Water Supply Systems Lecture 2

Water Supply Systems
Lecture notes 2
dr Patryk Wjtowicz
Monday 1 December 14
Contents
Design considerations - key parameters
Water demand calculations:
estimation of base water demand
water demand forecasting
peaking factors
leakage and unaccounted-for water
water for fire protection
Design considerations
The design considerations of water supply systems involve topographic

features of terrain and economical parameters (restrictions)
Some essential parameters for network sizing are:
the projection of residential, commercial and industrial water

demand
per capita water consumption

peak flow factors
minimum and maximum pipe sizes
pipe material
system safety and reliability requirements
selection of optimal design period of a water distribution system
in a pre-decided time horizon
Water demand
The estimation of water demand for the sizing of any water

supply system or its components is the most important part of
the design methodology
Water demands (water duties) are generated from:
residential
industrial and commercial developments
community facilities and services
Customer
demand
firefighting demand
account for system losses (unaccounted-for water or UFW)
periodical flushing
treatment facility water demand
Water demand
Water demand is not constant, and is affected by a number of factors:
climate
economic and social factors
water pricing, completeness of meterage, system management
land use
resort to private supplies
population and type of a city
standard of living, extent of sewage system
industrialization of the area (size and type)...
A comprehensive study should estimate water demand considering all the

site-specific factors
Variations of water demand are observed in different time horizons (i.e. year,
month, day, hour)
Historical water consumption in Poland

1965-2005
Historical water consumption in households in

Poland 1953-2005
Monthly water consumption variations

(for a selected Polish city)
Example of average daily water consumption

variations throughout a year
Diurnal water variation in water demand

Table 4.3 Calculation of nodal demands using pattern multipliers

Time
Pattern
Multiplier
Demand
1:00
1.1
200 gpm 1.1 = 220 gpm
2:00
1.8
200 gpm 1.8 = 360 gpm
As one can imagine, usage patterns are as diverse as the customers themselves. Figure
4.11 illustrates just how different diurnal demand curves for various classifications
can be. A broad zoning classification, such as commercial, may contain differences
significant enough to warrant the further definition of subcategories for the different
types of businesses being served. For instance, a hotel may have a demand pattern that
resembles that of a residential customer. A dinner restaurant may have its peak usage
during the late afternoon and evening. A clothing store may use very little water,
regardless of the time of day. Water usage in an office setting may coincide with coffee breaks and lunch hours.
Figure 4.11
Demand Multiplier
system-wide diurnal curve can be constructed using the same mass balance techques discussed earlier in this chapter. The only elaboration is that the mass balance
performed as a series of calculations, one for each hydraulic step of an EPS simulaon.
Time
Time
Factory
Restaurant
Demand Multiplier
ime Increments. The amount of time between measurements has a direct corretion to the resolution and precision of the constructed diurnal curve. If measureents are only available once per day, then only a daily average can be calculated.
ikewise, if measurements are available in hourly increments, then hourly averages
an be used to define the pattern over the entire day.
the modeler tries to use a time step that is too small, small errors in tank water level
an lead to large errors in water-use calculations. This type of error is explained furer in Walski, Lowry, and Rhee (2000). Modeling of hydraulic time steps smaller
an one hour is usually only justified in situations in which tank water levels change
pidly. Even if facility operations (such as pump cycling) occur frequently, it may
1 December
illMonday
be acceptable
for14
the demand pattern time interval to be longer than the hydraulic
Single Family
Demand Multiplier
Developing System-Wide Diurnal Curves
Businesses
Demand Multiplier
Diurnal curve for

different user
categories
Time
Time
Water demand forecasting

Forecasting is made for different time horizons:
current (actual) water demand - prepared for
164
Water Consumption
Chapter 4
existing water networks, based on trends in

historical data
Figure 4.13
Several methods for

projecting future
demands
5.0
4.5
4.0
Peak Day Demand, MGD
average-term forecast
long-term forecast
Constant Percent Growth
Growth to Buildout
3.5
Linear Growth
3.0
Economic Downturn
2.5
Annual Demand Data
2.0
1.5
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
2030
2040
Time, year
Different methods for projecting future demands
Average- and long-term forecasts are mainly based

on unit water demands (index method)
Disaggregated Projections
Rather than basing projections on extrapolation of flow rate data, it is somewhat more
rational to examine the causes of demand changes and then project that data into the
future. This technique is called disaggregated projection. Instead of predicting
demands, the user predicts such things as industrial production, number of hotel
rooms, and cost of water, and then uses a forecasting model to predict demand.
The simplest type of disaggregated demand projection involves projecting population
and per capita demand separately. In this way, the modeler can, for example, separate
the effects of population growth from the effects of a decrease in per capita consumption due to low-volume fixtures and other water conservation measures.
These types of approaches attempt to account for many variables that influence future
demands, including population projections, water pricing, land use, industrial growth,
and the effects of water conservation (Vickers, 1991; and Macy, 1991). The IWR-
Population projection formulas

Arithmetic (recommended for cities up to 20 000):
i + t
Pf = Pc 1+
100
Geometric (recommended for cities up to 20 000):

i
Pf = Pc 1+
100
Exponential (recommeded for cities from 20 000):

Pf - future population
Pc - current population
i - growth rate in %
t - time in years
Pf = Pc + e
i+t
100
Water demand forecasting

To capture variability of water demand there are several
characteristic parameters describing water consumption
and usage
Average day water demand Qavd expressed in m3/d:

Q avd
Q year
3
=
, m /d
365
Maximum day water demand Qmaxd (m3/d)

Q maxd = Q avd N d
where: Nd - daily peaking factor
Daily and hourly peaking factors

(Polish regulations)
Calculation of water demand (cont.)
Peak hour water demand Q

(typically expressed in
Q maxh
3
dm /s
Q maxd
= Nh
24
where: Nh - hourly peaking factor
or
maxh
3
m /h):
Water demand
The residential forecast of future demand
is usually based on house count, census records and

population projections
The industrial and commercial facilities

have a wide range of water demand
This demand can be estimated based on historical

data from the same or comparable other system
Planning guidelines provided by engineering
bodies, governmental and regulatory agencies

should also be considered
Water demand
The firefighting demand can be estimated using equations

(Kuichling or Freeman formula) or according to local guidelines
or design codes in national firefighting regulations
Estimation of water losses is not straightforward and

depends on a number of factors:
age of system
minimum prescribed pressure
maximum pressure in the system
pipeline material
quality of pipeline materials and maintenance works
specific local conditions (mine damages, earthquakes) ...
Calculation of residential water demand

(Polish regulations)
Typical water duties in USA

TABLE 3.2
Typical Water Duties
Land Use
Water Duty, (gal/day/acre)

Low
High
Average
Low-density residential
400
3300
1670
Medium-density residential
900
3800
2610
High-density residential
2300
12000
4160
Single-family residential
1300
2900
2300
Multifamily residential
2600
6600
4160
Office commercial
1100
5100
2030
Retail commercial
1100
5100
2040
Light industrial
200
4700
1620
Heavy industrial
200
4800
2270
Parks
400
3100
2020
Schools
400
2500
1700
Source: Adapted from Montgomery Watson study of data of 28 western U.S. cities.
Note: gal X 3.7854 = L.
TABLE 3.3
Typical Rates of Water Use for Various Establishments
seats in a restaurant) and multiply by the typical unit flow to determine the average
daily flow from that establishment.
Typical
of water
wateruse
use
various
Typical rates
rates of
forfor
various
establishments
establishments
in (USA)
USA
Table 4.1 provides typical unit loads for a number of different types of users. Ranges
are given because there is considerable variation between establishments within a
given category.
Table 4.1 Typical rates of water use for various establishments
Range of Flow
User
(l/person or unit/day)
(gal/person or unit/day)
Airport, per passenger
1020
35
Assembly hall, per seat
610
23
Bowling alley, per alley
60100
1626
Pioneer type
80120
2132
Childrens, central toilet and bath
160200
4253
Day, no meals
4070
1118
Luxury, private bath
300400
79106
Labor
140200
3753
Trailer with private toilet and bath,

per unit (2 1/2 persons)
500600
132159
Resident type
300600
79159
Transient type serving meals
60100
1626
Apartment house on individual well
300400
79106
Apartment house on public water supply,

unmetered
300500
79132
Boardinghouse
150220
4058
Hotel
200400
53106
120200
3253
Motel
400600
106159
Private dwelling on individual well or

metered supply
200600
53159
Private dwelling on public water

supply, unmetered
400800
106211
40100
1126
Camp
Country clubs
Dwelling unit, residential
Lodging house and tourist home
Factory, sanitary wastes, per shift
Table extracted from Ysuni, 2000 based on Metcalf and Eddy, 1979
Typical rates of water use for various establishments

in USA (cont.)
148
Water Consumption
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 (cont.) Typical rates of water use for various establishments
Range of Flow
User
(l/person or unit/day)
(gal/person or unit/day)
Fairground (based on daily attendance)
26
12
Average type
400600
106159
Hospital
7001200
185317
Office
4060
1116
Picnic park, with flush toilets
2040
511
Average
2540
711
Kitchen wastes only
1020
35
Short order
1020
35
Short order, paper service
48
12
Bar and cocktail lounge
812
23
Average type, per seat
120180
3248
Average type, 24 h, per seat
160220
4258
Tavern, per seat
60100
1626
Service area, per counter seat (toll road)
10001600
264423
Service area, per table seat (toll road)
600800
159211
Day, with cafeteria or lunchroom
4060
1116
Day, with cafeteria and showers
6080
1621
Boarding
200400
53106
10003000
264793
First 7.5 m (25 ft) of frontage
16002000
423528
Each additional 7.5 m of frontage
14001600
370423
4060
1116
Indoor, per seat, two showings per day
1020
35
Outdoor, including food stand, per car

(3 1/3 persons)
1020
35
Institution
Restaurant (including toilet)
School
Self-service laundry, per machine

Store
Swimming pool and beach, toilet and shower

Theater
Table extracted from Ysuni, 2000 based on Metcalf and Eddy, 1979
Other investigators have linked water use in nonresidential facilities to the Standard
Industrial Classification (SIC) codes for each industry as shown in Table 4.2. To use
this table, the modeler determines the number of employees in an industry and multi-
Unit (average) water demand for industrial facilities

according to the population (Poland)
Average rates of nonresidential water use from

establishment-level data in USA (according to SIC
code)
Section 4.1
Baseline Demands
Table 4.2 Average rates of nonresidential water use from establishment-level data
Category
SIC Code
Construction
General building contractors
15
31
246
118
66
Heavy construction
16
20
30
17
25
150
164
2790
Food and kindred products
20
469
252
Textile mill products
22
784
20
Apparel and other textile products
23
26
91
Lumber and wood products
24
49
62
Furniture and fixtures
25
36
83
Paper and allied products
26
2614
93
Printing and publishing
27
37
174
Chemicals and allied products
28
267
211
Petroleum and coal products
29
1045
23
Rubber and miscellaneous plastics products
30
119
116
Leather and leather products
31
148
10
Stone, clay, and glass products
32
202
83
Primary metal industries
33
178
80
Fabricated metal products
34
194
395
Industrial machinery and equipment
35
68
304
Electronic and other electrical equipment
36
95
409
Transportation equipment
37
84
182
Instruments and related products
38
66
147
Miscellaneous manufacturing industries
39
36
55
50
226
68
Transportation and public utilities

Railroad transportation
40
Local and interurban passenger transit
41
26
32
Trucking and warehousing
42
85
100
U.S. Postal Service
43
Water transportation
44
353
10
Transportation by air
45
171
17
Transportation services
47
40
13
Communications
48
55
31
Electric, gas, and sanitary services
49
51
19
53
751
518
Wholesale trade
Sample
Size
Special trade contractors

Manufacturing
(SIC) Standard Industrial Classification
Use Rate
(gal/employee/day)
Wholesale tradedurable goods
50
46
Wholesale tradenondurable goods
51
87
233
Table from Dziegielweski, Opitz, and Maidment, 1996
149
Average rates of nonresidential water use from

establishment-level data (cont.)
150
Water Consumption
Chapter 4
Table 4.2 (cont.) Average rates of nonresidential water use from establishment-level data
Category
SIC Code
Use Rate
(gal/employee/day)
93
1044
52
35
56
Retail trade
Building materials and garden supplies
Sample
Size
General merchandise stores
53
45
50
Food stores
54
100
90
Automotive dealers and service stations
55
49
498
Apparel and accessory stores
56
68
48
Furniture and home furnishings stores
57
42
100
Eating and drinking places
58
156
341
Miscellaneous retail
59
132
161
192
238
Finance, insurance, and real estate

Depository institutions
60
62
77
Nondepository institutions
61
361
36
Security and commodity brokers
62
1240
Insurance carriers
63
136
Insurance agents, brokers, and service
64
89
24
Real estate
65
609
84
Holding and other investment offices
67
290
137
1878
Services
Hotels and other lodging places
70
230
197
Personal services
72
462
300
Business services
73
73
243
Auto repair, services, and parking
75
217
108
Miscellaneous repair services
76
69
42
Motion pictures
78
110
40
Amusement and recreation services
79
429
105
Health services
80
91
353
Legal services
81
821
15
Educational services
82
110
300
Social service
83
106
55
Museums, botanical, zoological gardens
84
208
Membership
Section
4.1 organizations
86
212
45
Engineering and management services
87
58
Services, NEC
89
73
60
106
25
Public administration
Baseline Demands
Executive,
legislative,
and general
91
155from establishment-level
2
Table
4.2 (cont.)
Average
rates of nonresidential
water use
data
Justice, public order, and safety
Category
Administration of human resources
Environmental quality and housing
92
SIC Code
94
18
Use Rate
(gal/employee/day)
87
4Sample
6Size
95
101Table from Dziegielweski, Opitz, and

6 Maidment, 1996
Administration of economic programs
96
274
National security and international affairs
97
445
Table from Dziegielweski, Opitz, and Maidment, 1996
Unaccounted-For Water
Ideally, if individual meter readings are taken for every customer, they should exactly
151
Average water demand for selected commercial facilities

(Poland)
Unaccounted-For Water (UFW)
Ideally, if individual meter readings are taken for every customer,

they should exactly equal the amount of water that is measured
leaving the treatment facility
In practice not all of the outflows are metered. These lost flows
are referred to as unaccounted-for water (UFW)
The most common reasons for discrepancies are:
leakage
overflows at tanks
errors in flow measurement (under-register at low flow rates)
unmetered water usage (illegal connections, usage of fire
hydrants, blow-offs and other maintenance appurtenances)
Leakage
Leakage is commonly the largest component of UFW and includes:
distribution losses from supply pipes

distribution and trunk mains
services up to the meter
connections to tanks
The amount of leakage varies from system to system, but there is a general
correlation between the age of a system and the amount of UFW. Projections of
leakage must include special areas (mine damages, earthquakes etc.)
New and well maintained systems may have as little as 5% leakage, while older
systems may have 40% leakage or even higher
Other factors affecting leakage include:
system pressure (the higher the pressure, the more leakage)

burst frequencies of mains and service pipes
leakage detection and control policies
Estimating water leakage

For existing networks made of traditional materials
(cast iron) properly maintained leakage index may be

estimated from 0.5 m3/h km to 0.3 m3/h km
For new networks (after renovation), properly built

and maintained leakage index should not be higher
than 0.3 - 0.2 m3/h km
For water demand forecasting leakage should be
between 5% to 10% of average daily water demand
Estimating water leakage
Leak Losses for Circular Holes Under Different Pressures*

Leak Losses, gpm
Diameter
of Hole,
in.
Area of
Hole,
in.2
20
40
60
80
100
0.1
0.007
1.067
1.510
1.850
2.136
2.388
2.616
2.825
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.031
0.070
0.125
0.196
0.282
4.271
9.611
17.087
26.699
38.477
6.041
13.593
24.165
37.758
54.372
7.399
16.648
29.597
46.245
66.593
8.544
19.224
34.175
53.399
76.894
9.522
21.493
38.209
59.702
85.971
10.464
23.544
41.856
65.400
94.176
11.302
25.430
45.209
70.640
101.721
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
0.384
0.502
0.636
0.785
0.950
1.131
1.327
1.539
1.767
2.011
2.270
2.545
2.836
3.142
52.331
68.350
86.506
106.798
129.225
153.789
180.488
209.324
240.295
273.402
308.646
346.025
385.540
427.191
74.007
96.662
122.338
151.035
182.752
217.490
255.249
296.028
339.829
386.649
436.491
489.353
545.237
604.140
90.640
118.387
149.833
184.979
223.825
266.370
312.615
362.559
416.203
473.547
534.590
599.333
667.776
739.918
104.662
136.701
173.012
213.596
258.451
307.578
360.977
418.648
480.590
546.805
617.292
692.050
771.081
854.383
117.010
152.840
193.434
238.807
288.957
343.882
403.584
468.062
537.317
611.347
690.153
773.736
862.095
955.230
128.184
167.424
211.896
261.600
316.536
376.704
442.104
512.737
588.601
669.697
756.025
847.585
944.378
1,046.400
138.454
180.839
228.874
282.561
341.898
406.887
477.527
553.819
635.762
723.355
816.600
915.496
1,020.040
1,130.240
Leak Losses for Joints and Cracks*
Water Pressure, psi

120
140
160
180
Area3.021
of Joint
12.083
or Crack
3.204
12.816
27.186
28.835
48.331
Length,
Width, 51.263
75.518
80.098
in.108.745 in. 115.34120
200
3.337
13.509
30.395
54.036
84.431
121.581
40
Leak Losses, gpm

Water Pressure, psi
60
80
100 120 140 160 180
148.014
156.993
165.485
3.2
4.5
5.5
6.4
7.1
7.8
8.4
9.0
9.6
205.052
216.144
244.676 116 259.5196.4
273.557
1.0
9.0 11.0 12.7 14.2 15.6 16.9 18.0 19.1
302.070
320.394
337.725
1
1.0
12.7 18.0
38.2
365.505 8 387.676
408.647 22.1 25.5 28.5 31.2 33.7 36.0
434.981 1
461.367
486.323
1.0
25.5 36.0 44.1 51.0 57.0 62.4 67.4 72.1 76.5
4
510.498
541.465
570.755
592.057
627.972
661.941
* For leaks emitted from joints
and cracked service pipes, an orifice coefficient of 0.60
679.658
720.886
759.880
in the following equation:
773.299
820.208
864.575 Q = (22.796)(A)( P )
872.983
925.938
976.024
Where:
flow, in gpm;1,094.220
A = area, in in.2; P = pressure, in psi
978.707 Q = 1,038.070
1,090.470
1,156.620
1,219.180
1,208.280
1,281.570
1,350.890
1
1.0
193.325 32
* Calculated using Greeleys formula (see equation on following page).
For losses from such items as pipes or broken taps, assum

Greeleys
formulaof(used
for leakages from pipes or
orifice coefficient
Leak Losses for Joints and Copyright
Cracks*(C) 2012 American Water Works Association All Rights Reserved
Distribution0.80 and calculate flow in gallons per mi
broken
taps, assuming
from Greeleys
formula: an orifice coefficient of 0.80)
Area of Joint
or Crack
Leak Losses, gpm
Length, Width,
Water Pressure, psi
in.
in.
20
40
60
80
100 120 140 160 180 200
1.0
132
3.2
4.5
5.5
6.4
7.1
7.8
8.4
9.0
1.0
116
6.4
9.0
11.0
12.7
14.2
15.6
16.9
18.0
19.1 20.1
1.0
18
12.7
18.0
22.1
25.5
28.5
31.2
33.7
36.0
38.2 40.3
1.0
14
25.5
36.0
44.1
51.0
57.0
62.4
67.4
72.1
76.5 80.6
9.6
10.1
* For leaks emitted from joints and cracked service pipes, an orifice coefficient of 0.60 is used
in the following equation:
Q = (22.796)(A)( P )
Where: Q = flow, in gpm; A = area, in in.2; P = pressure, in psi
43, 767
1, 440
A# P
Where:
Q = flow, in gpm
A = the cross-sectional area of the leak, in in.2
P = pressure, in psi
No pipe installation will be accepted if the amount of mak

water is greater than that determined by the following formula
Fire protection
AWWA M31
Distribution System
Requirements for Fire
Protection
Fire storage is the amount of stored water required

to provide a specified fire flow for a specified duration
The rate of flow to be provided for fire flow is typically

dependent on the land use and varies by community
The fire flow criteria are usually given in national or

local regulations (e.g. fire marshall)
includes determining fire flow demands according to the ISO approach. Although the
actual water needed to fight a fire depends on the structure and the fire itself, the ISO
method yields a Needed Fire Flow (NFF) that can be used for design and evaluation
of the system. Different calculation methods are used for different building types,
such as residential, commercial, or industrial.
Fire protection water demands

(USA and Poland)
For one- and two-family residences, the needed fire flow is determined based on the
as shown in Table
distance between
Typicalstructures,
fire flow requirements
(USA)4.5.
Table 4.5 Needed fire flow for residences two stories and less
Distance Between Buildings
(ft)
Fire Flow
(gpm)
More than 100
500
31-100
750
11-30
1,000
Less than 11
1,500
For commercial and industrial structures, the needed fire flow is based on building
area, construction
is, frame or masonry construction), occupancy (such as
TABLE
3.4 Typical Fireclass
Flow (that
Requirements
a department store or chemical manufacturing plant), exposure (distance to and type
Land Use
Fire Flow Requirements, gal/m*
of nearest building), and communication (types and locations of doors and walls). The
Single-family
500-2000
formula
canresidential
be summarized as:
Multifamily residential
Commercial
Industrial
Central business district
where
1500-3000
2500-5000
0.5
NFF = 18FA
O(X + P )
3500-10,000
(4.12)
2500-15,000
NFF = needed fire flow (gpm)

Note: gal X 3.7854F= =
L. class of construction coefficient
A = effective area (ft2)
Monday 1 December 14 O = occupancy factor
Polish fire flow requirements for communities
Supplementary reading
CH3 Introduction to Water Sources. Alaska
Department of Environmetal Conservation.

Water Supply Systems Lecture 2

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Water Supply Systems Lecture 2

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Water Supply Systems

The design considerations of water supply systems involve topographic

Some essential parameters for network sizing are:

the projection of residential, commercial and industrial water

per capita water consumption

The estimation of water demand for the sizing of any water

Water demands (water duties) are generated from:

Water demand is not constant, and is affected by a number of factors:

A comprehensive study should estimate water demand considering all the

Historical water consumption in Poland

Historical water consumption in households in

Monthly water consumption variations

Example of average daily water consumption

Diurnal water variation in water demand

Table 4.3 Calculation of nodal demands using pattern multipliers

200 gpm 1.1 = 220 gpm

200 gpm 1.8 = 360 gpm

Developing System-Wide Diurnal Curves

Diurnal curve for

Water demand forecasting

existing water networks, based on trends in

Several methods for

Constant Percent Growth

Different methods for projecting future demands

Average- and long-term forecasts are mainly based

Population projection formulas

Geometric (recommended for cities up to 20 000):

Exponential (recommeded for cities from 20 000):

Water demand forecasting

Average day water demand Qavd expressed in m3/d:

Maximum day water demand Qmaxd (m3/d)

Daily and hourly peaking factors

Calculation of water demand (cont.)

Peak hour water demand Q

where: Nh - hourly peaking factor

is usually based on house count, census records and

The industrial and commercial facilities

This demand can be estimated based on historical

Planning guidelines provided by engineering

bodies, governmental and regulatory agencies

The firefighting demand can be estimated using equations

Estimation of water losses is not straightforward and

Calculation of residential water demand

Typical water duties in USA

Typical Water Duties

Water Duty, (gal/day/acre)

Typical Rates of Water Use for Various Establishments

Airport, per passenger

Assembly hall, per seat

Bowling alley, per alley

Childrens, central toilet and bath

Luxury, private bath

Trailer with private toilet and bath,

Transient type serving meals

Apartment house on individual well

Apartment house on public water supply,

Private dwelling on individual well or

Private dwelling on public water

Dwelling unit, residential

Lodging house and tourist home

Factory, sanitary wastes, per shift

Typical rates of water use for various establishments

Fairground (based on daily attendance)

Picnic park, with flush toilets