some questions to think about as you write your draft:
What kind of supporting details do I need?
How many supporting details do I have to give and how long they have to be?
How do I avoid overlapping supporting details?
As you are writing your first draft, remember these questions and check and change sentences that do
not support the main idea clearly.

III. POST-WRITING
After the first draft, plan to revise your draft at least one time. Revising means changing the
organisation or content of the essay, which include editing. The questions on the checklist below will
help you to see if your essay is focused and well developed.
Revision Checklist
Thesis Statement Does the thesis statement state your main idea clearly?
Does the thesis statement show your approach or attitude
to the main idea?
Unity
Do the supporting details and examples show the writer's attitude
toward the main idea?
Development
Are more supporting details needed?
Is enough evidence provided to support the main idea?
Is the evidence that is provided convincing?
Coherence
Are all the paragraphs logically connected to each other?
Do the sentences flow logically one after the other?
Are transitions needed to make the sentences clearer?
Purpose
Is the writer's purpose clear?
What did the writer want to convey to the reader?

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)

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3.3 WRITING AN ESSAY

An essay is a formal composition and has three parts: the introduction, body paragraphs and the
conclusion. Below is the general structure for a 5-paragraph essay, also known as the one-three-one essay
format
Introductory Paragraph
Thesis Statement
(Central Idea)

Body Paragraph 1
Topic Sentence
(Controlling Idea 1)
- Supporting Details

Body Paragraph 2
Topic Sentence
(Controlling Idea 2)
- Supporting Details

Body Paragraph 3
Topic Sentence
(Controlling Idea 3)
- Supporting Details

Concluding Paragraph
Summary of Main Points
Closing Remarks

Writing Effective Introduction

The introductory paragraph generally consists of two important components. The first component is the
topic of the essay. It is important that the introductory paragraph be interesting enough to capture the
readers attention and interest so they will continue to read the essay. The second component is the thesis
statement. The thesis provides the gist of the following body paragraphs. It is usually found at the end of
the introductory paragraph.
I. General Statement
Starting with a general statement helps to gradually guide the reader to the thesis statement.
Travelling to a foreign country is always interesting, especially if it is a country that is completely
different from your own. You can delight in tasting new foods, seeing new sights, and learning about
different customs, some of which may seem very curious. If you were to visit my country, for instance,

25 | P a g e

you would probably think that my people have some very strange customs, as these three examples
will illustrate.
II. Questions
Starting with questions that prods the reader to start thinking about possible answers.
What is love? How do we know that we are really in love? When we meet that special person,
how can we tell that our feelings are genuine and not merely infatuation? And, if they are genuine, will
these feelings last? Love, as we know, is difficult to define. But most people agree that true and lasting
love involves far more than mere physical attraction. Love involves mutual respect, the desire to give
rather than take and the feeling of being completely at ease with the other person.
III. Anecdotes
Starting with an anecdote or a brief story makes an essay interesting and appealing. The anecdote should
be appealing and related to your thesis statement.
Last week, a woman signing herself Want the Truth in Westport wrote to Ann Landers with a
question she just had to have answered. Please find out for sure, she begged the columnist, whether or
not Oprah Winfrey has had a face lift. Fortunately for Ms. Winfreys privacy, Ann Landers refused to
answer the question. But the incident disturbed me. How awful it would be to be a celebrity, I thought,
and always be in the public eye. Celebrities lead very stressful lives, for no matter how glamorous or
powerful they are, they have too little privacy, too much pressure and no safety.
IV. Quotation
Starting with a quotation can make your introduction lively. It can be a popular saying or proverb, a
current advertising slogan, or a favourite expression used by friends or family.
Fish and visitors, wrote Benjamin Franklin, begin to smell after three days. Last summer,
when my sister and her family came to spend their two-week vacation with us, I became convinced that
Franklin was right. After only three days of their visit, I was thoroughly sick of my brother-in-laws
jokes, my sisters endless complaints about her boss, and their childrens constant invasion of our
privacy.
The Thesis Statement
In an essay, the thesis statement is the sentence containing the central idea. It is the most important
sentence and is usually the last sentence in the introductory paragraph. A thesis statement consists of a
topic and a controlling idea for the entire essay and expresses an attitude, opinion or idea about the topic.
topic
Celebrities lead very stressful lives, for no matter
how glamorous or powerful they are, they have

controlling ideas
too little privacy,
too much pressure and
no safety.

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Exercise: Write a thesis for each group of supporting statements.

1. Thesis:______________________________________________
a. First I tried simply avoiding the snack aisle of the supermarket.
b. Then I started limiting myself to only five units of any given snacks.
c. Finally, in desperation, I began keeping the cellophane bag of snacks in a padlocked cupboard.
2. Thesis: ______________________________________________
a. The holiday can be very frightening for little children.
b. Children can be struck by cars while wearing vision-obstructing masks and
dark costumes.
c. There are always incidents involving deadly treats: fruits, cookies, and candies that contain razor
blades or even poison.
3. Thesis:_______________________________________________
a. First of all I was a typical type A personality: anxious, impatient, and hard-driving.
b. I also had a family history of relatives with heart trouble.
c. My unhealthy lifestyle, though, was probably the major factor.
Writing Effective Body Paragraphs
The body paragraphs develop the thesis statement given in the introduction. Note that each body
paragraph should contain a topic sentence and it should refer back to the thesis statement. At the same
time, the topic sentence should contain a transition that will hook all the 3-body paragraph in the essay.
The function of body paragraphs is to explain. Illustrate discuss or support the thesis statement.
Developing Topic Sentences
Topic Sentence = Transition + Topic + Controlling Idea
First of all, celebrities dont have the privacy an ordinary person has.
Below is the example of a thesis statement and how it can be developed into topic sentences for the body
paragraph
Thesis Statement:

Celebrities lead very stressful lives, for no matter how glamorous or powerful
they are, they have too little privacy, too much pressure and no safety.

Topic Sentence 1: First of all, celebrities dont have the privacy an ordinary person has.
Topic Sentence 2: Other than privacy, celebrities are under constant pressure by their
surroundings.
Topic Sentence 3: In addition to privacy and pressure, celebrities must deal with the stress of
being in constant danger.

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Developing the body paragraphs

Controlling Idea: No privacy
Supporting Point 1: personal details on magazines
Supporting Detail 1: love life
Supporting Detail 2: family problem
Supporting Point 2: chased by photographers
Supporting Detail 1: at home
Supporting Detail 2: on the street
Supporting Point 1: cannot do normal things
Supporting Detail 1: interrupted by fans
Supporting Detail 2: request of autograph/picture
First of all, celebrities dont have the privacy an ordinary person has. The most personal details of
their lives are splashed all over the front pages of the National Enquirer and the Globe so that bored
supermarket shoppers can read about Britney and Her New Love or Princess Ds Deepest Fear. Even
a celebritys family is hauled into the spotlight. A teenage sons arrest for pot possession or a wifes
drinking problems becomes the subject of glaring headlines. Photographers hound celebrities at their
homes, in restaurants and on the street, hoping to get a picture of Jennifer Anniston in curlers or David
Beckham in a fistfight. When celebrities try to do the things that normal people do, like eat out or attend a
football game, they run the risk of being interrupted by thoughtless autograph hounds or mobbed by
aggressive fans.
Methods of Organizing an Essay
I. Time Order
Time or chronological order simply means that details are listed as they occur in time. First this is done;
next this; after that, this; and so on.
Thesis: To exercise successfully you should follow a simple plan consisting of arranging the time, making
preparations, and warming up properly.
a) To begin with, set aside a regular hour of exercise.
b) Next, prepare for your exercise session.
c) Finally, do a series of warm-up activities.
II. Emphatic Order
Emphatic order is sometimes described as saving the best till last. It is a way to put emphasis on the
most interesting or important detail by placing it in the last part of the paragraph or in the final paragraph
of an essay. Finally, last of all, and most important are typical words or phrases showing emphasis.
Thesis: Celebrities lead very stressful lives, for no matter how glamorous or powerful they are, they have
too little privacy, too much pressure and no safety.
a) First of all, celebrities dont have the privacy an ordinary person has.
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b) Other than privacy, celebrities are under constant pressure by their surroundings.
c) Most important than privacy and pressure, celebrities must deal with the stress of being in
constant danger.
Developing Coherent and Cohesive Writing
I. Transitional Words
Transitions signal the direction of a writers thought. They are like the road signs that guide travellers. In
the box below are some common transitions, grouped according to the kind of signal they give to readers.
Note that certain words provide more than one signal.
Addition signals
Time signals
Space signals
Change-of-direction
signals
Illustration signals
Conclusion signals

One, first of all, second, the third, also, next,

another, and, in addition, moreover, furthermore,
finally, last of all.
First, then, next, after, as, before, while, meanwhile, soon, now,
during, finally
Next to, across, on the opposite side, to the left, to the right,
above, below, near, nearby
But, however, yet, in contrast, although, otherwise, still, on the
contrary, on the other hand
For example, for instance, specifically, as an illustration, once,
such as
Therefore, consequently, thus, then, as a result, in summary, to
conclude, last of all, finally

II. Transitional Sentences

Transitional or linking sentences are used between paragraphs to help tie together the supporting
paragraphs in an essay. They enable the reader to move smoothly and clearly from the idea in one
paragraph to the idea in the next paragraph.
Thesis statement
Working in a mango orchard was dreadful, as the work was physically demanding, the pay was meagre
and, most of all, the working conditions were depressing.
First body paragraph
To begin with, the job made tremendous demands on my strength and energy. For eight hours a
day...
Second body paragraph
In addition to the physical demand, I was paid the minimum wage of that time, which was
three ringgit an hour, plus

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Third body paragraph

Besides the low pay, I was absolutely upset about the working conditions. My supervisor
Writing Effective Conclusions
Conclusions should be brief. A few well-worded sentences are adequate for a short essay.
End with a summary and a final comment
Some people dream of starring roles, their names in lights, and their pictures on the cover of
People magazine. Im not one of them, though. A famous person gives up private life, feels pressured all
the time, and is never completely safe. So let someone else have the cover story. Id rather lead an
ordinary, but calm, life than a stress-filled public one.
End with a recommendation
If people stopped to think before acquiring pets, there would be fewer instances of cruelty to
animals. Many times, it is the people who adopt pets without considering the expense and responsibility
involved who mistreat and neglect their animals. Pets are living creatures and they do not deserve to be
acquired as carelessly as one would acquire a stuffed toy.
Ask one or more questions.
What, then, will happen in the twenty-first century when most of the population will be over sixty
years old? Retirement policies could change dramatically, with the age-sixty-five testimonial dinner and
gold watch postponed for five or ten years. Even television would change as the Geritol generation
replaces the Pepsi generation. Glamorous gray-haired models would sell everything from toilet paper to
televisions. New soap operas and situation comedies would reveal the secrets of the sunset years. It will
be a different world indeed when the young finally find themselves outnumbered.

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Model Essay (1)

The Hazards of Moviegoing
I am a movie fanatic. My friends count on me to know movie trivia (who was the pigtailed little girl
in E.T.: The Extra-Terrestrial? Drew Barrymore) and to remember every big Oscar awarded since I was in
grade school (best picture 1994? Forrest Gump). My friends, though have stopped asking me if I want to
go out to the movies. While I love movies as much as ever, the inconvenience of going out, the
temptations of the theatre, and the behaviour of some patrons are reasons for me to wait and rent the
video.
To begin with, I just don't enjoy the general hassle of the evening. Since small local movie theatres
are a thing of the past, I have to drive for fifteen minutes to get to the nearest multiplex. The parking lot is
shared with several restaurants and a supermarket, so it's always jammed. I have to drive around at a
snail's pace until I spot another driver backing out. Then it's time to stand in an endless line, with the
constant threat that tickets for the show I want will sell out. If we do get tickets, the theatre will be so
crowded that I won't be able to sit with my friends or we'll have to sit in a front row gaping up at a giant
screen. I have to shell out a ridiculous amount of money - up to $8 - for a ticket. That entitles me to sit
while my shoes seal themselves to a sticky floor coated with spilled soda, bubble gum, and crushed
Raisinets.
Second, the theatre offers tempting snacks that I really don't need. Like most of us, I have to battle
an expanding waistline. At home I do pretty well by simply not buying stuff that is bad for me. I can make
do with snacks like celery and carrot sticks because there is no ice cream in the freezer. Going to the
theatre, however, is like spending my evening in a Seven-Eleven that's been equipped with a movie screen
and comfortable seats. As I try to persuade myself to just have a diet Coke, the smell of fresh popcorn
dripping with butter soon overcomes me. Chocolate bars the size of small automobiles seem to jump into
my hands. I risk pulling out my fillings as I chew enormous mouthfuls of Milk Duds. By the time I leave
the theatre, I feel disgusted with myself.
Many of the other patrons are even more of a problem than the concession stand. Little kids race up
and down the aisles, usually in giggling packs. Teenagers try to impress their friends by talking back to
the screen, whistling, and making what they consider to be hilarious noises. Adults act as if they were at
home in their own living room. They comment loudly on the ages of the stars and reveal plot twists that
are supposed to be a secret until the film ends. And people of all ages create distractions. They crinkle
candy wrappers, stick gum on their seats, and drop popcorn tubs or cups of crushed ice and soda on the
floor. They also cough and burp, squirm endlessly in their seats, file-out for repeated trips to the rest
rooms or concession stands, and elbow me out of the armrest on either side of my seat.
After arriving home from the movies one night, I decided that I was not going to be a moviegoer
anymore. I was tired of the problems involved in getting to the theatre, resisting unhealthy snacks, and
dealing with the patrons. The next day, I arranged to have premium movie channels installed as part of my
cable TV service, and I also got a membership in my local video store. I may now see movies a bit later
than other people, but I am more relaxed watching box office hits in the comfort of my own living room.

Source: Langan, J. (2000). College Writing Skills (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Exercise: Underline the thesis statement and three topic sentences in the essay above.

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Model Essay (2)

How to Flunk a Class
It is easier to fail a class than to pass it. There are a few habits that most failing students have in
common. If you really want to flunk out of a class, all you have to do is pick up a few of these bad habits.
Procrastination, lack of discipline and lack of respect are three easiest ways flunking a class.
First of all, procrastinating helps us delay our sufferings. You just need to wait until the last
minute to begin working on homework or assignment. You have got a great chance of failing if you try to
cram a month's worth of research and writing into a few days or even hours. Do not study for a test until
the night before. Students who get As and Bs usually begin studying as soon as they find out a test is
coming. They start out by reading over all their notes the first night or two, then start testing themselves
with little practice questions they make up.
The next step is to forget about being disciplined. Do not keep an assignment diary or scheduler.
Students who get As and Bs on their work usually do so because they have pesky little reminders in their
schedulers that say things like "test in five days" or "read chapter 3 tonight". Do not't bother taking notes
because the mere process of writing down the teacher's comments would make some of the material sink
in, especially for tactile and visual learners. It is important to ignore all directions. Only successful
students bother with directions. If you are working on a major project and you really want to fail, just
ignore all that writing called directions. Only high-achieving students bother with the correct APA format
on papers and proof-read their work before they print it.
Last but not least, remember to show little respect. You should often fall asleep in class. It is
always easy to spot the students who get good grades. They are wide awake when the teacher is talking or
showing examples on the board. You can tell that these students never watch TV or play video games
until the wee hours of the morning. Annoy the teacher, chew gum, do not pay attention in class, talk to
your friends, sleep or do whatever you can to get on your teacher's nerves. It will help a lot when the
teacher is trying to decide between two grades. If you annoy the teacher, he or she will always know
whether to give you credit for your effort.
In conclusion, simply take it easy, forget about discipline and respect. What is the point of going
to the first meeting of the class since the teacher is only going to introduce the students to the subject? As
the class progresses, remember that sleep is too sweet to ignore, so keep on sleeping. There is always
another class next week. On the night before the examination, stay up late and party with your friends.
Then, during the examination, do what you can and then take a nap. After the results are announced, it is
easy to put the blame on the teacher and claim that he or she flunks you because of personal hatred.
Now wasnt that easy?
Exercise: Underline the thesis statement and three topic sentences in the essay above.

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3.4 THE CAUSE - EFFECT ESSAY

When we analyse the cause of something, we usually find that there are numerous contributing factors, or
multiple causes, just how many factors depends on the complexity of the problem. Each cause may or
may not be sufficient to produce the effect. Usually, however, we find that it is a combination of the
causes that produces the results.
Structure of a Cause Essay

Cause
Essay
Introduction
Introduction

The thesis statement in the

introductory paragraph must clearly
state the multiple causes to one effect.

Cause
Cause II

Cause
Cause II
II

Present the causes in the body

paragraphs, supported with details.

Cause
Cause III
III

Conclusion
Conclusion

Restate the thesis statement.

Summarise the causes.
Comment.
Recommend.

Example: What causes obesity?

Hereditary influences
Lack of exercises

Obesity

Overeating.
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Look at how a paragraph explaining the factor of lack of exercise might be developed:
Lack of exercise is one of the major factors contributing to obesity. When we eat we consume
energy (measured as calories). When we exercise, we expend energy or burn up calories. For example,
when we run for an hour, we burn up approximately 450 calories, depending on our body size. When the
number of calories we consume exceeds the number we burn up, the excess energy is stored in our body
in the form of fat. If a person is inactive, it is more likely that he will not burn up all the calories
consumed, so obesity can result. Moreover, studies have shown that inactivity can cause an obese person
to expend less energy during a certain activity than a non-obese person. This is because inactivity lowers
the basal energy rate (the basic minimum rate at which the body burns up energy). Therefore, if an obese
person and a non-obese person try to run one mile, the obese person unused to activity will expend less
energy because he has a lower basal energy rate.
Structure of an Effect Essay

Effect
Essay
Introduction
Introduction

The thesis statement in the introductory

paragraph must clearly state the
multiple effects of one cause.

Effect
Effect II

Effect
Effect II
II

Present the effects in the body

paragraphs, supported with details.

Effect
Effect III
III

Conclusion
Conclusion

Restate the thesis statement.

Summarise the effects.
Comment.
Recommend.

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Example: What are the effects of excessive sugar?

Tooth decay
Excessive consumption of sugar

Hyperactivity in children
Weight gain

Note how the effect of tooth decay is explained in the following paragraph:
One of the major effects of eating too much sugar is high incidence of tooth decay. When we eat
something with sugar in it, particularly refined sugar, enzymes in the saliva in the mouth begin to work
immediately to change that sugar into a type of carbohydrate. As one eats, particles of the sugary food
get lodged between the teeth and around the gums. As the food changes its chemical composition, the
resultant carbohydrate produces bacteria that begin to eat away at the enamel on the outside of our teeth.
This is actually the decaying of our teeth. Now, if this process happens each time we eat sugar, we can see
that eating excessive amounts of sugar causes more and more tooth decay. It is true that some tooth decay
can be avoided with immediate brushing after eating, dislodging all the particles of food trapped in the
teeth. However, sweets are often eaten as snacks between meals and during the day, times when people
generally do not brush after eating. Therefore, the dangerous process of tooth decay is allowed to
continue.
Developing Coherent and Cohesive Cause-Effect Essay
I.

Transitions in Phrases
A noun must follow each transition in this group. If the phrase containing the transition comes at the
beginning of the sentence, a comma usually follows it.
The following transitions indicate cause:
Because of the possibility of fetal brain damage, pregnant women should not consume alcohol.
As a result of exercising regularly, a person can handle stress better.

II. Expressions in Sentences

Transitions in this group are verbs that express cause or effect.
The following transitional verbs indicate cause:
Premature aging of the skin results from too much exposure to the sun.
Her fear of roaches was caused by an early childhood trauma.
The following transitional verbs indicate effect:
Lack of exercise can cause obesity.
Walking regularly can result in improved health.
III. Coordinating Conjunctions as Transitions
The coordinating conjunctions so and for are often used as transitions.

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So indicates a result. However, it is somewhat colloquial and is usually avoided in formal writing.
For indicates a cause and is quite formal.

The mongoose was protected by law, so it increased in number rapidly.

We stopped at a restaurant, for we had not eaten since early morning.

Transitional Expressions between Sentences.
The transitions in this group usually occur between two complete sentences. They must be
preceded by either a period or a semicolon. They cannot be preceded by a comma, but a comma often
follows them.
The following transitions indicate an effect or result:
Mathematics and science teachers do not encourage young girls to study science; thus, there are not
many female scientists.

She perceived herself as fat; therefore, diets were unsuccessful.

It significantly reduced the rat population. Consequently, damage the cane fields was
reduced.

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The Cause-Effect Essay

The Effects of Perfectionism
Some people urge themselves to better performance with slogans like Practice makes perfect.
However, I am a perfectionist, and I have to remember another slogan: Sometimes good is good
enough. I stay away from proverbs that urge perfection. Over the years, I have noticed that the effects
of perfectionism are mostly negative. Perfectionism affects my performance in high-pressure situations,
the speed of my work, and the way I see myself.
First of all, my perfectionism makes me anxious about high-pressure situations. In school, I
worry about taking tests. The pressure is on because there is no way to go back or change my
performance. As I enter the classroom on test day, I feel my hands becoming clammy and I worry that I
will forget everything I have studied. Socially, I worry when I will be dressed too casually or too
formally, that I will forget someones name, or that I wont be able to make small talk. Before I met my
girlfriends parents, I spent a week worrying about what I would say and how I would act. First
impressions count, and with my perfectionistic nature, it was important to me to make a good impression.
Trying to do things perfectly often means thatI do not do them quickly enough. Once, my
perfectionism even cost me my summer job at a car wash. On my first day, I was issued a t-shirt with a
slogan on the back: If you can read this, Im moving too slow. My job was to detail the cars after they
came out of the automated washer. I would wipe the water from the car and polish the tyres and rims,
while my partner, Grady, cleaned the inside of the windows, polished the dash, and vacuumed the seats.
Grady always finished before I did and had to help me with the rims and tyres. When the manager
thought we werent working quickly enough, he would yell, Hustle it up, guys! But, hurrying meant
that dirt was left on the rims, watermarks on the car, and grey streaks on whitewalls, and my
perfectionistic nature shrank from doing less than my best. I was forced to turn in my t-shirt before the
month was over.
Perfectionism also makes me my own worst critic. I know that others do not see me as negatively
as I see myself. To my teachers, I seem like a serious student who usually does well. To my friends and
acquaintances, I am a funny, likeable guy, and to their parents, I am a well-mannered young man. Even
my boss at the car wash could not deny that I worked hard. But, I see only my failures. I see the question
I missed on a test, not the ones I answered correctly. I notice my social blunders, not the times when I
handle myself well. Perfectionism magnifies my faults and shrinks my good qualities. It means that no
matter how hard I try or how well I do, there is one person that I can never please myself.
Perfectionism affects my performance in high-pressure situations, the speed of my work, and the
way I see myself. It may be true that nobody is perfect, but unfortunately, that has not stopped me from
trying.
Exercise: Underline the thesis statement and three topic sentences in the essay above.

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3.5 INFORMATION TRANSFER

Transferring Information from Linear to Non-Linear Texts and Vice-Versa
Linear texts comprise of information presented in written form like essays, articles,
reports, etc.
Example of a linear text:
The graph shows the analysis of the SPM English Language results for the
years 2000 to 2003. It shows that the percentage of passes has been
increasing steadily, from about 87% in 2000 to 95% in 2003. The increasing
trend in quality indicates that the standard of English of the pupils is getting
Non-linear texts on the other hand, comprise bodies of information presented in more creative
ways. They include pictures, graphs, diagrams, tables, charts, maps or photographs.
Example of a non-linear text:
Source: J. C. Lim (2001). MUET Coursebook (2nd Ed.). Subang Jaya: Pustaka Sarjana Sdn Bhd.

38 | P a g e

Linear texts are often presented alongside non-linear texts in newspaper reports, research reports,
advertisements, etc. This is because the latter presents information in more accessible and
attractive ways, and so complements the former. Hence, it is important to know how to transfer
information from linear texts to non-linear texts, and vice-versa.
Writing based on Non-linear stimuli
Task description
You will be given a non-linear stimulus/stimuli (eg graph/chart). Your task is to describe the
information given in the stimulus/stimuli by writing a 150-200 word report. You are not asked to
give your opinion.
What is being tested is your ability to:

objectively describe the information given to you

compare and contrast
report on an impersonal topic without the use of opinion
use the language of graph/chart description

Guidelines for a good report:

Does the report have a suitable structure?

Does it have an introduction, body and conclusion?

Does it include connective words to make the writing cohesive within sentences and
paragraphs?

Does the report use suitable grammar and vocabulary?

Does it include a variety of sentence structures?

Does it include a range of appropriate vocabulary?

Does the report meet the requirements of the task?

Does it meet the word limit requirements?

Does it describe the whole stimulus/stimuli adequately?
Does it focus on the important trends presented in the stimulus/stimuli?

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Sample 1: Double Line Graph

Line graphs are used to show a trend or pattern which usually takes place over a period of time.
It is important to look at the overall pattern on a line graph as well as the significant features
within it.
Task:
The graph below compares the rate of smoking between men and women in Someland from
1960 to 2000. Write a report for a university lecturer comparing and describing the changes in
the graph below. You should write between 150 to 200 words.

Sample answer:
Overview/Introduction

The line graph compares the rate of smoking in men and

women in Someland between the years 1960 and 2000.

Overall Trend(s)

Overall, it can be clearly seen that the rate of smoking for

both men and women is declining and that fewer women
have smoked throughout the period.

Key features/Major
findings
Analysis and Synthesis
of Data
(Numbers/Trends/Chan
ges)

In 1960, 600 men in every 1,000 were smoking.

This number decreased gradually to 500 by 1974 and
continued to decrease but more steeply to 250 in 2000.
In contrast, the rate of smoking in women in 1960 was very
low at only 80 in every 1,000.
By 1968, this increased to 170, and increased again but
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Conclusion

more steeply to 320 in 1977.

The rate of female smokers then remained stable at 320
until 1984 at which point, the figures began to decline and
had dropped to 200 by 2000.

In conclusion, it can be seen that the rate of smoking in men

dropped throughout the whole period but was always at a higher
level compared to female smokers figures. On the other hand,
the rate of smoking in women increased until 1977 but then
declined for the rest of the 40-year period.

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Sample 2: Pie Charts

Task:
The pie charts below the percentages of world spending, world population and consumption of
resources. Write a brief report by comparing and commenting on the patterns in the charts. You
should write between 150 to 200 words.

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3

Sample answer:
Based on the given pie charts, Figure 1 shows the rate of world spending, Figure 2 shows
the percentage of world population while Figure 3 shows the percentage of consumption of
resources. In Figure 1, it can be seen that the highest percentage of world spending goes to
Other with 40%. However, details of what other covers are not provided. The second highest
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category in which people spend most of their income (24%) on is food. Transport and housing
are the next major expenses at 18% and 12% respectively. Only 6% of income is spent on
clothing.
In Figure 2, it is not surprising to find that 57% of people live in Asia as China and India
are two of the most populated countries in the world and they are both situated in this continent.
Europe and the Americans account for nearly 30% of the total, whilst 10% of people live in
Africa. Finally, Figure 3 reveals that the USA and Europe consume a huge 60% of the worlds
resources as opposed to other parts of the world with 40%. The latter mainly include Asian and
African countries. To sum up, the major world expenditure is on food, the population figures are
the highest for Asia but the major consumers of resources are USA and Europe.
Sample 3: Bar Graph
Task:
The graph below gives information about the preferred leisure activities of Australian children.
Write a report for a university lecturer describing the information shown. You should write in
about 150 to 200 words.

Sample answer:

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The graph shows the preferred leisure activities of Australian children aged 5-14. Of the
10,000 children that were interviewed, all the boys and girls stated that they enjoyed watching
television or videos during their spare time. In addition, the second most popular activity,
attracting 80% of boys and 60% of girls, was playing electronic or computer games. While girls
rated activities such as art and craft highly, just under 60% stated that they enjoyed these in their
spare time. Meanwhile, only 35% of boys opted for creative pastimes. Bike riding, on the other
hand, was almost as popular as electronic games amongst boys and, perhaps surprisingly, almost
60% of girls said that they enjoyed this too. Skateboarding was relatively less popular amongst
both boys and girls, although it still attracted 35% of boys and 25% of girls. To conclude, as
might be expected, it is clear from the data that sedentary pursuits are far more popular
nowadays than active ones.

Sample 4: Graph/Chart/Table Combo

Task:
The line graph below shows the number of annual visits to Australia by overseas residents. The
table below gives information on the country of origin where the visitors came from. Write a
report for a university lecturer describing and integrating the information given. You should
write between 150 to 200 words.

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NUMBER OF VISITORS (million)

1975

2005

SOUTH KOREA
JAPAN
CHINA
USA
BRITAIN
EUROPE

2.9
3.2
0.3
0.4
0.9
1.1

9.1
12.0
0.8
1.1
2.9
4.5

Total

8.8

30.4

Sample answer:
The given line graph illustrates information on the number of overseas visitors traveling
to Australia while the table provides statistics showing the countries whose residents went to
Australia between 1975 and 2005.. Overall, one notable trend seems to be that Australia has
steadily become more popular as a destination spot. Based on the line graph, it can be seen that
there were 20 million more visitors to Australia in 2005 compared to 1975. This is a major
increase from 10 million in 1975 to 30 million within 20 years.
As for the number of foreign visitors to Australia, in 1975, there were only 8.8 million
foreign tourists. The largest number of visitors came from Japan with 3.3 million. This is
followed by South Korea with 2.9 million and Europe with 1.1 million visitors. The least number
of people traveling to Australia is from China with only 0.3 million visitors. In 2005, the number
of people visiting Australia grew in each of these countries, bringing the total to 30.4 million. For
example, 12 million people were from Japan with an increase of 8.7 million in 2005. China
remained the lowest with only 0.8 million visitors to Australia even though the figure increased
with an additional 0.5 visitors. In conclusion, it can be seen that Australia has grown to become a
popular holiday destination particularly among the Japanese and South Koreans.

For more samples, refer to http://www.ielts-exam.net/index.php?

option=com_content&task=category&sectionid=7&id=20&Itemid=32

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CHAPTER 4

LISTENING & SPEAKING

4.1 LISTENING
Hearing:
The vibration of sound waves on the eardrums and the firing of electrochemical impulses in the
brain.
Listening:
Paying close attention to, and making sense of, what we hear.
Appreciative Listening:
Listening for pleasure or enjoyment.
Empathic Listening:
Listening to provide emotional support for the speaker.
Comprehensive Listening:
Listening to understand the message of a speaker.
Critical Listening:
Listening to evaluate a message for purposes of accepting or rejecting it.
Four Causes of Poor Listening
Not concentrating
Listening too hard
Jumping to conclusions
How to Become a Better Listener
Take listening seriously
Resist distractions
Focus your listening
Develop note-taking skills
Suspend judgment
Active Listening: Giving undivided attention in a genuine effort to understand the speaker(s)
point of view.
Focus Your Listening
Listen for main ideas
Listen for specific information
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Listen for critically

LISTENING SKILLS

1. Listening for main ideas

2. Listening for specific information
3. Note-taking
4. Summarising
5. Paraphrasing
6. Inferencing/drawing conclusions

- the main points of the passage or text

- focus and pay attention to particular
words/phrases
- listen for specific information
- jot down the relevant information
- leave out the irrelevant details
- shorten the information that you hear
- get the gist/general idea of the text
- leave out examples
- state the information by using your own
words
- use simple words
- making a conclusion/opinion based on the
facts given
- to deduce what has been said by the
speaker
- the information is not given directly
- focus on the tone/stress/intonation/words
spoken by the speaker

7. Predicting outcomes

8. Identifying roles and attitudes

9. Listening critically

- to forecast/expect what is going to happen

next
- the ability to anticipate helps you to
understand the information better
- to interpret the attitude and intention of
the speaker
- to guess the connection between speakers
- to interpret and evaluate what they have
heard
- to recognise the facts of what has been
said

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4.2 SPEAKING
Everyone speaks. Speaking takes place every where and has become a part of our daily
activities. It is an activity used by people to communicate with others. When one speaks, he or
she interacts and uses the language to express his or her ideas, feelings and thoughts. He or she
also shares information with others through communication. To become a fluent English speaker,
you must study and master reading, listening, and speaking. Then it will enable students to
participate in social and academic contexts such as in conversations, discussion and
presentations.
The following communication skills are emphasized:
1. Accuracy
Using grammatically correct language
Using correct pronunciation, stress and intonation
2. Fluency
Speaking with confidence and fluency
3. Appropriacy
Using language appropriate for the intended purpose and audience
Using varied vocabulary and expressions
Using varied sentence structures
4. Coherence and cohesion
Developing and organizing ideas
Using appropriate markers and linking devices
Using anaphora appropriately together with other cohesive devices
5. Use of language
Defining, describing, explaining
Comparing and contrasting
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Classifying
Giving reasons
Giving opinions
Expressing relationships
Making agreement and recommendations
Expressing agreement and disagreement
Seeking clarification
Asking and giving information
Persuading
Drawing conclusions
Stating and justifying points of view
Presenting an argument

6. Managing a discussion
Initiating
Turn-taking
Interrupting
Prompting
Negotiating
Closing
7. Task fulfillment
Presenting relevant ideas
Providing adequate content
Showing a mature treatment of topic

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SUMMARY FOR SPEAKING

SPEAKING
INDIVIDUAL
PRESENTATI
ON
Highlig
ht
Keywor
ds and
phrases

GROUP
DISCUSSI
ON
Elabora
te
points
and
present

Initiate
and
maintai
na
discussi
on

Organise
ideas

Focus
on
what is
require
s

Express
agreement
or
disagreem
ent
Give
exampl
es
Speak
in
complet
e
sentenc
es
Link
ideas
using
transiti
on
markers

Make sure
all your
points are
relevant

Make
suggestio
ns and
justify
choices

Give
your
opinion
s
Pick
up from
what
others
say
Make
sure
you
know
your
points
well

Deal with
interruptio
ns

Ask for
and give
clarificati
on
Use
appropria
te
phrases
Read
more to
widen
your
knowledg
e
Support
your
decision
or
choices
with
reasons

Be polite
yet firm
Present
your
points
clearly

Conclud
e

Stay on
track of
topic
Concentra
te and
listen

Use
appropria
te
phrases

Learn
how to
end
discussi
on
properly
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Give
reasons

Ask for
any last
words

THE END

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