F PDF

Proceedings of Indian Geotechnical Conference
December 13-15, 2012, Delhi (Paper No. F 601)
A BOUNDARY ELEMENT SOLUTION FOR SINGLE PILE SUBJECTED TO COMBINED

AXIAL AND TORSIONAL LOADINGS
S. Basack, Associate Professor, Bengal Engineering & Science University, Howrah, India, basackdrs@hotmail.com
S. Sen, Post Graduate Student, Bengal Engineering & Science University, Howrah, India, sankha.vit@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Torsional loading on piles are introduced due to eccentric horizontal forces on the supporting structures.
Structures such as, tall buildings, bridge piers, offshore platforms and electric transmission towers, can be subjected to
significant torsional and axial loadings due to eccentric lateral forces and superstructural load respectively. Inadequate design
of the piles against combined effect of axial and torsional loading may seriously affect the serviceability and safety of these
structures with disastrous consequences. The research reported herein presents a boundary element solution for single pile
response subjected to axial as well as torsional loadings.
INTRODUCTION
Foundation design philosophy provides adequate factor of
safety against bearing failure (bearing capacity criteria) and
acceptable displacement of the foundation base and the
structure (serviceability criteria). Deep foundation (e.g. pile
foundation) is adopted when subsoil adjacent to ground
surface have insufficient bearing capacity and stiffness to
carry the superstructure load and selection of shallow
foundation in above mentioned circumstance causes collapse
of the structure due to bearing failure or excessive settlement.
Pile foundation is considered as the best solution to encounter
such situation and globally accepted as one of the best
alternative.
Eccentric horizontal forces on the supporting structures
induce torsional loading on pile. Apart from axial load,
structures such as, tall buildings, bridge piers, offshore
platforms and electric transmission towers are subjected to
remarkable torsional forces due to eccentric lateral loading
from ship impacts, high-speed vehicles, wind and wave
actions, and other sources of loading. Improper design of
piles against the combined effect of axial and torsional
loadings may seriously influence the serviceability and safety
of these structures with disastrous consequences.
Although significant theoretical as well as experimental
investigations have been carried out by some researchers on
pile-response under torsional load, works on piles subjected
to combined effect of axial and torsional loads are rare.
Significant contributions to study the response of pile under
torsional load alone are available [1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6]. On the
contrary, the contribution on pile-response under combined
effect of axial and torsional loads is rather limited [7]. This
work has aimed to bridge up this gap.
The work reported herein represents a boundary element
analysis to study the response of single pile embedded in clay,
under combined effect of axial and vertical loads. The
numerical model developed has been validated and further
parametric studies have been conducted.
SOIL STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOUR

Following the analysis of Duncan and Chang [8], the stress
strain behaviour of soil in shear (- relationship) has been
idealized as hyperbolic having a reduction factor Rf till the
ultimate value of the shear stress u is attained. The secant
modulus of soil at a certain point is given by
G s = Gt 1 R f
u
where, Gt is the initial tangent modulus of soil and Rf is a

hyperbolic soil parameter with a range of 0.8 1.0 [9].
BOUNDARY ELEMENT ANALYSIS
To arrive at specific solutions for pile-soil interactive
response under combined torsional and vertical loads, a
boundary element analysis similar to a previously developed
model [10] is carried out. As given in Fig.1, the pile is
longitudinally discretized into n number of equal elements
throughout its length such that the thickness of each element
is (= L/n). Each of these ith element is assumed to be acted
upon by horizontal shear stress t(i) due to the applied torque
Tt and vertical shear stress v(i) resulting from the applied
vertical load Vt , uniformly over the surface of the entire
element. The primary objective of this analysis is to evaluate
the values of t(i) and v(i) considering pile-soil slip and hence
to determine the angle of twist at the central nodal points of
all such elements.
Analysis For Static Torsion Alone
From moment equilibrium condition of the element under
torsional load and following the relation of analysis of
Randolph [2], the governing differential equation for no-slip
condition has been re-written in finite difference form as:
i +1 2 i + i 1 D 2 t (i )
=
2J pG p
2
(1)
S. Basack & S. Sen
where, is the angle of twist of the top surface of the pile

element and JpGp is the torsional rigidity of pile material.
correlation proposed by Randolph [2] is no more valid for the

slipped elements, the matrix Eq. (3) above has been modified
accordingly and the values of t(i) for remaining unslipped
elements are determined using the modified equations. The
procedure is recycled which may led to progressive slippage
of the pile elements.
After the elemental horizontal shear stress t(i) are evaluated,
the elemental angle of twists, i are obtained using Eq. (2). At
ground surface, the angle of twist has been obtained using
parabolic extrapolation from the known values of 1 , 2 , and
3.
Analysis for Static Axial Load Alone
Following the analysis of Mattes and Polous [10] and using
moment equilibrium condition of the element under axial load
the following matrix equation has been developed for no-slip
condition:
[C ]{ } = {c}
(4)
where, [C] is a coefficient matrix of order (n+1) x (n+1),

{} is an unknown column matrix of the order (n+1) x 1 and
{c} is an augment vector of the order (n+1) x 1.
Following the analysis of Randolph (2003) [9], Eq. (2) is
modified in terms of v(i) as,
[D]{ v } = {d }
Fig.1 Boundary element discreatization of pile.
(5)
where, is the angle of twist of the top surface of the pile

element and JpGp is the torsional rigidity of pile material.
From the above equation, correlations for all pile elements are
established and compiling all of the following matrix equation
is obtained:
(2)
M { } = {a}
where, [D] is a coefficient matrix of order (n+1) x (n+1),

{v} is an unknown column matrix of the order (n+1) x 1
relevant to the vertical shear stress acting on pile elements
and {d} is an augment vector of the order (n+1) x 1.
To incorporate the pile-soil slippage, the procedure which is
adopted is same as for torsional loading.
where, [M] is a coefficient matrix of order (n+1) x (n+1),

{} is an unknown column matrix of the order (n+1) x 1 and
{a} is an augment vector of the order (n+1) x 1.
Combined Torsional and Axial Loads
[ ]
Using the correlation of Randolph [2], all the i in the Eq. (2)
have been replaced in terms of t(i). Rearranging the terms
and coupling the modified correlations thus developed, the
following matrix equation has been formulated:
[B ]{ t } = {b}
(3)
where, [B] is a coefficient matrix of order (n+1) x (n+1),
{t} is an unknown column matrix of the order (n+1) x 1
relevant to the horizontal shear stress acting on pile elements
and {b} is an augment vector of the order (n+1) x 1.
The values of the unknown torsional shear stress t(i) obtained
above have been compared with their relevant ultimate values
u(i). The elements, for which the magnitude of the horizontal
shear stress exceeds the corresponding ultimate value, are
assumed to be slipped and the relevant shear stresses are
replaced in magnitude by the ultimate values. Since
In case of combined effect of torsional and axial load, the

resultant shear stress induced on pile element is expressed as:
[ (i )]
= [ t (i )] + [ v (i )]
2
(6)
Hence, the torsional analysis described above has been
modified by altering the ultimate elemental shear stress as
follows:
(i ) =
t u
[ u (i )]
[ v (i )]
(7)
where, tu(i) is the ultimate elementary shear stress to be used
for torsional analysis.
Similarly, the analysis for vertical loading described earlier
has been modified by altering the ultimate elemental shear
stress as follows:
A Boundary Element Solution for Single Pile Subjected to Combine Axial and Torsional Loading
(i ) =
v u
[ u (i )]
[ t (i )]
(8)
where, vu(i) is ultimate elementary shear stress to be used for
analysis for vertical load. The details are available elsewhere
[11].
PARAMETRIC STUDY
For parametric study the soil and pile parameters were taken
from Basack [12] and presented in Fig. 4. The Fig.5. depicts
the profiles for angle of twist induced in the pile at a typical
value of L/D = 30 and Vt/Vu0 = 0.4. As the applied torque
ratio Tu/Tu0 increases from 0.2 to 0.6, the normalized angle of
twist observed to vary in the range of 0.0 - 0.37.
Flowchart
The flowchart of the programme developed to compute the
present analysis is presented in Fig. 2.
Start
Input parameters for pile, soil

and loading
Computed (Georgiadis and
Saflekou (1990)
Analysis for torsion only
Rf = 0.85
Rf = 0.95
Compute vu(i)
Present
model
Compute v(i)
No
Yes
Are current
Fig.3. Comparison of computed load-settlement response with

the analytical model of Georgiadis and Saflekou (1990).
v(i)same as
previous iteration ?
Compute
Compute
tu(i)
tu(i)
Print output data

No
Yes
Want
incremental
torque ?
Stop
Fig.2 Flowchart of the computer programme..

VALIDATION
To validate the model developed, a comparison was carried
out with the available analytical results [7] and presented in
Fig. 3. It is observed that, pile head axial load-settlement
response for a constant torque (4 MNm) computed from
present model have a reasonable good agreement with these
existing results [7].
Fig.4 Assumed soil and pile parameters for clay (after

Basack, 2012)
The Profiles are essentially parabolic and the effect of Rf is in
significant. The nature of change in normalized shear stress,
(z)/cu0 with L/D = 30 for clay with normalized depth z/L
for vertical load ratio Vt/Vu0 = 0.4 and torsional load ratio
Tu /Tu0 = 0.4 is shown in Fig. 6. As observed, the horizontal
and resultant shear stresses increase linearly till the
normalized peak values ((z)/cu0) of 1.35 and 1.62 are
attained respectively for a normalized depth of about 0.38,
S. Basack & S. Sen
and sharply decreases thereafter. The vertical shear stress is

found to decrease with depth following a curvilinear pattern
from 1.0 to 0.78. For a normalized depth beyond 0.8, the
horizontal stress is significantly low due to which the values
of the vertical and resultant shear stresses almost coincide.
The effect of Rf is not remarkable except in the ranges of
0 z/L 0.2 and 0.8 z/L 1.0.
CONCLUSION
A boundary element solution for predicting the pile-soil
interactive performance under combined torsional and axial
loadings has been developed considering hyperbolic stressstrain response of soil and interface slippage. The comparison
of numerical results with existing analytical studies justifies
the validity of the proposed model. From the parametric
studies, it is observed that the profile of angle of twist
decreases with increase of normalized depth. On the other
hand, horizontal and resultant shear stress profiles increases
linearly to a peak value followed by a sharp curvilinear
decrement. In case of vertical shear stress the profile observed
to follow a non-linear trend.
REFERENCES
1. Poulos, H. G. (1975), Torsional Response of Piles, Jl. of
Rf = 0.85
Geotech. Engrg. Div., ASCE, 101 (GT10), 1019-1035.
Rf = 0.95
2. Randolph, M. F. (1981), Piles Subjected to Torsion, Jl.
of Geotech. Engrg. Div., ASCE, 107 (GT8), 1095-1111.
3. Hache, R. A. G. and Valsangkar, A. J. (1988), Torsional
resistance of single pile in layered soil, Jl. of Geotech.
Engrg., ASCE, Vol. 114 (2), 216-220.
L/D = 30
4. Kong, L. G. and Zhang, L. M. (2007), Centrifuge
Krt = 0.35 X 10-4
modeling of torsionally loaded pile
groups, Jl. of
Vt / Vu0 = 0.4
Geotech. and Geoenv. Engrg., ASCE, 133 (11), 13741384.
5. Wang, K., Zhang, Z., Leo, C. J. and Xie, K. (2007),
Dynamic Torsional response of end bearing pile in
saturated poroelastic medium, Computers and
Geotechnics, Elsevier, 35, 450-458.
Fig. 5 Variation of normalized angle of twist with normalized 6. Azadi, M. R. E., Nordal, S. and Sadein, M. (2008),
Nonlinear behaviour of pile-soil subjected to torsion due
depth for different torsional load ratio.
to environmental loads on jacket type platforms, Jl. of
, (z)/cu0
WSEAS Transaction on Fluid Mechanics, 4 (4), 390400.
7. M. Georgiadis, S. Saflekou, Piles under axial and
torsional loads, Computers and Geotechnics, Elsevier,
9(1990) 291-305.
8. Duncan and Chang, (1970) Nonlinear analysis of stress
and strain of soil, Jl. of Soil Mech. and Found. Engrg.
Div., ASCE, 96 (SM5), 1629-1653.
9. Randolph, M. F. (2003), Load Transfer Mechanism of
Axially Loaded Piles, Technical Manual, Centre for
Offshore Foundation Systems, The University of
Western Australia.
10. Mattes, N. S., and Poulos, H. G., (1969), Settlement of
single compressible pile, Jl. of Soil Mech. and Found.
Engrg. Div., ASCE s, 95 (SM1), 189-207.
11. Sen, S. (2012), A Mathematical Solution for Static and
Cyclic Torsional Loading on Pile Embedded in ElastioPlastic Medium, ME Thesis, Bengal Engineering and
Science University, Howrah, India.
12. Basack, S. (2010), a boundary element analysis on the
influence of krc and e/d on the performance of cyclically
loaded single pile in clay, Latin American Jl. of Solids
and Structures, 7, 265-284.
Fig.6 Variation of normalized shear stress with normalized

depth.

STABILITY ANALYSIS OF 18 M DEEP EXCAVATION USING MICRO PILES

Amit Srivastava, Asst. Professor, Dept of Civil Engg, Jaypee University of Engg & Tech, Guna, 2002.lala@gmail.com
Pawan Kumar, Project Assistant, Department of Civil Engineering, IISc, Bangalore, xeropawz@gmail.com
G. L. Sivakumar Babu, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IISc, Bangalore, gls@civil.iisc.ernet.in
ABSTRACT: An 18 m deep excavation for a 3-storey basement structure for a shopping mall in Bangalore is proposed to be
stabilized using micro piles. The offset of the deep excavation from the adjoining buildings is in the range of 5m and
foundation pressures of existing buildings are estimated to be 200 kPa. For the stability analysis of the given deep excavation,
in situ soil properties are evaluated from the field and or laboratory test results and implemented in commercially available
finite element based software tool PLAXIS 2D. Stability analysis is performed by considering in situ soil following MohrCoulomb constitutive behaviour and modelling micro piles as plate elements. Global factor of safety of the given deep
excavation problem is evaluated using Strength Reduction Technique available as an inbuilt option in the numerical package
and information on estimated deformation values are reported.
INTRODUCTION
Micropiles were first introduced in Italy by an Italian
contracting company as Pali radice and later the technique
was brought to North America for performing several
underpinning jobs in the city of New England,
Massachusetts. Since mid 1980s, micropiles have been used
mainly as elements for foundation support to resist static and
seismic loading conditions, and as in situ reinforcements for
slope and excavation stability. FHWA [1] provided a unique
and innovative classification system for micropiles based on
two main criteria: (a) Philosophy of behaviour (design), and
(b) Method of grouting (construction). A detailed review of
literature on micropiles is provided in [2].
A micropile is a small-diameter (typically less than 300 mm),
drilled and grouted replacement pile that is typically
reinforced [3]. Generally, micropiles are applicable when
there are problems with using conventional deep foundation
systems. These problem conditions include: obstructions,
adjacent structures, limited access job sites, and other shaky
areas like caves, sinkholes, underground rivers. For example,
micropiles are commonly the preferred foundation choice in
the challenging areas that feature nearby buildings and
difficult access. The unique characteristics of micropile offers
advantages when other deep foundation systems are not
applicable include:
Limited access situations due to size of equipment
Environmentally sensitive projects because they create
relatively little disturbance to the surrounding area
Seismic Retrofit
Arresting Structural Settlement
Resisting Uplift/Dynamic Loads
Underpinning
Reticulated Pile Wall
Installation techniques vary depending on the load bearing
specifications of the project. The selection of the installation
technique depends largely on soil conditions and load transfer
requirements.
Common Uses of Micropiles

To replace deteriorating foundation systems
To provide extra support for structures during renovation
To provide pile foundations where access, geology or
environment prevent the use of other methods
To support structures affected by adjacent excavation,
tunnelling or de-watering activities
To provide a fast, effective alternative to more traditional
underpinning methods
Benefits of Micropiles
Can be installed through most ground condition,
obstruction and foundation at any incline.
Ensure minimum vibration or other damage to
foundation and subsoil.
Can be installed in as little headroom as 6' and close to
existing walls.
Depending on situation, could actually allow facility
operations to be maintained during construction.
Simple and economical connection to existing and new
structures.
Can be preloaded to working load before connecting to
particularly sensitive structures.
MICROPILES INSTALLATION PROCESS
FHWA has produced the Micropile Design and Construction
Guidelines Implementation Manual and a Micropile Design
and Construction NHI course [4]. The objective is to provide
practitioner oriented technical guidance needed to: do
micropile design, produce construction specifications,
conduct construction inspection and integrity testing, develop
cost estimates and select contracting methods; to facilitate
and speed the implementation and cost-effective use to
micropiles on transportation projects.
The installation of micropiles begins with first determining
the geological condition by doing a detailed subsurface
investigation at the site. Based on known soil data, the design
engineer will design and specify the types of micropiles to be
Amit Srivastava, Pawan Kumar, G. L. Sivakumar Babu

used. The step by step procedure followed is briefly indicated
below:
1. After marking the position of the micropiles on the
ground by a competent land surveyor, the drilling rig is
manoeuvred to the micropile position (Fig. 1).
2. Drilling will start and the types of drilling tools used
depend on the soil and site condition. In dry ground and
rocky condition is expected, the drilling tool known as
Down The Hole Hammer (DTHH) is used. This is a
pneumatic tool and works much like a jack hammer.
Suitable for drilling in almost any soil condition and
particularly best in rock.
3. Once the required drilling depth is reached, the drilled
hole is flushed clean to remove any remaining debris
before the drilling rods are removed from the drilled
hole. Then a prefabricated reinforcement steel rod or
rods with grouting hose attached is then lowered into the
drilled hole.
4. After that water is first pumped through the grouting
hose to make sure the hose is not blocked during the
lowering process. It is also a way to give the drilled hole
a final cleaning. If all is good, water will be seen being
displaced and flows out smoothly from the hole.
5. Then grout made of cement and water mixture is pumped
into the drilled hole. This is known as grouting. This is
done using a grouting pump under pressure. During
grouting water in the hole will be displaced and flows
out smoothly.
6. The grouting hose is given a jerk to loosen it and slowly
raised at the same time grout is continuously pumped
into the hole. Grouting will stop once good grout is seen
coming out from the hole. When this happens, the
grouting hose is removed. Fig. 1 shows these steps for
micropiling for better illustration purposes.
Fig. 1 Drilled micropiles installation process

7. PROBLEM DEFINITION
An 18 m deep excavation for the proposed 3-storey basement
structure for a shopping mall in Bangalore is to be stabilized
using soil nailing technique. The offset from the adjoining
buildings is in the range of 5m and foundation pressures of
the existing buildings are estimated to be 200 kPa. As
micropiles enable the full utilization of the space and also
support excavations with adequate factor of safety, it is

suggested to use for stabilization of excavation work. Finite
Element Method tool, PLAXIS 2D, is utilized to evaluate the
global stability and provide information on deformation
pattern of deep excavation.
SITE CONDITIONS
The soil investigation provides the borehole information as
well as SPT values. There is no ground water table. The
report indicates that the encountered material in general is
disintegrated rock in many locations. Disintegrated rock, at
times being particulate, normally cannot stand without
support and beyond a certain height depending on cohesion
and will cave in. It is likely the excavation of 18m is likely to
collapse due to saturation of excavated areas. To prevent
collapse, use of micropiling is suggested.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Improving the stability of excavations using micropiling is an
appropriate solution for the present case. The suggested
systems are designed based on the data supplied by the
clients. The following are the recommendations:
1. Micro-piles in the form of steel pipes of 125mm dia with
6mm thickness, spaced at 25cm and 27m length are
suggested.
2. Horizontal component of shear resistance provides
resistance for induced shear forces due to excavating and
loading. In addition 4 rods of 20mm tor steel rods are
provided in the annular space of micropile to provide
additional shear resistance and can be positioned in the
central space of the pile. The space in the pile and
between the steel rods can be filled up with grouting.
Micropiles have a spacing of 25cm between the piles to a
depth of 27m, the factor of safety is 1.446.
3. The spacing between the piles can be nailed with short
driven nails of 1m length and 16m dia if loose pockets
exist and shotcreted using appropriate wire mesh to
prevent erosion of soil between the piles.
4. In the monsoon, migration of surface run off towards the
excavation should be prevented with appropriate
measures as indicated in precautions. Additional toe
ditches shall be provided to properly drain of the water
during construction and shall be maintained until a
permanent retaining wall is constructed in front of the
stabilized excavation.
5. Excavation in the water logged conditions shall be done
carefully by draining out water from the excavated areas
using appropriate pumping scheme.
6. If loose soil is encountered at any stage of excavation,
restrict the depth of excavation to about 0.75m. If the soil
has tendency to fall, spray cement on the surface so that
the stability of excavation is maintained till nail is
inserted.
7. Any deviation in the soil profiles from the geotechnical
reports and anomalous conditions may be brought to the
notice of the consultant. Consultant may be contacted in
case of clarifications.
Type paper title on odd pages except1st page, sentence case, Times 8 italics, aligned right, in full or brief, in one line
STABILITY ANALYSIS USING FEM
The stage construction responses, global stability and
deformation pattern in any deep excavation problems are
generally predicted by finite element method (FEM) using
2D or 3D numerical modelling. The easiest and fastest way is
to define a 2D plane strain model using PLAXIS -2D. Finno
et. al. [5] observed that when the ratio of excavated length to
excavated depth of a wall is greater than six, the results of
plane strain simulations yield the same displacements in the
centre of that wall as those analyzed by a 3-D simulation.
Stability analyses are conventionally assessed using Limit
Equilibrium (LE) methods and lately the Finite Element (FE)
method has been found to be suitable in performing stability
calculations. Griffiths and Lane [6] highlighted that the FE
method provides a more powerful alternative to traditional
LE methods in assessing stability in their study of
unreinforced or reinforced slopes and embankments.
The stability of excavation is assessed in terms of factor of
safety, which is obtained through strength reduction
technique [5]. In this approach, factor of safety is taken as a
factor (F) by which the soil shear strength parameters, i.e.,
cohesion (c) and angle of internal friction (), is reduced (c1,
1) to bring the slope on the verge of failure.
1
(1)
c1 = c
F
1
(2)
1 = tan 1 tan
F
Further, prediction of the deformation behavior of a soilnailed structure through FEM is required to ensure that
displacement limits set by the construction requirements are
not exceeded. For predicting deformation using FEM, one
has several possibilities to model the constitutive behavior of
in situ material; the most commonly used is Hardening soil
model [8, 9] for deep excavation problems. However, if all
the input parameters for HS-model are not available,
alternatively Mohr- Coulomb material model can be used [8].
Facings and micropiles can be modeled as elastic materials
using plate element. 15-node triangular elements can be used
for generating finite element mesh.
Briaud and Lim [11] provided information about where to
place the boundaries so that their influence on the results of
the numerical simulation of soil nail wall can be minimized.
They suggested that bottom of the mesh is best placed at a
depth where soil becomes notably harder (say at a depth D
below the bottom of the excavation). Based on the studies of
Briaud and Lim [9], if D is not exactly known, D can be
taken as two to three times the vertical depth of excavation H.
Further, for known values of D and H, width of excavation
We can be taken equal to three to four times D and the
horizontal distance from wall face to the end of mesh
boundary Be can be chosen equal to three to four times (H +
D) of the dimensions.
The most important input material parameters for plate
elements are the flexural rigidity (bending stiffness) EI and
the axial stiffness EA. Plate structural elements are
rectangular in shape with width equal to 1 m in out-of-plane
direction. Since, the micropiles are circular in cross-section
and placed at designed horizontal spacing, it is necessary to

determine equivalent axial and bending stiffness for the
correct simulation. Fig. 2 shows the plan view of micropiles
arrangements per meter length of excavation.
Estimation of axial and bending stiffness
Fig. 2 plan view-micropiles arrangements per meter length of

excavation
Calculation of EI for equivalent plate element
Moment of Inertia of each pipe section (I1) = (/64) (D14D24) = (/64) (1254-1194)
= 2140539.077 mm4
There are 4 such pipes per meter length, hence moment of
inertia of 4 pipe sections about X-X
= 4 2140539.077 = 8562156.308 mm4
Moment of inertia of each HYSD bar (I2) = (/64) d4 =
(/64) 204 = 7853.981 mm4
There are 4 bars in each pipe and there for total no of bars in
each meter length of wall = 20
Moment of inertia of all the bars (HYSD) about XX axis = 20
7853.981 mm4
=157079.63 mm4
Total moment of inertia of the assemble of 4 pipes and 20
HYSD bars
= 8562156.308 mm4 + 157079.63 mm4 = 8719235.94 mm4
Elastic modulus of steel = 200 109 N/m2
EI value of the pipes and bars = 200 109 N/m2
8719235.94 mm4 = 1743 KN-m2/m
Calculation of EA for equivalent plate element
X-section area of one pipe = (/4) (D12-D22) = (/4)
(1252-1192) = 1149.82 mm2
There are 4 such pipes per meter length, hence x-sectional
area of 4 pipe sections
= 4 1149.82 mm2 = 4599.29 mm2
X-sectional area of each HYSD bar (I2) = (/4) d2 = (/4)
202 = 314.16 mm2
There are 4 bars in each pipe and there for total no of bars in
each meter length of wall = 20
X-sectional area of all the bars (HYSD) = 20 314.16 mm2
= 6283.18 mm2
Total X-sectional area of the assemble of 4 pipes and 20
HYSD bars
= 4599.29 mm2 + 6283.18 mm2 = 10882.48 mm2
Elastic modulus of steel = 200 109 N/m2
EA of the assembly per meter length = 200 109 N/m2
10882.48 mm2 = 2176495.39 KN/m
Amit Srivastava, Pawan Kumar, G. L. Sivakumar Babu

Table 1 Properties of in situ soil mass
Values
Property
Stiffness
50.0 103 kN/m2
E
0.32
Strength
20.0 kN/m2
cref
25
Advanced
Stiffness
10.0 kN/m2/m
Einc
43.0 m
ref
Strength
10.0 kN/m2/m
cinc
43.0 m
ref
The soil properties used in the numerical analysis is provided
in Table 1. Figure 3 shows the deformation contours of 18
meter deep excavation supported with micropiles. It can be
noted that the maximum deformation predicted is 23.41 mm.
Fig. 3 deformation pattern of micropiles supported deep

excavation
The maximum and minimum bending moments in the plate
elements were obtained as 3.773 kNm/m (element 9 at node
1693) and -10.62 kNm/m (element 9 at node 1691),
respectively. The maximum and minimum values of axial
forces were obtained as 0.382 kN/m (element 1 at node 2590)
and -562.4 kN/m (element 9 at node 1691), respectively. The
maximum and minimum values of shear force were obtained
as 13.59 kN/m (element 10 at node 1691) and -67.44 kN/m
(element 9 at node 1691), respectively.
Initially, the stability of the excavation is checked without
micropiles and 200 kPa surcharge load. The factor of safety
value is obtained as 0.325, which is not acceptable as it is less
than 1.0. Hence, stabilization of this deep excavation using
micropiles is essentially required The factor of safety value
for the excavation with support system is evaluated as 1.62,
which is more than the minimum acceptable limit of 1.5.
CONCLUSION
The paper presents the FEM analysis of 18 m deep
excavation, which is stabilized using micropiles. It is
demonstrated through FEM analysis that the safety of deep
excavation with micropiles is considerable improved. To
model micropiles, plate element is utilized and a calculation
procedure is demonstrated to evaluate the equivalent EA and
EI values of plate element representing micropiles
arrangement. The material behaviour is modelled as MohrCoulomb. It is concluded that 18 m deep excavation can be
stabilized with the provision of micropiles with high quality
construction, and good quality control are taken by the field
engineers.
REFERENCES
1. FHWA (1997), Micropile Design and Construction
Guidelines Implementation Manual FHWA-SA-97-070
FHWAs Geotechnical website:
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/geo.htm
2. Abdul Karim Elsalfiti (2011). Skin friction of micropiles
embedded in gravelly soils. MS thesis submitted in the
Department of Building, Civil and Environmental
Engineering, Concordia University, Montreal, Quebec,
Canada.
3. Bruce, D.A., Bruce, M.E.C., and Traylor, R.P. (1999),
High Capacity Micropiles Basic Principals and Case
Histories. GeoEngineering for Underground Facilities.
Proc. of the 3rd National Conference of the Geo-Institute
of the ASCE. Geotechnical Special Publication No. 90,
Urbana-Champaign, IL, June 13-17, pp. 188-199.
4. NHI Micropile Design and Construction course #
132078. http://www.nhi.fhwa.dot.gov
5. Finno, R.J., Atmatzidis, D.K.. and Roboski, J.F. (2007),
Three-dimensional effects for supported excavations in
clay, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering Division,
ASCE, 115(8), 10451064.
6. Griffiths, D.V. and Lane, P.A. (1999), Slope stability
analysis by finite elements, Geotechnique, 49(3), 387403.
7. Matsui, T. and San, K-C. (1992), Finite element slope
stability analysis by shear strength reduction technique,
Soils and Foundations, 32(1), 59-70.
8. Shanz, T., Vermeer, P.A. and Bonnier, P.G. (1999),
Formulation and verification of the Hardening Soil
Model, In proceedings (Editor R.B.J Brinkgreve),
Beyond
2000
in
Computational Geotechnics,
Balkema,Rotterdam, 281-290.
9. Brinkgreve, R.B.J. (2002), Plaxis finite element code for
soil and rock analysis: Manual, Balkema: Rotterdam.
10. Plaxis (2010). Plaxis User Manual, Delft University of
Technology & Plaxis bv The Netherlands.
11. Briaud, J-L and Lim, Y. (1997), Soil nailed wall under
piled bridge abutment: simulation and guidelines,
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, ASCE, 123(11), 1043 1050.

ANN BASED PREDICTION AND SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF CBR VALUES

Sina Borzooei : Graduate student, Department of Civil Engineering, J.N.T.U, Hyderabad
M. R. Madhav: Professor of Civil Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering, J.N.T.U, Hyderabad
V. Padmavathi: Associate Professor of Civil Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering, J.N.T.U., Hyderabad
Srinivasulu S.: Associate Professor of Civil Engineering, Department of Civil Engineering, J.N.T.U., Hyderabad
ABSTRACT: In this paper, Multilayer Feed Forward Back propagation neural network was developed for the prediction of
CBR values using soil index parameters to reduce the amount of CBR testing done in industry. The data set consist of more than
200 series of experimental test results consisting of sieve analysis, liquid limit and plastic limit, OMC and maximum dry unit
weight from modified Proctor compaction tests, and soaked CBR values. The data set was divided in to two subsets, one for
CBR less than 15 and the other for CBR greater than 15. A parametric study was also carried out to evaluate the sensitivity of
CBR values due to the variation of the most influential input parameters.
INTRODUCTION
CBR value is one of the important parameters for the design
of flexible pavement. It is a load-deformation test performed
in the laboratory and/or field and the results are used to
determine the thickness of flexible pavement, base and other
layers for a given loading. Because the test requires large
amounts of material and is time consuming to perform and
considering testing cost and disposal of tested material,
several researchers have tried to find prediction models which
can approximately predict the values of CBR from easily
measurable physical properties of natural soil. Artificial
neural networks have a remarkable quality of learning the
relationship between the input and output data and can solve
many complicated engineering challenges. Goh [1] developed
ANNs for predicting the highly complex liquefaction
potential of soil and Ghaboussi et al. [2] described the
intrinsic constitutive relationships of sand using ANN. In this
paper, two Multilayer Feed Forward Back propagation neural
networks were developed for the prediction of CBR values,

using soil index properties: G (percentage of gravel), S-C
(percentage of coarse sand), S-M (Percentage of medium
sand), S-F (percentage of fine sand), Si-Cl (percentage of silt
and clay), LL (liquid limit), and PL (plastic limit).
GEOTECHNICAL CHARACTERISATION TESTS
For the purpose of this study, more than 222 soaked CBR,
modified Proctor compaction and soil classification tests
were carried out based on ASTM standards for nine different
soil types (CH, CI, SC-SM, SP, SP-SM, SP-SC, GC-GM, SC,
SM) collected from different regions in Hyderabad, (Table 1).
The ranges of various parameters are: CBR: 2-80%; MDD:
1.73 2.28 kN/m3; OMC: 5 16%; LL: 20 62; PL: 0 38;
Fines content: 8 69%; fine sand: 7 46%; medium sand: 3
57%; coarse sand: 3 72%; gravel: 0 71%.
Grain Size Distribution
Atterberg Limits
Modified Proctor
S.No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Gravel
(%)
36
36
13
1
29
C
16
18
13
5
14
Sand (%)
M
24
22
32
35
26
F
11
10
24
30
18
Silt &
Clay (%)
13
14
18
29
13
LL
31
32
25
26
24
PL
22
23
19
19
18
PI
9
9
6
8
6
OMC %
8.5
7.5
7.5
9.5
8
MDD
g/cc
2.07
2.08
2.13
2.03
2.07
Soaked CBR (%)
Table 1 Typical experimental data used in modeling
25
28
42
16
34
Sina Borzooei, M.R.Madhav, V.Padmavathi, Srinivasulu S.
ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS

Artificial neural networks (ANN) are data processing systems.
ANNs have the same network structure as the human brain
consisting of many neurons connected to each other. Each
connection (between neurons) has a weight. For modeling, the
input data records are fed into the network. Through the
modeling process, connections gain in each iteration, adopting
themselves to the input data. MATLAB, a mathematical
computing software having ANN toolbox which has inbuilt
ANN architectures, learning, training functions, was used for
the developing the networks in this study.
DEVELOPING ANN MODEL FOR PRESENT STUDY
In this study two networks are considered for predicting CBR
values less than 15 (114 sets of data) and the other for CBR
greater than 15 (108 sets of data) for total 222 data. As data sets
have in different ranges, to make database acceptable to the
neural network and increase its accuracy, the normalization
process was carried out. For prevention of over fitting, early
stopping, random data Division was used by authors, which in
that the input data randomly is divided so that 60% of the
samples are assigned to the training set, 20% to the validation

set, and 20% to the test set. Because Multi Forward Neural
Network (MFNN) has been found successful in various
engineering problems as a general function approximator,
therefore it is selected as type of network in this study. The
most prevalent and successful learning algorithm, used to train
MFNNs in areas such as function approximation (nonlinear
regression), pattern classification and system modeling is the
Back Propagation (BP) algorithm which is used in this study.
For both networks, the input layer has 9 neurons; each one is
representing an input variable of the problem. The output layer
has only single neuron, which is CBR value. Single hidden layer
is chosen, it has been proven that MFNNs with one hidden layer
can approximate any function in geotechnical engineering
applications effectively (Reference), and number of neurons
located in this layer is determined by trial and error approach to
give the correlation coefficient(R) of training and testing
samples as maximum. The results of this trial and error
procedure for predicting CBR less than 15 and greater than 15,
are
illustrated
in
Figure
1.
Fig.1 Trial and error procedure for networks

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In the present study, correlation coefficient(R), root-meansquare error (RMSE), and mean absolute relative error
(MARE) which each of them describing different aspect of the
developed network, were used to compare the networks and to
evaluate the efficiency of models and for the sensitivity

analysis purpose. Comparison of the predicted CBR values and
the actual CBR values, for training and testing set of data
respectively can be seen in Figures 2 and 3.
A NN Based Prediction and Sensitivity Analysis of CBR Values
Fig.2 Comparison the predicted CBR and its actual values for CBR less than 15 for training and testing data
Fig.3 Comparison the predicted CBR and its actual values for CBR greater than 15 for testing and training data
SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
Sensitivity analysis is a technique used to determine
how different values of an independent variable will impact a
particular dependent variable under a given set of
assumptions. Each of the inputs were increased and
decreased by 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 units and the effect of this change
were evaluated by studying and recording percentage of
change in R, RMSE and MARE .By referring to this
changing percentage, the input variables can be ranked for

their contribution to the output. The results are presented for
for both networks in Figures 4 and 5.
Sina Borzooei, M.R.Madhav, V.Padmavathi, Srinivasulu S.
Fig.4 Result of 1% change in inputs in term of correlation coefficient for network with CBR less than 15
Fig.5 Result of 1% change in inputs in term of correlation coefficient for network with CBR greater than 15
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
A new approach was presented to predict CBR based on
some physical properties of soils. Two separate Feed
Forward Back propagation networks were developed to
predict the compaction properties of the soil using more than
200 sets of data consist of sieve analysis results and
Atterberg limits. Comparisons with the experimental results
indicated that the accuracy of the developed models is
satisfactory. It was observed that for predicting CBR values
less than 15, the best results were obtained from a network
with one hidden layer and ten Hidden Neurons with
R=0.9831, RMSE=0.6242, MARE=0.1089 and for predicting
the CBR value greater than 15, the network with one hidden
layer and seven Hidden Neurons with R = 0.9971, RMSE =
1.2154, MARE = 0.0313 indicates good accuracy.
A parametric study was also carried out to evaluate the
sensitivity of CBR values due to the variation of the most
influential input parameters. Based on the analysis carried out

and the model developed, it was concluded that the most
significant parameter in predicting CBR values less than 15 is
Liquid Limit, followed by Plastic Limit, fine sand percentage
in that order and the most effective parameters in predicting
CBR value greater than 15 is MDD followed by OMC and
silt and clay and fine sand percentage.
REFERENCES
1. Ghaboussi, J., Garrett, Jr J.H. and Wu, X. (1991).
Knowledge-based modeling of material behavior with neural
networks. J. Engrg. Mech., ASCE, 117(1):132-53.
2. Goh, A.T.C. (1994). Seismic liquefaction potential
assessed by neural network. J. Geot. Engrg, ASCE,
120(9):1467-1480.

December 13-15,2012, Delhi (Paper No. F608)
ANALYSIS OF NEARBY RIGID STRIP FOOTINGS ON ELASTIC SOIL BED SUBJECTED TO

INCLINED LOAD
L. S. Nainegali, Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT-Kanpur, India, kumarsn@iitk.ac.in
P. K. Basudhar, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT-Kanpur, India, pkbd@iitk.ac.in
P. Ghosh, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT-Kanpur, India, priyog@iitk.ac.in
ABSTRACT: Using finite element analysis, an attempt has been made to study the settlement and rotational characteristics of
two closely spaced rigid strip footings subjected to inclined loading and resting on the surface of a homogeneous, isotropic
soil-foundation treating it as a semi infinite linearly elastic half space. Parametric study is made by varying the clear spacing
between the two footings of identical width and the angle of inclination of the respective footing load. The results are presented
in terms of efficiency factors defined as the ratio of settlement/rotation of interfering footings to that of an isolated footing. It is
observed interference has a significant effect on settlement and rotation of the footings in comparison to that of an isolated one.
INTRODUCTION
Analysis of bearing capacity and settlement of isolated
shallow foundations is one of the widely studied fields of
geotechnical engineering. However, very often foundations
are laid in close proximity owing to structural and functional
requirements. In such situations the stress isobars of
individual footings may overlap and interfere with each other
affecting the behaviour of the footings in the group in
comparison to that of an isolated footing. Stuart, 1962 [1] in
his pioneering work studied the effect of interference on the
ultimate bearing capacity (UBC) of strip footings resting on
sand using limit equilibrium method. Numerical methods like
method of stress characteristic, upper bound limit analysis,
finite difference program, and finite element analysis have
been used as well by many researchers [2-11] to study the
interference phenomenon; moreover experimental studies
were conducted [12-20]. Most of the studies reported in
literature [1-20] on the interference of footings are for
vertical loads only. However, footings are generally acted
upon by both horizontal and vertical loads, the resultant being
inclined. Therefore in the present study of interference effect
on settlement and rotational characteristics of rigid strip
footings is taken up as a part of an ongoing investigation.
PROBLEM DEFINATION
Two rigid strip footings of identical width (B) designated as
left (BL) and right footing (BR) and closely placed at a clear
spacing (S) rest on the surface of soil-foundation considering
it to be homogeneous, isotropic and semi infinite linearly
elastic half space. The two footings (left and right) are
subjected to inclined load, P at an inclination of L and R
respectively. The footings with the loads are shown in Fig. 1.
The vertical settlement and the rotation of the footings under
such circumstance are to be predicted. The influence of
different parameters such as spacing between the footings,
inclination of the loads on the response of the footings are to
be estimated considering the interference effect. Therefore,
parametric study is made by varying these parameters
presenting the results in terms of efficiency factors for
rotation and settlement as given in Eq. 1 and Eq. 2

respectively wherein a, b stands for left and right footing.
Fig. 1 Problem definition sketch

IL =
Rotation of left footing owing to interference

Rotation of isolated footing of width, load inclination as of
left footing
IR =
Rotation of isolated footing of width, load inclination as of

right footing
L =
(1b)
Maximum settlement of left footing owing to interference

Maximum settlement of isolated footing of width,
load inclination as of left footing
R =
(1a)
Rotation of right footing owing to interference
(2a)
Maximum settlement of right footing owing to interference

Maximum settlement of isolated footing of width,
load inclination as of right footing
(2b)
ANALYSIS
As the length of the strip footing is very large with respect to
its width, the problem is one of plane strain. As such, 2-D
finite element analysis is carried out developing an object
oriented computer program (in Matlab2008a) to predict the
response of the footings under inclined loads.
Selection of Finite Element Mesh and Domain Size
Plane strain finite element formulation of elasticity problems
can be found in any standard finite element book [21] and
L. S. Nainegali, P. K. Basudhar, P. Ghosh
therefore not detailed here for reasons of space and brevity.

The footings considered are geometrically symmetrical but
the combinations of loads and inclinations (excluding case-2
and case-3) are unsymmetrical. As such, a domain that
includes both the footings as shown in Fig. 2 is considered
for the analysis and discretized by a number of 4-noded
isoperimetric elements. With reference to [22] suitable
boundary conditions are assigned at the far ends of the
foundation soil. Along the vertical boundaries AB and CD
(being very far off from the applied loads), the horizontal
displacement is considered to be zero (u = 0), but allowance
has been provided for possible vertical displacement (v)
however small it may be. At the bottom of the soil domain
(along BD being at a great depth) displacements along both
the horizontal and vertical directions are restricted to zero (u
= v = 0).
Finite element analysis results are greatly influenced by the
element size and the soil domain. To study this aspect
sensitivity analysis is conducted varying the element size and
the distance of the far ends of the soil domain. It has been
found that the far ends in X and Z direction if considered at a
distance of 10 times the width of the footing from outer edge
of both footings respectively, the influence of far ends on the
computed results are insignificant. Similarly if the depth of
soil domain is taken to be very large with respect to the width
of the footings (15 time the width), the results are not affected
and for all practical purpose it may be considered to be at
infinite depth. Rectangular elements of uniform size of 0.25
m are taken up in soil domain EFHG and in rest of the
domain element size is increased by an aspect ratio of 1.2.
The variation of load inclination (which is never greater than
1800) leads to combinations as follows. Rotation is defined as
the ratio of differential settlement between the respective
footing edges to that of its width. Rotation is clockwise when
the load inclination is less than 900and is anticlockwise for
inclination greater than 900.
1. = L = R (ex. = 300)
2. L < 900 and R > 900 (ex. L = 300 and R = 1500)
3. L > 900 and R < 900 (ex. L = 1500 and R = 300)
4. L = 900 and R < 900 (ex. L = 900 and R = 300)
5. L = 900 and R > 900 (ex. L = 900 and R = 1500)
Results were obtained with Youngs modulus, E = 30 MPa,

Poisons ratio, = 0.3 and width of footing, B = 1 m. The
correctness of the developed computer program has been
validated with the standard problem from [23] and the results
are found to be within the acceptable range of 8-10% error.
This difference is possibly due to the approximations
involved in considering the size of the domain, its
discretization and difference in the computer model. The
details of the study are not presented here.
The variations of efficiency factors for rotation and
settlement characteristic with clear spacing ratio (S/B) for
case-1 are presented in Fig. 3a and Fig. 3b respectively. It is
observed from Fig. 3a that with increase in S/B ratio
efficiency factor, IL decreases where as IR increases; this
signifies that in the zone of interference, rotation of left
footing is higher compared to that of the right footing; as both
the footings undergo clockwise rotation, the rotation of left
footing is magnified by the presence of the right footing and
the percentage difference between left and right footing at
S/B = 0.5 is about 40% compared with that of left footing.
Fig. 3b shows that the efficiency factors of settlement, L and
R are roughly identical and decreases with increase in S/B
ratio. The settlement of interfering footings decreases with
increase in spacing as has been observed by [11]. At higher
spacing efficiency factors attains a value equal to one
wherein the interfering footings act as an isolated footing.
The percentage difference in maximum settlement of left
footing between S/B ratio equals to 0.5 and 14 compared with
S/B = 0.5 is about 25%.
For case-2 and 3, the footing geometry and loading condition
are mirror image representing the symmetry in the two
footings. However for the analysis whole footing and soil
domain is considered and it is observed that the rotation
magnitude and settlement of left and right footing are
identical. Therefore the rotation and settlement efficiency
factors of the two footings will also be identical. For the same
Fig. 4a,b shows the variation of efficiency factors of rotation
and maximum settlement respectively with respect to S/B
ratio. It is noted that for case-2 both the efficiency factors (IL
= IR and L = R) decreases with increase in clear spacing
ratio.
Fig. 2 Footings, foundation soil domain with boundary conditions
Analysis of nearby rigid strip footings on elastic soil bed subjected to inclined load
However for case-3 with increase in S/B ratio, the rotational

efficiency factor (IL = IR) increases and settlement efficiency
factor (L = R) decreases and attains a value equal to one. For
case-2, maximum rotation and settlement of the footings
occurs compared with those for case-3. This may be due to
the reason that, in case-2 the inclination of load on left and
right footings are such that their effect on the rotations and
settlement at any point especially along the central axis are
additive. But in case-3 their individual effects try to nullify
each other depending on the magnitude of the force and its
inclination. Therefore S/B required for the two footing to
behave as isolated footings is higher for case-2 than for case3. At S/B = 0.5, the percentage difference between case-2 and
3 compared with case-2 for rotational and settlement
efficiency factors are 35% and 16% respectively.
Fig. 3a Variation of efficiency factors, IL and IR with S/B for

case-1
Fig. 4b Variation of efficiency factors, L and R with S/B for

case-2 and case-3
Figure 5a show the variation of rotational efficiency factor of
right footing with that of clear spacing ratio for case-4 and
case-5. Though the left footing is vertically loaded due to
interference from the right footing some rotation is observed
however for isolated footing loaded vertically, the settlement
is uniform (zero rotation). As such, rotational efficiency
factor of left footing from Eq. 1 cannot be calculated and not
presented here. It is seen from the Fig. 5a that with increase
in S/B ratio, IR increases for case-4 and decreases for case-5
and both footings act as isolated at certain spacing at which IR
= 1. In case-4, right footing will be having clockwise rotation
(R < 900) which drives the soil towards the left footing
however this is resisted by the left footing. Henceforth less
rotation is observed in zone of interference for case-4 and
vice versa in case-5 and the percentage decrease in rotation of
right footing for case-4 compared with case-5 is about 64% at
S/B = 0.5.

case-1
Fig. 5a Variation of efficiency factor, IR with S/B for case-4
and case-5
Fig. 4a Variation of efficiency factors, IL and IR with S/B for

case-2 and case-3

case-4 and case-5
L. S. Nainegali, P. K. Basudhar, P. Ghosh
Similarly the variation of settlement efficiency factors of left

and right footings with clear spacing for case-4 and case-5
are presented in Fig. 5b and it can be observed that both L
and R decreases with increase in S/B ratio and attains a
constant value equal to one at higher spacing at which the
footings can be considered isolated. In the zone of
interference at a particular S/B, the settlement efficiency
factors of case-5 are higher than that of case-4. In case-5 the
right footing will be having anticlockwise rotation (R > 900),
this derives the foundation soil outward of right footing
wherein no resistance is offered and load inclination on right
footing is such that it adds effect of interference on
settlement. However in case-4 it is vice versa, right footing
will be having clockwise rotation which derives the
foundation soil towards left footing and the presence of left
footing resists the same and load inclination is such that it
nullifies the settlement due to interference. Henceforth
efficiency factors in case-5 are higher signifying higher
rotation and settlement compared with case-4.
7.
In general on the whole the clear spacing ratio required for

the two footings to be isolated is between 10 and 12 for all
the cases considered in the analysis.
12.
8.
9.
10.
11.
13.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results and discussions as presented above the
following conclusions are drawn. Settlement of the two
interfering footings is higher compared with that of an
isolated footing. For all possible inclinations of the load as
considered, settlement efficiency factors decrease with
increase in the clear spacing between the footings. The
rotational efficiency factors (for left or right footing),
increases with increase in clear spacing between footings if
the rotation of footing is such that it is resisted by the
presence of other footing and vice versa if rotation is not
resisted. The two footings act as isolated footings when the
clear spacing ratio between them is greater than 10 to 12.
REFERENCES
1. Stuart, J.G. (1962), Interference between foundations
with special reference to surface footings in sand,
Geotechnique, 12(1), 15-23.
2. Graham, J., Raymond, G.P., and Suppiah, A. (1984),
Bearing capacity of three closely-spaced footings on
sand, Geotechnique, 34(2), 173-182.
3. Kumar, J., and Ghosh, P. (2007), Ultimate bearing
capacity of two interfering rough strip footings, Int. J.
Geomech., 7(1), 53-61.
4. Kumar, J., and Ghosh, P. (2007), Upper bound limit
analysis for finding interference effect of two nearby
strip footings on sand, Geotech. Geol. Eng., 25, 499-507.
5. Kumar, J., and Kouzer, K.M. (2007), Bearing capacity of
two interfering footings, Int. J. Num. Analyt. Methods in
Geomech., 32, 251-264.
6. Kouzer, K.M., and Kumar, J. (2010), Ultimate bearing
capacity of a footing considering the interference of an
existing footing on sand, Geotech. Geol. Eng., 28(4),
457-470.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
Kumar, J., and Bhattacharya, P. (2010), Bearing capacity

of interfering multiple strip footings by using lower
bound finite elements limit analysis, Computers and
Geotechnics, 37, 731-736.
Lee, J., Eun, J., Prezzi, M., and Salgado, R. (2008),
Strain influence diagrams for settlement estimation of
both isolated and multiple footings in sand, J. Geotech.
Geoenviron. Eng., 134(4), 417-427.
Mabrouki, A., Benmeddour, D., Frank, R., and Mellas,
M. (2010), Numerical study of the bearing capacity for
two interfering strip footings on sands, Computers and
Geotechnics, 37(4), 431-439.
Nainegali, L.S., and Basudhar, P.K. (2011), Interference
of two closely spaced footings: A finite element
modeling, ASCE Geotechnical Special Publiactions,
Geo-forntiers: Advances in Geotechnical Engineering,
Dallas, Tx.
Ghosh, P., and Sharma, A., (2010), Interference effect of
two nearby strip footings on layered soil: theory of
elasticity approach, Acta geotechnica, 5, 189-198.
Das, B.M., and Larbi-Cherif, S. (1983), Bearing capacity
of two closely-spaced shallow foundations on sand, Soils
and Foundations, 23(1), 1-7.
Das, B.M., Puri, V.K., and Neo, B.K. (1993),
Interference effects between two surface footings on
layered soil, Transportation Research Record, 1406, pp.
34-40.
Deshmukh, A.M., (1979), Interaction of different types
of footings on sand, Indian Geotech. J., 8, 193-204.
Khing, K.H., et al. (1992), Interference effect of two
closely spaced shallow strip foundations on geogrid
reinforced sand, Geotech. Geol. Eng., 10, 257-271.
Kumar, J., and Bhoi, M.K. (2008), Interference of
multiple strip footings on sand using small scale model
tests, Geotech. Geol. Eng., 26, 469-477.
Singh, A., Punmia, B.C., and Ohri, M.L. (1973),
Interference between adjacent square footings on
cohesionless soil, Indian Geotech. J., 3(4), 275-284.
Selvadurai, A.P.S., and Rabbaa, S.A.A. (1983), Some
experimental studies concerning the contact stresses
beneath interfering rigid foundations resting on a
granular stratum, Can. Geotech. J., 20, 406-415.
Saran, S., and Agarwal V.C. (1974), Interference of
surface footings in sand, Indian Geotech. J., 4(2), 129139.
West, J.M., and Stuart, J.G. (1965), Oblique loading
resulting from interference between surface footings on
sand, Proc. 6th Int. Conf. Soil Mechanics, Montreal, 2,
214-217.
Bathe, K.J. (1996), Finite element procedures, PrenticeHall, New-Jersey.
Potts, D.M., and Zdravkovic, L. (1999), Finite element
analysis in geotechnical engineering, Thomas Telford
Publications, London.
Desai, C.S., and Abel, J.H. (1972), Introduction to the
finite element method: A numerical method for
engineering analysis, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New
York.

December 13-15, 2012,Delhi (Paper No. F-609)
LOAD BEARING CAPACITY OF A FOOTING RESTING ON THE REINFORCED FLY ASH

SLOPE
K.S. Gill, Associate Professor, Deptt. of Civil Engg., GNDEC Ludhiana, India, kulbirgillkulbir@yahoo.co.in
A.K. Choudhary, Associate Professor, Deptt. of Civil Engg., NIT Jamshedpur, India, drakchoudharycivil@gmail.com
J.N. Jha, Professor and Head, Deptt. of Civil Engg., GNDEC Ludhiana, India, jagdanand@gmail.com
S.K. Shukla, Associate Professor and Program Leader, School of Engineering, ECU, Australia, s.shukla@ecu.edu.au
ABSTRACT: In several parts of the world, the disposal of waste materials like fly ash is a great problem. The application of
fly ash as structural fills in foundations is one of the best solutions to disposal problems, because wastes can be used in large
volumes. There may be difficulty due to poor load-bearing capacity of fly ash, especially when footings are rested on the top
of the fly ash fill slope; but inclusion of polymeric reinforcements as horizontal sheets within the fill may be one of the most
viable solutions for improving the load-bearing capacity of reinforced fly ash slope. The aim of present investigation is to find
out the efficacy of a single layer of reinforcement in improving the load-bearing capacity when incorporated within the fly ash
embankment slope. Increase in load-bearing capacity of reinforced slope was found in the laboratory with varying embedment
depth and edge distance of footing from slope crest. The experimental results were compared with numerical results obtained
by using commercial software PLAXIS version 9.0.
INTRODUCTION
Use of geosynthetic reinforcements for improving loadbearing capacity of foundation has been extensively reported
in literature. In reality, there are many situations when
foundations need to be located either on the top of a slope or
on the slope itself: For example, foundations of bridge
abutments and the foundations constructed on hill slopes.
When a footing is constructed on a sloping ground, the
bearing capacity of the footing may be significantly reduced
depending upon the location of the footing with respect to
slope. One of the possible solutions for improving the bearing
capacity would be to reinforce the sloped fill with geogrid
layers. Another problem, which civil engineers are facing, is
the decreasing availability of good construction sites and it
has led to the increased use of low-lying areas filled up with
borrow soil. In several parts of the world, the disposal of
waste materials like fly ash is a great problem and requires a
large land area. Acquiring open lands for disposal in
developing countries like India is difficult due to small landto- population ratio. In the areas of thermal power plants as
well as in near-by areas, the fly ash fill can be used to elevate
the foundation level of footings in low-lying areas. Fly ash
when used as structural fills or as embankments offers several
advantages over borrow soils. It is light in weight, and exerts
a low pressure on subgrade as a fill material: a well
compacted embankment made of fly ash would exert only
50% of the pressure on a soft subgrade as a fill of equivalent
height using coarse granular material. Additionally,
construction with fly ash is less sensitive to compactionmoisture content than that of the fine grained soils commonly
used in structural fill. Fly ash being non-plastic will also
solve the problem of dimensional instability as exhibited by
plastic soils. Further properties of fly ash from a given source
are likely to be more consistent as compared to the soil from
natural borrow areas [1]. Despite having several advantages,
there may be difficulty in constructing a stable structure on

fly ash fill due to poor load-bearing capacity of ash,
especially when footings are rested on the top of the fly ash
fill slope. An inclusion of polymeric reinforcements as
horizontal sheets within the fill may be one of the most viable
solutions for improving the load-bearing capacity of
reinforced fly ash slope. Some experimental studies on load
carrying capacity behavior of footing resting on a reinforced
fly ash slopes are available in the literature [1-5]. In recent
past, numerical analyses such as finite difference and finite
element method (FEM) have become popular in design
practices. Some preliminary studies based on FEM have been
attempted and reported in literature [6-10]. However despite
many attempts, no obvious method for determination of
ultimate bearing capacity of strip footing resting on
reinforced slope is available and therefore much investigation
still remains to be carried out. In view of limited information
available on this aspect in the literature, the aim of present
investigation is to find out the efficacy of single layer
reinforcement in improving the load-bearing capacity when
incorporated in a fly ash embankment slope. For this purpose,
laboratory model tests were carried out by varying the
embedment depth from the top and edge distance from slope
crest. A numerical analysis was also conducted using the
PLAXIS software (version 9.0) to verify the model test
results. Table 1 gives the variables of the investigation.
Table 1. Variables of the investigation
Variables (Laboratory test and numerical analysis)
Type of test
Constant
Variable parameter
parameter
Reinforced
B = 100 mm z /B =0.25, 0.50, 1.0, 1.5,
slope
N=1
2.0, 2.50, 3.0
= 45
De /B = 1.0,2.0,3.0
Lr = 7B
Gill, Choudhary, Jha and Shukla
LABORATORY MODEL TEST

Fly ash procured from the Tata Iron and Steel Company
Limited (TISCO), Jamshedpur, was used in the investigation.
The properties of fly ash were: 68% silt, 28% sand,
maximum dry unit weight 9.34 kN/m3, optimum moisture
content (OMC) 48%, apparent cohesion (c) 20 kPa and angle
of internal friction () 14. Commercially available
polypropylene model geogrids (0.27 mm thick and 300 mm
wide) having an average tensile strength (EA) of 4.0 kN/m
and tie-soil friction angle () equal to 35 were used as
reinforcing elements. A series of plain strain model tests were
conducted on unreinforced and reinforced fly ash model
slopes. The experimental set up and test procedure is
available in detail in literature [1]. The geometry of the test
configuration has been shown in Fig. 1.
NUMERICAL APPROACH
A series of two dimensional finite element analysis (FEA)
using the PLAXIS software (version 9.0) were performed.
Mohr-Coulomb model theory was applied for numerical
analysis on reinforced fly ash slope in order to verify the
laboratory model test results. The PLAXIS
bearing pressure of the footing increases with an increase in

Table 2. Parameters used in numerical analysis
Parameters
Fly ash
unsat [kN/m]
13.82
Eref [kN/m]
8000.000
0.380
Gref [kN/m]
2900.000
Eoed [kN/m]
14976
cref [kN/m]
20
14
[]
0.0
Rinter
0.55
Interface permeability
Neutral
Parameters
Wooden footing
EA [kN/m]
88200.00
EI [kNm2/m
36.01
Mp [kNm/m]
1E15
Np [kNm/m]
1E15
Parameters
Geogrid
EA [kN/m]
4.0
Load
Side wall of test tank
Footing
750mm
Reinforcement
Soil slope
compacted fly ash
Slope angle
Bed of test
tank
Fig. 1 Schematic view of the test configuration
Fig. 2 Slope geometry, generated mesh and boundary

condition
software (version 9.0) allows automatic generation of 15

node triangle plane strain elements for the soil. The
parameters used for numerical analysis is well defined in
PLAXIS manual and depicted in Table 2. Figure 2 show a
typical deformed mesh for a reinforced case at an optimum
condition indicating slope geometry and boundary condition.
Plastic points for reinforced cases are shown through Figure
3-5 when the edge distance (De) of the footing is equal to
footing width (B), slope angle () equal to 45and embedment
depths (z) are 0.25B, 0.75B and 3.0B respectively.
The comparison of experimental and numerical results has
been shown through Figures 6-9. A typical variation of
pressure and settlement ratio with and without soil
reinforcement at different embedment depth (z/B) is
presented in Figure 6. In this series, all the tests were
performed on a 100 mm wide footing placed at an edge
distance; De = 1.0B from the slope crest at slope angle =
45. It can be seen in Figure 6 that the ultimate embedment
depth (z) up to certain value and thereafter any further
increase in z does not enhance the ultimate bearing
Fig. 3 Plastic points for reinforced case (z/B=0.25)

capacity of the footing. The experimental results are also in
good agreement with findings of numerical analysis. In
Figure 7, it is clear that maximum improvement in bearing
capacity ratio (BCR) occurs when embedment ratio (z/B) is
equal to 1.0 for both experimental and numerical studies. Any
further increase in z/B ratio results in a decrease in BCR.
Load bearing capacity of a footing resting on the reinforced flyash slope
[Figure 3]. But when the reinforcement is placed at a higher

depth (z/B = 3.0), the plastic failure zones do not extend
Fig. 7 Bearing capacity ratio vs embedment ratio
Fig. 8 Experimental vs numerical bearing capacity ratio
Fig. 6 Comparison of experimental and numerical results

Bearing capacity ratio (BCR = qR/qo) is defined as the ratio of
the footing ultimate pressure for reinforced slope (qR) to the
footing ultimate pressure for the corresponding unreinforced
slope (qo). The results from finite element analysis also
confirm this and the mechanism can be explained through
Figures 3-5. When the reinforcement layer is placed at a very
shallow depth (z/B = 0.25), the overburden pressure on the
geogrid layer is inadequate in offering the necessary
anchorage resistance to the geogrid against pullout force
Fig. 9 Variation of ultimate bearing capacity with EDR
much below the reinforcement layer. The shear failure of soil

takes place above the reinforcement layer, thus rendering it
ineffective [Figure 5]. However when reinforcement lies
Gill, Choudhary, Jha and Shukla
between 0.5 to 1.0 (z/B = 0.75), the reinforcement enables

much better load distribution over a larger area below the
reinforced zone, and a more adequate anchorage resistance
can be mobilized under the higher overburden pressure
[Figure 4]. It would appear that the plane of reinforcement
acts as a plane of weakness. This load-transfer mechanism
seems to reach the optimum when embedment ratio (z/B) is
approximately 1.0. From Figure 7, it can also be inferred that
the location of the geogrid layer at a depth greater than 2 to
2.5 times the footing width does not lead to any significant
improvement in the load-carrying capacity. Figure 8 shows a
comparison of experimental and numerical bearing capacity
ratios. From the figure it can be observed that the
experimental BCR coincides closely with the numerical
BCR. This consistency provides some confidence in the
reliability of the results obtained from model test. The trend
line is also shown in Figure 8. Similar results were obtained
for other edge distance too. Figure 9 shows a variation of the
ultimate bearing capacity (UBC) with respect to the edge
distance ratio (EDR) when both N and z/B are equal to 1.0. In
this figure experimental and analytical results have also been
plotted for a comparison. The trends of variation shown by
analytical and experimental results are similar. In general, the
ultimate bearing capacity of footing increases with an
increase in edge distance from the slope crest for all the cases
of slopes considered in the present investigation. This change
in bearing capacity of footing with its location relative to the
slope crest may be due to the passive resistance of soil
offered by the reinforcement from the slope side. It can be
noticed through Figures 7-9 that the experimental value
obtained from model tests coincides closely with the
numerical value obtained from the PLAXIS, thus confirming
the validity of numerical analysis.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions may be drawn from the present
study and are applicable to the situations considered here
only.
1. Fly ash can be used effectively as an embankment fill.
2. The insertion of a geogrid reinforcement layer at a
suitable location within the slope fill considerably
improves the load carrying capacity of footing located on
such slopes. The bearing capacity ratio initially increases
with an increase in embedment ratio up to z/B =1.0 and
thereafter it decreases irrespective of the edge distance of
the footing from the slope crest.
3. The location of the single geogrid layer at a depth
greater than 2.5 times the footing width does not
improve the load-carrying capacity significantly.
4. The edge distance has a significant effect on the loadcarrying capacity of unreinforced and reinforced fly ash
slopes. In the present study the improvement was
significant up to 3B.
5. Experimental observations are found to be in good
agreement with numerical results.
REFERENCES
1. Choudhary, A.K., Jha, J.N. and Gill, K.S. (2010),
Laboratory investigation of bearing capacity behavior of
strip footing on reinforced fly ash slope, Geotextiles and
Geomembranes, 28(4), 393-402.
2. Choudhary, A.K. and Verma, B.P. (1999), Stability of
loaded footings on reinforced fly ash slopes,
Proceeding, Indian Geotechnical Conference,145-147
3. Choudhary, A.K. and Verma, B.P. (2000), Footings on
reinforced sloped fills, Proceeding, Indian Geotechnical
Conference, 331-332
4. Choudhary, A.K. and Verma, B.P. (2001), Analysis of
footings behaviour on reinforced sloped fills,
Proceeding, Indian Geotechnical Conference, 227-230
5. Choudhary, A.K., Verma, B.P. (2001), Behavior of
footing on reinforced sloped fill, Proceedings,
International Conference on Landmarks in Earth
Reinforcement, Japan, 535-539.
6. Jha, J.N., Choudhary, A.K. and Gill, K.S. (2010),
Stability of strip footing on reinforced fly ash slope,
Proceeding,
6th
International
Congress
on
Environmental Geotechnics, 2, 1160-1165.
7. Gill, K.S., Choudhary, A.K., Jha, J.N. and Shukla, S.K.
(2011), Load bearing capacity of the footing resting on a
reinforced flyash slope, Proceedings, International
Conference on Advances in Geotechnical
Engineering (ICAGE), Perth, Australia, 531-536.
(2011), Load bearing capacity of the footing resting on a
multilayer reinforced flyash slope, Proceeding, Indian
Geotechnical Conference, Vol. II, 819-822
9. Gill, K.S., Kaur, A., Choudhary, A.K., and Jha J.N.
(2011), Numerical study of footing on single layer
reinforced slope, Proceeding, Indian Geotechnical
Conference, Vol. II, 839-842
(2012) Load bearing capacity of the footing resting on
the flyash slope with multilayer reinforcements,
Proceedings of GeoCongress, Oakland, USA, 42624271

December 13-15, 2012, Delhi (Paper No. F610)
ESTIMATION OF FIELD COMPACTION PARAMETERS

S.K. Shukla, Associate Professor & Program Leader, School of Engineering, ECU, Perth, WA, s.shukla@ecu.edu.au
J.N. Jha, Professor & Head, Deptt. of Civil Engg., GNDEC Ludhiana, India, jagdanand@gmail.com
K.S. Gill, Associate Professor, Deptt. of Civil Engg., GNDEC Ludhiana, India, kulbirgillkulbir@yahoo.co.in
A.K. Choudhary, Associate Professor, Deptt. of Civil Engg., NIT Jamshedpur, India, drakchoudharycivil@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: This paper describes the current Indian and Australian practices of the estimation of field compaction
parameters (maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture content) based on the laboratory compaction tests, which do not
consider large-size particles of the field soil samples. The study indicates that in the absence of realistic estimation procedure,
some pavements have failed due to the excessive settlement. A detailed derivation of improved expressions for determining the
field compaction parameters is presented. The improved expressions would be useful for the pavements and earthworks and for
developing the standards on the compaction tests for the field applications.
INTRODUCTION
In the laboratory, the compaction test is generally performed
to obtain the values of compaction test parameters, namely
the optimum moisture content and the maximum dry unit
weight, which are required for achieving maximum
densification of the soil in field with a given compaction
energy per unit volume of the soil. In most compaction test
procedures, depending on the size of the compaction mould, a
fraction of the soil sample having particle size larger than a
specific value, say d0, is discarded. For example, in the
standard Proctor compaction test, the soil particles coarser
than 19 mm are discarded before compacting soil in the
standard laboratory compaction mould [1-4]. If the fraction
removed is significant, the laboratory optimum moisture
content and the maximum dry unit weight determined for the
remaining soil are not directly comparable with the field
values. This paper describes the current Indian and Australian
practices of the estimation of field compaction parameters
based on the laboratory compaction tests. Additionally a
detailed derivation of improved expressions for determining
the field compaction parameters is presented for the field
applications.
CURRENT PRACTICES IN INDIA AND AUSTRALIA
The pavement subbase and base materials consist of natural
sand, moorum, gravel, crushed stone, or a combination
thereof depending upon the grading required as per the field
requirements. Materials like crushed slag, crushed concrete,
brick and kankar are also used as subbase and base materials,
especially in rural roads. The Ministry of Road Transport and
Highways of the Government of India recommends three
gradings of subbase materials with soil particle size varying
from less than 75 m to 75 mm [5]. The compaction of
subbase/base materials is recommended to be done by rollers;
the rolling should be continued till the dry unit weight
achieved is at least 98% of the maximum dry unit weight for
the material determined as per IS2720 (Part 8) [2]. It is
important to note that IS2720 (Part 8) [2] does not allow
particles larger than 19 mm. It is stated that the removal of
small amounts of particles (up to 5%) retained on the 19 mm
sieve will affect the density only by amounts comparable

with the experimental error involved in measuring the
maximum dry unit weight. However, the exclusion of a large
proportion of particles coarser than 19 mm may have a major
effect on the unit weight and the optimum moisture content
obtained compared with that obtainable with field soil as a
whole. There is at present no generally accepted method of
test calculation for dealing with this difficulty in comparing
laboratory compaction test results with those obtained in
field. For soils containing larger proportions of particles
larger than 19 mm, but up to 37.5 mm, the use of a bigger
mould (2250 ml) may avoid major errors.
According the Australian Practice [3-4], the laboratory
compaction is conducted over a range of moisture content to
establish the maximum mass of dry soil per unit volume
achievable for a standard compactive effort (596/2703 kJ/m3)
and its corresponding moisture content. The compaction
procedure is applicable to that portion of a soil that passes the
37.5 mm sieve. Soil that passes the 19 mm sieve is
compacted in a 105 mm diameter compaction mould. Soil
that contains more than 20% of material retained on the 19
mm sieve is compacted in a 152 mm diameter mould.
Corrections for oversize material (not more than 20% of
material, on a wet basis, retained on the 37.5 mm sieve) are
made in accordance with AS1289.5.4.1-2007 [6]. The field
maximum dry unit weight and field moisture content are
calculated from the following equations [6]:
dF
(1 p ) +
dL
p
Gc w
(1)
and
wF = (1 p) wL
(2)
Shukla, Jha, Gill and Choudhary
where, dF is the field value of maximum dry unit weight;

dL is the laboratory value of maximum dry unit weight; p
is the percentage of coarser fraction (larger than d0) discarded
from the soil; Gc is the specific gravity of discarded coarser
soil particles; w is the unit weight of water; wF is the field
value of optimum moisture content; and wL is the laboratory
value of optimum moisture content.
Eqs. (1) and (2) were presented by Hausmann [7] assuming
the coarse fraction (larger than d0) to be dry and no change in
the volume of pore air after removal of the coarse fraction.
These assumptions cannot always be appropriate for the field
applications of Eqs. (1) and (2). Hausmann has stated that
assuming zero moisture in the coarse fraction may lead to
overestimating the field dry unit weight, which may not be
desirable.
The details presented here clearly show that there is currently
no realistic procedure for calculating the field values of
compaction test parameters, especially when the oversize
materials consists of a significant part of the soil to be
compacted in field. The inaccurate estimation of field
compaction parameters has probably been one of the major
causes of pavement settlement failures in some roads. Fig. 1
shows a typical failure of a very long section of the newly
constructed bituminous pavement of the National Highway
(NH) No. 2 in Varanasi during 2007 2008.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2 Phase diagrams: (a) the field compacted sample and
(b) the laboratory compacted sample [8]
Fig. 1 A typical pavement settlement failure of the NH-2,

Varanasi
PROPOSED EXPRESSIONS
Figure 2 shows the phase diagrams for the field and the
laboratory compacted soil samples. In Fig. 2, in addition to
the weights and volumes of the three phases, unit weights are
also shown beneath the phase labels. When the coarser
fraction, larger than size d0 (e.g. 19 mm), is removed, it also
takes away some water associated with its water content. In
addition, there is also possibility of some change in the air
void volume when the soil is compacted without this coarse
fraction. All these are reflected in Fig. 2.
In the context of Fig. 2, in addition to the notations defined

in the previous section, notations are defined as follows: Gf is
the specific gravity of the fine soil particles (smaller than d0)
in the field/laboratory soil sample; Va is the volume of the air
in voids of the field soil sample; VF is the total volume of
field soil sample; VL is the total volume of the laboratory soil
sample; wc is the water content of the coarse soil particles in
the field soil sample, Ws is the weight of the soil particles in
the field sample; Wwc is the weight of the water with coarse
soil particles in the field soil sample; Wwf is the weight of the
water with fine soil particles in the field/laboratory soil
sample; is the ratio of volume of the air in voids of the
laboratory sample to that in the field soil sample, ( Gc w ) is the
unit weight of the coarser fraction of soil particles in the field
Estimation of field compaction parameters
soil sample; and ( G f w ) is the unit weight of the finer

fraction of soil particles in the field/laboratory soil sample
From Fig. 1(b), the laboratory dry unit weight and the water
content can be obtained as
dL =
(1 p)Ws
VL
Wwf
(4)
(1 p )Ws
W
= s
VF
(5)
dL
dF
1
pwc
(1 p ) wL
1 1 p

+
+
Gc w
w
G f w
p
(12)
= , Eq. (12) can be expressed as
(1 p )(1 + ) +
dL
p
pwc (1 p) wL (1 p )
+
Gc w
w
Gf w
(13)
From Fig. 1(a), the field optimum moisture content, wF, can
be expressed as
wF =
Wwf + Wwc
Ws
Wwf
Ws
Wwc
Ws
(14)
Using Eq. (4) and (9), Eq. (14) can be expressed as
where
VF = VL + (1 )Va +
Wwc
pWs
Gc w
(6)
with
VL =
(1 p )Ws
dL
(7)
By substituting Eq. (6) with Eq. (7) into Eq. (5), the
maximum field dry unit weight is obtained as
dF =
1 p
dL
1
(1 )Va pwc
p
+
+
+
Ws
w Gc w
(8)
wF = (1 p ) wL + pwc
W
wc = wc
pWs
(9)
If the removal of the coarse fraction from the field sample

does not alter the volume of the air present in voids of the
remaining soil for the laboratory test, then = 1. For this
case, Eq. (13) reduces to
1 p
VL Wwf
Ws wWs G f w
dF
(1 p ) +
dL
p
Gc w
pwc
(16)
and Eq (15) remains unaltered.
From Fig. 1(b), we get
(15)
Eqs. (13) and (15) provide improved expressions for

calculating the maximum dry unit weight and the optimum
moisture content, respectively, of the field sample based on
the test values obtained from the laboratory compaction test
on the laboratory sample which does not contain soil particles
larger than the maximum size limit of the compaction mould.
where
Va
dF
1 p
Assuming
The corresponding maximum field dry unit weight can be

obtained as
dF
(3)
and
wL =
Substitution of Eq. (11) into Eq. (8) gives
If the removal of the coarse fraction from the field sample

does not alter the volume of the air present in voids and the
removed coarse particles are dry, then = 1 and wc = 0 . For
(10)
this case, Eq. (13) and (15) reduce to Eqs. (1) and (2),
respectively, as presented by Hausmann (1990).
Substitution of values from Eqs. (3) and (4) into Eq. (10)
provides
CONCLUSIONS
There is currently no realistic procedure to estimate the field
compaction test parameters based on the laboratory
compaction tests which have limitations of the particle size.
This causes inaccurate estimation of the maximum dry unit
weight and the optimum moisture content of the field soils,
especially for soils used in subbase and base materials. In the
authors experience, this has probably been one of the major
Ws
Va 1 1 p (1 p ) wL 1 p
=
Ws dL
w
G f w
(11)
Shukla, Jha, Gill and Choudhary
causes of the excessive pavement settlement failure of roads.

The expressions [Eqs. (13) and (15)] proposed by Shukla et
al. [8] for the field values of maximum dry unit weight and
the optimum moisture content as presented here in detail are
quite suitable for field applications. The proposed
expressions require the values of the parameters and wc in
addition to the laboratory values of compaction parameters
( dL and wL) for calculating the field values of the maximum
dry unit weight ( dF ) and the maximum moisture content
(wF). The water content (wc) of the coarse fraction, removed
from the field soil sample for the laboratory test, can be
determined in the laboratory as a routine test, but the
appropriate value of should be considered with caution.
REFERENCES
1. IS: 2720 (Part 7) (1980), Determination of Water
Content Dry Density Relation Using Light
Compaction, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi,
India.
2. IS: 2720 (Part 8) (1983), Determination of Water
Content Dry Density Relation Using Heavy
Compaction, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi,
India.
3. AS 1289.5.1.1 (2003), Determination of the Dry
Density/Moisture Content Relation of a Soil Using
Standard Compactive Effort, Standards Australia,
Sydney, NSW, Australia.
4. AS 1289.5.2.1 (2003), Determination of the Dry
Density/Moisture Content Relation of a Soil Using
Modified Compactive Effort, Standards Australia,
Sydney, NSW, Australia.
5. Ministry of Road Transport & Highways, Government of
India (2001), Specifications for Road and Bridge Works,
4th ed., Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi, India.
6. AS 1289.5.4.1 (2007), Compaction Control Test Dry
Density Ratio, Moisture Variation and Moisture Ratio,
Standards Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
7. Hausmann, M.R. (1990), Engineering Principles of
Ground Modification, McGraw-Hill, New York.
8. Shukla, S.K., Sivakugan, N., Gandhi, M. And Ahmad,
M.K. (2009), Improved expressions for field values of
compaction test parameters, Geotechnique, 59(10), 851853.

December 13-15, 2012, Delhi (Paper No. F611.)
Determination of limit state function in SPT-based liquefaction analysis using genetic programming
for reliability analysis
Pradyut Kumar Muduli, Research Scholar, Civil Engineering Department, NIT, Rourkela, pradyut.muduli@gmail.com
Sarat Kumar Das, Associate Professor, Civil Engineering Department, NIT, Rourkela, saratdas@nitrkl.ac.in
ABSTRACT: The present study discusses about the evaluation of liquefaction potential of soil based on standard penetration
test (SPT) data obtained after 1999 Chi-Chi, Taiwan, earthquake using evolutionary artificial intelligence technique, genetic
programming (GP). A comparative study of the developed GP model with available ANN and SVM models for prediction of
liquefied and non-liquefied cases in terms of percentage success rate with respect to the field observations is discussed. The
developed GP model can be used to evaluate the cyclic resistance ratio (CRR) of a soil and thus, the factor of safety against the
liquefaction occurrence in the future seismic event using the available SPT data by the geotechnical practicing engineers.The
developed SPT based limit state function also forms the basis for the developemnt of reliability based method for evaluation
of liquefaction potential of soil.
INTRODUCTION
Soil liquefaction phenomena have been observed in many
historical earthquakes after first large scale observations of
damage caused by liquefaction in the 1964 Niigata, Japan and
1964 Alaska, USA, earthquakes. Since 1964 a lot of work has
been done to explain and evaluate the liquefaction hazard.
Though different approached like cyclic strain based, energy
based and cyclic stress based [1] are in use, the stress based
approach is the most widely used method for evaluation of
liquefaction potential of soil. Seed and Idriss [2] first
developed a simplified empirical model using laboratory and
field observations in earthquakes which presents a limit state
and separates liquefaction cases from the non-liquefaction
cases. Due to difficulty in obtaining high quality undisturbed
samples and cost involved therein further development of this
simplified method was made using standard penetration test
(SPT) based field test data [3]. Cetin [4] developed
probabilistic model for evaluation of liquefaction potential
using SPT data. The 1998 National Center for Earthquake
Engineering Research (NCEER) workshop published reviews
of SPT based methods [5].
Artificial intelligence techniques such as artificial neural
network (ANN) [6, 7] and support vector machine (SVM) [8]
have been used to develop liquefaction prediction models,
based on SPT and cone penetration test (CPT) database and
are found to be more efficient compared to statistical
methods. However, the ANN has poor generalization,
attributed to attainment of local minima during training and
needs iterative learning steps to obtain better learning
performances. The SVM has better generalization compared
to ANN, but the parameters C and insensitive loss function
() needs to be fine tuned by the user. Moreover these
techniques will not produce an explicit relationship between
the variables and thus the model obtained provides very little
insight into the basic mechanism of the problem.
In the recent past genetic programming (GP) and its variants,
based on the Darwinian theory of natural selection are being
used as alternate artificial intelligence (AI) techniques.
GP models have been applied to some difficult geotechnical

engineering problem [9, 10] with success. However, its use in
liquefaction assessment is very limited [11]. In the present
study an attempt has been made to develop a limit state
function for assessing cyclic resistance ratio (CRR) of soil
and to evaluate the liquefaction potential of soil in terms of
factor of safety (Fs) against liquefaction occurrence based on
a database consisting of post liquefaction SPT measurements
and field manifestations [12] using GP . A comparative study
is also made with available ANN and SVM models.
METHODOLOGY
SPT-Based Method for Prediction of Liquefaction
Potential
The common deterministic methods are based on
determination of factor of safety (Fs) against the liquefaction
occurrence and is defined as Fs=CRR/CSR7.5, where, CSR7.5 =
cyclic stress ratio adjusted to the benchmark earthquake
(moment magnitude, Mw=7.5) as presented by Youd et al. [5].
In deterministic approach liquefaction and non-liquefaction
cases are predicted on the basis of corresponding Fs 1 and
Fs > 1 respectively [7].
Genetic Programming
Genetic Programming is a pattern recognition technique
where the model is developed on the basis of adaptive
learning of provided data, developed by Koza [13]. It mimics
biological evolution of living organisms and makes use of
principle of genetic algorithm (GA). In traditional regression
analysis the user has to specify the structure of the model
whereas in GP both structure and the parameters of the
mathematical model are evolved automatically. It provides a
solution in the form of tree structure or in the form of
compact equation based on the provided data set. A brief
description about GP is presented for the completeness, but
the details can be found in Koza [13].
GP model is composed of nodes, which resembles to a tree
structure and thus, it is well known as GP tree. Nodes are the
elements either from a functional set or terminal set. A
Pradyut Kumar Muduli, Sarat Kumar Das
functional set may include arithmetic operators (+, , , or -),

mathematical functions (sin(.), cos(.), tanh or ln(.)), Boolean
operators (AND, OR, NOT etc), logical expressions (IF, or
THEN) or any other suitable functions defined by the users.
Whereas the terminal set include variables (like x1, x2, x3, etc)
or constants (like 3, 5, 6, 9 etc) or both. The functions and
terminals are randomly chosen to form a GP tree with a root
node and the branches extending from each function nodes to
end in terminal nodes as shown in Figure 1.
Initially a set of GP trees, as per user defined population size,
are randomly generated using various functions and terminals
assigned by the user. The fitness criteria are calculated by the
objective function i.e. quality of the each individual in the
population competing with rest. At each generation a new
population is created by implementing various evolutionary
mechanisms like reproduction, crossover and mutation to the
functions and terminals of the selected GP trees. The new
population then replaces the existing population. This process
is iterated until the termination criterion; a threshold fitness
value or maximum number of generations; is satisfied. The
best GP model, based on its fitness value that appeared in any
generation, is selected as the result of genetic programming.
Fig. 1 Typical GP tree representing function (5X1+X2)2

The general form of GP model can be presented as:
n
(1)
LI p = F [X , f ( X ),bi ] + b0
i =1
where LIp = predicted value of liquefaction index (LI)[7], F=
the function created by the GP process referred herein as
liquefaction index function, X = vector of input variables =
{(N1)60, CSR7.5} , (N1)60= corrected blow count as presented
by Youd et al.[5], bi is constant, f is a function defined by
the user and n is the number of terms of target expression. In
the present study GP model is developed using Matlab [14].
Development of the GP model for evaluation of
liquefaction potential of soil
In the present study post earthquake field observations and
the SPT data collected, from various areas of Taiwan as per
Hwang and Yang [12] are used. The database consists of total
288 cases, 164 out of them are liquefied cases and other 124
are non liquefied cases. Out of the above data 202 cases are
randomly selected for training and remaining 86 data are used
for testing the developed model. Here in the GP approach
normalization or scaling of the data is not required which is
an advantage over ANN /SVM approach.
GP Model for Liquefaction Index
In the present study a GP based model is developed to
evaluate LI using SPT based liquefaction field performance
dataset; LI = 1 for liquefaction and LI = 0 for nonliquefaction[7] .
In the GP procedure a number of potential models are
evolved at random and each model is trained and tested using
the training and testing cases respectively. The fitness of each
model is determined by minimizing the root mean square
error (RMSE) between the predicted and actual value of the
output variable (LI) as the objective function,
n
LI LI p 2
f = i =1
n
(2)
where n = number of cases in the fitness group. If the errors

calculated by using Eq. 2 for all the models in the existing
population do not satisfy the termination criteria, the
evolution of new generation of population continues till the
best model is developed as discussed earlier.
The best LIp model was obtained with population size of
3000 individuals at 150 generations with reproduction
probability = 0.05, crossover probability = 0.85, mutation
probability = 0.1 and with tournament selection (tournament
size=7). In the GP model development it is important to make
a tradeoff between accuracy and complexity in terms of
number of gene and depth of GP tree. In this study optimum
result was obtained with maximum number of genes as 3 and
maximum depth of GP tree as 4. The developed GP model
can be described as Eq. (3) and shown below.
CSR 7 . 5
LI p = 2 . 824 tanh (8 . 2 CSR 7 . 5 ) 5 . 152 tanh
(N 1 )
60
2
(
)
(
)
0
.
089
N
N
1
1
5
60
60

0 . 964
+ 1 . 5 10
CSR
exp (CSR 7 . 5 )
7 .5
(3)
In the present study when LIp value is greater than or equal to

0.5 the case is considered to be liquefied otherwise nonliquefied. It is evident from the results presented in Table 1
that the proposed GP based LI models are able to learn the
complex relationship between the liquefaction index and its
main contributing factors with a very high accuracy. It can
be noted that the performances of LI model for training and
testing data are comparable and the successful prediction
rates are 94.55% for training and 94.19% for testing data. The
classification accuracy of the ANN model [15] is 94.55% and
Determination of limit state function in SPT-based liquefaction analysis using genetic programming for reliability analysis
88.37% for training and testing data respectively. Similarly

the liquefaction classification accuracies for SVM model [15]
are 96.04% and 94.19% for training and testing dataset
respectively. As it is important that the efficiency of different
models should be compared in terms of testing data than that
with training data [16] and thus, in this study the comparison
of efficacy among the developed GP, ANN [15] and
SVM[15] models, are done for the testing data only and it is
found that GP based prediction model (Eq.3) is better than
that of ANN model on the basis of rate of successful
prediction of liquefaction and non liquefaction cases and is
also at par with SVM model. This GP model (Eq. 3) is further
used for the development of proposed CRR model.
success rate in predicting liquefied case is 98% and that for

non-liquefied case is 88% and the overall success rate in the
deterministic approach is found to be 94%, as shown in Table
3, which is also in agreement with the results of GP based
classification model (Eq.3) as presented in Table 1.
Due to both parameter and model uncertainty there is some
probability of occurrence of liquefaction in a particular case
even if Fs >1. Keeping this in view proposed GP based limit
state model for CRR and the CSR equation as presented by
Youd et al.[5] may further be used to evaluate the probability
of occurrence liquefaction for each Fs and can be done by
reliability based analysis.
1.4
GP Model for CRR

Similarly as mentioned earlier here a multigene GP is
adopted for development of CRR model using artificially
generated 71 data points, out of which 52 data points are
selected randomly for training and rest 20 numbers for
testing. The several CRR models were obtained with
population varying from 1000 to 3000 individuals at 100 to
300 generations with reproduction probability = 0.05,
crossover probability = 0.85, mutation probability = 0.1,
maximum number of genes = 2 to 4, maximum depth of GP
tree = 3 to 4, and tournament selection (size=7). Then
developed models were analyzed with respect to engineering
understanding of CRR of soil and after careful consideration
of various alternatives the following expression was found to
be most suitable for the prediction of CRR.
[(N 1 )60 + tanh (N 1 )60 ]+ 4 .018 tanh [0 .1615 (N 1 )60 ]

0 . 00968
2
+ 6 . 096 exp [ 0 . 1701 (N 1 ) ]
0 . 001102 (N 1 )
5 . 84
60
60
(N )
CRR = 0 . 114
(4)
1 60
Based on the statistical performances(correlation coefficient

(R), Nash-Sutcliff coefficient of efficiency (E), root mean
square error (RMSE), average absolute error (AAE) and
maximum absolute error (MAE) ) as presented in Table 2, it
can be noted that the performances of GP based CRR model
for training and testing data are comparable showing good
generalization of the developed model. Fig. 2 shows the
developed GP limit state curve, separating the liquefied and
non-liquefied cases of the data base. Thus, CRR can be
calculated by this model using only one input parameter,
(N1)60. The performance of the developed GP based CRR
model is evaluated in deterministic approach by calculating
the Fs for each case of field performance of the database as
discussed earlier and a prediction is considered to be
successful if it agrees with the field manifestation. The
Limit state curve

Non-liquefied cases
Liquefied cases
1.2
Cyclic Stress Ratio (CSR7.5)
Searching for artificial points on the limit state boundary

curves
The developed GP model for LIp as given by the Eq (3) is
used to search for points on the unknown boundary curve
separating liquefied cases from the nonliquefied ones
following the search technique developed by Juang et. al [7].
In the present study 71 generated data points are obtained
using optimization technique. These artificial data points are
used for the development of limit state or the boundary curve.
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0
10
20
30
40
50
Corrected blowcount, (N1)60
Fig. 2 Showing developed GP limit state curve separating

liquefied cases from non-liquefied cases
CONCLUSION
Case histories of soil liquefaction due to 1999 Chi-Chi
earthquake is analyzed using, the genetic programming to
predict the liquefaction potential of soil. The efficacy of the
developed GP based classification model for LI is compared
with the available ANN and SVM models and it is found that
GP model is better than the ANN model on the basis of rate
of successful prediction of liquefaction and non liquefaction
cases and is also at par with SVM model.
Close rate of successful prediction for training and testing
data for the developed CRR model shows good
generalization capabilities of GP approach. This compact
CRR model can be used in a spreadsheet by the geotechnical
professionals for evaluation of liquefaction potential of soil in
terms of Fs in future seismic event in deterministic approach.
The CRR model can further be used for evaluation of
liquefaction potential in probabilistic frame work by
reliability based analysis. However, it needs more study with
new data sets of different liquefaction case histories to
confirm or disprove the present findings.
Pradyut Kumar Muduli, Sarat Kumar Das
Table 1 Comparison of results of developed GP based LI model with ANN and SVM models (Samui and Sitharam, 2011)
Model
LI
Input
variables
Performance in terms of successful prediction (%)
(N1)60, CSR7.5
GP
ANN
Training data
94.55
94.55
SVM
96.04
GP
ANN
Testing data
94.19
88.37
SVM
94.19
Table 2 Statistical performances of developed GP based CRR model

Data
Training
Testing
R
0.999
0.998
E
0.998
0.996
AAE
0.010
0.013
MAE
0.030
0.044
RMSE
0.012
0.016
Table 3 Performance of the developed GP based CRR model

Performance in terms of successful prediction (%)
Liquefied cases(164)
Non-liquefied cases(124)
Over all (288)
98
88
94
REFERENCES
1. Krammer, S. L. (1996), Geotechnical earthquake
engineering, Pearson Education, Low Price Edition,
Singapur.
2. Seed, H. B. and Idriss, I. M. (1971), Simplified
procedure for evaluating soil liquefaction potential,
Jl. of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division,
ASCE, 97(9), 1249-1273.
3. Idriss, I. M. and Boulanger , R. W. (2010), SPT-based
liquefaction triggering procedures, Report No.
UCD/CGM-10/02,Department
of
Civil
and
Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering,
University of California at Davis
4. Cetin, K. O. (2000), Reliability based assessment of
seismic soil liquefaction initiation hazard, Ph.D
dissertation, University of California, Berkerly,
California.
5. Youd, T.L., Idriss, I.M., Andrus, R.D., Arango, I.,
Castro, G., Christina, J.T., Dobry, R., Liam Finn,
W.D., Hrder Jr., L. F., Hynes, M.E., Ishihara, K.,
Koester, J.P., Liao, S.S.C., Marcuson III W. F., Martin
G. R., Mitchell J. K., Moriwaki Y., Power, M.S.,
Robertson, P.K., Seed, R.B., and Stoke II, K. H.
(2001), Liquefaction resistance of soils: summary
report from the 1996 NCEER and 1998 NCEER/NSF
workshops on evaluation of liquefaction resistance of
soils, Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, ASCE, 127(10), 817-833.
6. Goh, A. T. C. (1994), Seismic liquefaction potential
assessed by neural networks, Jl. of Geotechnical
Engineering, 120(9), 1467-1480.
7. Juang, C. H., Yuan, H., Lee, D. H. and Lin, P.S.
(2003), Simplified Cone Penetration Test- based
method for evaluating liquefaction resistance of soils,
Jl. of Geotech. and Geoenv. Engineering, 129(1), 6680.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Pal, M. (2006), Support vector machines-based

modeling of seismic liquefaction potential, Jl. for
Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics,
30, 983-996.
Javadi, A. A., Rezania, M. and Nezhad, M. M.
(2006), Evaluation of liquefaction induced lateral
displacements using genetic programming, Jl. of
Computers and Geotechnics, 33, 222-233.
Rezania, M. and Javadi, A. A. (2007), A new genetic
programming model for predicting settlement of
shallow foundations, Canadian Geotech. Jl., 44, 14621473.
Das, S. K. and Muduli, P. K. (2011), Evaluation of
liquefaction potential of soil using genetic
programming, In: Proc. of the Golden Jubilee Indian
Geotechnical Conference, Kochi, India 2: 827-830.
Hwang, J. H. and Yang, C. W. (2001), Verification of
critical cyclic strength curve by Taiwan Chi-Chi
earthquake data, Soil Dynamics and Earthquake
Engineering, 21, 237-257.
Koza, J. R. (1992), Genetic programming: on the
programming of computers by natural selection, The
MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
MathWork Inc. (2005), Matlab Users Manual,
Version 6.5, TheMathWorks, Inc, Natick.
Samui, P. and Sitharam, T. G. (2011), Machine
learning modelling for predicting soil liquefaction,
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 11, 19.
Das, S. K. and Basudhar, P. K. 2008. Prediction of
residual friction angle of clays using artifical neural
network, Engineering Geology, 100( 3-4), 142- 145.

December 13-15, 2012, Delhi (Paper No .F 612)
INELASTIC RESPONSE OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS SUBJECTED TO ECCENTRIC LOADING

WITH NON-LINEAR WINKLER MODEL
M. Padmavathi , Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, JNTU Hyderabad, e-mail: mpadmace@gmail.com
V. Padmavathi, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, JNTU Hyderabad, e-mail: vpadma70@gmail.com
M. R. Madhav, Professor Emeritus, Department of Civil Engineering, JNTU Hyderabad, e-mail: madhavmr@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: The response of footings subjected to eccentric loads has not been adequately studied. Published analyses are
primarily based on the assumption of linear elastic behavior but the actual load - displacement relationship for foundations on
or in the ground is nonlinear. This paper investigates the response of rigid surface foundations on nonlinear (hyperbolic) soil
model. The study was motivated by the need to develop macroscopic foundation models that can realistically capture the
nonlinear behavior of shallow foundations subjected to vertical eccentric loading. A parametric study quantifies the affect of
eccentricity on vertical displacements, rotation and contact stress response of the foundation soil. The results compared well
with published data.
INTRODUCTION
Tall structures are very often subjected to moments due to
wind or dynamic forces which can cause the structures to tilt
or rotate as a whole. The structure resting on or in the soft
ground having low deformation modulus is more prone to
instability. In most of the cases, the foundations are rigid and
stability depends on moment-rotation relationship of the soilfoundation system. All the analyses so far available assume
that the ground is elastic, i.e., the modulus of deformation
under compression is the same as that for stress reduction or
unloading. However it is well known that these two moduli
are not the same. During compression, the soil undergoes
both plastic and elastic deformations, while only the elastic
part of the total deformation is recovered during unloading.
Consequently, the modulus for unloading is much larger than
that for compression. Numerous experimental results from
plate and pile load tests have established this type of behavior
of soil. According to many building code guidelines, the
seismic rehabilitation of reinforced concrete buildings located
in moderate and high seismic risk zones requires
consideration of the interaction between the structure and the
supporting soil. The estimation of the settlement and the
rotation response in the nonlinear regime of the soil may be a
key component in the assessment of the seismic performance
of a building.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Very limited data exist in the literature regarding the
settlements and/or rotations of foundations beyond their
linear response (Georgiadis and Butterfield 1988; Nova and
Montrasio 1991, 1997). As a first approximation, soilstructure interaction has conventionally been taken into
account by assuming a linear response of the soil (Veletos
and Verbic 1974). Most of the relationships for determining
rotation of rigid footing due to moment are obtained on the
basis of Winkler (one parameter) or the elastic continuum
models based on Boussineqs or Mindlins expressions.
Weismann (1972) derives expressions using Winklers
model, for tilt of rigid foundations of rectangular and circular

shapes. Rotation due to moment loading on smooth, rigid
circular footing is obtained by Borowicka (1943) for a finite
layer for semi-infinite soil. Moment loading on rigid,
rectangular footing on elastic half space is considered by Lee
(1962). Numerous studies have been performed on the
bearing capacity of a shallow foundation under inclined
eccentric loading. Guided by experimental results, Butterfield
and Gottardi (1994) have proposed a solution for a shallow
foundation on a sand layer.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
A rigid footing of length, L, resting on the surface of ground
subjected to an eccentric load, P, at an eccentricity, e, from
the left end of the footing is considered (Figure 1(a)). The
foundation - soil response is represented by a series of
independent springs as in Winkler Model (Figure 1(a)). The
footing settles by l at the left end due to eccentric load, P,
and rotates through an angle due to the moment, M (Figure
1(c)). The ground below one part of the footing undergoes
further compression the loading side while on the other side
experiences stress reduction Figure 1(c). A modular ratio, =
kc L/qmax, is defined where kc is moduli of subgrade reaction
in compression, L is the length of the footing and qult is the
ultimate stress below the footing respectively.
ANALYSIS
The eccentric load, P is acting at a distance e from the left
end of the footing (Fig.1 (a)). The footing undergoes a
deformation along with the rigid body rotation (Fig. 1(c)).
By integrating the contact pressure distribution (Fig. 1b)) one
can get the load P applied on the footing. Considering the
non-linear behaviour of the soil subgrade based on Winkler
model the following equations are obtained.
M.Padmavthi, V. Padmavathi & M.R.Madhav

e
q
k c l ( l + x )
( l + x )
(7)
=
q* =
k c l ( l + x )
q max
1
+
( l + x )
1+
q max
Footing
l = ( 1 +
Winklers Spring, kc
where
Fig. 1(a) Footing subjected to eccentric loading
M*= P*(e)
P* = P**/
Fig. 1(b) Contact Pressure Distribution below Footing
Fig.1(c) Displacement under the Footing

L
P =
0
( l + x ) B
dx
k c ( l + x )
1 +
q max
k
P
=
k cl 2 B
(1)
( l + x )
x=0
1 + ( l + x )
dx
(2)
1 + ( l +
ln

1 + l
P* =
(3)
Similarly the Moment, M, is given by the following equation
=
0
( l + x ) xB
dx
k c ( l + x )
1 +
q max
1 +
M * =
1
2 3
l (
k
l
l
c
l (
l
q
(4)
) xB
x
l
P * + )
M*- P*(e) = 0
(8)
(9)
(10)
can be estimated from Eq. (9), by substituting for P* and

M* from Eqs. (3) and (6) respectively.
r = e
r ) /( ( 1 + r ))
dx
(5)
max
( ) 2 2 +
1 + ( l + ) (6)
2 ( 1 + l ) ln
1 + l
where = dimensionless parameter = kcL/qmax , kc = modulus

of subgrade reaction in compression, L = length of the
footing, qult = ultimate stress in the subgrade soil, l=
deformation of the footing at the left end due to eccentric
loading, = rotation of the footing due to moment, B= width
of the footing, x= distance from the left end of the footing,
l =Normalized displacement at the left end of the footing
due to eccentric loading = l/L, x = normalized
distance=x/L.P* =Normalized load=P/kc Bl2, M*= normalized
Moment= M/kc Bl3,e = eccentricity, P**= Ratio of applied
load to ultimate load =P/Pmax, e' = normalised eccentricity =
e/L and e= normalised eccentricity from centre of the
footing.The range of values used for the analysis are P** is
from 0 to 0.9, eccentricity e is from 0.5 to 0.7 from the left
end of the footing and is taken as 10, 30, 100, 500 etc.
Fig. 2 illustrates the variation of load with displacement for
different normalised eccentricities, e. The ultimate load
decreases with increase in eccentricity, e. This reduction in
ultimate load may be due to the reason that increase in e is
causing the footing to tilt towards the loading side. This
causes the nonuniform contact presuure distribution below
the footing as shown in Fig. 1(b). For an applied eccentricity,
e' = 0.02 the maximum displacement is 0.07 where as it is
0.015 when the e' is 0.1. The load, at which the footing
experiences maximum displacement on the loading side, is
defined as the critical load, Pcr. If the applied load on the
footing exceeds the critical load Pcr, part of the footing on the
side opposite to the loading gets unloaded causing a reduction
in the contact area or the efective size of the footing at an
applied normalised eccenricity e. The reduction in P** is
about 30% for e is 0.1 with respect to concentric (e= 0.0)
load.
Inelastic response of shallow foundations subjeted to eccentric loading based on non linear Winkler model
P**
0. 5
Normalised distance from left end, X
0
e = 0.1
0.05
Normalised stress, q*
Normalised displacement under load
0 .05
0 .02
0. 5
1
P** = 0 .2
0. 4
0.45
0.. 5
0. 6
Pcr = 0.65
0 .9
e = 0.0
0.1
Fig. 2 Effect of eccentricity on load-displacement for =100

Fig. 3 shows the effect of on load - displacement response
for e'=0.05. Increase in value corresponds to increase in
the subgrade modulus of the foundation soil. This is clearly
shown in Figure 3. The magnitude of failure or the ultimate
load increases with increase in . The displacement of the
footing is higher for lower values of .
Fig. 4 shows the variation of normalised stress q* with
normalised distance from the left end of the footing for of
100 and e' of 0.05. The stress is a nonlinear function of the
applied load P** (= P/Pult) and the normalised distance X.
The contact stress increases with increase in the load applied
on the footing. The normalised stresses are about 0.35 and 0.8
on the left and on the loading sides respectively.
0. 5
The displacement increases with the normalized load P**.

Fig. 5 shows the variartion of normalised displacement with
normalised distance X for =100 and e = 0.05. The
normalised displacement is more on the loading side of the
footing and increases with the increase in normalised load
P** applied on the footing. The plot is given upto a
maximum value of Pcr of 0.65. At the centre of the footing
(X = 0.5), the normalised displacement increases from
0.0025 to 0.0215 for the applied normalised load P** of 0.2
to 0.65 respectively.
1
=100
30
0.35
=10
0.7
Fig. 3 Effect of on load- displacement for e'= 0.05
Normalised displacement
P**
Fig. 4 Variation of normalized stress q* with normalized

distance (=100, e = 0.05)
Normalised distance from left end, X

0
0. 5
P** = 0.2
0.5
0.6
0.025
Pcr = 0.65
0.05
Fig. 5 Variation of normalized displacement with normalized
distance (=100, e = 0.05)
M.Padmavthi, V. Padmavathi & M.R.Madhav

4.
5000
Vertical Load , N
5.
2500
Predicted values
6.
Experimental values
(Georgiadis &
Butterfield 1987 )
7.
8.
9.
0
0.0
1 .0
Vertical displacement, mm
2 .0
Fig. 6 Comparison of Predicted Load - Displacement

Response with Experimental Values (= 99, e= 0.0416)
Fig. 6 shows the comparison of predicted load - displacement
response with experimental values of Georgiadis &
Butterfield (1987) for = 99 and e= 0.0416).The plot shows
very good agreement between the predicted and experimental
values. The proposed model captures the inherent nonlinear
response of the soil and the coupled nature of displacements
and rotations of rigid surface foundations subjected to
eccentric loading.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The variation of normalised stress, q* with displacement to
eccentric vertical load is nonlinear and depends on
subgrade modulus, ultimate resistance, the rotation of the
footing, , and displacement, .
2. The load-dispalcement responses are similar for all e but
the ultimate loads decrease with increase in normalised
eccentricity e . The ultimate load decreases by 30% for e
= 0.1 corresponding to the value for concenric load.
3.
The ultimate load ratio P** increases with increase in .
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
Borowicka, H. (1943). Uber ausmittig belaste starre

platen aufelastic-isotropem Unter grund. IngenierArchiv, Berlin, Vol. 1, 1-8.
Butterfield, R. and Gottardi, G. (1994). A complete three
dimensional failure envelope for shallow footings on
sand. Gotechnique 44(1), 181184.
Georgiadis, M. and Butterfield, R. (1987).
Displacements of footings on sand under eccentric and
inclined loads, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 25(2),
199-212.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Nova, R. and Montrasio, L. (1991). Settlements of

shallow foundations on sand, Gotechnique, 41(2), 243
256.
shallow foundations on sand: geometrical effects,
Gotechnique, 47(1), 46 60.
Veletsos, A.S. and Verbic, B. (1974). Basic response
functions for elastic foundations, Journal of
Engineering Mechanics, ASCE, 100(EM2):189-202
Weismann, G.F. (1972). Tilting Foundations. J. Soil
Mech. Found. Div. ASCE, 98(1), 59-78.
Borowicka, H. (1943). Uber ausmittig belaste starre
platen aufelastic-isotropem Unter grund. IngenierArchiv, Berlin, Vol. 1, 1-8.
Butterfield, R. and Gottardi, G. (1994). A complete three
dimensional failure envelope for shallow footings on
sand. Gotechnique 44(1), 181184.
Georgiadis, M. and Butterfield, R. (1987).
Displacements of footings on sand under eccentric and
inclined loads, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 25(2),
199-212.
shallow foundations on sand, Gotechnique, 41(2), 243
256.
shallow foundations on sand: geometrical effects,
Gotechnique, 47(1), 46 60.
Veletsos, A.S. and Verbic, B. (1974). Basic response
functions for elastic foundations, Journal of
Engineering Mechanics, ASCE, 100(EM2):189-202
Weismann, G.F. (1972). Tilting Foundations. J. Soil
Mech. Found. Div. ASCE, 98(1), 59-78.

December 13-15, 2012, Delhi (F613)
PARTICLE SIZE BASED ASSESSMENT OF SOIL USING NEURAL NETWORK MODELING

TECHNIQUE
Yeetendra Kumar, Research Scholar, MNNIT, Allahabad, yeetendra@rediffmail.com
K. Venkatesh, Assistant Professor, MNNIT, Allahabad, venkatesh@mnnit.ac.in
Vijay Kumar, Research Scholar, MNNIT, Allahabad, vijay03c34@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Acquaintance of particle sizes and its percentage provides basis for indexing the soil. Attempts are made to use
percentage finer than particle sizes ranging 2 mm, 0.075 mm, 0.002 mm in combination with other properties like consistency
characteristics to define specific soil class. The selection of sizes is based on their part in defining boundary conditions
between sand, silt and clay. The study is limited to fine grained soils only because bore log chart referred for input and target
parameters is pertaining to sites, in general, situated in plane area abundant in said soil. The main goal of ongoing study is to
develop a sense of adopting neural networks for supplementing time-consuming laboratory methods. Bore log chart for three
different sites were collected and further data were divided into potential input and target vectors. Using comprehensive
arrangement of input vectors or applying different permutation and combinations ANN models were developed. Multilayer
feed forward neural network trained with back propagation algorithm used for ANN modeling. Obtained results were in
satisfactory agreement with Indian standard soil classification criterion.
Key Words: Input/target vectors, artificial neural network, back propagation learning algorithm.
INTRODUCTION
The prime objective of soil classification is to obtain
information of engineering behavior of soil such that it may
be referred for relevant engineering purposes or otherwise
degree of modification may be determined for specific use.
Almost all countries either adopts ASTM E 11-1961in its
original form as standard soil classification system or develop
own classification system with slight amendments in it. The
sole reason of correction is to give place locally available soil
in classification system. Classification of soil based on
plasticity characteristics requires conducting a series of
laboratory experiments {sieve analysis (IS: 460-1962),
hydrometer analysis, liquid limit test (IS: 9259-1979) and
plastic limit test} subsequently placement of results in
respective category to determine specific class.
Present
work is an effort to examine the learning ability of ANN in
defining specific soil class such that conventional method
may supplemented with computational method. Some pioneer
work on soil classification employing ANN technique [1,2]
uses single and multi-dimensional output system, driven from
them the prime objective of this paper is to compare both
system, however to enhance the learning ability of ANN and
use of bore-log information in classification, input space is
increased many folds.
Other than soil classification ANN found its way in reliability
analysis of structures [3]; swell pressure and soil suction
behavior [4]; site characterization [5]; soil structure
interaction [6]; slope stability estimation [7]; stress strain
behavior [8], stress history of clayey soil [9] etc.
BACK PROPAGATION NEURAL NETWORKS
ANNs are parallel processors that work on the principle of
biological neurons in human brain. The advantage of this
method is its multidimensional nonlinear mapping capability

of the any target parameter [10]. In its simplest form ANN
consist three layers; first is Input layer; second is a hidden
layer consisting neurons for processing and third is a output
layer. These layers connect to each other by connection
weights, which are adjustable in nature. The characteristics of
a neural network come from the activation function and
connection weights [11]. Out of many available neural
networks feed forward (which is used in this study) network
trained with back propagation learning algorithm is described
below.
Fig. 1 Back propagation neural network

The output from Jth node from hidden layer in fig 1;
(1)
Where,
i & j presents input and hidden nodes respectively
Yeetendra Kumar, K. Venkatesh & Vijay kumar

oj is o/p from the jth hidden node
xi is i/p introduced to node i
wij is the synaptic weight on the link between ith input and jth
o/p node
bj is the bias applied at the jth hidden node
The activation function for the jth hidden node may be
determined using the sigmoid (or any other) function.
(2)
The o/p from the kth node may obtained by
(3)
Where,
wjk = is the synaptic weight on the link between jth hidden
node and kth o/p node
Bk is the bias applied at the kth o/p node
The activation function vk for the o/p node k is
(4)
The error at the kth o/p node is obtained by
(5)
Correction to the weight on link between jth hidden node and
kth o/p node during lth iteration is
(6)
Where,
is learning rate which determines the size of weight
adjustment.
is the momentum factor and used to change the weight by
speeding up the convergence
W (l-1) is weight during (l-1) iteration. This iteration continues
until Mean Square Error reaches its minimum value.
DATA SELECTION
Three different sites rich in clay and silt content whereas less
to negligible amount of sand portion used for model
development. For the same reason, study is confined to
frictional - cohesive (c-) soils only. For the sake of
simplicity, these sites designated with name A, B & C.
According to IS 1498: 1970, Three types of soil namely CLML (inorganic clays with less amount of inorganic silt &
very fine sand), CL (inorganic clays with low
compressibility) and CI (inorganic clays with medium
compressibility) were available from these sites. In particular,
CL & CI soils were abundant in all three sites whereas CLML was less to absent in site B and C respectively. In respect
of these, three-soil classes some soil parameters that were
used as input vectors are physical properties, SPT- N value,
percentage finer and consistency characteristics. It is

customary that all properties of soil are determined on
particular depth hence it is also included in input parameter.
Standard notations considered for these geotechnical
parameters were d for depth, N for SPT-N value; w for
moisture content, b for bulk density; Dx for percentage of
particle finer than 2 mm; Dy for 0.075mm; Dz for 0.002 mm:
wL liquid limit and wp plastic limit. Table 1 shows range of
input parameters for all three sites collectively.
Table1-Range of input parameters
Input Parameters
Minimum
Depth(m)
01.50
SPT-N value(No.)
02.00
Natural water content (%)
03.18
Bulk density (gm/cm3)
01.40
% finer than 2 mm(%)
59.00
% finer than 0.075 mm(%)
46.60
% finer than 0.002 mm(%)
02.70
Liquid Limit (%)
25.00
Plastic Limit (%)
09.00
Maximum
09.00
50.00
34.60
02.32
100.0
98.78
26.51
46.00
26.00
DEMARKATION OF SOIL CLASS

One- Dimensional Output System
For coding the soil with respect to their soil class designation,
two policies were developed. Table 2 gives the details of first
coding policy. Each soil class allotted certain numbers in
increasing order of clay content. Demarcation values fell
within limits of activation function and output ranges were
predefined such that decoded value from validation output
may easily be classified.
Table 2 Coding of soil class
Soil Class
Coded Value
CL-ML
0.1
CL
0.3
CI
0.5
Output Range
0.00-0.2
0.21-0.4
04.1-0.6
Three- Dimensional Output System

Table 3 shows second coding policy i.e. a three-dimensional
Table 3 Learning paradigm for 3-D output system
Parameters
Training Data Pairs
d
1.5
6
N
11
39
w
5.3
14
b
1.8
1.92
Dx
100
99.9
Dy
46.6
93
Dz
6
22
wL
26
33
wP
21
19
Soil Class
CL-ML
CL
Three-Dimensional
0.9
0.1
Output
0.1
0.9
0.1
0.1
6
22
16.3
1.91
96.9
84.9
19
36
21
CI
0.1
0.1
0.9
Particle size based assessment of soil using artificial neural network modeling technique
output system. These three dimensional target matrixes were
used for training the network. These matrixes developed
separately for all three sites. To separate the output signal
from each other, the target matrix of all three-soil class
defined keeping much difference within values almost like in
binary system. Instead of using 0 or 1 here used values 0.1
and 0.9 so that output may range between 0 to 1.
SELECTION OF NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
Feed forward network with single hidden layer of varying
numbers of neurons (4 to 14) employed in the analysis.
Figure 2 describes the way network treated from given set of
input and target parameters.
Fig. 2 Neural network with 9 x n x 1/3 architecture

The first layer presents 9 inputs bring in to the network,
second layer namely hidden layer shows neurons in process.
Connecting links between first - second layer and secondthird layer are adaptable synaptic weights and last layer
presents output. Networks trained for varying number of
iterations until the minimum value of MSE at maximum
regression for training, testing and validation reached.
NETWORK ATTRIBUTES
As discussed in previous articles back-propagation neural
network (BPNN) employed for all kind of operations, in
which training carried out through the minimization of the
defined error function using the gradient descent approach
[12]. It is advisable to use differentiable activation function
because the weight update is dependent variable and relies on
the gradient of error [13].
There exists many ways to improve the rate of convergence
one of them is normalization, therefore datasets were
normalized using following equation [14, 15, 16].
(7)
The ANN toolbox in MATLAB 7.10 (R2010a) computer
added software utilized to perform the necessary computation
in which learning rate (LR) and momentum term kept
constant whereas connection weights kept adjustable for all
the models. Range of training parameters were set at Epochs
1000;Time - Infinite; Goal - Zero; Validation Checks - 0
to1000; Gradient - 1 to 1e-10 and Mu - 0.001 to 1e+10.
ANNs have feature of automatically dividing data into
training testing and validation sets. In present case 60% of
total data was reserved for training and remaining 40% data
was equally divided for testing and validation by ANN itself.
In addition, certain datasets reserved for all three sites to
validate the developed models externally. Table 4 shows
predicted soil class for some of above said reserved data. It
was observed that network 9-10-1 (10 neurons in hidden
layer) gave better results for all three sites. Table 2 may refer
to decode soil class in its original form for one-dimensional
output.
Table 4 Predicted soil class for One-Dimensional system
Predict- Actual Predict- Actual PredictActual
ed Soil
Soil
ed Soil
Soil
ed Soil
Soil
Class
Class
Class
Class
Class
Class
Site A
Site B
Site C
0.3
0.3052
0.3
0.2985
0.5
0.4950
0.1
0.1464
0.3
0.3008
0.3
0.3000
0.3
0.2987
0.3
0.2939
0.3
0.3000
0.5
0.4789
0.3
0.2982
0.3
0.3000
0.5
0.4897
0.5
0.4954
0.3
0.3000
0.3
0.3063
0.3
0.2961
0.3
0.3000
0.5
0.4140
0.3
0.2976
0.3
0.3001
0.3
0.2648
0.5
0.4275
0.3
0.3000
0.3
0.2820
0.3
0.3104
0.3
0.3001
0.3
0.3018
0.3
0.2987
0.3
0.3001
0.3
0.3195
0.3
0.2974
0.5
0.4999
0.3
0.3109
0.3
0.3034
0.3
0.3000
0.3
0.3091
0.3
0.3005
0.50
0.4850
0.3
0.3145
0.5
0.4999
0.50
0.4999
0.5
0.4596
0.5
0.4489
0.30
0.3004
0.5
0.4999
0.5
0.5000
0.30
0.3000
The predicted value of soil class in the form of 3-dimensional
array shown in Table 5 includes some of the validation
results from all three sites. The exact procedure of decoding
is comparison of predicted array with similar standard array
and fall of soil group in same array. as an example for any
output array 0.027, 0.893, & 0.240, the maximum value is set
at two that is 0.893 and since this output matches with 3dimensional output pattern of inorganic clay with low
compressibility (CL) that is 0.1, 0.9 & 0.1 so the same class
of soil will be preferred.
Yeetendra Kumar, K. Venkatesh & Vijay kumar

Table 5 Predicted soil class for Three-Dimensional system
Original Soil
Site
Predicted Soil Array
Array
0.1 0.9
0.1
0.1000 0.9000 0.1000
0.9 0.1
0.1
0.8999 0.1000 0.1000
A
0.1 0.1
0.9
0.1000 0.1000 0.9000
0.1 0.9
0.1
0.1016 0.8990 0.1000
0.1 0.9
0.1
0.1000 0.8999 0.1000
0.1 0.1
0.9
0.1000 0.1020 0.8999
B
0.1 0.1
0.9
0.1000 0.1000 0.9000
0.1 0.1
0.9
0.1000 0.1000 0.7181
0.9
0.1
0.8999 0.1000
0.1
0.9
0.1002 0.8997
C
0.9
0.1
0.8999 0.1001
0.1
0.9
0.1026 0.8983
Site C did not contained CL-ML soil hence it contained 2dimensional array only likewise due to lack of CL-ML soil in
site B said soil is not included in validation data. Table 6
gives the statistical parameters for trained and validated
results.
Table 6 Statistical Parameters
Site
A
B
C
Networks
MSE
Overall
Regression
9-10-1
9-7-3
9-10-1
9-5-3
9-10-1
9-10-2
1.924e-03
3.842e-14
5.918e-05
1.182e-11
1.816e-08
5.578e-13
0.9335
0.9798
0.9967
0.9776
0.9769
1.0000
Avg.
Absolute
Error
0.025984
7.171e-05
0.009671
0.003613
0.001309
0.000103
CONCLUSION
Table 4, 5 & 6 shows that ANN classified soil finely for each
validation data and mean square error (MSE) decreased
exponentially. Though both systems predicted soil class with
considerable precision even based on statistical analysis it is
concluded that multi-dimensional output system is better than
one-dimensional system since MSE value and average
absolute error in each site through multi-dimensional system
is less than one-dimensional system. Network 9-10-1 that is
10 neurons in hidden layers is sufficient for developing
optimal network in one-dimensional system where as 5 to 10
neurons may give optimal solution in multi-dimensional
system. Overall regression coefficient (combined training,
testing and validation phases) reaching unity in site C is also
an indication of reliable data source.
Though study is confined to fine grained soil only even it
may be extended to coarse grained soil in near future
depending on convenience of advanced version of ANN tool
with desired computer configuration such that multidimensional system may be increased from 6 to 10 outputs.
REFERENCES
1. Cal, Y. (1995), Soil classification by neural network,
Advances in Engineering Software. 22, 95-97.
2.
Goktepe, F., Arman, H. & Pala, M. (2010), A new

approach for classification of clayey soil: a case study
for Adapazari region, Turkey, Scientific Research and
Essay,. 5(15), 2037-2043.
3. Goh, A.T.C. & Kulhawy, F.H. (2003), Neural network
approach to model the limit state surface for reliability
analysis, Can. Geotech. J., 4, 1235-1244.
4. Erzin, Y. (2007), Artificial neural network approach for
swell pressure versus soil suction behavior, Can.
Geotech. J., 44, 1215-1223.
5. Juang, C.C., Jiang, T. and Christopher, R.A. (2001),
Three-dimensional site characterization: neural network
approach, Geotechnique, 51(9), 799-809.
6. Wan, S. & Yen, J.Y. (2006), The study of SSI problems
in an industrial area with modified neural network
approaches, Int. J. Numer. Anal. Meth. Geomech., 32(9),
1087-1106.
7. Shangguan, Z., Li, S. & Luan, M. (2009), Intelligent
forecasting method for slope stability estimation by
using probabilistic neural network, The Electronic
Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 13, 1-10.
8. Banimahd, M., Yasrobi, S.S. and Woodward, P.K.
(2005), Artificial neural network for stress strain
behavior of sandy soils: knowledge based verification,
Computer and Geotechniques, 32, 377-386.
9. Kurup, P.U. and Dudani N.K. (2002), Neural network for
profiling stress history of clays from PCPT data, Jl. of
Geotech. and Geoenv. Engineering, ASCE, 128(7), 569579.
10. Sezer, A. (2011), Prediction of shear development in
clean sands by use of particle shape information and
artificial neural networks, Expert Systems with
Applications, Elsevier, 38, 5603-5613.
11. Kim, C.Y., Bae, G.J., Hong, S.W., Park, C.H., Moon,
H.K. & Shin, H.S. (2001), Neural network based
prediction of ground surface settlements due to
tunneling, Comp. and Geot., 28, 517:547.
12. Chua, C.G. and Goh. A.T.C. (2003), A hybrid Bayesian
back-propagation neural network approach to
multivariate
modeling,
Int.
Jl.
Numer.
Anal.Meth.Geomech., John Wiley & sons, 27, 651-667.
13. Rajshekhran, S. and Pai, G.A.V. (2010), Neural
networks, fuzzy logic and genetic algorithms, PHI
learning private limited, New Delhi, India.
14. Rafiq, M.Y., Bugmann, G. and Easterbrook, D.J. (2001),
Neural network design for engineering applications,
Comput.Struct., 79, 1541-1552.
15. Kayadelen, C. (2008), Estimation of effective stress
parameter of unsaturated soils by using artificial neural
networks, Int. J. Numer. Anal.Meth.Geomech., 32(9),
1087-1106.
16. Gunaydm,O. (2009), Estimation of soil compaction
parameters by using statistical analyses and artificial
neural networks, Environmental Geology, 57, 203-215.

BEHAVIOUR OF RIGID FACED REINFORCED WALLS WITH STRIP REINFORCEMENT

USING 3D MODELS
Arup Bhattacharjee, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Civil Engg., Jorhat Engg. College, Jorhat, Email bhatta_arup@yahoo.com
A. Murali Krishna, Asst. Prof. Dept. of Civil Engg., IIT Guwahati, Email- amurali@iitg.ac.in
ABSTRACT: In this paper, the behavior of rigid faced reinforced soil retaining walls with strip reinforcement and sheet
reinforcement are simulated and studied using FLAC 3D. In modeling of rigid faced soil retaining walls, soil is modeled as
elasto-plastic with Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion. The reinforcement members are modeled by using shell structural
elements. Various interfaces are considered between dissimilar materials for proper interaction. The performance of rigid faced
wall with strip and sheet reinforcements subjected to monotonic and dynamic loading are being studied. Behavioural aspects
of the model walls are discussed in terms of displacements, horizontal pressure and octahedral shear strains under monotonic
and dynamic loading. The results of model walls with strip reinforcement and sheet reinforcement are compared.
INTRODUCTION
Over past few decade uses of reinforced soil technologies is
enormously increasing and are found to be effective even for
several critical conditions compared to conventional soil
structures. Reinforced soil retaining walls offer competitive
solutions to earth retaining problems associated with less
space and more loads posed by tremendous growth in
infrastructure in recent times. They also offer improved
performance in addition to the advantages in ease and less
cost of construction compared to conventional retaining wall
systems. The studies conducted for observing the behavior of
reinforced soil retaining walls subjected to seismic shaking
can be classified into three categories: experimental studies
mainly based on shaking table tests and centrifuge tests,
analytical studies based on pseudo-static and pseudo-dynamic
approach and numerical studies. The numerical studies are
conducted by using different software based on finite element
and finite difference methods by many researchers [6,7,9].
Reinforced soil walls are constructed using different
reinforcing elements and facing systems. Wall facing system
may be: Warp facing, full height rigid facing, segmental
block facing and modular block facing. Reinforcing elements
may be metal strips or polymer product like geotextile,
geogrid, geomembrane etc. A study was conducted static
response of reinforced soil wall with strip reinforcement
using FLAC [1].
In this paper, the rigid faced soil walls are modeled using
three dimensional explicit finite difference software FLAC3D.
Two different types of reinforcement, sheet reinforcement
and strip reinforcement are considered for simulation. The
patterns of sheet and strip reinforcement are explained in
Fig.1. The dynamic response of rigid faced wall with sheet
and strip reinforcement are examined.
GENERATION OF NUMERICAL MODELS FOR
RIGID FACED WALLS
Rigid faced reinforced soil wall models with mat
reinforcement described by [8] are considered as the
reference case for the generation of numerical models. The
detail of the model wall is shown in Fig. 2.
(a)
(b)
Fig.1 Rigid faced reinforced wall with (a) mat reinforcement

(b) strip reinforcement.
The experimental procedure of model development has been
followed in development of numerical model using FLAC3D.
FLAC3D is an explicit finite difference programme used for
engineering mechanics problems. A rigid foundation is first
generated to represent the shaking table. The rigid wall is
simulated and fixed at the bottom to lateral sliding. The
backfill is filled in layers of equal lifts and reinforcements are
placed after each. The formulation of model is described in
detail in the following subsections.
Fig.2 Test arrangement of rigid face reinforced retaining wall

[8]
Numerical grid
A rigid zone of size 800 mm long and 50 mm thick
considered at the base of the wall to represent the shaking
table. A grid of size 600 mm high, 25 mm thick and 500 mm
wide rigid wall is generated to represent the rigid faced
Arup Bhattacharjee & A. Murali Krishna

retaining wall. A grid of size 600 mm high, 750 mm long and
500 mm wide is generated to represent the backfill of rigid
faced retaining wall. The whole grid is divided into number
of zones of size 25 mm each. The size of the grids is selected
in such a way that, the mesh size of the model must be
smaller than approximately one-tenth to one-eighth of the
highest frequency component of the input wave for accurate
transmission of wave through a model [5] during dynamic
shaking. The construction sequence followed in generation of
numerical grids is same as that of physical model. Before
placing the first layer, the foundation zone is generated and
brought to static equilibrium. The wall is placed over the
foundation and brought to static equilibrium. Initially wall is
fixed in x direction to represent the fixed support during the
construction. The backfill of the model is generated at an
equal lifts. The reinforcement is placed after each lift. The
four layer mat reinforcements are laid along whole length of
wall. In case of strip reinforcement, four layers with the
horizontal spacing between 25 mm and 50mm wide strip
reinforcement is 150 mm. So the vertical distance between
the two reinforcing layer is 150 mm. The reinforcement is
fixed with the wall to form a rigid connection between wall
and reinforcement. The model is solved for static equilibrium
after generation of grids of each lift. The surcharge of 0.5 kPa
is applied at the top of the backfill and model is brought to
equilibrium. The supports of the wall are removed after that
and model is brought to static equilibrium. Figure 3 shows
the numerical grid considered to simulate the rigid faced wall
with mat and strip reinforcement.
(a)
(b)
Fig.3 Numerical grid of rigid faced reinforced retaining wall

with (a) mat reinforcement and (b) strip reinforcement
Material properties
Wall
The rigid wall is simulated as elastic material. The properties
required for the elastic material model are mass density, shear
modulus and bulk modulus.
Backfill material
The backfill soil is modeled as elasto-plastic material with
Mohr Coulomb failure criterion. The properties required for
Mohr-Coulomb material model are mass density, bulk and
shear modulus, friction and dilation angle. A small cohesion
value is applied to prevent premature yielding [2]. The local
damping ratio of 5% is adopted for soil and wall element
during dynamic analysis.
Reinforcement Material (Geotextile)
The geotextile layers are modeled using the geogrid structural
element in FLAC3D. The geogrid elements are three nodded
shell elements that resist as membrane but do not resist

bending loading. The geogrid element behaves as isotropic
linear elastic material with no failure limit. The required
input parameters for geogrid element in FLAC3D are: (1)
elastic modulus (2) Poissons ratio (3) thickness of geogrid.
Interface properties
The interface between the dissimilar materials is modeled as
linear spring-slider system with interface shear strength
defined by the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion. Two types of
interfaces are used in this model: interface between the soil
and rigid wall and interface between soil and reinforcement.
The interface between backfill soil and rigid wall controls the
relative movement between them. The relative interface
movement is controlled by interface normal stiffness (kn) and
shear stiffness (ks). A recommended thumb rule is that ks and
kn be set to ten times the equivalent stiffness of the stiffest
neighboring zone [3]. The maximum stiffness value is given
by [3] as
4
(1)
k +
G
3
k n = k s = 10 max
( z )min
Where the parameters (z)min , K and G are the smallest

dimensions in normal direction, bulk modulus and shear
modulus continuum zone adjacent to the interface
respectively. This approach gives the preliminary values of
the interface stiffness components, and these can be adjusted
to avoid intrusion to adjacent zone and to prevent excessive
computation time. The model material properties are
tabulated in Table 1.
Table 1 Material properties used in numerical simulation
Wall properties
Mass density, kg/m3
2500
Elastic modulus, kPa
2107
Soil properties for Mohr model
Mass density, kg/m3
1630
Elastic modulus, kPa
1104
Poissons ratio
0.3
Friction angle, Degrees
43
Dilation angle, Degrees
15
Cohesion, kPa
0.1
Reinforcement (Geotextile) properties
Mass density, kg/m3
0.23
Thickness, m
0.001
Reinforcement stiffness, kN/m
5.2
Reinforcement (Geotextile) interface properties
Coupling spring cohesion, kPa
0.1
Coupling spring friction, Degrees
29
Coupling spring stiffness, kPa
1106
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The dynamic model studies are conducted for sinusoidal
dynamic motion at 0.2g base input acceleration. The model is
subjected to dynamic shaking of 20 cycles at frequency 3 Hz.
Figure 4 shows the comparison of the variation of horizontal
displacements, RMSA amplification factors and horizontal
Behaviour of rigid faced reinforced walls with strip reinforcement using 3D models
pressure increments at different elevations obtained from of
physical and numerical models. The RMSA amplification
factor is the ratio of RMS acceleration values at different
elevation to that of base RMS acceleration value. The RMS
acceleration value can be calculated from following equation
[4].
2
a (t ) dt
(2)
where a(t) is acceleration time history, td is the duration of

the acceleration record and dt is time interval of the
acceleration record.
The results obtained from numerical models shows
reasonable agreement with experimental results reported by
researcher [8]. However, the incremental pressure obtained
from numerical model shows some significant difference
with experimental results. Using the validated numerical
model, rigid faced reinforced retaining wall with strip
reinforcement is generated. The static and dynamic responses
of rigid faced retaining wall with mat and strip reinforcement
are compared and discussed.
Experimental
Numerical
60
Elevation in cm
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
10
Horizontal
displacement, mm
0.0
0.5
1.0
40
Elevation in cm
td
60
Figure 5 shows the comparison of horizontal displacement

and horizontal pressure at different elevation for unreinforced
wall and reinforced wall with mat and strip reinforcement at
end of construction. The maximum horizontal displacement
at an elevation of 55 cm is 13.19 mm for unreinforced wall
while that of reinforced wall is 0.55 mm, 0.95 mm and 0.73
mm with mat reinforcement, 25 mm and 50 mm wide strip
reinforcement respectively. The horizontal displacement
decreases considerably for reinforced wall. But little increase
of displacement in wall with strip reinforcement compared to
mat reinforcement. The horizontal pressure at an elevation of
10 cm is about 1.0 kPa for unreinforced wall as well as
reinforced wall. The horizontal pressures do not show
appreciable variation in unreinforced and reinforced wall.
10
15
0.0
0.2
0 .4
0.6
0.8
1 .0
1.2
Horizontal
pr es sur e in kPa
Fig. 5 Comparison of horizontal displacement and horizontal

pressure at different elevation after support removal
Figure 6 shows the variation of octahedral shear strain on soil
element along the length of backfill after support removal.
The maximum strain of 0.14 is produced on soil element at
elevation 52.5 cm adjacent to the wall for unreinforced
retaining wall. The maximum strain is 0.06 and 0.04 for
reinforced wall with 25 mm and 50 mm wide strip
reinforcement and 0.02 for wall with mat reinforcement.
This is due to movement of wall away from backfill. So a
small failure zone in form of settlement of soil is formed near
the wall, but is confined only on higher elevations. This is
more significant for unreinforced wall and less for wall with
mat reinforcement. The strain on soil elements at deeper
backfill is less than 0.03 for unreinforced wall and is much
lesser for reinforced wall. So no failure zone will form at
deeper backfill soil.
un re info rc ed
25 mm s t rip
0 .1 2
Incremental
pressure, kPa
Fig. 4 Variation of horizontal displacement, RMSA

amplification factor and incremental pressure at different
elevation after 20 cycles 0.2g at 3Hz dynamic motion
Horizontal
displacement in mm
1.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
RMSA
amplification factor
20
0 .0 6
m at
50mm st rip
A t el ev atio n 52. 5c m
0 .0 0
O ct ahedral shear strain
1
=
t d
RMS
Unreinf orc ed
M at reinforcement
25mm wi de st rip reinf orc em ent
50mm wi de st rip reinf orc em ent
0 .1 2
A t elev at ion 37.5 cm
0 .0 6
0 .0 0
0 .1 2
A t elev at ion 22.5 cm
0 .0 6
0 .0 0
0 .1 2
A t elev at ion 7.5c m
0 .0 6
0 .0 0
0.0
0 .2
0 .4
0 .6
0. 8
Lengt h of b ack f ill in m etre
Fig. 6 Variation of octahedral shear strain along length of

backfill at different elevation after support removal
Figure 7 shows the comparison of horizontal displacement
and horizontal pressure at different elevation for unreinforced
wall and reinforced wall with mat and strip reinforcement
after dynamic excitation. The maximum horizontal
displacement at an elevation of 52.5 cm is 18.70 mm for
Arup Bhattacharjee & A. Murali Krishna

unreinforced wall while that of reinforced wall is 7.39 mm,
11.00 mm and 8.80 mm with mat reinforcement, 25 mm and
50 mm wide strip reinforcement respectively. The horizontal
displacement decreases considerably for wall with mat
reinforcement but increases for wall with strip reinforcement.
The horizontal pressure at an elevation of 10cm is 1.60 kPa
for unreinforced wall. The horizontal pressure at same
elevation is 2.30 kPa for reinforced wall with mat
reinforcement and 2.05 kPa and 1.83 kPa for wall with 25
mm and 50 mm wide strip reinforcement.
Un reinforce d
Mat re inforce me nt
25 mm strip rein fo rcement
50 mm strip rein fo rcement
60
Elevation in cm
40
20
0
0
12
16
20
24
Hori zontal di sp lace ment i n mm
0. 5
1 .0
1. 5
2 .0
2. 5
Increme ntal pressure i n kPa
Fig. 7 Comparison of horizontal displacement and horizontal

pressure at different elevation after dynamic excitation
unreinforc ed
25mm s tr ip
0.12
Octahedral shear strain
0.06
mat reinforcem ent

50m m strip
At elevation 52.5cm
0.00
0.12
At elevation 37.5cm
0.06
0.00
0.12
At elev ation 22.5c m
0.06
0.00
0.12
At elevation 7.5cm
0.06
0.00
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Length of bac kfill in metre
Fig. 8 Variation of octahedral shear strain along length of

backfill at different elevation after dynamic excitation
Figure 8 shows the variation of octahedral shear strain on soil
element along the length of backfill after dynamic excitation.
The maximum strain of 0.14 is produced on soil element at
elevation 52cm adjacent to the wall for unreinforced retaining
wall. The maximum strain is 0.09 and 0.06 for reinforced
wall with 25 mm and 50 mm wide strip reinforcement and
0.04 for wall with mat reinforcement. This is due to
movement of wall away from backfill. So a small failure zone

in form of settlement of soil is formed near the wall, but is
confined only on higher elevations. The vertical settlement is
more for unreinforced wall than reinforced wall with strip
and mat reinforcement. The backfill strain is 0.03 for
unreinforced wall and less than 0.02 for reinforced wall. So
some horizontal and vertical displacement will occur at
higher elevations of backfill soil.
CONCLUSIONS
The numerical models are developed to study the behaviour
of reinforced wall with mat and strip reinforcement. The
following conclusions are made from present study:
1. The displacements of reinforced wall with strip
reinforcement are more than the wall with mat reinforcement
for both monotonic and dynamic simulation.
2. The failure surface in form of settlement of backfill
will form near the wall but confined to the upper layers of
backfill. The settlement of soil is more for wall with strip
reinforcement than that of mat reinforcement.
REFERENCES
1. Abdelouhab, A., Dias, D., and Freitag, N. (2011).
Numerical analysis of the behaviour of mechanically
stabilized earth walls with different types of strips,
Geotextiles and Geomembranes, Vol. 23, 116-129.
2. Hatami, K. and Bathurst, R. J. (2005). Development and
verification of a numerical model for the analysis of
geosynthetic-reinforced soil segmental walls under
working stress conditions. Canadian Geotechnical
Journal, Vol. 42, No. 4,1066-1085.
3. Itasca (2008). Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua3D
Version 3.1 Itasca Consulting Group Inc., Minneapolis.
4. Kramer,S.L.(1996).
Geotechnical
Earthquake
Engineering, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ,
653p.
5. Kuhlemeyer, R.L and Lysmer, J. (1973). Finite element
method accuracy for wave propagation problems,
Journal Soil Mechanics and Foundations Div. ASCE,
Vol. 99, No. SM5, 421-427.
6. Ling, H.I., Yang, S., Leshchinsky, D., Liu, H. and Burke,
C. (2010). Finite-element simulations of full scale
modular-block reinforced soil retaining walls under
earthquake loading. Journal of Engineering Mechanics,
ASCE, Vol.135, No. 5, 653-661.
7. Liu, H. and Ling, H.I.(2011). Seismic response of
reinforced soil retaining walls and strain softening of
backfill soil. International Journal of Geomechanics,
ASCE, doi:10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000051.
8. Murali Krishna, A. and Madhavi Latha, G. (2009).
Seismic behaviour of rigid-faced reinforced soil
retaining
wall
models:
reinforcement
effect.
Geosynthetics International, 16, No.5, 364-373.
9. Murali Krishna A. and Madhavi Latha G. (2012).
Modeling of dynamic response of wrap faced reinforced
soil retaining wall. International Journal of
Geomechanics,
ASCE,
Vol.12,
No.4,
doi:
10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000128.

December 13-15,2012, Delhi (Paper No.F616)
ANALYSIS OF GEOTEXTILE TUBE FOR COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

Dr Ambarish Ghosh, Professor, Bengal Engg & Science University, Shibpur ambarish@civil.becs.ac.in
Sudhanwa Pal, Project Engineer, Development Consultant (P) Limited Kolkata, sudhanwa100@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT: Geotextile tubes are used in flood protection and erosion control in coastal areas. They can be used to
containment of dredged materials and dewatering of slurry. This paper describes the analysis and design of geotextile tube for
various engineering applications. Analysis of geotextile tube has been done using the program MATLAB based on the Plaut
and Suherman (1998) method [1]. Two cases have been considered where the unit weight of slurry relative to water is taken as
1.2 and the circumference of the tubes are chosen as L=9m and 10m. The various important parameters like height, base width
and tensile force in Geotextile tube have been computed. The effect of pumping pressure versus height of the tube and tensile
forces have been illustrated in graphs. The major design considerations which are related to the integrity of the units during
release and impact, the accuracy of placement, and the stability under current and wave attack are discussed. The various
design aspects such as geotechnical design, hydrodynamic design and geotextile characteristics have been discussed.
INTRODUCTION
Geotextiles have recently become a new engineering
material with numerous applications. One of these
applications is the use of geosynthetic tubes filled with a
slurry-mix, including sand, concrete, or mortar. These
tubes have proven to be an economical alternative for the
construction of breakwaters, groins, and temporary levees.
They have also been used for slope protection along with
many other engineering projects. Geotextiles are
permeable fabrics which are able to hold back materials
while water flows through. Geosynthetic tubes are large
tubes consisting of a woven geotextile material filled with
a slurry-mix. The mix usually consists of dredged material
from the nearby area but can also be a mortar or concrete
mix. The tubes can be used solely, or stacked to add
greater height and usability.
SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
There are inlets at the upper part of the tube where the
pumping hose is inserted. The number and interval of
inlets are dependent upon the type of the soil being used
[2]. Typical lengths and widths of geotextile tubes are 150180m and 4-5m, respectively, with the effective height of
1.5-2.0m.
ANALYSIS OF GEOTEXTILE TUBE

Analysis of geotextile tube can be done numerically or
analytically. In this paper the method of analysis as done
by Plaut & Suherman (1998)[1] is adopted to calculate the
various design parameters for the geotextile tube. For
calculation purposes MATLAB (R14) program has been
used. Two cases are considered where the unit weight of
slurry relative to water was taken as 1.2 and the
circumference of the tube was chosen as L=9m and 10m.
Analysis and result
The cross section of a tube that rests on a rigid, foundation
is shown in Fig.2. The horizontal coordinate is X, the
vertical coordinate is Y, the arc length from the origin
at the right lift-off point is S, the contact length is B,
and the cross section has total perimeter L, height H,
width W, and area A.
Fig. 2 Cross section of tube on rigid foundation
Fig. 1 Filling procedure in a geotextile tube
Dr Ambarish Ghosh, Sudhanwa Pal

It is convenient to introduce the following nondimensional
quantities:
B
W
H
, w= , h=
L
L
L
P
T
p bot = bot , t =
int L
int L2
b=
Where
Pbot = Pressure at the bottom of the tube
int= Specific weight of the slurry
T=Circumferential tension
The parameter k is defined by the following expression.
A plot of parameter k versus bottom pressure was given by
Plaut & Suherman (1998) [1].
k=
2 t
p bot
Fig. 3 Pumping pressure versus tensile force for L=9m
The result of analysis is presented in a graphical manner.

Fig.3, Fig.4, Fig.5, Fig.6 describes the effect of pumping
pressure on the tensile force and height of the geotextile
tube.
INPUT DATA
PROGRAM CALCULATED VALUE
Pbot
All values are in non dimensional terms

0.10
0.999
0.552
0.096
0.605
0.0025
0.15
0.996
0.434
0.137
0.514
0.006
0.20
0.992
0.320
0.175
0.425
0.010
0.25
0.985
0.238
0.207
0.367
0.015
0.50
0.920
0.017
0.304
0.240
0.053
1.00
0.700
0.156
0.286
0.408
0.123
1.50
0.600
0.131
0.300
0.406
0.203
Fig. 4 Pumping pressure versus height for L=9m
CASE:1 (L=9m)
Pbot
(kPa)
(m)
(m)
(m)
(kN/m)
1.08
1.62
2.16
2.70
5.40
4.96
3.91
2.88
2.14
0.15
0.86
1.23
1.57
1.86
2.74
5.44
4.62
3.82
3.30
2.16
0.24
0.54
0.95
1.47
5.14
CASE:2 (L=10m)
Pbot
(kPa)
(m)
(m)
(m)
(kN/m)
1.20
1.80
2.40
3.00
6.00
5.52
4.34
3.20
2.38
0.17
0.96
1.37
1.75
2.07
3.04
6.05
5.14
4.25
3.67
2.40
0.30
0.67
1.18
1.82
6.35
Analysis of geotextile tube for coastal environment

has demonstrated that it is possible to fill in the geotextile
tubes to 70% or 80% of the theoretical maximum circular
diameter. The dredged material filled in the geotextile can
be any material capable of being transported hydraulically.
Naturally occurring beach or river sand is the perfect
choice for structural fill.
Hydrodynamic Design
Hydrodynamic stability is a very important factor for
coastal and near shore geotextile tube construction.
Loading sources include waves, tides and winds.
Geotextile structure may collapse due to overturning and
sliding forces associated with waves including breaking
wave, non breaking wave etc.
Fig. 5 Pumping pressure versus tensile force for L=10m.
Fig. 6 Pumping pressure versus height for L=10m.

DISCUSSION
Two cases have been considered where the unit weight of
slurry relative to water is taken as 1.2 and the
circumference of the tubes are chosen as L=9 m and 10 m.
The various important parameters like height, base width
and tensile force in Geotextile tube have been computed. It
is clear from the graphs (for both cases) that with the
increase of the pumping pressure the height of the tube and
the tensile force are increasing and the base width is
decreasing.
DESIGN CONSIDERATION OF GEOTEXTILE
TUBE
The major design considerations are related to the integrity
of the units during release and impact, the accuracy of
placement, and the stability under current and wave attack.
The following design aspects should be considered.
Geotechnical design aspect
The physical characteristics of the filling material are
important factors of geotextile tube design and
construction. Types of soil and degree of saturation
influence the final geotextile tube shape. Field experience
Geotextiles characteristics
The retention of fill and the structural integrity of a
dredged material-filled tube are provided by geotextile
envelope. Functionally, geotextile selection is based on the
geotextiles opening characteristics, which must match the
fill particle size and permeability, and must have sufficient
strength to resist the filling pressures. A composite fabric
shell is sometimes used, since it incorporates both an inner
non woven fabric for filtration and an outer woven fabric
for strength. Formulation of a geotextile tube, filled with
pressurized slurry or fluid, is based on the equilibrium of
the encapsulating flexible shell.
ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE OF USING
GEOTEXTILE TUBE
There are several advantages using geotextile tube which
include lower cost, successful beneficial uses of dredged
material, ability to use the tube in soft foundation and
flexibility in working in difficult access area. The major
disadvantages of using geotextile tube are lack of
permanency, tendency when used incorrectly to roll or
move, vulnerable to vandalism, only useful as longer term
breakwaters when filled with sand material, fine-grained
materials use primarily limited to contaminants storage
and isolation, only appropriate in low to moderate wave
energy conditions, and hard to successfully stack,
especially in high tidal ranges.
CONCLUSIONS
Geotextile tubes may be considered for alternative
structure designs in many applications. They are being
considered for sills, low-crested breakwaters, the cores
of dunes or rubble mound
structures,
containment
dikes, groins, and compartmentalization structures that
limit movement of sand along a beach. The successful
application
of
geotextile
tube
warrants
the
consideration
of possible
loading
and
various
geohydrological conditions in design. To prevent the
geotextile tube from various adverse condition suitable
armour design shall be considered.
Dr Ambarish Ghosh, Sudhanwa Pal

REFERENCES
1. Plaut, R.H., and Suherman, S. (1998). Two
dimensional analysis of geosynthetic tubes. Acta
Mechanica 129, 207-218
2. Pilarczyk, Krystian W.(2003). Alternative systems for
coastal protection An overview. International
Conference on Estuaries and Coasts November 911,2003, Hang-Zhou, China.
3. Cantre,S.(2002).Geotextile-tubes-analytical
design
aspects. Geotextile and geomembranes 20 (305-319).
4. Leshchinsky, D.,Leshchinsky, O., Ling, Hoe I.,
Gilbert, Paul A.(1996).Geosynthetic tubes for
confining pressurized slurry: some design aspects.
Journal of geotechnical engineering, 122(8),682-690.
5. Liu, G.S. (1981). Design criteria of sand sausages for
beach defense. Proceedings, 19th Congress of the
International Association for Hydraulic Research,
Vol. 3, new Delhi, India, 123-131
6. Plaut, R.H., Klusman, C.R.(1999) Two-dimensional
analysis of stacked geosynthetic tubes on deformable
foundations.Thin walled structure 34 (179-194).
7. Seay, P.A., Plaut, R.H .(1998). Three-dimensional
behavior of geosynthetic Tubes. Thin walled structure
32 (263-274).
8. Shin, E.C. and Oh, Y.I., (2006), Using submerged
geotextile tubes in the protection of E. Korean shore,
Coastal engineering, Vol. 53, pp. 879-895.
9. Shin, E.C. and Oh, Y.I., (2007), Coastal erosion
prevention by geotextile tube technology, Geotextiles
and Geomembranes, Vol. 25, pp. 264-277.
10. Silverster, R. (1986). Use of grout-filled sausages in
coastal structures, Journal of Waterway, Port,
Coastal, and ocean Engineering, Vol.112, No-1,pp.
95-114.

BEARING CAPACITY OF CIRCULAR FOOTINGS ON REINFORCED FOUNDATION BEDS

OVER SOFT COMPRESSIBLE GROUND
K. Rajyalakshmi Lecturer, Dept. of Technical Education (A.P.), email: dhanista123@gmail.com

Madhira R. Madhav Professor Emeritus, JNTU Hyderabad and Visiting Professor, IITH, email: madhavmr@gmail.com
K. Ramu Professor, JNTU Kakinada, email: kramujntu@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT: The paper presents a method for the estimation of bearing capacity of a circular footing on the surface of a
reinforced foundation bed over soft compressible clay. The proposed method modifies the Meyerhofs theory for estimation of
bearing capacity of a two layer system of dense fill over soft ground which considers punching mode of failure of footing, for
upper granular beds of thickness smaller than the width of the footing, by incorporating the Vesics Cavity expansion theory
for soft soils and also the axial resistance to pull of reinforcement. A parametric study quantifies the contributions of various
parameters.
INTRODUCTION
PROBLEM DEFINITION AND FORMULATION
Reclamation of tidal or low-lying lands typically involves

laying of granular bed over the soft ground for possible
constructional utilization. The estimation of bearing capacity
of foundations is one of the basic and challenging problems
of geotechnical engineering and is largely based on rigidplasticity analysis. An alternative to the plasticity analysis is
the Vesics [1, 2] cavity expansion theory that considers the
compressibility/stiffness of the ground together with its shear
strength.
The bearing capacity of circular footings on finite or semiinfinite homogeneous soft soil has been an area of interest to
many researchers. Menard [3] obtained bearing capacity
solutions considering the shear modulus as well as the shear
strength of soil.
Vesics solution [1, 2] for bearing capacity, qb, of a footing
based on expansion of cylindrical cavity in undrained clay
under the conditions of zero average volumetric strain is
A circular footing (Fig. 1) of diameter, B rests on the surface

of a granular layer of thickness, H, with a single layer of
geosynthetic reinforcement placed in the granular bed,
overlying a soft compressible clay deposit. The unit weight
and the angle of shearing resistance of the granular stratum
are and respectively while su is the undrained shear
strength, G, the shear modulus of soft ground and r, the
interface/bond resistance between geosynthetic layer and the
granular fill.
(1)
where Nc* = (lnIr +1) and Ir = G/su - the relative rigidity
for footings on the
index. The overburden pressure,
surface of the ground is zero. Hence, Eq. 1 reduces to
(2)
Madhav & Padmavathi [4] established that ground/soil being
a much more complex material than metals from which the
original theories have been developed, requires the
consideration of stiffness as well as the strength parameters
for the estimation of ultimate loads.
Fig.1 Circular footing resting on a Reinforced foundation bed
Method of Analysis
Substituting the shape factor for circular footing, the ultimate
unit bearing capacity, qbL, of a circular footing on the surface
of a compressible deposit given in Eq. 2 becomes
qu = 1.2(ln
G
+ 1) su 0
su
(3)
K. Rajyalakshmi, Madhira R. Madhav & K. Ramu

The shape factor for circular footings on compressible ground
is assumed to be equal to 1.2, as in the case of circular
footings on homogeneous ground.
the normalised bearing capacity factors, Ncg and Ncr* for a

two-layered unreinforced and reinforced systems.
Meyerhofs Method for footings on sand overlying clay

Figure 2 illustrates the punching mode of failure of footings
on two layered soil of sand overlying clay by Meyerhof [5].
As per the Meyerhofs [5] theory, the bearing capacity of a
circular footing on the two layered soil is
(4)
and is limited by the ultimate bearing capacity of the granular
layer of infinite extent as
(5)
Fig. 2 Bearing capacity analysis for sand over clay, Meyerhof [5]
where c = undrained cohesion, is the of shearing resistance

of sand, is the unit weight of sand, B is the width of the
footing, D is the depth of embedment of the footing, Ks is the
coefficient of punching shearing resistance, s is the shape
factor governing the passive earth pressure on a cylindrical
wall, Nc, Nq and N are the bearing capacity factors.
For circular footings on the surface of the ground (D = 0) and
assuming value of s as equal to 1, Eq. 4 gets reduced to
(6)
Bearing capacity of unreinforced and
foundation beds on soft compressible ground
reinforced
The bearing capacity, qug, of an unreinforced two layered

system of granular fill overlying soft compressible ground,
supporting a circular footing on the surface of the granular
layer is obtained by incorporating the Vesics [1, 2] theory in
the Meyerhofs [5] equation for estimation of bearing
capacity of a two layered system (with c=su) as
(9)
The bearing capacity of a footing resting on reinforced

granular bed overlying a soft compressible clay layer,
depends on and H/B related to the granular layer, B/su,
related to unit weight of granular fill, width of the footing and
undrained strength of the clay layer, G/su related to the clay
layer and r/ & Lr/B related to the reinforcement. A
parametric study is carried out to quantify the effects of
various parameters on the bearing capacity of the
unreinforced and reinforced two layered systems for G/su
equal to 63(for Nc = 5.14), 250 and 1000.
(7)
The bearing capacity, qur*, of a reinforced two layered system
of granular fill overlying soft compressible ground,
supporting a circular footing, on the surface of the granular
layer is obtained by summing the bearing capacity of the soft
ground, granular fill and the axial tension in the
reinforcement as
(8)
Eqs. (7) and (8) are normalised by the undrained shear
strength, su to get Eqs. (9) and (10) respectively which are
Fig. 3 Ncg versus H/B- Effect of Relative rigidity index, G/su
Bearing capacity of Circular footings on Reinforced foundation beds over soft compressible ground
Fig. 3 presents the variation of normalised bearing capacity,

Ncg of an unreinforced two layered system with H/B, for a
granular fill with of 350, for B/su equal to 15 and 25. Ncg
values equal 6.2, 7.8 and 9.5, for G/su equal to 63, 250 and
1000 respectively, at H/B=0, for both B/su equal to 15 and
25. Ncg values equal 11.4, 13.2 and 15.1 at H/B = 0.4 and
70.8, 74.1 and 77.8, at H/B = 1.4 for G/su equal to 63, 250
and 1000 respectively, for B/su equal to 15. Ncg values
increase to 14.6, 16.4 and 18.2, at H/B = 0.4 and 109.8, 112.8
and 116.5, at H/B = 1.4 for G/su equal to 63, 250 and 1000
respectively, for B/su equal to 25.
The normalized bearing capacity, Ncg increases with H/B. The
effect of G/su, relative stiffness index on the bearing capacity
of the unreinforced two layer system is marginal while that of
B/su on the bearing capacity of unreinforced two layer
system is significant. Relatively softer clays or relatively
wider footings with higher values of B/su show marked
improvement in bearing capacity, which increases with H/B
value (Fig. 3).
The variation of normalised bearing capacity, Ncr* of a
reinforced two layer system with H/B, for a granular fill with
of 350, r/ of 0.75 and Lr/B of 5, for B/su equal to15 and
25 is presented in Figure 4. The normalized bearing capacity,
Ncr* increases with H/B. Ncr* values equal 23.3, 25.1 and
26.9, at H/B = 0.4 and 112.2, 115.5 and 119.3, at H/B = 1.4,
for G/su equal to 63, 250 and 1000 respectively, for B/su
equal to 15. Ncr* values increase to 34.4, 36.1 and 38.0, at
H/B = 0.4 and 178.8, 181.9 and 185.6, at H/B = 1.4, for G/su
equal to 63, 250 and 1000 respectively, for B/su equal to 25.
Similar results as obtained in figure 3 are obtained. While the
effect of G/su, the relative stiffness index on the bearing
capacity of the reinforced two layer system is negligible, that
of B/su on the bearing capacity of reinforced two layer
system is significant and improves with the value of H/B
(Fig.4).
Fig. 4 Ncr* versus H/B- Effect of G/su
Fig. 5 presents the variation of normalised bearing capacity,

Ncg with , for a granular fill with H/B of 0.6 and B/su equal
to 15, for G/su equal to 63, 250 and 1000. Ncg values equal
14.4, 16.6 and 18.8, at = 30 degrees, 18.0, 20.0 and 22.0, at
= 35 degrees and 25.6, 27.4 and 29.2, at = 40 degrees, for
G/su equal to 63, 250 and 1000 respectively, for B/su equal to
15. The normalized bearing capacity, Ncg increases with .
The increase is gradual for 300 < < 350 and sharp thereafter
due to the increase in denseness of the granular fill. Stiffness
of the underlying ground adds to the improvement in bearing
capacity of the two layered system of granular fill over soft
ground. Denser granular fills on relatively stiffer grounds
show improved bearing capacity.
Fig. 5 Ncg versus - Effect of Relative rigidity index, G/su
Fig. 6 Ncr* versus - Effect of Relative rigidity index, G/su
K. Rajyalakshmi, Madhira R. Madhav & K. Ramu
The variation of normalised bearing capacity, Ncr*, of a

reinforced two layer system with , for a granular fill with
H/B of 0.6, B/su of 15, r/ of 0.75 and Lr/B of 5, for G/su
equal to 63, 250 and 1000 is presented in figure 6. The
normalized bearing capacity, Ncr* increases with . Similar
results as obtained in fig. 6 are obtained. Ncr* values equal
29.3, 31.5 and 33.8, at = 30 degrees, 35.8, 37.8 and 39.8, at
= 35 degrees and 46.3, 48.2 and 50.0, at = 40 degrees for
G/su = 63, 250 and 1000 respectively. The effect of stiffness
of the underlying soft ground on the bearing capacity of the
reinforced two layer system is marginal.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

An analysis of bearing capacity of a circular footing on the
surface of a geosynthetic reinforced foundation bed over soft
compressible clay is presented. Punching mode of failure
proposed by Meyerhof for dense granular fill overlying clay
is considered and the results for bearing capacity of a footing
on the surface of a clay deposit given by Vesic incorporated
in the Meyerhofs approach, for estimating the bearing
capacity of a footing on reinforced two layer system. Denser
granular fills on relatively stiffer grounds and also reinforced
granular fills overlying soft ground show improved bearing
capacity. The increase in length of reinforcement results in an
increase in bearing capacity. Relatively softer clays or
relatively wider footings with higher values of B/su show
marked improvement in bearing capacity.
REFERENCES
Fig. 7 Ncr* versus Lr/B- Effect of G/su

The variation of normalised bearing capacity, Ncr*, of a
reinforced two layer system with Lr/B, for a granular fill with
of 350, r/ of 0.75, H/B of 0.6, B/su of 15, for G/su equal
to 63. 250 and 1000 is presented in figure 7. Ncr* values equal
18.0, 20.0 and 22.0 at Lr/B equal to 1, 26.9, 28.9 and 30.9 at
Lr/B equal to 3 and 35.8, 37.8 and 39.8 at Lr/B equal to 5, for
G/su equal to 63, 250 and 1000 respectively.
The normalized bearing capacity, Ncr* increases with Lr/B.
For Lr/B equal to 1, the effect of reinforcement is zero, as the
reinforcement does not extend beyond the footing width. The
increase in length of reinforcement beyond the width of the
footing results in an increase in bearing capacity. The effect
of G/su, relative stiffness index on the bearing capacity of the
reinforced two layer system is significant due to the increase
in bearing capacity of the ground with increase in stiffness of
the ground indicated by the value of G/su (Fig. 7).
1. Vesic, A.S. (1972), Expansion of cavities in infinite soil

mass, J. Soil Mech. and Found. Div., ASCE, 98(3), 265290.
2. Vesic, A.S. (1973), Analysis of ultimate loads of shallow
foundations, J. of Soil Mech. & Found. Div., ASCE,
99(1), 45-73.
3. Menard, L. (1957), Mesures in situ des proprits
physiques des sols, Annales des Ponts et Chausses, Paris,
14, 357- 377.
4. Madhav, M.R. and Padmavathi, V. (2008), Effect of
Stiffness of Ground on Ultimate Capacity of
Foundations, IGC 2008, Bangalore.
5. Meyerhof, G.G. (1974), Ultimate bearing capacity of
footings on sand layer overlying clay, Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 11, 223-229.

A STUDY ON RESPONSE OF LATERALLY LOADED PILES

EMBEDDED IN LAYERED COHESIONLESS SOIL
S.K. Biswas, Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata-32, sumiturdr1@rediffmail.com
S.P. Mukherjee, Professor and Head of Civil Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata-32, sibapmukh@yahoo.co.in
Moyukh De, PG Scholar of Civil Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata-32, 123sherlock@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: In this paper, an attempt has been made to study some aspects of behavior of laterally loaded piles in
cohesionless soil by experiments and consequently with the help of numerical study by PLAXIS 3D software. The
experimental study was done on cast iron pipe model piles, varying different parameters. Consequently numerical analysis
has been done for single piles with the variation of parameters within the same ranges. It was observed that the results obtained
by PLAXIS 3D software agree very well with the experimental results. So, there is a good possibility to go for in depth
analysis for lateral response of pile in cohesionless medium by the software to develop design charts.
INTRODUCTION
In civil engineering practice piles are subjected to a wide
variety of loading conditions due to earthquake, wind, sea
wave and the like. Thus it is understood that response of pile
under lateral loading has a great importance in analysis and
design of piles. Many approaches have been made by various
researchers so far [1, 3]. A non-dimensional relative stiffness
factor was suggested to predict the behavior of piles [3].
Design charts were developed for prediction of lateral
response of piles with the help of theoretical and
experimental studies [1]. With this in view an attempt has
been made to examine the behavior of laterally loaded piles
in layered soil in the present study.
sand (i.e. elastic modulus (E), increment of Youngs modulus

(Eincrement) with depth and angle of internal friction (),) have
been investigated thoroughly for parametric studies. The
variation of these parameters is presented through graphs
shown in Fig. 3, Fig. 4, and Fig. 5.
The value and E value were obtained from Vacuum
Triaxial Tests done with different confining pressure of 0, 1
& 1.5 Kg/cm2. In case of sand the youngs modulus increases
with depth and this is represented by Eincrement expressed in
units of kN/m2/m.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
Material Properties
Here mainly two types of materials were used
i)
Sand as soil medium and
ii)
Cast iron pipe as model piles.
A. Cast Iron Tubular Piles (Hollow)
Density of Cast Iron
9.23 X 10-8 KN/mm3
Youngs Modulus Ep
66307.55 MPa.
27130.424 MPa.
Shear Modulus p
0.222
Poissons Ratio (s)
B. Cohesionless Soil
Maximum dry Density(dmax)
1.70gm/cc
3
Minimum dry Density(dmin)
1.37gm/cc
Specific Gravity (Gs)
2.696
Void ratio (loosest) emax
0.992
Void ratio (densest) emin
0.605
Shear Strength
Poissons Ratio (s)
0.2
The particle size distribution of the sand used and its
variation of relative density with density have been plotted in
Fig. 1, Fig 2 respectively. Elastic and shear parameters of
Fig. 1 Particle Size Distribution Curve
Fig. 2 Calibrated Graph for relative density Vs Density
Sumit Kumar Biswas, Sibapriya Mukherjee, Moyukh De
Fig. 6 Height of fall vs. density
Fig. 3 Figure showing elastic modulus of sand vs. density

with respect to different confining pressure
Test Programme
Total 12 tests, out of which, six tests were executed for single
or uniform layered and six tests were performed for double
layered soil. The tests were done with variation in
slenderness ratio and relative density. For double layer,
variation was made also in respect of the top layer thickness
expressed in terms of percentage of pile length.
Test Set up and Equipment
The Test set up consists of the following components (Fig.7)
1. Test tank.
Fig. 4 Eincrement vs. density

Fig.7 Schematic Diagram of the Test Set Up
A square aluminum tank of 100 cm X 100cm X 120cm deep
for model test was fabricated to facilitate the observation of
lateral response inside foundation medium. A scale was set
inside the tank to check the depth of sand during filling.
2. Dial gauges
3. Hopper
4. Model piles.
Fig. 5 Angle of internal friction vs. relative density

The density of the sand medium for the test was controlled by
the rainfall technique. Experiments have been carried out to
establish the variation of density of sand with height of fall of
sand for a constant flow rate (Fig 6).
Test Procedure
For conducting the model test sand was filled into test tank
by rainfall technique with hopper. Sand pouring technique
plays an important role in the process of achieving the
desired density of sand bed. The reliability of results would
depend upon the uniformity of density. So maintaining the
respective height of fall correctly is very essential. At first the
model pile was installed at the centre of the tank and then
sand filling was done. Sand was filled up to the desired
height as was required. Model pile test was then done by
applying lateral load. The load was applied by dead loads in
increments and the test was conducted till failure.
A Study on Response of Laterally Loaded Piles Embedded in Layered Cohesionless Soil

NUMERICAL STUDY BY FEM
Finite Element Modeling
To model the non-linear behavior of soil surrounding the pile,
Mohr-Coulomb criterion has been considered. This elastoplastic model depends on the basic geotechnical parameters.
Lateral static loading was applied stepwise up to failure load
(P). The load was applied along X axis.
Here, the 3D finite element modeling was done with the help
of PLAXIS 3D Foundation Software. A 3D mesh was created
by the software by using the 15 nodded wedge elements.
The main input parameters were: E (Young's modulus),
(Poisson's ratio), (Friction angle), C (Cohesion), Eincrement
(Increase of stiffness). The soil mass affecting the pile
response diminishes when the width is greater than 40D [2].
So, in the present analysis, the width of soil mass was taken
as greater than 40D i.e. (4024) mm, where, D was the pile
diameter i.e. 24 mm. Here the depth of soil is taken as 1.7
times the length of pile to consider the effect of lateral load
on soil immediately below the pile.
FAILURE LOAD
The variation for ultimate horizontal failure load with respect
to different parameters like density, slenderness ratio of piles
and thickness of top layer for layered soil system in case of
single pile has been studied. Earlier an empirical equation
was proposed to calculate horizontal pile head deflection
corresponding to the ultimate soil resistance of the pile [4],
the equation is given as:(1)
Yu =3b/80
Where, b=width of the pile (in inch) and Yu =ultimate
deflection (in inch).
So, Yu=3 (24/25.4)/80
=0.0354 inch
=0.9 mm
(This accounts to about 3.75% of the initial diameter)
Above method was employed to estimate the failure load in
the analysis of results of both PLAXIS and experimental
results.
PARAMETRIC STUDY
In brief variations of the following testing parameters were
done for experimental and numerical studies:
1. Relative Density (from 40% to 90%)
2. Slenderness ratio (15, 20 and 25),
3. Top layer thickness in terms of percentage of pile length
(from 10% to 100%)
Load Displacement Graph
The following figures (Fig.8 to Fig. 11) were obtained at the
outset of the total study. The load displacement curves from
the experiments are compared with the PLAXIS generated
curves as shown in Fig. 8 where it is shown that the curves
obtained from experiments and PLAXIS 3D are in close
proximity. Also the ultimate load obtained from both the
cases varies within 10%, in which the PLAXIS slightly
overestimates.
Fig. 8 Typical graph of uniform soil comparing the numerical

and experimental approach
As the results from numerical analysis and experimental
analysis are in very close proximity when compared, some
more cases were studied by PLAXIS i.e. numerical analysis
and the consequent results were thoroughly studied alongwith the results obtained earlier to see the variation of
ultimate horizontal load with different parameters.
Failure load vs. Relative Density
Fig. 9 Ultimate Horizontal failure load vs. Relative density

with varied slenderness ratio for pile embedded in uniform
medium
Fig. 9 shows the variation of failure load Vs. relative density
with varied slenderness ratio. As the relative density
increases, the failure load on the pile increases due to
increase in soil stiffness. As the slenderness ratio increases
the failure load increases with increase of embedded length.
Failure load vs. top layer thickness in terms of percentage
of pile length
Fig. 10 shows the variation of failure load vs. top layer
thickness variation with respect to pile length for type 2 soil
condition.
Sumit Kumar Biswas, Sibapriya Mukherjee, Moyukh De

As the thickness of top layer increases, the failure load of the
pile decreases. This decrease can be divided into two distinct
zones. This is the due to the fact that in zone 1 the thickness
of top layer is such that the fixity depth of the pile is
substantially inside the stronger layer.
Fig. 10 Ultimate Horizontal failure load vs. Top layer

thickness variation with respect to pile length
Comparison between failure load vs. top layer thickness
in terms of percentage of pile length
Fig. 11 Typical graph showing comparison between Ultimate

Horizontal failure loads vs. Top layer thickness variation with
respect to pile length
Fig. 11 shows the variation of failure load versus the
percentage thickness of top layer. It can be seen that as the
relative density of layer 2 increases the commencement of
zone 2 precedes. This is due to increase in relative density
decreases the fixity depth.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions may be drawn from the present
study:
1. It was seen that the result obtained by PLAXIS3D
FOUNDATION software agrees very well with the
experimental results.
2.
As the relative density and slenderness ratio increases the

failure load increases.
3 There is a decrease in failure load with increase in top
weak layer depth.
4. With increase in density of soil of bottom layer the depth
of fixity depth decreases.
REFERENCES
1. Broms, B.B. (1965), Design of laterally loaded piles,
Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division,
Vol. 91, 79-99
2. Chik, Z.H., Abbas, J.M., Taha, M.R. and Shafiqu,
Q.S.M. (2009). Lateral behavior of single pile in
cohesionless soil subjected to both vertical and
horizontal loads. European Journal of Scientific
Research, Vol.29 No.2, 194-205.
3. Reese, L.C. and Matlock, H. (1956). Non-dimensional
solutions for laterally-loaded piles with soil modulus
assumed proportional to depth. Proceedings of the 8th
Texas Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering, Austin, Texas, 1-41.
4. Reese, L.C. Cox, W. R., and Koop, F. D. (1974)
Analysis of laterally loaded piles in sand, Proc. 6th
Annual Offshore Technology Conference, Houston,
paper OTC 2080, 473483.

A CYCLIC NON-LINEAR MODEL FOR COHESIVE SOILS

P. Subramaniam, Research Scholar, Indian Institute of Technology, Madras, psmani100@gmail.com
Subhadeep Banerjee, Assistant Professor, Indian Institute of Technology, Madras, subhadeep@iitm.ac.in
ABSTRACT: The shear modulus and damping ratio are the two general parameters for clayey soils in dynamic soil behaviour
characterization. It is obvious that under cyclic loading, soil behaves hysteretically in the stress-strain plane. In this regard,
several mathematical models were proposed to simulate the soil behaviour under the cyclic loading conditions. For most of
such models, Masing rule is often used to define the unloading-reloading behaviour of stress-strain loops. However, the
framework of masing rule overpredicts the damping ratio at high strain range as noted by many researchers. The present study
deals with a hyperbolic-hysteretic soil model based on Masing rule. Simple correction factor for the calculation of damping
ratio was introduced and the corrected damping ratio for kaoline clay was compared with the present experimental results.
Good agreement was obtained between the computed and present experimental results for a wide range of strains.
INTRODUCTION
It is well known that the mechanical behaviour of natural soil
under dynamic loading significantly differs from those under
quasi-static loading. From literatures [1, 2], it is noted that
soil behaviour is non-linear, even at relatively small strains.
At very small strains, shear modulus (G) is almost a
horizontal straight line, indicating that shear modulus, often
termed as small strain shear modulus or maximum shear
modulus (Gmax) is roughly constant. Furthermore, as the
strain level rises above a certain range, the shear modulus
decreases significantly over a range of strains. In this regime,
the soil behaviour is hysteretic, indicating limited plasticity
already exists, even though the yield locus is not yet reached.
Within this range of strain, G can drop by as much as 2
orders of magnitude (~100 times). Finally, at a very high
strain, large-scale yielding occurs and elasto-plasticity starts
to dominate soil behavior. Under cyclic loading soil produces
hysteresis loop in the stress-strain plane. i.e., significant
amount of applied energy is dissipated in terms of material
damping due to cyclic loading such as earthquake loading,
machine loading etc., Hysteresis damping ratio reveals the
energy dissipated in one cycle irrespective of frequency of
loading. In order to measure the material damping laboratory
tests are conducted such as resonant column, cyclic triaxial
and cyclic shear tests. Several mathematical models [3, 4]
were proposed to simulate the soil behaviour under the cyclic
loading conditions. For most of such models, Masing rule [5]
is often used to define the unloading and reloading branches
of hysteresis loop along with the nonlinear backbone curve to
represent the stress strain behaviour of the materials under
cyclic loading. The loading and unloading branch of the
backbone curve is twofold drag of the backbone curve and
has same geometric shape. Damping characteristics of
Masing model is derived from the backbone curve. So the
backbone curve cannot be modified independently. However,
it was also noted that the framework of Masing rule tends to
overpredict the damping ratio at moderate to high strain range
[6, 7].
The present study focuses on a hyperbolic-hysteretic soil
model based on Masing rule. First the competence of the
model to predict the variation of shear modulus and damping

ratio for a wide strain range will be examined. Secondly a
simple correction for the calculation of damping ratio will be
introduced. Finally the corrected damping ratio is validated
with the present experimental results.
Backbone Curve
The stressstrain behaviour of cohesive soils can be
expressed using a hyperbolic relationship in the form of Eq. 1
q = qf
G max
(1)
R + R 2 s
Where, s is the generalised shear strain, R is a modulus ratio

given as,
R=
Gmax
qf
(2)
Where qf is the deviator stress at failure and maximum shear

modulus (Gmax) for clay is taken as [8]
(3)
, 0.653
( )
Gmax = 1964 p
Modeling the Hysteretic Behaviour of Soils

In this study, Masings rule [5] was adopted to model the
hysteretic behaviour of the soil during the unloading and
reloading phases of each load cycle. Accordingly, the shapes
of the unloading and reloading curves are similar to that of
the backbone curve, except that (i) the scale is enlarged by a
factor of 2 and (ii) the shear modulus on each loading
reversal assumes a value equal to the initial tangent modulus
of the initial loading (backbone) curve. Accordingly the
unloading and reloading phases of each loading cycle can be
given as Eqs. 4 and 5 respectively.
d s * Gmax
qunload = qul 1 +
2
(4)
G * ( r1 s )
1 + max
2q f
P. Subramaniam & Subhadeep Banerjee
qreload = qrl 1 +
d s * Gmax
G * ( r1 s )
1 + max
2q f
(5)
In the current constitutive relationship, the point of loading

reversal was identified using Dasaris approach [9] as
follows:
Reversal angle,
X .Y
= cos 1
loop as observed in experimental result reasonably matched

well with the proposed model.
Modulus Reduction Curve
The modulus reduction curve, derived from Eq. 1, can be
represented as Eq. 7,
G
1
=
Gmax (1 + R r )
(6)
X X YY
(7)
1.0
where,
0.8
X = strain increments for all six strain components between

(i-1)-th step and (i-2)-th step and
th step and (i-1)-th step
Accordingly, if the reversal angle computed from Eq. 6 is
larger than 90, stress path reversal is deemed to have
occurred.
0.6
G/Gmax
Y = strain increment for all six strain components between i-
0.4
Test results
Hyperbolic hysteretic model
0.2
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
The following sections assess the performance of the
proposed constitutive model by comparing the computed
results with the experimental findings. In the present study,
38mm samples of kaolin clay is used for strain controlled
cyclic triaxial tests and resonant column test to obtain
modulus values and damping ratios for shear strains ranging
from 10-3% to 1%. Prior to cyclic shearing, a confining
pressure of 200kPa was applied for all the tests and at 6
different frequencies ranging from 0.05Hz to 1.5Hz, cyclic
testing was carried out.
Stress-strain behaviour
Deviatoric stress kPa
80
Computed
Experimental
60
40
0.0
1E-3
0.01
0.1
10
Shear Strain (%)
Fig. 2 Comparison of computed and experimental modulus

reduction curves varying with shear strain
The reduction curve, shown on Eq. 7, is plotted for different
strain amplitudes on Fig. 2. The continuous line in Fig. 2
represents the computed trend of the modulus reduction ratio
(G/Gmax) for different strain levels associated with the initial
backbone curve. The results of the laboratory cyclic triaxial
and resonant column tests conducted in the present study are
also plotted in the Fig. 2. Calculated modulus reduction curve
from the present analyses exhibits the typical reverse S-shape
trend. The computed curve does fall within the range covered
by the present experimental data points.
20
0
-0.015
-0.01
-0.005
0
-20
0.005
0.01
0.015
Strain (%)
-40
Damping ratio
The damping ratio can be defined as the ratio of energy
dissipated per unit volume of one cycle to the elastic strain
energy stored the material. The concept of damping ratio is
explained in the Fig. 3.
-60
The area of hysteresis loop can be expressed as [9]

-80
Fig. 1 Comparison of computed and experimental stressstrain loops for cyclic triaxial tests (strain amplitude =1.4%)
Fig. 1 shows the measured and computed stress-strain loop
for test, in which a specimen was subjected to cyclic shearing
of constant strain amplitude 1.4% and loading frequency of 1
Hz. As shown on figure, despite a little over-estimate at the
peak tension, the hyperbolic-hysteretic model generally
predicts the peak stresses to a reasonable extent. However
figure also shows that the area enclosed by the stress-strain
W = 8 f ( ) d W
0
(8)
W is the elastic strain energy stored in the loading phase:
W =
1
r f ( r )
2
(9)
A cyclic non-linear model for cohesive soils

where, f ( r ) describes the basic stress strain relationship
given by Eq. 1.
65
60
55
Test results
50
Damping ratio (%)
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1E-4
1E-3
0.01
0.1
10
Shear strain (%)
Fig. 4 Comparison of computed and experimental damping

ratios varying with shear strain
Fig. 3 Typical hysteresis curve in the deviatoric stress strain
plane
Hence the damping ratio is given by
D=
W
4W
(10)
2 f ( )d
2
= 0
1
(11)
r f ( r )
Substituting f ( ) as q from Eq. 1, D can be expressed as
Dma sin g
2q f r 2Gmax
ln(1 + R r )
2
2
R
=
1
Gmax
r q f
2
R + R r
where, R=
(12)
Gmax
.
qf
The damping response given by Eq. 12 is graphically plotted

on Fig. 4, together with the present experimental data. The
results point out that, for almost entire strain range, the
proposed model over-predicts the strain-dependent damping
characteristics of clay. Such general over-prediction of
damping ratio is also noted by Ishihara [10].
DAMPING RATIO CORRECTION

The hyperbolic-hysteretic model with Masing rule, though
can predict the modulus reduction, tend to over-predict the
damping ratio. Few researchers have tried to solve this. Based
on plasticity index (PI) and relative consistency (Cr) two
correction parameters for damping ratio was proposed [7].
The reference strain was quantified in terms of relative
consistency. The model also requires the maximum damping
ratio as an additional input. However the maximum damping
ratio has to be find out from the experiments at the large
shear strain amplitude, is not a readily available parameter. A
set of equations to predict the damping ratio based on Masing
rule was developed [6]. However the equations were very
complex and involve several parameters. An expression for
damping ratio was developed for Taipei silty clay based on
Ramberg-Osgood type backbone curve [11]. Again the
application of the model was limited as it was not tested for
different types of soils with wide range of plasticity.
Correction Parameters
In the present study correction parameters are introduced as
the function of plasticity index and modulus reduction. These
correction parameters are related to the damping ratio based
on original masing rule. Effects of loading cycles and
confining pressures on damping ratio were not considered
[10]. Hence the corrected damping ratio can be expressed in
the form of Eq. 12,
(12)
Dcorrected = Dmin + C * Doriginal
The terms present in the eq. 12 are as follows. The
constant minimum damping ratio that clay can exhibit under
low strain, is termed as (Dmin). The general trend suggest
that, for strain amplitudes less than 0.001%, the curves for
modulus degradation and damping ratio become almost
horizontal. From Fig. 4, Dmin was found to be approximately
0.9%. However the effect of Dmin at higher strains was found
to be negligible.
P. Subramaniam & Subhadeep Banerjee

The correction factor C depends on modulus
reduction and plasticity index and can be defined as eq. 13.
G
C = A *
G max
log B
(13)
Where (G/Gmax) is the modulus reduction at a specified strain

level and the parameters A and B are the functions of
plasticity index (PI).
Vucetic & Dobry presented set of design curves for variation
of modulus reduction and damping ratios with strain
amplitudes for different plasticity index [1]. These wellestablished data sets were used to derive the expressions for
parameters A and B. The expressions for A and B, as obtained
from the regression analysis, are as follows.
(14)
A = 0.056 + 0.3 exp( 0.023 PI )
log B = 0.004 PI
(15)
30
Damping ratio (%)
25
Test resullts
with damping correction
20
15
10
0
1E-4
1E-3
0.01
0.1
10
Shear strain (%)
Fig. 5 Comparison of computed and experimental damping

ratios varying with shear strain
The detailed analysis and comparison with published results
will be available [12].
CONCLUSIONS
In the present study a simplified hyperbolic-hysteretic model
with damping correction was proposed for cyclic loading on
remoulded soft clay. The modulus reduction was computed
from the model. The computed damping ratio matched well
with the present experimental studies on remoulded kaolin
clay. Only two additional parameters required for damping
correction and both the parameters A and B depend on
plasticity index & modulus reduction.
REFERENCES
1. Vucetic, M. and Dobry, R. (1991), Effect of soil
plasticity on cyclic response, J. Geotech. Eng, ASCE,
117(1), 89-107.
2. Puzrin, A., Frydman, S. and Talesnick, M. (1995),
Normalising degrading behaviour of soft clay under
cyclic simple shear loading, J. Geotech. Eng. Division,

ASCE, 121(12), 836-843.
3. Idriss, I.M., Dobry, R., Doyle, E.H. and Singh, R.D.
(1978), Nonlinear behaviour of soft clays during cyclic
loading conditions, J. Geotech. Eng. Division, ASCE,
104, 1427-1447.
4. Rao, S.N. and Panda, A.P. (1998), Non-linear analysis of
cyclic strength of soft marine clay, Ocean Engineering,
26(3), 241-253.
5. Masing, G. (1926), Eigenspannungen und Verfestigung
beim Messing, Proc., 2nd Intl. Congress on Applied
Mechanics, Zurich, 332-335.
6. Darendeli, M.B. (2001), Development of a New Family
of Normalized Modulus Reduction and Material
Damping Curves, Ph.D. Dissertation, The University of
Texas, Austin.
7. Romo, M.P. and Ovando-Shelley. E. (1996), Modelling
the dynamic behaviour of Mexican clays, Proc., 11th
world conf. Earthquake eng, Mexico, 1024.
8. Viggiani, G. and Atkinson, J.H. (1995), Stiffness of finegrained soils at very small strains, Geotechnique, 45(2),
249-265.
9. Dasari, G.R. (1996), Modeling of the variation of soil
stiffness during sequential construction, Ph.D.
Dissertation, Cambridge University, United Kingdom.
10. Ishihara, K. (1996), Soil behavior in earthquake
geotechnics, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
11. Lee, C.J. and Sheu, S.F. (2007), The stiffness
degradation and damping ratio evolution of Taipei Silty
Clay under cyclic straining, Soil Dyn. and Earthquake
Eng, 27, 730-740.
12. Subramaniam, P. and Subhadeep Banerjee. (2013), A
correction to damping ratio for hyperbolic-hysteretic
model for clayey soil, International Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, (In Press).

VERTICAL PULLOUT CAPACITY OF TWO INTERACTING GROUND ANCHORS IN

HOMOGENEOUS COHESIONLESS SOIL DEPOSIT
G. Santhoshkumar, PG Student, IITK, santhosh.gtech@gmail.com
Priyanka Ghosh, Associate Professor, IITK, priyog@iitk.ac.in
ABSTRACT: The ultimate vertical pullout capacity of a group of two horizontal smooth anchors embedded at shallow depths
has been found out by using method of characteristics coupled with limit equilibrium approach. Both the anchors are loaded
simultaneously until the failure occurs. The effects of surcharge and density are measured in terms of Fq and F, respectively,
which influence the uplift resistance of anchors and are presented as functions of embedment ratio and the friction angle .
The effect of interaction phenomenon of two anchors is expressed in terms of efficiency factor and its variation with respect
to different clear spacing (S) between two anchors has been computed. The results of the numerical analysis are compared with
the available theoretical and experimental data reported in the literature.
INTRODUCTION
In many situations, anchors are generally placed in group to
support structures like transmission towers, offshore mooring
structures, retaining walls etc. There are number of theories
available in hand for single isolated anchors. But only few
studies have been carried out in case of group of anchors [17]. Meyerhof and Adams [1] gave a theoretical solution using
limit equilibrium approach by considering a rectangular
wedge of the soil, prevailing through the outer edges of the
anchor. Hanna et al. [2] conducted a series of small scale
model tests on circular anchors. Murray and Geddes [3] also
conducted experiments on square anchors. Kumar and
Kouzer [4] sought the help of upper bound method to study
the interacting strip anchors using a simple rigid wedge
mechanism. Kumar and Bhoi [5] studied the interference
effect of group of anchors experimentally. Experiments were
conducted on a single anchor by adopting the concept of
plane of symmetry. Kumar and Kouzer [6] improved their
previous research by incorporating finite elements and linear
programming. Ghosh and Rajusha [7] worked on both static
and seismic interference cases using finite element method.
From different studies, it is observed that the ultimate pullout
capacity of the interfering anchors reduces extensively with a
decrease in the spacing between them. The present study
aims to find out the vertical pullout capacity of nearby
anchors placed in the cohesionless soil medium numerically.
The analysis has been carried out using method of stress
characteristics. The vertical equilibrium of soil is also
satisfied in order to obtain the correct failure mechanism.
PROBLEM DEFINITION
Two closely spaced strips anchors of equal width B are
considered to be embedded horizontally in a cohesionless soil
medium at a depth of D from the ground surface. The clear
spacing between two anchors is kept as S as shown in Fig.1.
The anchor plates are considered to be perfectly smooth as
the roughness of the anchor plates does not affect the pullout
capacity much (Rowe and Davis [8], Merfield and Sloan [9]).
Both the anchor plates are simultaneously loaded. Thus, the
present study aims to determine the uplift capacity (Pu) per

unit length of the anchor plates.
Fig. 1 Definition of the problem

ASSUMPTIONS
The following assumptions are considered in the analysis
1. Anchors are perfectly rigid and smooth.
2. Suction forces under the anchors are neglected.
3. The influence of anchor tie rods has not taken into account.
4. The anchor plates failed at the same instant with the same
magnitude of failure load.
5. The soil obeys Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion.
6. The problem follows plain strain condition.
ANALYSIS
The analysis has been carried out by modifying the failure
mechanism proposed by Rao and Kumar [10] for single
isolated anchor. The present study considers the method of
characteristics to find out the state of stress at required points
and thereby obtaining the distribution of vertical stress along
the surface of the anchor, applying suitable boundary
conditions. By satisfying the vertical equilibrium of soil in
the failure zone, the correct failure surface has been
determined. The extent of soil contributing to the anchor
resistance on the non interfering side (AN') of the anchor is
not fixed unlike the previous investigations (Fig.2). The
ultimate pullout capacity of the interacting anchor is
calculated similar to Terzaghis bearing capacity theory and
expressed in terms of uplift capacity factors.
G. Santhoshkumar, Priyanka Ghosh

distribution along the anchor OG. Similarly, the stress
distribution along OG can also be determined. Hence the
ultimate pullout capacity pu along the anchor can be
established. The ultimate pullout force of an interacting
anchor can be calculated by,
B
Pu = p dy
(1)
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2 Failure mechanism of an intervening anchor

Stress Distribution Along the Anchor
Considering the plane of symmetry along the centre line CLCL, (Fig. 1), the left portion is considered for the analysis. A
logarithmic spiral failure surface is considered to commence
from the outer edge of the anchor and becomes tangential to
the Rankine passive zones AEL and AEN, of which the
former zone is restricted due to the spacing S between the
anchors and the latter is not restricted. Thus, the log-spiral
surface becomes one of the characteristics. Following the
sign conventions (Fig. 2a), the curve OE becomes the (+)
characteristic. The state of stress at point E is known from the
concept of Rankine passive zone.
The orientation of the major principal stress () at E is -/2.
Determination of Exact Failure Surface

The failure surface, for which the pullout force is obtained, is
checked with the help of vertical equilibrium of soil region
LEOOEL. The pullout force based on the vertical
equilibrium can be determined by,
Pu = Q + W + V
(2)
Where, Q is the vertical downward forces due to surcharge

(q) = q (Xg + B + S )
2
2
W is self weight of the soil mass in the region LEOOEL
V is the total vertical downward force along the log-spiral
surfaces OE and O'E'.
For different values of AF, a number of failure surfaces are
obtained and the procedure is repeated until the pullout forces
obtained from the method of characteristics and vertical limit
equilibrium are equal in magnitude. The corresponding
failure surface gives the correct one.
Non Dimensionless Factors

Similar to Terzaghis bearing capacity equations, the ultimate
pullout resistance of anchor can be expressed as,
pu = Pu B = 0.5BF + qFq
(3)
Where, Fq and F are the ultimate uplift capacity factors

corresponding to surcharge and soil unit weight, respectively.
The uplift capacity factors can be determined by neglecting
one of the effects i.e. Fq can be obtained by considering soil
as weightless ( = 0). Similarly, F can be obtained by
considering no surcharge (q = 0).
Fig. 3 Element PP on the log-spiral arc

Making use of the geometry, the ordinates and the
orientation of the major principal stress along the arc are
found out (Fig. 3). The state of stress along the curve (logspiral) can be determined using the standard equations of
method of characteristics [11]. Thus the state of stress at the
outer edge (O) of the anchor can be established. By forming a
network of slip lines and applying boundary conditions, the
method of characteristics can be used to calculate the stress
In this paper, only the effect of interference due to unit

weight of soil (q = 0) is reported. The interference effect can
be expressed in terms of efficiency factor , which can be
defined as
=
pu of ineracting anchor of width B considering q = 0

p u of isolated anchor of width B considering q = 0
(4)
In the absence of surcharge, the ultimate pullout capacity of

interfering anchors can be expressed as,
pu = (Pu/B)=0.5BF
(5)
Vertical pullout capacity of two interacting ground anchors in homogenous cohesionless soil deposit
RESULTS
The ultimate uplift capacity factors for single isolated
anchors are obtained and presented in Table 1, as functions of
embedment ratio () and soil friction angle ().
Table 1 Ultimate uplift capacity factors
Fq
30
2.94
14.12
35
3.33
15.30
40
3.70
16.41
30
4.26
34.82
35
5.07
39.21
40
5.91
43.37
For any value of and , is observed to decrease with the

decrease in S/B ratio. It is observed that the decrease is
substantial when there is an increase in embedment ratio.
COMPARISONS
The present results are compared with the available
theoretical and experimental works in Figs. 6 and 7,
respectively.
Figs. 4-5 show the variation of efficiency factor with S/B

ratio for = 3 and 5, respectively.
Fig. 6 Comparison with analytical work

The present results are observed to be little higher than those
obtained from previous studies [1, 4]. Unlike the other cases,
the present work has not fixed the extent of failure zone on
the non interfering side of the anchor. The earlier studies
were found to provide conservative results.
Fig. 4 Variation of with S/B for =3
S/B
Fig. 7 Comparison with experimental work
Fig. 5 Variation of with S/B for =5
The present results are found to be higher than that obtained

by Kumar and Bhoi [5]. The difference is found to be
significantly high about 50% at minimum S/B and becomes
less about 5% at maximum S/B.
G. Santhoshkumar, Priyanka Ghosh

CONCLUSIONS
The interference effect of a group of two anchors is studied
and expressed in terms of efficiency factor . It is observed
that there is a substantial decrease in the pullout capacity of
anchors with decrease in spacing between the anchors. The
extent of the failure zone is found to be dependent not only
on the embedment ratio (), but also on S/B ratio.
REFERENCES
1. Meyerhof, G. G. and Adams, S. I. (1968), The ultimate
uplift capacity of foundations, Canadian Geotechnical
Journal, 5(4): 225-44.
2. Hanna, T. H., Sparks, R. and Yilmaz, M. (1972), Anchor
behaviour in sand, Journal of Soil Mech. Found
Division, ASCE, 98(11), 11871207.
3. Murray, E. J. and Geddes J. D. (1987), Uplift of anchor
plates in sand, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering,
Vol. 113, No. 3, 202-214.
4. Kumar, J. and Kouzer, K. M. (2008), Interference effect
on the vertical uplift capacity of two shallow horizontal
anchors, Gotechnique, 58(10), 821-824.
5. Kumar, J. and Bhoi, M.K. (2009), Interference of two
closely spaced strip footings on sand using model tests,
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, ASCE, USA, 134(4), 595-604.
6. Kouzer, K. M. and Kumar, J. (2009), Vertical uplift
capacity of two interfering horizontal anchors in sand
using an upper bound limit analysis, Computers and
Geotechnics, 36: 1084-1089.
7. Ghosh, P. and Rajusha. K. (2012), Seismic interference
effect of two nearby horizontal strip anchors, Natural
Hazards, DOI: 10.1007/s11069-012-0187-4.
8. Rowe, R. K. and Davis, E. H. (1982), The behaviour of
anchor plates in sand, Gotechnique, 32(1): 25-41.
9. Merifield, R. S. and Sloan, S. W. (2006), The ultimate
pullout capacity of anchors in frictional soils, Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, 43(8), 852-868.
10. Rao, K.S.S. and Kumar, J. (1994), Vertical uplift
capacity of horizontal anchors, Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, ASCE, USA, 120, 1134-1147.
11. Sokolovski, V. V. (1960), Statics of soil media,
Butterworths Publications, London.
NOTATION
The symbols used in the figures and equations are listed
below:
B
width of strip anchor
D
depth of embedment
ultimate uplift capacity factor due to surcharge
Fq
F
ultimate uplift capacity factor due to unit weight of
soil
horizontal force acting at the plane of symmetry
HF
Hq
horizontal force due to surcharge
horizontal force due to soil unit weight
H
normal force component along the log spiral
N1
Pu
ultimate pullout load
p
pu
Q
q
r
ro
r1
S
T1
V
W
Xg
vertical pressure along the anchor base

ultimate uplift pressure of the anchor plate
total vertical downward force due to surcharge
surcharge pressure
radius of log-spiral arc at any point
initial radius of log-spiral
final radius of log-spiral
clear spacing between two anchors
shear force component along the log spiral
total vertical downward force along the log-spiral
surfaces
weight of the soil mass LEOOEL
extent of failure surface on the ground
angle formed between the radii r0 and r of the logspiral surface
angle formed between the radii r0 and r1 of the logspiral surface
internal friction angle of soil
unit weight of soil
embedment ratio (D/B)
/4 /2
major principal stress
angle made by the major principal stress in a
counterclockwise sense with the positive x-axis
efficiency factor due to the unit weight of soil

ESTIMATION OF CAPACITY OF OFFSHORE PILES UNDER BOAT IMPACT

Prakasha Kuppalli, Engineering Specialist, Saudi Aramco, Saudi Arabia, prakasha.kuppalli@aramco.com
ABSTRACT : Offshore piles are subject to boat impact, the pile capacity during which is greater than those recommended by
API-RP-2A due to higher loading rate. Three approaches are generally attempted while making pile capacity estimation under
boat impact: 1) Adopt a certain percentage increase in soil strength per log time cycle. 2) Estimate the shear stress required to
fail a sample in one cycle of loading and use it in capacity estimation. 3) To estimate the dynamic capacity from dynamic
monitoring data due to hammer impact and interpolate to find the dynamic capacity under boat impact. This paper describes
the three approaches and comments on their suitability.
INTRODUCTION
Jacket platforms are installed offshore to provide support for
various equipments and guides for drilling. These jacket
platforms should transfer various loads to pile foundations
below. These include environmental loads, dead and live
loads and boat impact loads.
Boat impact loads are the loads arising due to boats hitting
the platform. These could be either boats that approach the
platform for operational purposes or those which lose control
and accidentally hit the platform. The time to reach the peak
load under such impact is known to be very small. The
resistance of soils under high rates of loading is known to be
high. RGME [3] studied this issue and have recommended
procedures for estimating increase in undrained strength of
clays.
Lunne et. al [2] present results from cyclic load tests and
suggest that the capacity of Dramman clays can sustain 65%
more loads if they are subject to failure in single cycle of
load compared to slow monotonic loading conditions.
Kraft [3] have studied the effect of rate of penetration on
CPT skin and tip resistance and have concluded that both
resistance increase rapidly at high rates of penetration for
sands.
Problem Definition
The capacity of offshore piles is generally calculated based
on
API-RP-2A [1] recommendations, which are based on results
from unconsolidated undrained triaxial tests. These tests are
run at a very slow rate and time to peak is generally about
120 secs. These recommendations are meant for calculating
the pile capacity under static and environmental loads which
have a period of about 10 secs. Hence the time to peak load
is 2.5 secs in case of wave loading. However the peak load
due to boat impact is known to occur in 0.8 secs. The
hammer impact loading takes about 2 millisecs to reach the
peak load. GRL [2] have presented the load time plot
during hammer impact
(Refer Fig. 1). Hence relative to the triaxial test loading rate,
the hammer impact rate (during pile driving) is about 60000
times faster, boat impact loading is 150 times faster and
wave loading is 50 times faster. Since it is well known that
the shear
strength of both clays and dense sands increase with the rate
of loading. Hence the capacity of offshore pile is expected to
be considerably higher for boat impact conditions. This
paper evaluates the approaches and compares them and
recommends the appropriate method for estimating pile
capacity under boat impact.
Different Approaches
As pointed out earlier three approaches can be adopted for
estimating the pile capacity under impact. They are:
Based on increase in strength of soils under higher rate
of loading
RGME [3] have compiled various literatures available and
the
Fig. 1 Load transfer during hammer impact

same have been presented in Fig.2. Based on literature and
series of laboratory tests on clays found in Saudi Arabia at
different rates of loading, they have suggested that the
strength of clays increases about 20% per every log cycle
increase in rate of loading. From the loading rates mentioned
above, it can be estimated that the capacity during impact
would be 46% higher than that determined from an UU
triaxial test.
Kraft et.al, [4] based on their experiments have established
that the CPT cone and friction resistances increases by 20%
for a log cycle increase in rate of penetration. Hence similar
Prakasha Kuppalli
increase can also be expected of dense sands which develop

negative pore pressures during shearing. Hence if the pile is
located in strata having clays and dense sands the capacity is
expected to be about 46% higher than that estimated using
API-RP-2A [1]. However, loose sands which develop
positive pore pressures during shearing are not expected to
show considerable increase in strength during impact
loading.
Based on results from cyclic tests
Lunne & Andersen [5] presents results from cyclic tests
carried out under different cyclic and average stresses for
Dramman clay. Their results are reproduced in Fig. 2. The
diagram shows the cyclic shear strength of soils as a function
of cyclic stress ratio, average stress ratio and number of
cycles to failure. As impact loading can be considered as a
single cycle of load, the strength under impact can be read
off from the plots from Fig. 2. The plots represent data for a
cyclic loading of 10 sec period (2.5 sec to peak loading). It
can be seen from the plot that the cyclic strength (cyclic
stress plus average stress) is at least 65% higher than for a
monotonic triaxial test. This increase would be higher for
higher rate of loading. This approach suggests that the
increase in capacity during impact would be at least 65%
higher than the static pile capacity. This is based on the
Fig. 2 Effect of loading rate on strength of clays

stress of about 40% due to dead loads and environmental
loads. Nf in Fig. 2 denotes the number of cycles required for
failure at the stress levels indicated by the axes. They have
also established similar relationships for dense sands, but
have not been presented here. Though this ratio may differ
for different soils, the variation is not expected to be
considerable.
Objections have been raised to this approach, on the grounds
that API-RP-2A does not allow for increase under wave
loading which has a much higher rate of loading than that
occurs in a triaxial test. It may be pointed out that, the
number of cycles of loading for a typical offshore situation is
about 150. Going back to the plots in Figs 1 and 2, one can
find that the cyclic shear strength for 150 cycles to failure
would be close to static capacity based on the same average
shear stress assumption mentioned earlier. This would
explain the reasoning behind API not allowing higher
strengths to be considered for wave loading conditions.
Hence, method based on increase in shear strength due to
higher rate of loading gives conservative estimate of increase
in capacity.
Fig. 3 Cyclic shear strength of clays

Based on CAPWAP results during pile driving
general fact that piles are subject to an average shear
While the above methods provide means of estimating the

increase in capacity during impact before pile driving, the
CAPWAP results can be conveniently used to confirm the
above based on the monitoring carried out during pile
Estimation of Capacity of Offshore Piles Under Boat Impact
driving. The signal matching process of CAPWAP computes

not only the static capacity but also the dynamic capacity and
the total capacity. Though many damping models are
available, Smith damping used in CAPWAP is expected to
give conservative estimates of dynamic capacity. The data
for a typical site for a restrike blow is shown in Table 1. It
can be seen from the table that the dynamic resistance is
usually greater than the static resistance. It has been
observed from data of various locations that the skin friction
dynamic resistance is always greater than 100% of static
resistance while the end bearing dynamic resistance is
between 30% and 100% of static end bearing resistance. This
lower increase in end bearing is typical of restrike blows as
full end bearing capacity might not have developed during
restrike. It has been observed that even the dynamic end
bearing is close to 100% static end bearing capacity during
end of drive blows. Never the less the total resistance has
always been found to be greater than twice the static
resistance.
Knowing the increase in capacity under hammer impact, one
can estimate the increase in capacity due to boat impact
knowing the times to peak loads mentioned earlier, assuming
a logarithmic relationship. From figure 4, it can be seen that
the interpolated dynamic resistance under boat impact would
be 45% of static capacity.
So, all the approaches indicate an increase of greater than
45% under boat impact. However a factor of 25% is taken in
practice as an appropriate value, in the absence of actual
data, as a conservative estimate.
While the first two approaches can be adopted for design
purposes, the last approach can be used for confirming the
capacity based on pile monitoring tests.
Table 1. Dynamic resistance table for a typical location
Fig. 4. Interpolation for dynamic capacity under boat impact

Conclusions
Following Conclusions can be drawn from the discussions in
the paper:
The pile capacity during boat impact would be
considerably higher than that estimated as per API-RP2A.
One can adopt the higher shear strengths of soils based
on laboratory tests and CPTs to account for rate effect
or use the cyclic shear strength for failure in one cycle
as the shear strength for estimating the boat impact pile
capacity during design stage. However the former,
being conservative, is used in practice.
The boat impact capacity should be confirmed from
CAPWAP analysis based on pile monitoring.
In the absence of definitive data, an increase in capacity
of 25% can be assumed as a conservative estimate.
References
1. API RP 2A (2010), Recommended guidelines for
design of offshore structures.
2. GRL associates (2012), Field report for ARBI 9,
Saudi Aramco.
3. RGME (2006), Final engineering report for Zuluf
MP 15. Saudi Aramco
4. Kraft, L.M. (1990). Computing axial pile capacity
in sands for offshore conditions, Marine
Geotechnology, 61-72
5. Tom Lunne and K.H. Andersen (2007) Soft clay
shear strength parameters for deepwater
geotechnical design, SUT conference, London 1113 Sept.

NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF SOIL-PILE SYSTEM SUBJECTED TO HORIZONTAL

DYNAMIC LOADING
Debjit Bhowmik, Research Scholar, IIT Kharagpur, debjitbhowmik@gmail.com
D. K. Baidya, Professor, IIT Kharagpur, baidya@civil.iitkgp.ernet.in
S. P. Dasgupta, Professor, IIT Kharagpur, dasgupta@civil.iitkgp.ernet.in
ABSTRACT: The present study aims at investigating the nonlinear behavior of single hollow pile in layered soil and subjected to
varying levels of horizontal dynamic load. A Finite Element Model has been developed using a commercially available FEM based
software. Mohr-Coulomb plasticity is used to simulate the soil plasticity whereas the pile-material is idealized as elastic in nature
in the model. Two types of motion: horizontal and rocking were estimated by this analysis. The effects of various influencing
parameters like eccentric moment, and length of pile on the nonlinear dynamic response of piles are investigated. It is found that
separation of pile from surrounding soil considerably affects the load carrying capacity of a pile.
INTRODUCTION:
Dynamic loads on pile foundation may come from different
sources like seismic activity, operation of heavy machinery in
factories, traffic movement in case of bridges and wave action
in case of offshore structures. One of the primary objectives of
pile foundation is to minimize the vibration amplitude to a
permissible limit. During vibration it offers resistance through
generation of stiffness and damping of pile-soil system due to
the interaction between them. The study of soil-pile interaction
is becoming more and more significant for more accurate and
advance design of continuously evolving complex and heavy
structures
In the early development, the soil-pile system was idealized as
a mass less equivalent cantilever and the theory of the subgrade reaction was used for dynamic analysis of piles [1].
Subsequently lumped mass-spring-dashpot model was
introduced to analyse pile foundations [2]. Later, a number of
solutions have been developed for the dynamic analysis of pile
foundation assuming that the behaviour of soil is linear elastic
or viscoelastic in nature and the soil is perfectly bonded to the
pile [3,4]. These approximate solutions are very useful in
understanding the basic mechanism of dynamic pile-soil
interaction. However, in reality both separation and slippage
can occur due to the formation of weak bond at the contact
between the soil and the pile. The finite element solutions are
very powerful computationally efficient method to evaluate
nonlinear dynamic soil-pile-structure system. Many researchers
used a 3-D Finite Element model to obtain the pile response
under dynamic loading considering the effects of material and
interface nonlinearities on the dynamic behaviour of single and
group piles [5,6].
The response of soil-pile system due to dynamic excitation is a
complex phenomenon because of soil nonlinearity at high strain
level and complex nature of pile-soil interaction involving both
slippage and separation between soil and pile. Very few

researchers have predicted the length of separation between the
pile and soil due to the vibration. Therefore there is a need for
developing some guidelines for estimating the pile separation
length under different modes of vibration with a good degree of
accuracy. In the present investigation it is aimed to study the
nonlinear dynamic behaviour of single piles by numerical
investigation under coupled vibration.
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS:
A finite element model using ABAQUS 6.10 has been
developed to study the dynamic behaviour of a single pile
driven in layered soil. The model was developed to simulate the
experimental investigation carried out earlier [7].
Geometric Configuration of the model:
The basic structure of the model is shown in the Figure 1 The
soil mass surrounding the pile is assumed to be cylindrical in
shape with radius equal to 10 times the diameter of the pile(1.0
m) and with depth 10 times the diameter of the pile below pile
tip of the longest pile (3.0 m). After the main soil mass, a 0.25
m thick outer layer of infinite soil mass is used to create a
boundary which will not reflect any seismic wave in the soil
medium. Static load of 10 kN is used with same size and shape
on top of the pile as used in experimental investigation. In the
soil mass, elements are more closely spaced near the pile
compared to the outer region. The pile and soil mass are
discretized using 8 noded hexahedral elements. The outer
periphery of the soil mass is modeled using single layer of
infinite elements. Static over burden load and horizontal
dynamic load have been applied to the centre of the oscillator.
Material Modelling:
The soil mass is idealized with elasto-plastic material property.
Mohr-Coulomb plasticity model is used to model the soil
plasticity. The pile is considered to be elastic. A calibration
Debjit Bhowmik, D. K. Baidya and S. P. Dasgupta

Model Test:
Hollow close ended steel pile with 100 mm diameter and 5 mm
wall thickness has been considered. Three different L/d ratios
(10, 15 and 20) were chosen for this study. Sinusoidal dynamic
force is applied to the centre of the oscillator. The excitation
force amplitude is given as a Fourier series in Equation 1.
N
a = A 0 + [A n cos n(t t 0 ) + BN sin n(t t 0 )] for

n =1
a = A 0 for t < t 0
t t0
(1)
Where, = circular frequency; t = time; t0 = intial time = 0;

N = 1; A0 = 0; A1 = 0 and B1 = 1.
Fig. 9 Simulation of soil-pile system using ABAQUS 6.10

analysis has been performed on a single element of soil. Soil
properties used in the model are closest simulation of the
properties determined from different laboratory tests on soil
sample collected from open pits during experimental
investigation are shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Soil properties determined from laboratory tests
Layer
I
II
III
Description
Unit
C
Depth
weight
(Kg/cm2)
(m)
(gm/cc)
Brown medium 0.0 to

organic sandy clay 0.3
Soft yellow
0.3 to
organic silty clay 1.5
Brown medium Below
stiff inorganic clay 1.5
()
1.771
0.46
23.4
1.804
0.62
20.1
1.852
1.13
15.6
Interaction between pile and soil:

Interaction properties are defined with surface to surface
interaction for top and middle layer, whereas for bottom layer
node to surface interaction is considered. Tangential behavior
will be governed by penalty interaction with angle of wall
friction taken as 2/3 of angle of internal friction. Normal
behavior is considered to be hard contact, allowing separation
after contact. Cohesive behaviour with default value has been
considered in case of bottom layer, as this layer predominantly
consists of medium stiff clayey soil.
Analysis Procedure:
Numerical model tests were carried out for 3 different L/d
ratios of the pile with 4 exciting moments (Me) in each case.
The analyses are done in three steps. First, gravity load is
applied in negative Z direction only in soil mass. Then gravity
load is applied to over burden mass and the pile. In the next
step the pile-soil interaction has been introduced and dynamic
external load is applied on a point 155 mm above the pile top to
simulate the conditions of the field test. There are two modes of
vibration in the coupled dynamic load analysis:
a) Horizontal translation,
b) Rocking motion.
Frequency and Amplitude Analysis
Typical frequency versus amplitude curves for both horizontal
and rocking motion obtained from the present study are
respectively shown in Figure 2 and 3 for L/d = 20 for different
values of dynamic excitation intensities. Figures 2 & 3 show
very similar characteristics those were found in experimental
investigation [7].There are two prominent peaks in frequency
amplitude response. The first peak is dominated by horizontal
motion whereas the second peak is dominated by rocking
motion. It is also seen from these figures that as the excitation
moment (Me) increases the resonant amplitude increases but the
resonant frequency decreases as was observed in the
experimental results. Figures 4 & 5 show comparison of
frequency amplitude response between numerical and
experimental investigations. It can be seen from figures 4 and 5
that the first resonance frequencies (fn1 & n1) from the
numerical model matched quite well with the results from
experimental investigation. But the second resonance
frequencies (fn2 & n2) are found to be larger from numerical
model than that of experimental investigation. Resonance
amplitudes (An & n) matched quite well on both the cases.
This may be the effect of pre-test localised separation occurred
during pile driving or presence of void in soil-pile interface
which in turn affects the stiffness of soil-pile system. Another
possibility is that in field condition soil mass mobilized by the
dynamic loading might be much greater in mass than that has
Numerical Simulation of Soil-Pile System Subjected to Horizontal Dynamic Loading

been idealized in numerical model and thus lesser value of
second resonance frequencies have been recorded in field tests.
0.001
Me = 0.125 N-m, Experimental
0.0009
0.3
Eccentric Moment = 0.125 N-m

0.25
Amplitude (mm)
Amplitude (Rad)
0.0008
0.2
0.15
0.0005
0.0004
0.0003
0.0001
0
0.05
10
20
30
40
50
60
Frequency (Hz)
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 5 Comparison between experimental and numerical results

for rocking motion in case of L/d = 20
Fig. 2 Frequency vs Amplitude response for Horizontal

vibration for L/d = 20
0.0008
0.0006
0.0002
0.0000
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 3 Frequency vs Amplitude response for Rocking Vibration

for L/d = 20
0.3

0.25
Me = 0.125 N-m, Numerical

0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0
10
20
30
-0.0004
-0.0002
0.0000
0.0002
0.0004
0.0006
-0.2
0.0004
Displacement in Horizontal Direction (m)

-0.0006
0.0
40
50
60
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 4 Comparison between experimental and numerical results

for horizontal motion in case of L/d = 20
Separation Length:
In numerical model horizontal displacements are recorded on
points on outside surface of pile and inside surface of soil in
interface region along the whole pile length. Maximum
displacement on pile surface at different resonance frequencies
Depth Below Ground Level (m)
0.0010
Amplitude (Rad)
0.0006
0.0002
0.1
Amplitude (mm)
0.0007
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0
-1.2
-1.4
-1.6
-1.8
-2.0
Me = 0.125 at Time 6.96743

Me = 0.125 at Time 6.98371
Me = 0.248 at Time 6.98355
Me = 0.248 at Time 6.9671
Me = 0.366 at Time 6.98344
Me = 0.366 at Time 6.96688
Me = 0.477 at Time 6.96677
Me = 0.477 at Time 6.98338
Fig. 6 Maximum horizontal displacement on pile surface at n2

along the pile length for L/d ratio 20
for different exciting moments (Me) are recorded and plotted in
Figure 6. It is evident from the figure that as exciting moment
increases movement of pile increases.
The separation between pile and soil mainly takes place at the
top of the pile. From the plot of horizontal movement of pile
and that of soil at contact surface, separation at top region of
pile is clearly visible. Figure 7 through 10 show a few such
plots which indicates the variation of length of separation with
dynamic load intensity at second resonance frequency for
rocking mode of vibration. Non-dimensional separation length
(ratio of separation length to pile diameter) versus nondimensional amplitude (ratio of amplitude to pile diameter) are
plotted in figures 11 and 12. for horizontal and rocking motion
respectively. In case of horizontal motion at second resonance
frequency the curve is much stiffer than that for first resonance
frequency. It means that for second resonance frequency the
depth of separation is much more dependent on maximum
horizontal amplitude.
Debjit Bhowmik, D. K. Baidya and S. P. Dasgupta

Horizontal Movement (mm)
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.0
-0.8
-0.4
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.2
Length of
Separation
(0.78 m)
-0.6
-0.8
Depth below G.L. (m)
-0.6
Separation Length/
Pile Diameter (S/d)
0.0
-0.4
-1.0
-1.2
Pile
-1.4
Soil
-1.6
-1.8
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
Length of
Separation
(0.93 m)
-1.0
-1.2
-1.4
-2.0

-0.4
-0.2
-0.8
0.0
0.0
-0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
Length of
Separation
(0.96 m)
-1.0
-1.2
Pile
-1.4
Soil
-1.6
-1.8
Me =0.477Nm
-0.4
-0.2
Me = 0.248, Pile
-1.0
Me = 0.248, Soil
-1.2
Me = 0.366, Pile
-1.4
Me = 0.366, Soil
-1.6
0.0
Me = 0.477, Pile
Me = 0.477, Soil
Fig. 10 Separation for

different moment at L/d 20
First Resonating
Frequency
Second Resonating
Frequency
Separation Length/
Pile Diameter (S/d)
-0.6
-0.8
10
6
4
2
0
0.0005
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
Fig. 11 Separation Ratio vs. Non-dimensional Rocking

Amplitude for L/d 20
-0.6
-2.0
Fig. 9 Separation at L/d 20
First Resonating
Frequency
Second Resonating
Frequency
Maximum Rocking Amplitude/

Pile Diameter (n/d)
-0.4
-1.8
Me =0.477Nm
-2.0

0.0
-0.6
Soil
Fig. 7 Separation at L/d 10 Fig. 8 Separation at L/d 15

-0.8
Pile
-1.6
-1.8
Me =0.477Nm
-2.0
10
0.2
0.001
0.0015
0.002
0.0025
0.003
Maximum Horizontal Amplitude/

Pile Diameter (An/d)
Fig. 11 Separation Ratio vs. Non-dimensional Horizontal

Amplitude for L/d 20
CONCLUSIONS:
Using the results of numerical simulation the effects of
different influencing parameters have been investigated. Some
important conclusions that can be made from this study are
summarized as follows:
Two resonant peaks are observed at two different frequencies
for both horizontal and rocking component.
For pile foundation subjected to coupled vibration, the first

resonant peak is characterized by larger horizontal amplitudes
and the second resonant peak by larger rocking amplitudes.
Separation between soil and pile greatly influence pile
capacity. After separation pile starts to act as free head pile and
subsequently looses its stiffness.
The effect of second resonant frequency on depth of
separation is much greater than that of first resonant frequency.
As pile length increases, the depth of separation increases for
a particular length of pile for a particular exciting moment.
REFERENCES
1. Hayashi, S., Miyajima, N., and Yamashita, I. (1965),
Lateral resistance of steel piles under static and dynamic
loads. Proceedings of the 3rd World Conference on
Earthquake Engineering Vol. 2. pp. 146-167
2. Barkan, D. D. (1962), Dynamics of Bases and Foundations,
McGraw-Hill Book Co. New York.
3. Novak, M. (1974), Dynamic Stiffness and Damping of
Piles, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 11, pp. 574598.
4. El Naggar, M. H., and Novak, M. (1996), Nonlinear
Analysis for Dynamics Lateral Pile Response, Soil
Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 4, pp.
233-244.
5. Lewis, K., and Gonzalez, L. (1985), Finite Element
Analysis of Laterally Loaded Drilled Piers in Clay, Proc.,
12th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering, Rio de Janiero, Vol. 2, pp. 12011204.
6. Maheshwari, B. K., Truman, K. Z., El Naggar, M. H., and
Gould, P.L. (2005),Three-Dimensional Nonlinear Seismic
Analysis of Single Piles using Finite Element Model:
Effects of Plasticity of Soil, International Journal of
Geomechanics, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 35-44.
7. Debjit Bhowmik, D. K. Baidya & S. P. Dasgupta (2011),
"Coupled Motion of Soil-Pile System Under Dynamic
Loading", Indian Geotechnical Conference, Kochi.

December 13-15, 2012, Delhi (Paper No. F 623.)
PROBABILISTIC ANALYSIS OF SHEAR BEHAVIOUR OF FIBER REINFORCED RED SOIL

K.Geetha Manjari1, Research Student, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-500612, India, manjari@civil.iisc.ernet.in
G.L.Sivakumar Babu 2, Professor, Indian Institute of Science Bangalore-500612, India, gls@civil.iisc.ernet.in
Sandeep Kumar Chouksey3, Research Scholar, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-500612, India,
choukseysandeep@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Fiber reinforced soil is one of the efficient methods of improving the strength and stability of many engineering
systems. This paper presents the stress-strain response of red soil reinforced with coir fiber. A series of consolidated undrained
triaxial tests were performed on red soil with different percentages of randomly distributed coir fiber. Soil and fiber
characteristics, their interaction are some of the major factors affecting the strength of reinforced soil. One of the important
properties is the tensile resistance offered by fibers during the shearing of soil. To observe this effect, reliability analysis is
carried out on the tensile resistance of fibers along the shear plane in a triaxial sample and then the increase in the shear
strength of the reinforced soil as a function of tensile resistance of fibers is studied.
INTRODUCTION
The concept of reinforcement was developed in the late 19th
century by observing the improvement in stability of soil due
to the plant roots. The plant roots act as a natural source of
reinforcement that takes the tensile stresses acting on soil and
improve its stability. Thus soils were reinforced with
different fibers and the effect of reinforcement was studied.
The other reinforcing materials include natural fibers (sisal,
coir, jute etc), artificial fibers (glass, steel, polypropylene
etc), geosynthetics, These materials are distributed in
different layers in soil to obtain the desired improvement in
the strength. To study the effect of reinforcement,
probabilistic analysis is carried out on the failure mechanisms
in root reinforcement based on models proposed in the
previous studies on root reinforcement.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Attempts to quantify root reinforcement of soil have been
studied by the use of simple perpendicular root models
developed by researchers [2, 4], which simply requires the
knowledge of the tensile strength of the roots, and the crosssectional area of fibers crossing the shear plane. So the
increase in the shear strength of fiber reinforced soil due to
the tensile strength offered by fibers can also be analyzed.
Experimental investigations were carried out and reports
showed that fiber reinforcement leads to significant
improvement in strength and stiffness of soil [2, 3]. The
stress strain behavior of fiber reinforced soil shows small loss
of post-peak strength (i.e., greater ductility in the composite
material) as compared to plain soil. The increase in the
strength is a function of soil characteristics, e.g., particle size,
shape, and gradation; fiber characteristics [5, 6]. A series of
triaxial compression tests on soil reinforced with discrete,
randomly distributed fiber influence of various properties on
shear strength of reinforced soil were analyzed and presented
as a mathematical model based on regression analysis of test
results [7]. They reported that the strength of reinforced sand
increases with increase in fiber content, aspect ratio, and soil
fiber surface friction. In order to study the behavior of root
reinforcement and its effect in improving stability,
experimental investigations of the soil with fibers has to be
studied. From the past work on root reinforcement and

experimental studies, the in-situ root reinforcement condition
can be represented in the triaxial setup with randomly
distributed fibers. Numerical investigations were also carried
out on coir fiber reinforced sand and it reported that, presence
of random reinforcing material in soils make the stress
concentration more diffuse and restricts the shear band
formation [8].
In the present work, a series of triaxial tests were performed
on soil mixed with coir fibers. The failure mechanism of
fibers along the shear plane is studied and a probabilistic
analysis is carried out on the shear strength and tensile
resistance of fibers in the fiber reinforced soil.
PROPERTIES OF SOIL
Weathered soil from the sedimentary rocks
form red soil. This is the main type of soil available in
Bangalore and surrounding areas. This type of soil is also
available in a large region of our country. In this region, at
present, a large number of structures such
as
embankments,
highways, retaining
walls
etc are
constructed/being constructed with this soil.
Table 1: Properties of soil used in the present study
Values
Properties
Liquid limit (%)
39
Plastic limit (%)
26
Shrinkage limit (%)
20
Specific gravity (G)
2.65
Optimum moisture content (%)
17.8
Maximum
3
(kN/m )
16.9
dry
unit
Silt + clay size (%)
weight
10
. K.Geetha Manjari, G.L Sivakumar Babu, Sandeep kumar Chouksey

Plain soil
0.5% fiber
400
2.0% fiber
15
Diameter(mm)
0.25
Specific gravity
1.12
Tensile strength (MPa)
102
300
200
0
-100
-200
CONSOLIDATED UNDRAINED TRIAXIAL TEST

In order to examine the performance of fiber mixed soil in
undrained condition, consolidated undrained (CU) tests have
been carried in triaxial apparatus. The fiber mixed soil;
samples were prepared at specified percentages of fiber (0,
0.50%, 1.0% and 2.0% by dry weight of soil). The samples
were then isotropically consolidated under different confining
pressures of 50, 100 and 150 kPa. The samples were finally
subjected to shear under undrained condition. The axial
deformation was obtained with a dial gauge and pore water
pressures are measured. Deviator load was applied till the
specimen failed or till a strain of 15% was reached. Pore
water pressures were measured during shearing of the tests.
To ensure uniform pore pressures throughout the specimen,
samples were sheared at a constant strain rate (approximately
0.24% per minute). Typical result in the form of stress-strainpore water pressure obtained from the experiments for the
non-reinforced and fiber reinforced soil at confining pressure
of 50 kPa for coir fiber with different percentage are
presented. Deviator stress vs. strain (%) response and pore
pressure response for red soil reinforced with coir and glass
fibers, sand mixed with plastic waste from CU tests were
performed at various confining pressures. It is clear from
these results that deviator stress increases as the plastic waste
content increases. Further it is observed from these results
that as the strain increases the deviator stress also increases.
In most cases maximum deviator stress occurred at about 6 %
to 8% of strain. The results show that the stress-strain
behaviour is considerably improved by incorporating fibers in
soil. The increase in strength is due to the confinement,
which results in the increase of cohesion and friction of soil.
The pore pressure curves were plotted by plotting the excess
pore pressure for the various strain levels as obtained from
the CU Tests. Fig1 shows the pore pressure responses for the
various confining pressures.
Values
Properties
100
Values
Length(mm)
1.0% fiber
u (kP a )
Properties
500
q (k P a)
PROPERTIES OF FIBER
Coir fiber is used as a reinforcing material. The
main advantages of natural materials are that they are
locally available, cost effective, biodegradable and hence
do not create environmental problems. Hence these
materials are finding increasing applications in slope
stabilization and other ground improvement projects.
Table2: Properties of single coir fiber used in the present
study
Liquid limit (%)
39
Plastic limit (%)
26
Shrinkage limit (%)
20
Specific gravity (G)

3
2.65
9
Strain (%)
12
15
Fig1: Stress-strain and pore water pressure response for

various percentages coir fiber (at confining pressure 50 kPa)
THEORETICAL
DEVELOPMENT
OF
FIBER
REINFORCED SOIL
The behavior of fiber reinforced soil was investigated
experimentally. But theoretically the behavior and
mechanism of fiber in the composite is limited in the
previous studies. Waldron [2] proposed a model to describe
the load-deformation characteristics of soils reinforced with
plant roots. He used the original Mohr-Coulomb's equation of
shear strength (s = c + tan )in a modified form, for rootpermeated soil as
(1)
where sr = shear strength of root-permeated soil;
S = increase in shear strength on account of root
reinforcement.
Fig2. Model of fiber reinforced sand. (a)Perpendicular fibers

(b)Inclined fibers (Gray and Ohashi1983)
Probabbilistic analysis of shear behavior of fiber rweinforced red soil
The concept of root-reinforcement of soil was used by Gray

and Ohashi [3] to describe the deformation and failure
mechanism of fiber-reinforced soil and to find the increase in
shear strength S for oriented fibers crossing a shear plane.
The shear strength increase from oriented fiber-reinforcement
in sand was estimated by the expressions
Perpendicular fibers:
is an empirical coefficient that depends on soil parameters

like the grain size, gradation etc.
Based on the above equations and the experimental results an
analysis is carried out on the fiber resistance in the triaxial
sample. The properties of soil and fibers given in tables 1 and
table 2 were substituted in equations for the tensile resistance
of the composite at different confining stresses and presented
in the figure below:
(2)
Inclined fibers:
(3)
where
- angle of shear distortion
t -tensile stress in each fiber
z- width of shear zone
i- initial orientation of fiber with the shear surface
The model proposed by Maher and Gray [5] predicts the
orientation and the quantity of fibers at any arbitrary chosen
plane. The orientation of the fibers, on average was expected
to be perpendicular to the plane of shear failure in triaxial
compression tests. The orientation of fibers along any plane
can be predicted by the statistical theory of composite [1].
The failure plane was observed to be the same as given by
Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria,, at an angle of (45+/2) with
horizontal. The average number of fibers, Nf per unit area
crossing the shear plane is given by
(4)
Vf-volume of fiber in the specimen/volume of soil
d- diameter of fiber
The tensile stress, t, developed in fiber is given by [5]:
(5)
where l- length of the fiber
d- diameter of the fiber
- skin frictional resistance
=confining stress*tan and is the angle of skin friction
Thus the increase in shear strength due to fiber reinforcement
by force equilibrium method is given as:
(6a)
for 0 < conf < crit'
In the above figure we can observe that for a fixed number of

fibers per unit area along the shear plane we can observe that
as the confining stress was increased, the tensile strength also
increased.
According to the equation (1) the increase in the shear
strength due to fiber reinforcement is given by S. Now from
the experimental results of red soil reinforced with coir fiber,
the increase in the strength is calculated. In the present study
the coir fiber the dimensions specified above is considered.
The number of fibers per unit area along the shear plane
given by Maher and Gray [5] is calculated for the presented
and tabulated below:
Table3: Number of fibers along shear plane for different
percentages of coir fiber
Number of fibers per unit
Fiber percentage(%)
area(cm2)along shear plane
0.5
9
1
18
2
36
The increase in the shear strength in equation (6a) is used to
form the limit state function and it is given by the equation:
R-L<0
Where R is the shear resistance offered by fibers along shear
plane and S is the applied stress on the specimen.
(6b)
for conf > crit'
Fig3.Tensile strength of fibers along the shear plane
Reliability analysis was carried out for the shear strength of

the composite and the fibers on an average were
perpendicular to the shear plane. The applied stress was
. K.Geetha Manjari, G.L Sivakumar Babu, Sandeep kumar Chouksey
assumed to follow lognormal distribution of mean 50kPa and

standard deviation of 0.05. and the diameter to follow a
lognormal distribution with mean 0.25 and standard deviation
0.125.The probability of failure for different percentages of
fiber content(as a function of number of fibers) was
calculated. The probability of failure for different number of
fibers per unit area is shown in the Fig3.
Fig4. Probability of failure for different percntages of coir

fiber and under same loading conditions
The failure mechanism of fibers in the reinforced soil is
thereinforced soil is observed by finding the probability of
failure of each fiber out of N number in the composite. After
certain loading the fibers start to fail but the rest of the fibers
take the load and distribute it among them. So if r out of N
fibers that contribute to the strength then, the fibers their
failure probability is calculated and shown in the Fig4.
as a function of tensile resistance of soil. This analysis is

helpful in predicting the contribution of each fiber along the
failure plane of the fiber reinforced soil.
CONCLUSIONS
1.
The tensile strength of fibers along the shear plane

for different confining stresses is obtained and as the
confining stresses increase the tensile resistance of
the fiber increased.
2. From the reliability analysis, it can be observed that
as the percentage of fibers in the specimen
increased, the probability of failure of specimen
under the same stress condition is reduced and thus
the reliability of the system increased.
3. The mechanism of failure of fibers along the shear
plane is studied and as the fibers donot fail together
under a given loading condition, the failure pattern
is progressive. So as a fiber reaches the failure state,
there is a stress redistribution among the rest of the
fibers.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Fig5. Probability of failure of r out of N fibers contributing to

the tensile resistance
Thus from the above figure the pattern of failure along the
shear plane was obtained. The behaviour of fibers along the
shear plane can be observed for a stress condition. This
analysis is can predict the shear behaviour of the composite
Narnman, T., Moavenzadh, E, and McGarry, E (1974).

"Probabilistic analysis of fiber reinforced concrete." J.
Engrg. Mech. Div., ASCE, 100(2),397-413.
Waldron, L. J. (1977). "Shear resistance of root
permeated homogeneous and stratified soil." Soil Sci.
Soc. of Am., Proc., 41, 843-49.
Donald H. Gray,A. M. ASCE and Harukazu
Ohashi.(1983) Mechanics of fiber reinforced sand. J.
Geotech. Engrg., ASCE.109:335-353.
Wu, T. H., R. M. McOmber, R. T. Erb, and P. E. Beal
(1988), Study of soil-root interaction, J. Geotech. Eng.,
114, 1351 1375.
Maher, M. H., and Gray, D. H. (1990). "Static response
of sand reinforced with randomly distributed fibers." J.
Geotech. Engrg., ASCE, 116(11),1661-1677.
AI-Refeai, T. (1991). "Behaviour of granular soils
reinforced with discrete randomly oriented inclusions."
J. Geotextiles and Geomembranes.10, 319-333.
Gopal Ranjan, R. M. Vasan and H. D. Charan.(1996).
Probabilistic analysis of fiber reinforced soil. J.
Geotech. Engg., ASCE,122:419-426.
G.L. Sivakumar Babu_, A.K. Vasudevan, Sumanta
Haldar (2008). Numerical simulation of fiber reinforced
sand behavior. Geotextiles and Geomembranes 26,
181188

December 13-15,2012, Delhi (Paper No. F-625)
2D FINITE ELEMENT SEISMIC ANALYSIS AN EARTHEN ROCKFILL DAM

Prateek Khare, M.Tech. Student, Dept. of Earthquake Engg., IIT Roorkee, rishupeq@iitr.ernet.in
B.K. Maheshwari, Assoc. Professor, Dept. of Earthquake Engg., IIT Roorkee, bkmahfeq@iitr.ernet.in
ABSTRACT: This paper presents the effect of boundary conditions on response of an earthen rock fill dam. The rock fill
dams are highly resistant to seismic loads due to their large flexibility and capacity to absorb large seismic energy therefore
less vulnerable to earthquake damage. The behavior of an earthen rock fill dam under earthquake loading with horizontal
rollers and dashpots along the foundation soil system was studied. The seismic analysis of the dam consists of static and
dynamic 2D finite element analysis. First, the in-situ stress state conditions that exist before the earthquake occurs are
established, and then its results are used for the dynamic part of analysis. Plots of the variations of the displacements at the
core with dam height are shown. Performance of the dam was satisfactory in terms of the computed maximum settlements at
dam crest, which were considerably smaller than the permissible values.
INTRODUCTION
Dams are important for a nation in terms of irrigation water
they store and provide. The failure of dams can cause
destruction of nearby life and property [1].
Rock fill dams have large flexibility and ability to absorb
large seismic energy, which makes them resistant to seismic
loads. These dams are generally confused with earthen dams,
which are more vulnerable to get damaged by seismic forces
[2].
Performance and safety of dams during earthquakes are of
global concern, and to check the dam performance and
stability, dynamic analyses of dams are required. The main
aim of dynamic analysis of dam is to determine the
acceleration, dynamic stresses and deformations induced in
the dam by the seismic excitation.
The Failure of earth dams due to earthquakes was studied by
Sherard [3] and many reasons for dam failures were given by
them. Significant contributions have been made by many
researchers in the past towards understanding the seismic
behavior of earth and rock fill dams starting by Newmark [4].
Newmark [4] and Seed [5] were first to propose methods of
analysis for predicting the permanent displacements of dams
subjected to earthquake shaking.
With the advancements in the modern computers, finite
elements and finite difference methods have been
increasingly used with more advanced material models for
estimating behavior of the dams [6, 7 and 8].
This paper presents the effect of two boundary conditions on
response of earthen Rock fill dam. Horizontal rollers along
vertical boundaries of the foundation soil and dashpot
representing Lysmer-Kuhlemeyer boundary along vertical
boundaries of the foundation soil are considered here to
estimate the response of the dam.
SECTION OF THE DAM
A 36.0 m high rock fill dam is chosen for the present study.
For modeling, the dam is divided into three sections,
upstream & downstream shell which consists of pervious
material, and impervious core and foundation soil over rigid
bedrock. The width of the dam at the crest is 9.2 m. The dam
has an upstream slope of 2H: 1V and downstream slope of

the dam varies from 2H: 1V to 2.5H: 1V. Berms are provided
at downstream slope at 10m interval from the dam top. The
central impervious core height is 33m and top width of 6.0 m
having upstream and downstream slopes of 0.5H: 1V.The
reservoir depth is 33m.
The material properties for the shell, core and the overburden
material used in the FE analysis is listed in Table 1.
Table 1 Material properties used in FE analysis
Foundation
Core
Shell
Soil
c (kPa)
90
100
50
(degree)
20
42
35
Shear wave Vel.
200
450
300
(m/s)
Poissons ratio
0.40
0.30
0.36
Mass density
1.71
1.95
1.8
(g/cc)
Youngs
191.52
1026.67
440.64
Modulus (MPa)
Shear Modulus
68.40
394.87
162.00
(MPa)
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
The 2D model of the dam section is shown in figure 1. The
CPE4R element, a four node plane strain reduced integration
element, one integration point per element, was used to
reduce the computer run times. A total number of 1943 nodes
and 1786 elements have been used for modeling of the dam.
In the analysis, two cases have been taken. In one case
horizontal roller and in other case, dashpots representing
Lysmer-Kuhlemeyer boundary are used along the vertical
boundaries of the foundation soil. The bottom of the model is
fixed in both x and y directions. The model is analyzed for
end of construction conditions and full reservoir impounded
conditions. The soil in the core, shell and overburden region
is assign as a linear-elastic model.

December 13-15,2012, Delhi (Paper No. F-625)
Fig. 1 Cross section of dam

For a 2D FE model to represents response of infinite field
conditions, reflections of the seismic waves from the side
boundaries have to be minimized. For this reason, the
Lysmer-Kuhlemeyer boundary [9] was used along the soil
boundaries to restrict the wave reflections. This boundary
absorbs the vertically propagating waves in such a way that
the incident wave is transmitted entirely into the soil and no
waves are transmitted back. Lysmer boundary consists of
simply connecting dashpots to all degrees of freedom of the
boundary nodes and the other end remained fixed, as shown
in Fig. 3.
(a) Horizontal Rollers

(b) Dashpot
Fig. 2 Vertical Boundary Conditions
Lysmer boundaries can be derived for an elastic wave
propagation problem in a one dimensional semi infinite bar
[10], the damping coefficient Cx can be expressed as
Cx = A c
G=
E
2 (1 + )
(6)
Where E is the Youngs modulus and is the Poissons ratio.

These boundary conditions are independent of frequency and
are local in time and space. Use of shape functions of the
neighboring finite elements instead of crude limping
procedure gives rise to a narrow banded damping matrix,
which is easy to implement.
ANALYSIS OF THE DAM
A 2D-plane strain static and seismic finite element response
analysis is carried out for the section of the dam to study the
stability of dam. The 2D linear seismic analysis of the dam
for Northridge (1994) acceleration time history with PGA of
0.24 g and predominant frequency 1.22 Hz has been carried
out and the maximum displacement and acceleration at dam
crest have been worked out.
(1)
Where A is the cross-section of the bar, is the mass density

and c the wave velocity. The wave velocity is taken either as
shear wave velocity (cs) or compressional wave velocity (cp)
depending upon the type of wave absorbed. For the two
dimensional problem, this results in two damping
coefficients, Cn and Ct, in normal and tangential directions,
respectively.
C n = A c p
(2)
Ct = A cs
(3)
Where
cs =
cp =
(4)
E (1 )
(1 + )(1 2 )
(5)
Where G is the shear modulus of the medium and is given by,
Fig. 3 Northridge (1994) Acceleration-Time History

(a) Horizontal Component (b) Vertical Component
Analysis of the dam section is carried out for static loads due
to self-weight, hydrostatic pressure and seismic loads to
determine the deformation of the core. Stress distribution
within the dam section was also analyzed. The displacement
of the dam was of prime concern as excessive deformations
may lead to loss of freeboard and danger of over topping of
reservoir [11].
2D Finite Element Analysis of an Earthen Rockfill Dam

End of Construction Condition
The dam is analyzed for static load due to self weight and
seismic loads due to earthquake. Fig. 4 shows the variation of
displacments at upstream and downstream face of core at end
of construction stage.
18.18 cm and 18.12 cm, respectively without and with

damper.
Reservoir Impounding
The dam is analyzed for static load due to self weight,
hydrostatic pressure due to reservoir impounding and seismic
loads due to earthquake. Fig. 5 shows the variation of
displacments at upstream and downstream face of core after
the reservoir is impounded.
Fig. 4 Variation of displacement at core at end of

construction condition
The maximum horizontal displacment at upstream face was
4.95 and 4.91 cm, respectively without and with damper.The
maximum vertical displacement at upstream face was 18.04
cm and 18.01 cm, respectively without and with damper. The
maximum horizontal displacment at downstream face was
7.03 and 6.9 cm, respectively without and with damper and
the maximum vertical displacment at upstream face was
Fig. 5 Variation of displacement at core after reservoir

impounding
The maximum horizontal displacment at upstream face was
5.66 and 5.62 cm, respectively without and with damper and
the maximum vertical displacment at upstream face was
18.25 cm and 18.21 cm, respectively without and with
Prateek Khare, B.K.Maheshwari
damper. The maximum

horizontal displacment at
downstream face was 6.5 and 6.37 cm, respectively without
and with damper and maximum vertical displacment at
upstream face was 18.23 cm and 18.17 cm, respectively
without and with damper.
Fig. 6 Acceleration at dam top without dampers

The Fig. 6 shows the horizontal and vertical accelerations at
dam top without dampers. The maximum values of the
accelerations obtained were 0.205 g and 0.161 g in the
horizontal and vertical directions. The responses are reduced
at higher frequencies
Fig. 7 Acceleration at dam top with dampers

The Fig. 7 shows the horizontal and vertical accelerations at
the dam top with dampers.The maximum values of the
accelerations obtained were 0.201 g and 0.159 g in the
horizontal and vertical directions.
CONCLUSIONS
The maximum deformations occur near the top of the dam
and were less than permissible values. The results obtained
from the study shows that with the use of LysmerKuhlemeyer boundary, the responses obtained were
marginally less than that obtained for the case with horizontal
rollers. The analysis predicts that if the width of foundation
soil modeled is thrice or more, then responses are not

changed significantly with the use of dampers.
The analysis for the dam can further be extended for non
linear soil models.
REFERENCES
[1] Basudhar, P.K., Kameswara Rao, N.S.V., Bhookya, M.,
Dey, A. (2010), 2D FEM Analysis of Earth And Rockfill
Dams Under Seismic Condition, Fifth Intl. Conf. on
Recent Adv. in Geotech. Earthquake Engg. And Soil Dyn.
Symposium in honor of Prof. I.M. Idriss, San Diego,
California, Paper No. 4.28b 1.
[2] Paul, D.K. (2000), Seismic Safety Analysis of a High
Rock-Fill Dam Subjected to Severe Earthquake Motion,
1164, 12 WCEE, Auckland, New Zealand.
[3] Sherard, J.L., Woodward, R.J., Gizienski, S.J. and
Clevenger, W.A. (1963), Earth and Earth-Rock Dams,
John-Wiley and Sons, New York.
[4] Newmark, N.M. (1965), Effects of earthquakes on dams
and embankments, Geotechnique, 15(2), 139159.
[5] Seed, H.B. (1966), A method for earthquake-resistant
design of earth dams, J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., ASCE,
92(1), 13-41.
[6] Sengupta, A. (2010), Estimation of permanent
displacements of the Tehri dam in the Himalayas due to
future strong earthquakes, Sadhana Vol. 35, Part 3, June
2010, pp. 373392. , Indian Academy of Sciences
[7] Vrymoed, J. (1981), Dynamic FEM model of Oroville
dam, J. of Geotech. Eng. Div. ASCE, 107(8), 1057
1077.
[8] Zienkiewicz, O.C., Leung, K.H., Hinton, E. (1980),
Earth dam analysis for earthquakes: Numerical solutions
and constitutive relations for nonlinear (damage)
analysis, Design of Dams to Resist Earthquake, ICE,
London, 141156.
[9] Lysmer, J. and Kuhlemeyer, R. L., (1969), Finite
dynamic model for infinite media, J. of Engg. Mechanics
Div., ASCE, 95 (EM4), pp. 859-877.
[10] Burman, A., Maity, D., Sreedeep, S., (2010), Iterative
analysis of concrete gravity dam-nonlinear foundation
interaction, International J. of Engg., Science and Tech.,
Vol. 86 2, No. 4, pp. 85-99.
[11] IS: 8826 1978, Indian Standard Guidelines for Design
of Large Earth and Rockfill Dams, BIS, New Delhi.

COMPUTATIONAL STUDY ON THE EFFECTS OF TANNERY WASTES ON HIGHWAY FLY ASH

EMBANKMENT
K. Bandyopadhyay, Reader, Dept. of Construction Engineering, Jadavpur University, kb@const.jusl.ac.in
S. Bhattacharjee, Research Scholar, Dept. of Construction Engineering, Jadavpur University, sbhattacharjee069@gmail.com
S. Ghosh, Student, Dept. of Construction Engineering, Jadavpur University, swarnava.jukol@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Flyash is generated in large quantities due to the domination of thermal power plants in power generation sector
in India. Reuse of flyash is an alternative to mere disposal and construction of highway embankments is one such area where it
is being efficiently used. Cement and Lime stabilization give additional strength to flyash as required for being used as a
subgrade material. In many instances embankments are constructed next to waste channels and seepage of waste water
containing large number of heavy metals having low pH is a common phenomenon. Numerical study on flyash embankment
structures constructed on soft soil and exposed to tannery waste water is investigated in the paper.
INTRODUCTION
The share of thermal power plants in the power generation
sector in India is around 70 percent and the largest. This
generates large volumes of waste material (Flyash). Flyash is
commonly used as a highway material in embankments and
approaches. Embankment constructions on soft soils like clay
with high groundwater level are extremely challenging and
often require prior analysis. A numerical study on the
construction of a flyash highway embankment on soft soil
was investigated by the authors[1]. Effect of density of flyash
along with cement and lime stabilization on stress and
displacement characteristics were analyzed using the
numerical model. Results concluded that embankment
constructed with cement stabilized flyash performs better in
terms of displacements and stresses generated.
Waste water from tannery contains a large amount of heavy
metals and has low pH. In many instances embankments are
constructed next to waste channels and thus seepage of waste
water is a common phenomenon. This may have an adverse
effect on the overall strength of embankments constructed
next to waste channels carrying tannery waste water. The
changes in physical properties of flyash exposed to industrial
wastewater was studied[2]. Investigation on grain size
distribution revealed that clay fraction decreased from the
original flyash to the exposed sample. Conversely there was a
slight increase in the silt fraction in the exposed one. The
percentage of fine sand in both original and exposed flyash
were observed to be the same. Experiments also revealed that
shear strength parameters (C, ) decreased with increase in
contaminants and coefficient of permeability increased with
increasing amounts of contaminants. Close microscopic
examination of shape and surface characteristics of flyash
and flyash exposed to industrial tannery waste water reveal
that particles in unexposed samples have a well-defined
boundary and appear to be generally discrete particles, the
exposed samples have relatively less sharp outline and are
more agglomerated in their appearance. This difference is
believed to be due to deposition of chromium onto the
surface of flyash particles through absorption.
The effect of tannery waste water on the behaviour of

embankments made with various compacted densities of
flyash with and without lime and cement stabilization on clay
is investigated in the present work. Staged construction of the
embankment has been effectively modelled followed by the
application of overburden pressure on the structure. The
parameters required for modelling of flyash has been
determined in the laboratory using a prototype embankment.
FINITE ELEMENT MODEL
An embankment of 9 metre crest width with 2:1 side slopes
has been chosen for this study. The height of the embankment
is 4 metre. The ground water table is assumed at a depth of 2
metres below the ground level. An overburden pressure of 30
kN/m2 is applied on the structure. The embankment is
constructed on soft clay in two lifts. Height of each lift is 2
metres and construction time for each lift is 5 days.
Construction of each lift is followed by a consolidation
period of 100 days during which the excess pore water
pressure is assumed to dissipate. Time required for the
application of overburden pressure is taken as 1 day as taken
in the model. The finite element model has been created and
analysed using PLAXIS 8.2 Professional geotechnical
analysis software. Due to the symmetry of the problem, only
one half needs to be modelled. Fifteen Noded plain strain
elements have been used for discretizing both the
embankment as well as the foundation material. The model
discretization is shown in Fig 1.
Fig 1 Discretized model of the embankment along with the

soft soil layer
The deformations at the boundary of the soft soil layer is
assumed to be zero. Hence the base is fixed in x and y
K. Bandyopadhyay, S. Bhattacharjee, S. Ghosh
directions. The two vertical boundaries are assumed to be

fixed in x
direction. The initial conditions include the
existence of the phreatic level at a depth of 2 metres below
the ground level. It is assumed that water can flow out from
all boundaries and
excess pore water pressures can dissipate in all directions.
However according to the present geometry model, the left
vertical boundary must be closed as it is a line of symmetry
and not a true boundary.
MATERIAL MODELS
The embankment material consisting of different
compositions of flyash has been modelled using the MohrCoulomb soil model. The foundation soil comprising of soft
clay has been modelled using the Soft Soil Creep model.
Mohr-Coulomb model
Mohr-Coulomb (MC) soil model assumes perfect plasticity
of material[3]. Plasticity is associated with the development
of irreversible strains. The existence of plasticity can be
evaluated by introducing a yield function, f, as a function of
stress and strain. This yield function can be presented as a
surface in the principal stress space. MC model assumes that
the yield surface is fully defined by the model parameters
and remain unaffected by plastic straining[3]. MC model
involves five input parameters. Elastic parameters being
modulus of elasticity E and Poissons ratio . Plastic
parameters being cohesion c, friction angle and angle of
dilatancy . This model represents a first order
approximation of material behaviour. For each layer, a
constant average stiffness is assumed, resulting in relatively
fast computations. Beside the five model parameters, initial
material conditions also play a significant role in most
deformation problems. Hence proper modelling of initial
conditions need to be carried out [4].
Soft Soil Creep Model
The soft soil creep (SSC) model is suited for simulating soil
behaviour, taking into secondary effects such as creep. Most
soft soils like soft clays exhibit some amount of secondary
compression. Thus SSC model is ideal for analysis of
settlement problems of foundations and embankments[4].
Some basic characteristics of this model are:
Stress dependent stiffness (logarithmic compression
behaviour)
Distinction between primary loading and unloadingreloading
Secondary (time dependent) compression
Failure behaviour according to Mohr-Coulomb
criterion
SSC model involves six input parameters. Cohesion c,
Friction angle , Dilatancy angle as Mohr-Coulomb
parameters and modified swelling index k*, modified
compression index * modified creep index * as stiffness
parameters; which are related to e=void ratio and Cc, Cr, C
are compression index, swelling index and secondary
compression index respectively as:
(1)
(2)
(3)
Name
100%compactionof 1.157g/cc
+Tannery waste at insitu conc.
Identification
1-A
OMC
32.00
97% compaction of 1.157g/cc

1-B
32.00

2-A
36.00

2-B
36.00
100% compaction of 1.012 g/cc

3-A
42.00

3-B
42.00

4-A
45.00

4-B
45.00

with 4%lime +Tannery waste at
insitu conc.
L-A
37.50

with 4%lime +Tannery waste at
insitu conc.
L-B
37.50

with 7%Cement +Tannery
waste at insitu conc.
C-A
29.10

with 7%Cement +Tannery
waste at insitu conc.
C-B
29.10
Table 1 description, identification and OMC for 12 samples

of stabilized and unstabilized flyash
MATERIAL PARAMETERS
The embankment material used in the study consisted of
compacted unstabilized flyash densities and compacted
flyash+lime and flyash+cement stabilized densities all
exposed to tannery waste water. The detailed description of
the samples is shown in Table 1. These samples were
prepared in the laboratory and compacted in a prototype
Computational Study on the Effects of Tannery Wastes on Highway Flyash Embankment
laboratory model of the embankment. Core samples were

collected for determination of cohesion, friction angle,
Poissons ratio, modulus of elasticity and permeability values
required for the study. Cohesion and friction angle were
determined using direct shear tests. Permeability values were
determined by Falling Head test. Split tensile test[5] on the
samples were conducted for determination of Poissons ratio.
The parameters required for modelling the foundation soil
was taken from available literature and is shown in Table
2[4].
Table 2 modelling parameters for foundation material
Name : clay
* = 0.002
Model: soft soil creep
unsat=15kN/m3
C = 20kN/m2
3
sat = 18kN/m
= 0.10
= 00
Kh = 1.2x10-4(m/day)
Kv = 1x10-4(m/day)
* = 0.035
k* = 0.007
Extreme displacements
Table 3 Extreme displacements for 12 samples
Ext.
Ext.
Ext. vert.
total
horiz.
disp. (m)
disp.
Identification
disp.
x10-3
(m)
(m)x
x 10-3
10-3
1-A
122.57 31.73
122.56
1-B
124.28 45.09
124.14
2-A
136.72 42.79
136.66
2-B
145.67 52.48
145.51
3-A
126.21 58.97
125.08
3-B
119.76 67.21
116.81
4-A
119.41 81.03
112.83
4-B
108.35 83.84
98.59
L-A
88.64
16.56
88.64
L-B
90.54
18.07
90.54
C-A
71.78
14.74
71.78
C-B
77.07
14.11
77.07
Fig 2: Deformed mesh for sample C-A
Fig 3: Horizontal displacement gradients for sample C-A
Fig 4: Vertical displacement gradients for sample C-A

Table 3 shows the extreme total displacements, extreme
horizontal displacements and extreme vertical displacements
at the end of the calculation phase and is compared with
respect to compaction densities. Vertical displacements were
more than horizontal displacements in all cases. The
maximum extreme total displacement for unstabilized sample
was obtained at 97% compaction with d,max=1.145 g/cc, the
minimum was obtained at 97% compaction with d,max=0.975
g/cc. Maximum percent increase in extreme total
displacement with respect to the minimum extreme total
displacement was 34.44%.The minimum extreme total
displacement was achieved with cement stabilized sample
with 100% compaction effort. The reduction in extreme total
displacement for cases of lime and cement stabilization with
respect to the maximum extreme total displacement was
39.15% and 50.72% respectively. However the maximum
achievable reduction in field condition (97% compaction)
with respect to maximum extreme total displacement was
37.84% and 47.09%, for lime and cement stabilized samples
respectively. Extreme horizontal displacements are seen to
increase with the decrease in dry density for unstabilized
samples. Maximum reduction of 80.24% and 83.17% were
noted for lime stabilized with 100% compactive effort and
cement stabilized with 97% compactive effort samples
respectively. Extreme vertical displacements was seen to
follow a similar trend as that of extreme total displacements.
The maximum reduction for unstabilized sample was
32.24%. For lime and cement stabilization, the maximum
reduction was 39.08% and 50.67% respectively. However the
maximum achievable reduction in field condition was
37.77% and 47.03% for lime and cement stabilized samples
respectively.
Table 4 % change in extreme displacements for 12
samples with respect to unexposed flyash
%
%
%
change change change in
in ext. in ext. ext. vert.
Identification
tot.
horiz.
disp
disp.
disp
1-A
1-B
2-A
2-B
3-A
3-B
4-A
4-B
L-A
L-B
C-A
C-B
5.482
0.396
0.975
2.217
0.662
0.344
0.126
1.375
18.045
1.514
72.714
85.219
10.867
16.181
15.805
10.229
19.590
20.362
32.858
36.547
5.6122
16.131
4.6132
4.1328
5.473
0.331
0.938
2.191
-0.056
-1.234
-3.974
-5.147
18.045
1.514
72.714
85.219
K. Bandyopadhyay, S. Bhattacharjee, S. Ghosh
Extreme displacements for tannery waste exposed samples

were compared with those for unexposed samples published
in [1]and have been expressed as percentage change, shown
in Table 4. In all twelve cases of extreme total displacements
and extreme horizontal displacements, exposed samples
undergo greater displacements than unexposed samples. It
was observed that percent change in total displacements on
exposure to tannery waste water for unstabilized flyash was
nominal. But it was significant in lime stabilized sample and
the most significant in cement stabilized sample. Thus from
Table 3 it is inferred that extreme total displacements are
minimum for cement stabilized flyash even after exposure to
tannery wastes. From Table 4, the percent increase in extreme
total displacement of exposed samples compared to
unexposed samples [1] is maximum for cement stabilized
flyash even though the magnitude of displacement is least.
Extreme stresses
Table 5 shows the variations of extreme effective stresses,
extreme total stress and extreme excess pore water pressure at
the end of the calculation phase. Maximum extreme effective
stress for unstabilized sample was seen for 100% compaction
of d,max=1.145 g/cc. Minimum effective stress was observed
for 97% compaction of d,max=0.975 g/cc (15.46% reduction
with respect to maximum). For lime and cement stabilized
samples, extreme effective stress further increased.
Maximum extreme total stress for unstabilized sample was
obtained for 100% compaction of d, max=1.145 g/cc. However
negligible change in total stress was seen for lime and cement
stabilized samples. The maximum extreme excess pore water
pressure in the case of unstabilized samples was observed at
100% compaction with d, max=1.145 g/cc. The minimum
achievable extreme excess pore water pressure was found to
be with lime stabilized sample (100% compaction). However
the minimum achievable extreme excess pore water pressure
in field condition (97% compaction) was higher.
Table 5 Extreme stresses for 12 samples
Ext. total Ext. excess
Identific
Ext.
stress
pore water
ation
effective
(kN/m2)
press.
stress
(kN/m2)
(kN/m2)
x10-3
1-A
-139.56
-179.16
-133
1-B
-136.54
-176.14
-128.75
2-A
-140.14
-179.74
-137.56
2-B
-137.39
-176.99
-133.56
3-A
-133.90
-173.50
-126.15
3-B
-131.62
-171.22
-122.46
4-A
-132.20
-171.80
-125.99
4-B
-118.75
-158.35
-93.55
L-A
-135.77
-175.37
-110.64
L-B
-134.14
-173.74
-103.70
C-A
-140.17
-179.76
-87.64
C-B
-137.98
-177.58
-89.79
Extreme stresses from Table 5 are compared with those for
unexposed samples from[1] and are shown in Table 6.
Percentage change in extreme effective stress for unstabilized

and lime stabilized samples were observed to be less than 1%
and for cement stabilized sample, greater than 1%. Nominal
change in extreme total stress was observed. Changes in
extreme excess pore water pressure was not very significant
for unstabilized and lime stabilized samples but was as high
as 31% for cement stabilized samples.
Table 6 % change in extreme stresses for 12 samples with
respect to unexposed flyash
Identific
%
%
%change
ation
change
change
in Ext.
in Ext.
in Ext.
excess
effective
total
pore water
stress
stress
press.
1-A
1-B
2-A
2-B
3-A
3-B
4-A
4-B
L-A
L-B
C-A
C-B
0.229
0.410
0.392
0.226
0.381
0.403
0.635
0.632
0.022
0.522
1.070
1.102
0.179
0.318
0.306
0.175
0.294
0.310
0.489
0.474
0.017
0.403
0.829
0.856
-0.444
1.569
1.236
0.936
1.316
1.380
2.389
1.507
2.648
6.509
31.196
24.112
CONCLUSIONS
Effects of tannery wastes on Flyash highway embankment
has been modelled and analysed. The effect of change in unit
weight, degree of compaction, cement and lime stabilization
of flyash on extreme stresses and displacements are studied
and discussed in the paper. Results conclude that
embankments constructed with cement stabilized flyash and
exposed to tannery wastes undergo lesser total displacements
than those constructed with lime stabilized or unstabilized
flyash.
REFERENCES
1. Bandyopadhyay, K., Bhattacharjee, S. and Ghosh, S.
(2011), Numerical Approach for Analysis of Highway
Flyash
Embankment,
Proceedings
of
Indian
Geotechnical Conference, Kochi
2. Bandyopadhyay, K., Gangopadhyay, A., Misra, A.K.,
Mukhopadhyay, S.K. and Som, N. (2002), Study on the
changes in physical properties of flyash exposed to
industrial
wastewater,
Proceedings
of
Indian
Geotechnical Conference, Allahabad
3. Potts, DM., Zdravkovic, L.,(1999) Finite Element
Analysis in Geotechnical Engineering Theory, Thomas
Telford
4. Plaxis version 8,(2002) Material Models Manual
5. Gnanendran, C.T. and Piratheepan, J. (2009) Indirect
Diametrical Tensile Testing with Internal Displacement
Measurement and Stiffness Determination, Geotechnical
Testing Journal ASTM, 32(1), 45-44

MEASURES TO REDUCE THE EARTH PRESSURE ON RETAINING STRUCTURES

S. Bali Reddy, Research Scholar, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, India. email: sodom@iitg.ernet.in
A. Murali Krishna, Assistant Professor, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, India, email: amurali@iitg.ernet.in
ABSTRACT: Earth-retaining structures play important role in various infrastructure projects and for urban development.
These structures will be subjected to various types of loading including the seismic loading under earthquake conditions.
Among various parameters that need to be considered in the design of retaining structures, lateral earth pressure resulting from
the supported backfill is the most predominant and the same is the influencing parameter on the performance of the structure
under a variety of loading conditions. With the efforts of reducing the earth pressure on the retaining structures, many novel
materials came into practice that are effectively serving the purpose. These materials include: expanded polystyrene (EPS)
geofoam, tire shreds and tires, fly-ash etc. This paper reviews the use of various materials in reducing the earth pressures on
retaining walls with main focus on EPS geofoam and tire shreds.
INTRODUCTION
The national planners in India have put infrastructure
development on priority. This was resulted in transport
planning, widening of National Highways and new roads in
the country. Thus various earth structures: retaining
structures/embankments/slopes will be designed and
constructed in very large numbers over different areas.
Among them, retaining structures take major part, being the
permanent important structures. To make these retaining
structures effective in their performance, it is essential to
minimise the earth pressures under normal condition and also
under critical seismic conditions too. Various options can be
adopted to reduce the earth pressures acting on retaining
structures: Use of low density backfill materials like fly-ash;
Use of expanded polystyrene (EPS) geofoam or stacked tyres
near wall or as fill material; use of mixed soils with tyre
shreds, plastics etc.
application of EPS Geofoam in retaining structures as a

compressible inclusion function.
This paper reviews the use of various materials in reducing

the earth pressures on retaining walls with main focus on EPS
geofoam and tire shreds.
Fig. 1 Typical application of EPS geofoam on earth retaining

structures
Geofoam
Expanded light weight foams used in geotechnical
applications are described as Geofoam Horvath [1].
Geofoam is being used as a lightweight fill and also can be
used as a compressible inclusion under concrete and earth
structures. In large earth structures, geofoam can protect
underlying culverts, pipelines and other buried materials
against unacceptable levels of stress, while maintaining a
predictable amount of resistance against the overlying
structure, preventing movement or subsidence. Geofoam has
excellent vibration damping and excellent thermal insulation
properties. It is not biodegradable. Expanded Polystyrene
(EPS) geofoam is generally reported in retaining wall
research studies [2-6].
Rigid soil retaining structures required to resist grater earth
pressure during a seismic event than under static conditions.
Inclusion of EPS geofoam effectively reduces the earth
pressures acting on the wall. Figure 1 shows the typical
The thickness of the geofoam material and its

density/deformation modulus are the key parameters in
selecting a geofoam configuration. Several researchers
conducted experimental and numerical studies to verify the
efficiency of geofoam in reducing the earth pressures
effectively [1-2, 5, and 7].
EPS blocks are also used in fills as lightweight fill material
function as shown in Fig. 2 [8].
Fig. 2 EPS blocks as lightweight fill materials [8]
Bali Reddy S. & Murali Krishna A.

Aytekin [4] conducted numerical experiments to evaluate the
effectiveness of EPS geofoam as compressible inclusions in
reducing the lateral earth forced on a retaining wall due to
swelling backfill soil. Different thickness of geofoam (t =H/5,
H/10, H/20) are considered and reported reducing lateral
forces on retaining wall (Fig. 3). The transmitted lateral
pressure is less when EPS backfill with a thickness of H/5m
is used instead of the same thickness of the sand. The
maximum difference occurred at a depth of 3.0m is
approximately 146 kPa and 565% reduction on the lateral
pressure would occur when EPs geofoam backfill is used
with a thickness of H/5m compare of the same thickness of
sand backfill.
Fig. 3 Lateral pressure distribution with different thickness of

geofoam and granular fill [4]
Ertugrul and Trandafir [9] performed physical and numerical
experiments (Fig. 4) and concluded that stiffness and relative
thickness of the EPS inclusion have the major roles in
reducing the lateral earth thrusts.
al. [3] reported field installation of a rigid basement wall

constructed with a compressible EPS geofoam layer for the
purpose of seismic-induced earth load reduction. The design
of the structure was carried out using the program FLAC. The
results of numerical modeling predicted that a 1-m wide layer
of EPS geofoam placed between a 10 m-high wall and
granular backfill could reduce lateral loads during an
earthquake event by 50% compared to the unprotected wall
option.
Hazarika [7] conducted numerical experiments for mitigating
seismic hazard on retaining structures using geofoam and
concluded that up to top one fifth of the wall there is not
much difference of the resulting stress for both with geofoam
buffer and without geofoam buffer. When depth increases the
differences also increase as shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5 Normalized wall height vs. lateral seismic stress [7]

Bathurst et al. [5] conducted shaking table experiments to
investigate the efficiency of geofoam as seismic buffers in
reducing the seismic earth pressures on retaining structures.
A typical experimental setup used with geofoam behind earth
retaining structure shown in Fig. 6. Numerical parametric
studies on use of EPS seismic buffers were performed by
Zarnani and Bathurst [6]. Figure 7 shows the higher
effectiveness of EPS seismic buffers in reducing the seismic
earth forces at higher acceleration levels.
Based on
observations of Fig. 4, the reduction in total earth forces
ranged from 18 to 21 %.
Fig. 4 Physical and numerical models considered by Ertugrul

and Trandafir [9]
EPS geofoam was also tested for effectively minimizing the
seismic lateral earth forces on retaining structures and
enhancing the seismic stability of such structures. Inglis et
Fig. 6 Typical experimental setup in shaking table tests [5]
Measures to reduce the earth pressure on retaining structures

numerical. Both tire chips and geofoam are cushion
materials.
Cecich et al. [16] conducted different laboratory tests by
using shredded tires with mixing sands. Using these
properties, retaining wall of various heights were also
designed using shredded tires as the backfill material and also
designed by considering sand for comparison purposes.
Table.1 shows comparison of factor of safeties with sand,
shredded tire backfill material. It was concluded that, Both
sliding and overturning factor of safety for the retaining walls
with shredded tires were significantly more than that for use
of the sand as a backfill material. And cost estimate with
different height of walls and backfill materials sand and
shredded tires used. Based on observations, the total
construction cost saving is 67%.
Table 1 Comparison of factor of safety for retaining walls
with sand vs. shredded tires as backfill materials (100 ft long
walls)
Fig. 7 Effect of geofoam in reducing seismic wall forces [10]
Scrapped tires or Tire chips
Tire chips or Tire shreds and Scrapped tires are light weight
materials used in geotechnical applications like behind the
earth retaining structures, embankments etc. and also tire
chips mixed with sand used as a backfill material on earth
retaining structures. Scrap tires and their byproducts are not
biodegradable, not expensive, high elastic compressibility.
Tire shreds are free draining. The typical field application of
scrap tire showed Figs.7a, b.
Fig. 7 a Typical application of scrap tires [11] )
Fig. 7b Typical application of whole tire on earth retaining

structures [12]
Different researchers [11-15] are used tire chips mixed with
sand, or only scrap tires or scrap tire filed with geofoam or
tire chips are investigated in Field, experimental and
Height of
wall (ft)
10
20
30
Sliding factor of
safety
Sand
Shredded
tire
4.15
>20
1.68
10.37
1.54
3.35
Overturning factor of
safety
Sand
Shredded
tire
2.10
>20
1.84
2.12
1.65
2.14
Lee et al. [17] studied the effects of the compressible

materials on the stress variation with soil depth in the backfill
of retaining walls. In the study two compressible materials
(recycled tire and Geofoam) were used. In the sensitivity
analysis, elastic modulus values are varying. Elastic modulus
was determined based on the stiffness ratio and stiffness ratio
defined as (RE=E cushion /E backfill ). From the results presented
in Table.2, it was observed that, the dynamic earth pressure
and total earth pressure decrease when stiffness ratio
decreases
Table 2 Comparison of peak horizontal earth pressures
obtained from numerical and field experiments [16]
Cushion type
EPS
Tire
Elastic modulus
9387 1400
Numerical
With cushion
87
41
Analysis
Without cushion
138
143
% Reduction
37
71
Filed test
With cushion
10
9
Without cushion
13
30
% Reduction
23
70
Note: In table all units are in kN/m2
Various other materials
Fly ash and its derived soils; geo-materials made from
plastics and plastic bottles may also be used as lightweight
backfill soils, which can effectively reduce the earth
pressures acting on retaining structures. Hazara and Patra
[19](2007) and Lal and Mandal [20](2012) are used fly ash as
Bali Reddy S. & Murali Krishna A.

backfill material for retaining structures. Graettinger et al.
[21] performed laboratory and field trail tests for recycling of
plastic bottles for use as a lightweight geotechnical material
in retaining walls and concluded that the material tested may
be useful in fills over soft soils or backfill material for
retaining walls.
CONCLUSIONS
Lateral earth pressures acting on retaining walls are the main
concern in the design and stability aspects of retaining
structures. In the efforts to minimising earth pressures on
retaining walls, use of various novel materials came into
existence. Some of the researchers are being involved in
investigating the effectiveness and possibility of using these
materials in the retaining wall applications. Some of such
studies on EPS geofoam and waste tire and their derived
materials were presented briefly in this paper. It appears that
design guidelines for use of such new materials are not
established. Further more studies are essential to derive such
guidelines for using novel materials in retaining wall
application of geotechnical engineering.
REFERENCES
[1] Horvath, J. S. (1995), Geofoam Geosynthetic, Horvath
Engineering, P.C., Scarsdale, NY, 217.
[2] Aytekin, M. (1992), Finite element modelling of lateral
swelling pressure distributions behind earth retaining
structures. PhD thesis, Texas Tech University, Lubbock,
TX.
[3] Inglis, D., Macleod, G., Naesgaard, E., and Zergoun, M.
(1996), Basement wall with seismic earth pressures and
novel expanded polystyrene foam buffer layer, In
Proceedings of the 10th Annual Symposium of the
Vancouver Geotechnical Society, Vancouver, and B.C.
The Canadian Geotechnical Society, Richmond, B.C.
[4] Aytekin Mustafa (1997), Numerical Modelling OF EPS
Geofoam used with Swelling Soil, Geotextiles and
Geomembranes (15), 133-146.
[5] Bathurst, R.J., Zarnani, S., and Gaskin, A. (2007),
Shaking table testing of Geofoam seismic buffers, Soil
Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 27, pp. 324-332.
[6] Zarnani. S, and Bathurst R.J., (2009), Numerical
parametric study of expanded polystyrene (EPS)
geofoam seismic buffers, Can.Geotech.J. (46), 318-338.
[7] Hazarika Hemanta (2001) Mitigation of Seismic Hazard
on Retaining Structures A Numerical Experiment, In
Proceedings of the 11th International Offshore and Polar
Engineering Conference, Stavanger,459-464.
[8] Horvath, J.S. (2010), Lateral pressure reduction on earthretaining structures using geofoam: correcting some misunderstandings. ASCE Earth retention conference; 2010.
[9] Ertugrul, O. and Trandafir, A. (2011). Reduction of
Lateral Earth Forces Acting on Rigid Nonyielding
Retaining Walls by EPS Geofoam Inclusions. J. Mater.
Civ. Eng., 23(12), 17111718
[10] Bathurst, R.J., Zarmani, S.,(2008), Numerical Modelling
of EPS Seismic Buffers , 12th Intl.Conf on International
Association for Computer Methods and Advances In

Geomechanics , 1-6 October, 425-432
[11] Kazuya Yasuhara (2007), Recent Japanese experiences
on scrapped tires for geotechnical applications,
proceedings of the international workshop on scrap tire
derived geomaterials opportunities and challenges,
Yokosuka, Japan.19-42.
[12] Shi Wei et al. (2012), Study on the role of geogridreinforced for fly ash retaining wall basing on the
analysis of FLAC3D, Advanced Material Research
(365), 599-603.
[13] Tweedie et al. (1998), Tire shreds as lightweight
retaining wall backfill: active conditions, Journal of
geotechnical and geoenvironmental engineering, 10611070.
[14] Humphrey, D.N., and Tweedie, J.J., (2002), Tire Shreds
as Lightweight Fill for Retaining Walls- Results of Full
Scale Field Trials, In Proceedings of the Workshop on
Lightweight Geomaterials, Tokyo, Japan.
[15] Tanchaisawat et.al (2010), Interaction between geogrid
reinforcement and tire chipsand lightweight backfill,
Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 28, 119-127.
[16] Youwai Sompote., Bergado .T.D., (2004), Numerical
analysis of reinforced wall using rubber tire chips-sand
mixtures as backfill material, Computers and
Geotechnics (31), 103-114.
[17] Cecich V. et.al.,(1996), Use of Shredded Tires as
Lightweight Backfill Material for Retaining Structures,
Waste Management & Research (14),433-451.
[18] Lee Hyun Jong., Roh Han Sung., (2007), the use of
recycled tire chips to minimize dynamic earth pressure
during compaction of backfill, Construction and
Building Materials (21), 1016-1026.
[19] Hazra, S. and Patra, N.R. (2008), Performance of
Counterfort Walls with Reinforced Granular and Fly ash
Backfills: ExperimentalInvestigation, International
journal of Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, 26,
25-267.
[20] Lal, B R R., and Mandal, J. (2012), Feasibility Study on
Fly ash as Backfill Material in Cellular Reinforced
Walls, Electronic Journal of Geotechnical Engineering,
Vol 17, No. J.
[21] Graettinger, A. J., Johnson, P.W., Sunkari, P., Duke,
M. C., and Effinger, J. (2005), Recycling of plastic
bottles for use as a lightweight geotechnical material",
Management of Environmental Quality: An International
Journal, Vol. 16 No. 6, pp.658 669

FINITE STRAIN THEORY OF CONSOLIDATION OF CLAYS: FINITE VOLUME

APPROACH
Rakesh Pratap Singh, Research Scholar, Civil Eng. Dept. I I T Roorkee, singhrpnitjsr@yahoo.com
Mahendra Singh, Professor, Civil Eng. Dept. I I T Roorkee, msingh_civil@yahoo.com
C S P Ojha, Professor, Civil Eng. Dept. I I T Roorkee, Cojhafce@iitr.ernet.in
ABSTRACT: The Finite Strain Theory of one-dimensional consolidation finds its application with more generality for
consolidation of thick clay strata, dredged fill deposits; consolidation induced solute transport through clay liners and such
other similar cases. Upwind differencing, linear upwind differencing, central differencing, QUICK and min-max QUICK
schemes of FVM have been used to work out the equation with explicit formulation. The consolidation equation, in the
Material Coordinate system, has been solved first and then the solutions are transformed into Lagrangian and Convective
coordinate system for lucid interpretation of the results. A comparative study of FDM and FVM solutions on an example
problem, shows a good match in case of consolidation of dredged fills, however in case of consolidated soils, FVM solutions
give the faster rate of consolidation than that of FDM.
INTRODUCTION
The one-dimensional finite strain consolidation theory
overcomes many limitations of Terzaghis theory of
consolidation. It takes into account not only the large strains
but also the variations of the compressibility and permeability
during consolidation. The equation thus developed in terms
of void ratio as independent variable, is typically nonlinear
and contains geometric as well as material nonlinearity [1].
Numerical solutions to this equation in the same form or in
some other equivalent form have been presented by various
investigators either by finite difference method or finite
element method [1-5]. Fox and Berles [6] using another
concept presented a piecewise linear numerical model for
one-dimensional consolidation. However, it is noteworthy
that the conservation laws are the time dependent systems of
partial differential equations (usually nonlinear) and the finite
strain one-dimensional consolidation equation by falls into
this category. The finite volume (control volume)
formulations uses integration over small control volumes and
the flux at the interface of control volumes is represented by
the same expression, thus the material is rigorously conserved
[7]. This paper presents the finite volume formulation of the
finite strain one-dimensional consolidation equation and its
solution using FVM schemes, upwind differencing (UD),
linear upwind differencing (LUD), central differencing (CD),
quadratic upstream interpolation for convective kinetics
(QUICK) and min-max QUICK. Further, the solutions have
been obtained in time domain directly using the explicit time
marching scheme.
MODEL DESCRIPTION
Basic Assumptions
The basic assumptions of the theory of one-dimensional finite
strain consolidation are:
1. The soil matrix is compressible, but the pore fluid and
individual soil particles are incompressible.
2. The soil is homogeneous and loading is monotonic.
3.
4.
Pore fluid flow velocities are small and governed by

Darcy's law.
The soil permeability (k) and vertical effective stress
() have the unique relationships with void ratio.
k = k (e)
'
'
= (e)
(1 )
(2)
Coordinate System
Lagrangian and convective coordinate system are the measure of
soil solids and pore fluid matrix whereas the material
coordinates are the measure of only solid particles in the matrix.
The Lagrangian coordinates of a consolidating soil matrix
represents initial measurements of it i.e. at time t=0 whereas the
convective coordinates are the measurements at any time after
the start of the consolidation i.e. for any time t>0. Thus the
values of Lagrangian coordinates and material coordinates are
fixed and independent of time while the convective coordinates
keep on changing with time.
For the conversion of coordinates from one system to other, the
following relationship may be easily deducted. Consider a
differential element of soil shown below.
R. P. Singh, M. Singh, C.S. P. Ojha
= 1; fully implicit scheme,

d a= 1 + e
(3 )
d = 1 + e
(4 )
d z= 1
(5 )
d z
1
=
d a
1+ e 0
d z
1
=
d
1+ e
d
=
d a
(6 )
(7 )
1+ e
1+ e 0
(8 )
a
d a
z=
1
+
e
(a ,0 )
0
z
= [1 + e ( z ,t) ]d z
0
(9 )
(1 0 )
Governing equation
The governing equation of one-dimensional consolidation,
in terms of void ratio (e), permeability k (e) and effective
stress (e), may be given in the following form.

k s
1
e (1+e) w

=
'
t z
e
k
w (1+e) e z
(11)
Finite volume formulation

The integration of Eq. (11) over the elementary control volume
dV gives,
k s

1
t+t
t+t e
1+e w

CV t t dt dV= t CV z k ' e dV (12)
w (1+ e) e z
Integrating Eq. (12) using Gauss-divergence theorem and the
one-dimensional consolidation, it will take the following form
for ith control volume element.
i+
1
2
k s
-1
1+e w
t+t
t
[e ]t z=
'
e
k
w (1+e) e z i- 1
2
Further using the following definition,

t+ t
IT =
R i d t= R in + 1 + (1 - )R in
= 0; explicit scheme,
= 1/2; Cranck-Nicolson scheme,
(13)
for explicit formulation, Eq. (13) may be written as follows.

n
k
k ' e
s
-1 +

1+e w w (1+e) e z i+1
t
2
ein+1=ein
(14)
n
z k
'
k e
s
-1 +
1+e w w (1+e) e z 1
i
2
Here the superscript n denotes time element and subscript

i denotes the space elements.
Finally, Eq. (14) may be rearranged in the form given below.

e
(e) i+ 1 +(e) i+ 1 ( ) i+ 1
t
2
2 z
2
e in+1 =e in
z
(e) 1 +(e) 1 ( e ) 1
iii
2
2 z
2

Where, (e)=
(15)
k(e) s
k(e) ' (e)
-1 ; (e)=
w (1+e) e
1+e w
Eq. (15) may calculate the next time step value of void ratio
with suitable boundary conditions for any type of linear or
nonlinear relationship of permeability and void ratio, k = k
(e) and effective stress and void ratio, = (e), which may
be obtained from the oedometer test on a soil sample in the
laboratory. For calculating the values of void ratio (e) and its
gradient at the elementary cell (control volume) boundaries
(i+1/2 and i-1/2) following schemes have been used.
e
e
r
i+
1
2
1
i2
i+
1
2
=ei+
1
( r 1 ) ( e i+ 1 - e i )
i+
2
2
(1 6 )
= e i-1 +
1
( r 1 ) ( e i - e i-1 )
i2
2
(1 7 )
e i - e i-1
;
e i+ 1 - e i
i-
1
2
e i-1 - e i-2
e i - e i-1
(1 8 )
For Upwind differencing (UD) scheme; (r) = 0

For Central differencing (CD) scheme; (r) = 1
For Linear upwind differencing (LUD) scheme; (r) = r
For Quadratic upstream interpolation of convective kinetics
(QUICK) scheme; (r) = (3+r)/4
For Min-Max QUICK scheme; (r) = max [0, [min {2r,
(3+r)/4, 2}]]
The gradients may be approximated as follows.
z i+
1
2
-e
z
i+ 1
e i - e i-1
e
1 =
z
z i2
(1 9 )
(20)
Finite strain theory of consolidation of clays: finite volume approach

The functions (e) and (e) at any value of void ratio may
be evaluated from the input data values (or curves) of k = k
(e) and = (e) for the subject soil.
Initial and boundary conditions
The initial values of void ratio may be assumed consistent
with the void ratio and effective stress input data set for self
load or/ and any surcharge on a compressible layer. The
possible boundary conditions are as follows [4].
Impermeable boundary
The boundary condition where the compressible layer meets
the impervious strata, there is no flow across such boundary
and the following equation may be used for the purpose.
s - w
e
=0
+
d '
z
de
(22)

The FVM solutions of Eq. (11), in terms of equation
variables, material coordinates and void ratio (z e), have
been shown below along with the FDM solution of it as given
by Cargill [4]. Table-1 presents the solution for compressible
foundation, the figures in bold shows the difference between
the FDM solution and the FVM solutions successively for
upwind differencing (UD), central differencing (CD), linear
upwind differencing (LUD), quadratic upwind interpolation
for convective kinetics (QUICK) and Min-Max QUICK
(MQK) schemes. The similar values are shown in Table-2 for
dredged fill. The absolute values of differences in the
compressible foundation are comparatively less than
difference values for dredged fill, but in case of the dredged
fill, the differences are negative in upper segments and
positive in the lower segments.
(2 3)
Table-2 Material coordinates (z) and void ratio (e) of various

schemes for dredged fill
(2 1 )
Semipermeable boundary
This b. c. is based on the propositions that the flow coming
out of lower part is equal to the flow into the upper part at the
common boundary and the equal fluid pressures exist in pore
water at the common boundary and these lead to the
following equations.
(u ) 1 = (u ) 2
k u
k
1
+
e
z
1 1 + e
e
u
= w s
z
z
z 2
e
'

normally consolidated under its own weight. The other input

data from the oedometer tests of fill material and
compressible foundation soil may be referred from Cargill
[4]. The dredged fill is divided into 6 elements and
compressible foundation into 10 elements. Elementary time
has been taken as 1 day.
(24)
Free draining boundary

For free draining boundary, the excess pore pressure is
always zero, thus effective stress is equal to total stress and
the corresponding void ratio may be interpolated on the input
data of void ratio and effective stress.
Solution of the governing equation
The above FVM formulation of the Eq. (11) has been
implemented through the computer program in FORTRAN77 for its solution. The solution, obtained in terms of material
coordinates and void ratio, may be used to get convective
coordinates using Eq. (10). However, the material
coordinates and void ratio has only been presented here and
the comparison of various FVM solutions with FDM solution
for the example problem of consolidation.
The example problem
Disposal of dredged material is to be done at a site, 3 ft/ year
in the first year, 2ft/ year in the second and third year and 1ft/
year in the fourth year. The total amount of each year will be
deposited during first few weeks of each year so that it may
be assumed that dumping is instantaneous in the beginning of
the year. The fill is overlain by the compressible foundation
of thickness 20 ft below which a semi-permeable silt layer
exists that has a void ratio as 1.8 and the permeability as
1.0310-4 ft/day. The drainage path length for this semipermeable boundary is taken as 4.0 ft. The dredged material
is assumed to have a uniform initial void ratio of 7.0 and the
specific gravity of solids as 2.75. The foundation is assumed
to have the specific gravity of solids as 2.83 and to be
Material
Coordinates
FDM (e)
UD (e)
FDM-UD
CD (e)
FDM-CD
LUD (e)
FDM-LUD
QUICK (e)
FDM-QK
MQK (e)
FDM-MQK
0.0000
1.2626
3.7878
5.0504
6.3130
1.9132
1.9065
0.0067
1.9121
0.0011
1.9130
0.0002
1.9124
0.0008
1.9124
0.0008
1.9719
1.9594
0.0125
1.9683
0.0036
1.9650
0.0069
1.9670
0.0049
1.9670
0.0049
2.1477
2.1499
-0.002
2.1345
0.0132
2.1408
0.0069
2.1364
0.0113
2.1364
0.0113
2.3144
2.2778
0.0366
2.2717
0.0427
2.2754
0.0390
2.2721
0.0423
2.2721
0.0423
2.6974
2.7000
-0.003
2.6723
0.0251
2.6890
0.0084
2.6750
0.0224
2.6751
0.0223
Table-2 Material coordinates (z) and void ratio (e) of various

Material
Coordinates
FDM (e)
UD (e)
FDM-UD
CD (e)
FDM-CD
LUD (e)
FDM-LUD
QUICK (e)
FDM-QK
MQK (e)
FDM-MQK
0.0000
0.1250
0.2500
0.3125
0.3750
5.6319
5.5621
0.0698
5.5593
0.0726
5.6057
0.0262
5.5667
0.0652
5.5671
0.0648
5.8984
5.8393
0.0591
5.8609
0.0375
5.8903
0.0081
5.8641
0.0343
5.8639
0.0345
6.2725
6.2838
-0.011
6.2903
-0.018
6.2969
-0.024
6.2882
-0.016
6.2867
-0.014
6.5369
6.5994
-0.063
6.5981
-0.061
6.5907
-0.053
6.5942
-0.057
6.5911
-0.054
7.0000
7.0000
0.0000
7.0000
0.0000
7.0000
0.0000
7.0000
0.0000
7.0000
0.0000
R. P. Singh, M. Singh, C.S. P. Ojha
Foundation Soil: Void ratio (e) =3.0; Permeability (k) =

1.2110-3 ft/day; Effective stress gradient with void ratio
(d/de) = -84.0 Pound/ ft2
Degree of consolidation (for two way drainage) = 0.17
Degree of consolidation (for one way drainage) = 0.087
The above results show that the Terzaghis theory solutions,
FVM and FDM solutions have considerable mismatch in
predicting the consolidation of the consolidated foundation
soil. One way of verification of these results may be the
experimental study on consolidation of thin and relatively
thick samples of compacted clays and the attempt will be
taken up in future.
Fig. 1 Time verses degree of consolidation curves of various

schemes for compressible foundation
Fig. 2 Time verses degree of consolidation curves of various

Further, the Fig. 1 and 2 shows the variation of degree of
consolidation with time for compressible foundation and the
dredged fill. In case of compressible foundation the transient
views of consolidation by FDM and FVM schemes are
matching qualitatively, but differ quantitatively. However, in
case of dredged fill it is matching quite well. If Terzaghis
theory is considered with the following input data for the
dredged fill and the foundation soil, the degree of
consolidation is shown there.
Dredged fill: Void ratio (e) =7.0; Permeability (k) =
8.6610-3 ft/day; Unit weight of water (w) = 62.4 Pound/ ft3;
Effective stress gradient with void ratio (d/de) = -6.0
Pound/ ft2
Degree of consolidation (for two way drainage) = 0.94
Degree of consolidation (for one way drainage) = 0.58
Conclusion
The explicit FVM formulation of finite strain consolidation
equation gives convergent and stable results like FDM
formulation. The results are almost similar in case of
consolidation of loose fills, but in case of soils with lower
void ratios the various schemes in FVM formulation give
faster rate of consolidation.
References
1. Gibson, R.E., England G.L. and Hussey, M.J.L.
(1967), The theory of one-dimensional consolidation
of saturated clays, Geotechnique, 17, 261-273.
2. Olson R.E. (1977), Consolidation under time
dependent loading. Journal of Geotech Eng Div,
ASCE, GT1, 5560.
3. Gibson R.E., Schiffman R.L., Cargill K.W. (1981),
The theory of one-dimensional consolidation of
saturated clays: II, Finite nonlinear consolidation of
thick homogeneous layers, Can Geotech Journal,
1981, 18(2), 28093.
4. Cargill K.W. (1982), Consolidation of soft layers by
finite strain analysis, Final report, Geotechnical
laboratory, U.S. Army engineer waterways
experiment station, P.O. box 631, Vicksburg, Miss.,
39/80.
5. Lee P.K.K., Xie K.H. Cheung Y.K. (1992), A study
on one-dimensional consolidation of layered
systems, Int. Journal of Numerical and Analytical
Method Geomechanics, 16, 815831.
6. Fox, P. J., Berles, J.D. (1997), CS2: A piecewise
linear model for large strain consolidation, Int. J.
Numer. Anal. Meth. Geomech., 21, 453-475.
7. Botte G. G., Ritter J. A., White, R.E. (2000),
Comparison of finite difference and control volume
methods for solving differential equations,
Computers and Chemical Engineering, 24, 2633
2654.
8. Versteeg, H.K. and Malalasekera, W. (2007), An
introduction to computational fluid dynamics: The
finite volume method, second edition, Pearson
Education Limited, Edinburgh Gate, Harlow Essex
CM20 2JE, England.

NONLINEAR ANALYSIS OF GEOCELL REINFORCED RIGID STRIP FOOTING

ON SOFT SOILS
S. Sireesh, Assistant Professor, Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, sireesh@iith.ac.in
M. R. Madhav, Visiting Professor, Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, madhavmr@gmail.com
P. A. Faby Mole, Masters Student, Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, fabyhere@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Relatively recent development in the field of geosynthetics is the application of three dimensional mattresses
with interconnected cells, known as geocells, to support foundations and other infrastructures. Several laboratory investigations
are available to understand the behaviour of geocell reinforcement in various foundation soils. Limited number of detailed
studies is available on the numerical or theoretical approach of designing the geocell reinforced foundation beds. This is
attributed to the complexities involved in modelling the coherent soil-geocell mass to a great accuracy. In this paper, attempts
have been made to analyse the nonlinear response of a rigid strip footing resting on a geocell reinforced soft foundation bed to
the applied load. The stiffness of the soft soil and geocell layers were varied to obtain the improved load carrying capacity of
the reinforced ground. Design charts in terms of non-dimensional parameters are developed to obtain the improvement in
bearing capacity for a given width ratio of foundation to that of geocell.
INTRODUCTION
Introduction of reinforced soil below the footing can
substantially increase the bearing capacity, thus obviating the
necessity of a combined footing or a raft foundation [1].
Several research studies are available on laboratory model
tests to provide a clear insight of the general behavioral trend
of geocell reinforced soil beds [1, 2]. Besides, large scale
model tests are more reliable, yet, in large scale tests, it is
observed that the general mechanisms and behavior observed
in the small scale model tests are only reproduced at larger
scale [3]. Other approaches to predict the behavior of
reinforced soil beds such as numerical simulations also
provide a useful solution. However, the complexity involved
in simulating the combined soil-reinforcement coherent mass
properties is yet to be understood properly. As a result,
alternative methods are still required to provide more
accurate bearing pressure-settlement predictions.
The objective of this paper is to formulate a theoretical
solution to the complex soil-geocell materials nonlinear
load-settlement behavior.
BACKGROUND
Recently, soil reinforcement in the form of a cellular
mattress (geocell) has been showing its efficacy in the fields
of highway and embankment construction. Geocell mattress
is a three dimensional, polymeric, honeycomb like structure
of cells interconnected at joints [1]. The cell walls keep the
encapsulated soil from being pushed away from the applied
load and confine the soil. Because the in-filled cells are
connected together, the panel acts like a large mat that
spreads the applied load over an extended area, instead of
directly at the point of contact, leading to an improvement in
the overall performance. Several investigations have been
reported highlighting the beneficial use of geocell
reinforcement in the construction of foundations [1, 2, 4].
Through a series of model tests on circular footings supported

on geocell reinforced sand beds overlying soft clay conducted
by Dash et al. [4] demonstrated the improvement in loaddeformation behavior of the geocell reinforced soft soils with
varying height and width of the geocell mattress. The
definition sketch of the geometry of the problem is shown in
Fig. 1. Sireesh and Madhav (2011) have analysed the geocell
reinforced sand layer over soft subgrades for smaller footing
settlement ratios (W 1%) where the load-deflection pattern
would expected to be linear [5].
Dg1
dense
sand
Dg2 Dg3
D
D
D
geocell layer
footing
Dg4
u
h H
b
soft clay
rigid base
Fig. 1 Definition sketch of geocell reinforced foundation bed
[8]
In this paper, the geocell mattress is considered as a
Pasternaks shear layer of height (H) with a shear modulus
(Gg). The height and width of the shear layer is varied, as
described by Dash et al. [4], to obtain the behavior of the
geocell reinforced foundation system with varying
geometrical properties of the mattress. This aspect has been
considered in variation of Gg. The following sections briefly
describe the theoretical nonlinear formulation of the geocell
supported rigid strip footing on soft soil. The schematic of
the problem definition is shown in Fig. 2.
Sireesh, Madhav & Fabymole

THEORETICAL FORMULATION
The load settlement behavior of a rigid footing resting on an
elastic half space can easily be modeled using the concept of
Winkler springs, which simulates the stiffness of the
foundation soil. In this case, the load will be shared by the
springs supporting the load. Pasternak [6] improved the
Winkler model by introducing a shear layer in between the
rigid footing and the foundation soil. The shear layer is
introduced to take the shear resistance of the soil into account
in supporting the footing load, similar to a geocell mattress in
the case of reinforced soil beds. This model is an
advancement of Filonenko-Boridich model where the
Winkler springs were considered to be connected through an
elastic thin membrane under a constant tension.
q(x)
Eq. 2, the governing equation reduces to

(3)
Rearrange Eq. 3 as
(4)
Using finite difference method (CrankNicolson method
/central difference) Eq.3 has been discretized and the nonlinear equation was linearized before solving using iterative
Gauss-Seidel procedure.
Now the load deflection equation for this formulation is
Rigid Footing
B
Shear layer (Geocell)
Bg
(5)
Clay (Winkler springs)

(6)
Rigid base
(Since, X = x/B, W = *= w/B => dW = dw/B)

q(x)
Rigid Footing
B
Bg
w =w0
(7)
Shear layer (Geocell)
(8)
w
From Eq.4,
Fig. 2 Problem definition and deflected shape of the

foundation system
Hence,
A non-linear load-settlement relationship is considered for a
footing settlements (wo < 5 percent of footing width, B). For
higher footing settlements, as expected, nonlinear relation
between load-settlement must be assumed.
Non-linear Formulation
The governing equation for the load-deflection pattern of the
problem considering the shear layer representing the geocell
mattress, as described in Pasternak model, is presented
for 0 |x| B/2 (1)
for Bg |x|B/2 (2)
With X = x/B and W = w/B,
; and
(9)
Since the slope of the curve at Rg/2 is zero, Eq. 9 can be
written as
(10)
Equation 10 depicts the complete solution for the loadsettlement pattern for rigid strip footing resting on geocell
reinforced sand overlying soft clay foundation. For = 0, the
equation 10 should give the solution for linear analysis.
Figure 3 shows the validation of the numerical solution. In
the Fig. 3, legend with N and T represents the numerical and
theoretical solutions respectively.
Nonlinear Analysis of Geocell Reinforced Rigid Strip Footing on Soft Soils

value of can be maintained high (>1) for stiffer foundation
system.
Distance from Edge of Footing
Settlement Ratio, W(%)
00

Eq. 10 presents the relation between the load ratio (Q*) and
the settlement ratio (W) in terms of the non-dimensional
parameters and . Response curves are developed for load
ratio (Q*) versus footing settlement ratio (W) as functions of
non-dimensional parameters ( and ).
The practical range of values for each parameter used in Eq.
10 is expressed here. In this analysis, the footing width and
the thickness of the shear layer are considered to be of unit
length for convenience. The modulus of subgrade reaction, ks
was varied from 5,000 to 15,000 kN/m3 for soft soils [7]. The
shear modulus, Gg was varied from 10 to 18 MPa based on
experimental data [1]. The non-dimensional parameters (
and ) are estimated to vary respectively between 0.5 and 2.0
with 0.5 increment for ; and 50 to 250 with 50 increment for
. The width of the shear layer was kept constant at 11B (11
times the footing width) so that the length of shear layer from
the edge of the footing is 5B.
Figures 4 and 5 show the variation of W with X for different
values of for =2 and with different values of for =
100 respectively. Both the figures depict the settlement
profile of the shear layer and the underlying soft soil. A large
settlement can be expected on the surface if the underlying
soft layer is weaker. It can be inferred from Fig. 4 that for
varying from 0 to 250 for a given =2, the contribution of the
length of shear layer increases. Since the value of
introduces the nonlinearity in to the system, the influence of
on the settlement profile of the shear layer is negligible.
Similarly, for a given =100, the variation of between 0.5
and 2.0 shows a significant influence of on the settlement
profile of the shear layer (see Fig. 5). It is noticed that for
minimal value of =0.5, the reinforced bed has shown
excessive settlement of up to 3% out of 5% footing
settlement. For all practical purposes, it can be said that the
1
=2, =0
=2, =50
=2, =100
=2, =150
=2, =200
=2, =250
4
5
Fig. 4 Variation of settlement ratio (W) from the edge of the

footing effect of for = 2
Distance from Edge of Footing

00
Settlement Ratio, W (%)
Fig. 3 Variation of load ratio (Q*) with settlement ratio (W)

for =0.
=0.5, =100
=1.0, =100
=1.5, =100
=2.0, =100
3
4
5
Fig. 5 Variation of settlement ratio (W) from the edge of the

footing: effect of for = 100
Figures 6 and 7 show the variation of settlement ratio (W)
with load ratio (Q*) for different values of and
respectively. From Fig. 6, it can be seen that for increase in
the value of , the load ratio decreases for a constant value of
=2. It is also noticed that the load ratio (Q*) reduces with
decrease in . However, it is clear from Fig. 7 that for very
low value of , the reinforced bed becomes stiffer and
represents a kind of elasto-plastic behavior. It can be deduced
from Figs. 6 and 7 that for higher performance of the geocell
reinforced sand beds over soft soils, value should be high
(> 1) and value should be small (< 100).
Sireesh, Madhav & Fabymole

4.
Load Ratio Q*
00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
=2,
=2,
=2,
=2,
=2,
=2,
0.1
5.
=0
=50
=100
=150
=200
=250
6.
Fig. 6 Variation of settlement ratio (W) with load ratio (Q*) effect of for = 2
Load Ratio Q*
0
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
=0.5, =100
=1.0, =100
=1.5, =100
=2.0, =100
Fig. 7 Variation of settlement ratio (W) with load ratio (Q*) effect of for = 100
CONCLUSIONS
An attempt has been made to analyse a complex system of
soil-geocell mattresses supporting rigid strip footing on soft
soils. The following conclusions were made from the
analysis:
1.
2.
3.
The Pasternaks shear layer was introduced in the model

to replicate the Geocell mattress with a given shear
modulus (Gg).
A generalized relation between load-deformation in nondimensional form is obtained and for a given width of
footing (B) and settlement ratio (W), the exact load on
the footing can easily be obtained.
Design charts are developed for predicting the load ratio
for a given settlement ratio and non-dimensional
parameters and .
The value of introduces the nonlinearity in to the

system, the influence of on the settlement profile of the
shear layer is negligible.
The value of has huge influence on the settlement
profile. Excessive settlements are observed with lower
values.
For higher performance of the geocell reinforced sand
beds over soft soils, value should be high (> 1) and
value should be small (< 100).
REFERENCES
1. Sireesh, S. (2006).
Behavior Geocell Reinforced
Foundation Beds, Doctoral thesis submitted to the Indian
Institute of Science, Bangalore, India.
2. Dash, S.K., Krishnaswamy, N.R., Rajagopal, K., (2001),
Bearing capacity of strip footings supported on geocellreinforced sand, Geotextiles and Geomembranes, Vol.
19, pp. 235-256.
3. Milligan, G.W.E., Fannin, R.J., Farrar, D.M. (1986).
Model and full-scale tests of granular layers reinforced
with a geogrid. 3rd Int. Conf. on Geotextiles, Vienna,
Vol, 1, 61-66.
4. Dash, S.K., Sireesh, S., and Sitharam, T.G., (2003),
Model studies on circular footing supported on geocell
reinforced sand underlain by soft clay, Geotextiles and
Geomembranes, Vol. 21, pp. 197-219.
5. Sireesh Saride, and Madhav, M R (2011) A Theoretical
Approach
for
Designing
Geocell
Reinforced
Foundations, In the Proceeding of the Indian
Geotechnical Conference, Kochi, India. Vol. 1, pp. 577580.
6. Pasternak, P. L. (1954). On a new method of analysis on
an elastic foundation by means of two parameters. (in
Russian language)
7. Bowels, J. E (1997). Foundation Analysis and Design,
McGraw-Hill, p. 1207.
NOMENCLATURE
Symbol
Description
Unit
B
Bg
Footing width
Width of shear layer/geocell
m
m
Q*
Rg
w
Non-dim
Non-dim
m
X
2
Load ratio
Footing width ratio
Settlement of shear layer from the
edge of the footing
Settlement ratio, w/B
Distance from center of the
footing
Distance ratio, x/B
ks.B2/Gg
ks.B/qu
W
x
Non-dim
m
Non-dim
Non-dim
Non-dim

December 13-15,2012, Delhi (Paper No. F632.)
EFFECT OF VIBRATING MASSES ON THE STEADY-STATE RESPONSE OF

TWO-STORIED MACHINES
Y. Sudheer Kumar, PG Student, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, y.sudheer@iitg.ernet.in ,
C. M. Jibeesh, PG Student, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, c.jibeesh@iitg.ernet.in,
B. Giridhar Rajesh, PG Student, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, giridhar@iitg.ernet.in ,
Arindam Dey, Assistant Professor, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, arindam.dey@iitg.ernet.in,
ABSTRACT: Gradually deteriorating spatial availability compels the use of multi-storied machines. The dynamic response of such
machines are affected by the variability of the inherent parameters such as the ratio of vibrating masses, elastic stiffness, operating forces
and/or operating frequencies. This paper reports the effect of the vibrating machines in terms of their masses on the analysis and
determination of the dynamic response of the two-storied machines utilizing lumped parameter modeling technique. The present study does
not consider the damping of the system. Based on the influence of the masses, response curves have been developed in both the time-domain
and the frequency-domain. Extreme-end vibrations responses under coupled resonating condition has also been investigated and reported
herein in brief. The present article provides a comprehensive insight about the dynamic behavior of two-storied machines for various massratios and frequency-ratios.
INTRODUCTION
Industrial growth has become the most important factor for
the economic and general development of the society all over
the world. Almost all industrial applications have to contend
with the generated vibration. Improper design of machine
foundations may result in unbalanced dynamic forces that
may be of significant discomfort and lead to instability. Prior
to the design, it is extremely important to analyze the
behaviour of such foundations. In this attempt, one of the
conventional approaches has been the utilization of Lumped
Parameter technique, wherein the machine-foundation system
is represented by mass-spring-dashpot system. Several
studies, in this regard, have been documented by Das and
Ramana (2010), Rao (2006) and Saran (2006). Due to
progressive space crunching of industrial sites, it may be a
common picture in the nearby future to experience storeymachines, wherein a same foundation will be utilized for
machines placed in the order of multiple stories. Another
common example of such system is the combination of the
actuator-shake table system. Giridhar Rajesh et al. (2012)
have provided a detailed documentation about the dynamic
response of a two-storied machine subjected to varying
external dynamic loads. This paper reports the effect of
varying vibrating masses on the dynamic response of the
same. Such conglomerated studies aid in the development of
monographs that will be serve as a guideline to the engineers
related to the design of such systems.
PROBLEM STATEMENT
The two-storied machine has been modelled with the aid of
lumped parameter system. The inherent damping of the
system has been neglected in the present study. Each of the
units of the coupled system is subjected to unequal operating
forces, while the operating frequency is maintained identical
for both the units. The underlying unit of the two-storied
machine system is referred to as underlying unit (Unit 1) and
is represented by mass m1 and spring stiffness k1. The unit
mounted on the top is hereby referred to as overlying unit

(Unit 2) represented by mass m2 and spring stiffness k2. The
operating forces effective on the units are represented as
F1sin(t) and F2sin(t), where is the operating frequency.
Under the action of these unequal operating forces, the
individual units undergo a displacement of z1 and z2
respectively. Figure 1 provides the schematic diagram of the
problem and the free-body-diagrams of the individual units.
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram and free-body diagrams of

coupled two-storied machine systems
ANALYSIS OF THE PROBLEM
In order to maintain force equilibrium of the coupled 2DOF
system, the following equations of motion are to be satisfied:
m1&&
z1 + k1 z1 k2 ( z2 z1 ) = F1 sin (t )
(1)
m2 &&
z2 + k2 ( z2 z1 ) = F2 sin (t )
(2)
where, z& and &&

z represents the velocity and acceleration of a
particular unit at any instant of time.
The solution to the above equations of motion is given as:
z1 = A1 sin (t ) and z2 = A2 sin (t )
(3)
where, A1 and A2 represents the amplitudes of displacement
Y.Sudheer Kumar, C.M.Jibeesh, B.Giridhar Rajesh, Arindam Dey
of the Units 1 and 2 respectively. The solution of the above

systems is provided as:
F1 k 2 m 2 2 + F2 k 2
A1 =
(k2 m2 )(k1 + k 2 m1 2 ) k 22
F1 k 2 + F2 ( k1 + k 2 m 2 2 )
A2 =
(k2 m2 2 )(k1 + k 2 m1 2 ) k 22
2
(4)
The amplitudes as determined above can be used to estimate

the steady-state time-domain displacement, velocity and
acceleration responses of the coupled two-storied machine
system that are expressed as:
z1 = A1 sin ( t ) , z2 = A2 sin (t ) ,
v1 = A1 cos ( t ) , v2 = A2 cos ( t ) ,
(5)
a1 = A1 sin ( t ) , a2 = A2 sin ( t )
2
NON-DIMENSIONALITY OF THE PROBLEM

In order to eliminate the parametric dimensional dependency
of the obtained results, the above expressions are converted
in their non-dimensional form. This procedure aids in the
development of monographs and preparation of generalized
analysis charts which are independent of the specific
parametric values. The various non-dimensional parameters
are expressed as: (a) Natural frequency of the individual Unit
1 and 2: m1 = k1 m1 , m 2 = k2 m2 (b) Frequency
ratios: r1 = m1 , r 2 = m 2 (c) Force ratio of the

coupled system: Fr = F1 F2 (d) Stiffness ratio of the
coupled system: kr = k1 k2 (e) Mass ratio of the coupled
system: mr = m1 m2 . Giridhar Rajesh et al. (2012) reported
the utilisation of these parameters in determining the timeand frequency-domain response expressions of the system.
The natural frequencies are determined by allowing the
system to vibrate freely. Such a system is solved by
considering the external forces on the system to be nonexistent. The trivial solutions of the modified Equations 1 and
2 are expressed in a non-dimensional form as follows:
4
2
nr
1 (1 + mr + k r ) k r .nr1 + mr k r = 0
4
2
nr
2 (1 + mr + k r ) mr .nr1 + k r mr = 0
to understand the influence of the ratio of the vibrating

masses m1 and m2 on the dynamic responses of the twostoried machines resting one above the other The study has
been carried out to obtain results both in the time-domain and
frequency-domain.
(6)
where, nr1 = n m1 and nr 2 = n m 2 are the natural

frequency ratios of the coupled system. In essence, although
the natural frequencies of the coupled system are invariable,
the apparent difference arises due to the choice of the
frequency of the individual unit used to create the nondimensional frequency ratio. Solution of the above equations
will provide the frequency ratio of the natural modes of
vibration of the coupled two-storied machine system.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Based on the mathematical relations, a Matlab code has been
developed and an extensive investigation has been carried out
Influence of mass ratio mr on natural frequencies nr

The predetermined natural frequencies of the coupled system
will depend on the stiffness-ratio (kr) and mass-ratio (mr) of
the system. For example, in the present study, the dynamic
responses of the coupled system have been developed for
kr=5 and Fr=10. Under this condition, using Equation 6, the
variation of natural frequencies of the coupled system with
respect to the natural frequencies of the sole Units 1(nr1) &
2 (nr2) for various mass ratios are enumerated in Table 1.
Theoretically, the displacement response of the undamped
coupled system at above particular values of frequency ratios
should be undefined, and the same has been depicted later in
the dynamic response of the coupled system.
From figure 2, it is observed that the fundamental frequency

of coupled system with respect to natural frequency of sole
unit 1(nr1 1st) & the secondary frequency of coupled system
with respect to frequency of sole unit 2 (nr2 2nd) are
converging beyond a mass ratio 5. It is also observed that the
secondary frequency of coupled system with respect to
natural frequency of sole unit 1(nr1 2nd) & the fundamental
frequency of coupled system with respect to frequency of
sole unit 2 (nr2 1st) become divergent beyond a mass ratio of
5. Hence, it is conclusive that for a given stiffness-ratio, there
exists a particular mass ratio when the natural frequencies of
the coupled system approach very close to each other. This
mass-ratio can be termed as the optimal mass-stiffness-ratio
wherein the coupled 2DOF system nearly approaches the
state of a combined 1DOF system.
Table 1 Natural frequency ratios corresponding to various
mass ratios (mr)
nr1
nr2
nr2
nr1
mr
(Fund.)
(Sec.)
(Fund.)
(Sec.)
0.01
0.04
1.10
0.91
24.50
0.1
0.13
1.10
0.91
7.76
1
0.40
1.11
0.90
2.49
10
0.92
1.53
0.65
1.08
100
0.99
4.50
0.22
1.01
Influence of mass ratio mr on A11 and A22
Figures 3 and 4 depict the influence of mass ratio (mr) on the
amplitude of the Unit 1 normalized with respect to wr1 (A11)
and the amplitude of the Unit 2 normalized with respect to
wr2 (A22). These figures can be suitably utilized either to
decide on the parameters of the components if the
displacements of particular units are pre-restricted, or also for
the graphical determination of the displacements suffered by
the individual components of the two-storied machines once
the machineries have been pre-decided. Comparison of the
two figures reveals the relatively higher effect of the mass
ratio on the overlying unit as compared to that of the
underlying unit. Moreover, it is also noticed that as compared
Effect of vibrating masses on the steady state response of two storied machines
to the ratio of the external operating forces [Giridhar Rajesh

et al (2012)], the mass ratio has lower effect on the
amplitudes of displacement of individual components. These
figures also re-illustrate the shift of the natural frequencies of
the coupled system with the change in the mass-ratio, as
supported by the large displacements at the corresponding
natural frequencies.
Influence of mr on the time-domain response of coupled

system
Time-domain response is an alternative representation of the
frequency domain response where in the former the effect of
variation of time is studied for a particular operating or a
forcing frequency, whereas in the latter, the effect of
variation of the forcing frequency is studied at a particular
instant of time. Figures 5 and 6 represent the steady-state
displacement response of the underlying unit. It is observed
from Figure 5 that for a particular mass-ratio, the underlying
unit undergoes large displacement at the resonating
frequencies of the coupled system. For a particular frequency
ratio, Figure 6 reveals the increase in the displacement of
underlying unit with the increase in the mass-ratio. In both
the figures, the directional reversal of the displacement of the
individual units can be noted with the change in the massratio and frequency ratios. However, it has to be borne in
mind that such variations are definitely subjected to the
choice of the combination of mass-ratio and stiffness-ratio at
which the investigation is carried out
Fig. 2 Influence of mr on the natural frequency ratios
It can be also noted that the non-dimensional amplitude of the

overlying mass is more affected by the mass ratio than the
underlying mass, and this concept can be easily extended to
the application of tuned vibration absorber. In contrary to the
effect of force-ratio on the vibration of the coupled system
[Giridhar Rajesh et al (2012)], it can be noticed herein that in
most of the frequency ratios, the non-dimensional amplitude
of the individual units does not deviate significantly from its
minimum value. Hence, it can be conclusively stated that the
optimal frequency ratio for the two-storied machines can be
solely and suitably chosen based on the ratio of external
forces, and investigation of its variability with the mass-ratio
can be avoided. The only consideration to be kept in mind
while choosing the optimal frequency ratio is to avoid the
natural frequencies of the coupled system by a sufficient
amount.
Fig. 4 Influence of mr on amplitude of Unit 2 (A22)
Fig. 5 Steady-state z11 for various r1 (mr =1)
Fig. 3 Influence of mr on amplitude of Unit 1 (A11)
Similar observations are also made with the vibration of the

overlying mass, as represented in Figures7 and 8. However,
in this case, it is clearly revealed that subjected to resonance
state, the overlying mass undergoes larger displacement as
compared to that of the underlying mass. This forms the basic
Y.Sudheer Kumar, C.M.Jibeesh, B.Giridhar Rajesh, Arindam Dey
concept of a vibration absorber, in which the vibration of the

main unit is reduced or brought to rest at extremity, while the
auxiliary unit vibrates with large displacement
Fig. 6 Steady-state z11 for various mr (r1=1)
CONCLUSIONS
The present study investigates the effect of vibrating masses
on the undamped dynamic response two-storied vibrating
machines. The system forms a 2DOF mass-spring system
where each individual unit is subjected to operating forces.
This article reports in detail the circumstance wherein the
operating forces are unequal in magnitude while maintaining
identical frequency. The outcome of the present investigation
has been presented in non-dimensional form utilizing ratios
of contributory parameters. Based on the above discussions,
the following conclusions can be drawn:
It is observed that for a stiffness ratio kr=5, an increase of
mass-ratio in the order of 104 largely affects the
fundamental frequency of the underlying system (~24
times) in comparison to the secondary frequency
(~4times). A reverse note is made for the overlying
system.
For a given stiffness-ratio kr=5, there exists an optimal
mass ratio mr =5 where, the natural frequencies of the
coupled system approach very close to each other, and the
2DOF system nearly behaves as a 1DOF system.
In a particular frequency ratio range of 0.5-1, the
normalized amplitude curves of underlying unit is less
sensitive to the variation of mass-ratio as compared to the
overlying unit.
Fig. 7 Steady-state z22 for various r2 (mr =1)
Combining the present study with the detailed

investigations of the behavior of two-storied machine
system for different force-ratio and stiffness-ratio, a
detailed monograph can be developed which will be of
two-step aid to any practicing engineer. It will help
estimating the responses of the system if the absolute
values of the parameters of the individual units are preknown. On the other hand, it would also help in
estimation of the parameter of an individual unit, when
restrictions on the responses of the coupled unit are preimposed.
REFERENCES
1. B. Giridhar Rajesh, Y. Sudheer Kumar, C. M. Jibeesh and
A. Dey. Dynamic analysis of undamped two-storied
machines: Influence of operating forces. Proc. of ICAMB2012, Vellore, India. (Paper Accepted for publication)
2. B. M. Das and G. M. Ramana. Principles of Soil

Dynamics. Cengage Learning, 2010.
3. N. S. V. K. Rao. Mechanical Vibration of Elastic Systems.

Asian-Books, 2006.
Fig. 8 Steady-state z22 for various mr (r2=1)
Studies have also been carried out to investigate the effect of

mass-ratio on the velocity and acceleration response on the
time-domain; however, for the sake of brevity, they have not
been presented herein.
4. S. Saran. Soil Dynamics and Machine Foundation.

Galgotia Publications, 2006.

December 13-15,2012, Delhi (Paper No F-635)
MECHANICS OF CEMENTED SAND BY DISCRETE ELEMENT SIMULATIONS

Dinesh.S.V., Professor, Siddaganga Institution of Technology, Tumkur; dineshsv2004@gmail.com
Mamatha K.H., Post Graduate Student, Siddaganga Institution of Technology, Tumkur; mamatha25.2010@rediffmail.com
Vinod J.S., Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Wollongong, Australia; vinod.js@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: This paper explores the potential of Discrete Element Method (DEM) to model the behavior of cemented sand.
Numerical simulations were carried out using PFC2D with assemblies consisting of about 3200 particles of radius ranging from
0.075 0.1mm. In the present work cementation effect is modeled by assigning bond strength value, which binds the sand
particles. The effect of cementation on the mechanical behavior (stress-strain and volume change) was studied. The effect of
cementation on stress dilatancy has been analyzed and reported based on numerical simulation using discrete element method.
INTRODUCTION
The mechanical behavior of cemented sand is an important
topic and is widely studied by various researchers. Research
on cemented sands has covered a wide variety of topics,
including stressstrain and volumetric responses (Saxena and
Lastrico (17), Clough et al. (4), Leroueil and Vaughan (12)),
stiffness enhancement (Huang and Airey (7), Schnaid et al.
(18)), dynamic properties (Acar and El-Tahir (1), Saxena et
al. (16), Clough et al. (3), Sharma and Fahey (19)), influences
of various cementing agents (Ismail (8), Ismail et al. (9),
Leung (13)), critical-state features (Airey (2), Coop and
Atkinson (5), Cuccovillo and Coop (6), Schnaid et al. (18),
and stressdilatancy relationships (Cuccovillo and Coop (6),
Lade and Overton (4), Mntaras and Schnaid (15), Lo et al.
(14)). The macroscopic behavior of stressstrain, volume
change and the influence of cementing agent are well
understood. But there is a need to understand the microscopic
response associated with the macro-behavior and there are
not many studies which brings out the mechanism of
increased strength and volume change in cemented sands
from particulate approach. In the present paper the results of
the mechanical behavior (stressstrain, volume change) were
reported based on numerical simulations using discrete
element method. The simulations have been carried out using
two dimensional particle flow code (PFC2D) under biaxial
shear test. The cementation effect was modeled by assigning
bond strength values, which binds the sand particles together.
The effect of cementation on stress dilatancy was analyzed.
An attempt is made to provide consistent explanations for the
macro-behavior in terms of micro response.
DISCRETE ELEMENT METHOD
Discrete Element Method is currently used in several
scientific disciplines to study the systems with inherent
granularity. In geomechanics and mechanics of materials this
technique was pioneered by Cundall (1971) for rock
mechanics problems where continuity between elements does
not exist. DEM models the granular materials as individual
elements which can make and break contacts with their
neighbours and are capable of analyzing interacting bodies
underlying large absolute or relative motions. Its important
feature is that it incorporates the coulombs frictional law at
contacts between elements. Slippage occurs when the
tangential force at contact exceeds the critical value. The

equilibrium contact forces are obtained from a series of
calculations by solving Newtons law of motion followed by
force displacement law at each contact. When all forces for
each contact in the assembly are updated, forces and moment
sums are determined on each element, and the above process
is repeated in cycles.
NUMERICAL SIMULATION PROGRAM
Biaxial element test with and without cement have been
carried out using two dimensional discrete element software
PFC2D (Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.) PFC2D simulates the
mechanical behavior of a material by representing it as an
assembly of circular particles. By introducing the ability to
bond together adjacent particles, the procedure has been
applied extended and applied to simulate complex problems
in solid mechanics. Numerical simulations were carried out
on assemblies having a width of 7cm and height of 14cm.
The shear and normal stiffness of wall boundaries were set as
5X106N/m. About 3200 circular particles of diameter ranging
from 0.075 0.1mm were then generated and these particles
were assigned a normal and shear stiffness of 5X108N/m,
density of 2650kg/m3 and inter particle friction value of 0.25.
Linear contact displacement model has been employed for
the numerical simulation program. In the present
investigation, cementation effect was modeled by assigning
bond strength values, which binds the sand particles together.
Contact bond can be envisioned as a kind of glue joining to
particles and can only transmit a force. The assemblies were
generated by incorporating cementation effect and were
assigned normal and shear bond strength of 1.5X105N/m. The
assemblies were then compacted using a strain rate of 10-5/s
to an initial confining pressure of 100kPa. Biaxial shear tests
were then carried out on these assemblies to investigate the
influence of cementation on stress dilatancy. Details of
numerical simulation program are tabulated in Table 1.
Figure 1 shows the mechanical responses of cemented
assemblies having different bond strength under a confining
pressure of 100kPa. Response of uncemented assembly under
the same confinement is also presented as a reference. Figure
Dinesh .S.V, Mamatha. K.H, Vinod. J.S

1(a) shows the Deviator stress versus axial strain for
uncemented and cemented assemblies.
Table 1. Parameters used in DEM simulations
Sl No. Parameters
Selected values
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
2
1
Sand particles
Soil particle density
Initial porosity
Radii of particles
Inter particle friction angle
Normal contact stiffness
Shear contact stiffness
between sand
and membrane particles
Wall
(a)
2,650 kg/m3
0.20
0.075-0.1mm
0.25
5X108 N/m
5X108 N/m
5X107 N/m
(b)
5X106 N/m
Shear contact stiffness
5X106 N/m
3
1
Cementing particles
Normal bond strength
1.5X105 N/m
Uncemented assembly shows normal consolidation behavior.

Cemented assemblies show increased deviator stress with a
pronounced peak strength followed by strain softening. The
peak strength increase varies from 2 to 3 times when the bond
strength was varied from 1e5 to 2e5. The peak strength is
achieved at a very small strain level of 1.2% strain level. This
clearly indicates higher stiffness of cemented assemblies.
Beyond this, it appears that there is bond breakage and the
cemented assemblies show greater strain softening. At large
strain levels of the order of 35% the residual strength of
cemented assemblies are slightly higher than uncemented
assemblies.
Figure 1(b) shows the plot of volumetric strain versus axial
strain. Uncemented assembly shows lower dilation and the
cemented assemblies show greater dilation. Similar
observations are revealed from figure 1(c) where samples of
greater bond strength show large increase in void ratio.
Figure 1(d) shows the plot of stress ratio versus axial strain
for uncemented and cemented assemblies. Cemented
assemblies show peak stress ratio of 1.75 for assembly with
greater bond strength and stress ratio at large strains are
nearly uniform. This indicates that the critical state behavior
of cemented and uncemented assemblies appears to be at the
same state in terms of stresses.
(c)
(d)
Fig. 1 Mechanical responses of cementation under

confining pressure of 100kPa
STRESS DILATANCY
The Dilatancy, (d) is defined as,
Mechanics of cemented sand by Discrete Element Simulation
d =
vp
sp
vs = Increments of plastic volumetric strain

sp = Increments of the plastic triaxial shear strain
Where,
The sample with bond strength 1.5e5N/m at 100kPa confining

pressure is selected to analyze the stress dilatancy behavior.
Figures 2 (a) and (b) show the stress strain and volumetric
response of the cemented and uncemented assemblies at a
confining pressure of 100kPa. The cementation effect will
increase the peak strength. The deviator stress at large strain
is almost same for both cemented and uncemented
assemblies. The volumetric strain plot shows higher
compression followed by large amount of dilation.
The associated stress dilatancy relationships for these two
samples are established in Figure 3. Figure 3 is presented in
terms of the stress ratio (q/p) and dilatancy. The peak strength
(or the peak stress ratio) and the maximum dilatancy do not
occur at the same axial strain. As a matter of fact, such a
delayed development of the maximum dilatancy is observed
in all the cemented samples. Maximum dilatancy occurs at a
strain ratio of 0.12 and the strain ratio is calculated by the
axial strain at the peak strength divided by the strain where
the maximum dilatancy occurs. The dilatancy at large strain
level of 35% is almost zero in uncemented and cemented
assemblies.
(a)
Fig.3 Stress dilatancy relationship of cemented and

uncemented sand under the confining pressure of 100kPa
Figure 4a shows the variation of specific volume with mean p
of all cemented and uncemented assemblies. From the figure
it can be observed that all cemented and uncemented
assemblies are initially sheared from a constant specific
volume during the compression phase till peak strength state
and beyond the peak state samples show dilation and the
specific volume increases with the increase in bond strength
value. Fig 4b shows the initial and steady state points of
cemented and uncemented assemblies. This figure clearly
indicates the steady state points for all the assemblies and
data clearly shows the magnitude of dilation and different
critical state. With increase in bond strength the steady state
position moves up in the specific volume and mean p plot.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2 (a) Stress Strain (b) Volumetric response of

cemented and uncemented sand under the confining pressure
of 100kPa
Dinesh .S.V, Mamatha. K.H, Vinod. J.S

(b)
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Fig. 4 Variation of specific volume with mean p for
cemented and uncemented assemblies
10.
CONCLUSIONS
In this study, numerical simulations are used to explore the
underlying mechanisms of how cementation influences the
strength and stress dilatancy behavior in cemented sand. The
salient findings are as follows.
Prior to yielding the stress ratio increases rapidly
from 1.4 to 1.7 and the dilatancy is hindered by the
bonding network.
After yielding, the increase in stress ratio gradually
becomes slower and it attains a value of 1.4 at large
strain, during this phase the dilatancy speeds up.
Upto the peak strength the bond strength governs the
behaviour. Thereafter the bond breakage occurs
resulting in decrease in strength. But the subsequent
volumetric dilation is not resulting in increase of
strength.
The peak strength and the maximum dilatancy do
not occur at the same strain level. The bond
breakage is observed at a strain level of 0.02%/
which is the beginning point of dilation and max.
dilatancy occurs at strain level of 0.039%.
The critical state position varies significantly with
increase in bond strength. Higher the bond strength
more dilation is observed after bond breakage.
11.
REFERENCES
1. Acar, Y. B., and El-Tahir, A. E. (1986). Low strain
dynamic properties of artificially cemented sand. J.
Geotech. Engrg., 112(11), 1001 1015.
2. Airey, D. W. (1993). Triaxial testing of naturally
cemented carbonate soil. J. Geotech. Engrg.,
119(9), 13791398.
3. Clough, G. W., Iwabuchi, J., Rad, N. S., and
Kuppusamy, T. (1989). Influence of cementation
on liquefaction of sands. J. Geotech Engrg.,
115(8), 11021117.
4. Clough, G. W., Sitar, N., Bachus, R. C., and Rad, N.
S. (1981). Cemented sands under static loading. J.
Geotech. Engrg. Div., 104(6), 799817.
18.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
19.
20.
Coop, M. R., and Atkinson, J. H. (1993). The

mechanics of cemented carbonate sands.
Geotechnique, 43(1), 5367.
Cuccovillo, T., and Coop, M. R. (1999). On the
mechanics of structured sands. Geotechnique,
49(6), 741760.
Huang, J. T., and Airey, D. W. (1998). Properties
of artificially cemented carbonate sand. J. Geotech.
Geoenviron. Eng., 124(6), 492499.
Ismail, M. A. (2000). Strength and deformation
behavior of calcite cemented calcareous soil. Ph.D.
dissertation, The Univ. of Western Australia, Perth,
Australia.
Ismail, M. A., Joer, H. A., Sim, W. H., and
Randolph, M. F. (2002). Effect of cement type on
shear behavior of cemented calcareous soil. J.
Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 128(6), 520529.
Ladd, R. S. (1978). Preparing test specimens using
under-compaction. Geotech. Test. J., 1, 1623.
Lade, P. V., and Overton, D. D. (1989).
Cementation effects in frictional materials. J.
Geotech. Engrg., 115(10), 13731387.
Leroueil, S., and Vaughan, P. R. (1990). The
general and congruent effects of structure in natural
soils and weak rocks. Geotechnique, 40(3), 467
488.
Leung, S. C. (2005). Mechanical characteristics of
cemented sandA particulate-scale study. MPhil
thesis, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Hong Kong Univ.
of Science and Technology, HKSAR, China.
Lo, S. C. R., Lade, P. V., and Wardani, S. P. R.
(2003). An experimental study of the mechanics of
two weakly cemented soils. Geotech. Test. J.,
26(3), 114.
Mntaras, F. M., and Schnaid, F. (2002).
Cylindrical cavity expansion in dilatant cohesivefrictional materials. Geotechnique, 52(5), 337
348.
Saxena, S. K., Avramidis, A. S., and Reddy, K. R.
(1988). Dynamic moduli and damping ratios for
cemented sands at low strains. Can.Geotech. J.,
25(2), 353368.
Saxena, S. K., and Lastrico, R. M. (1978). Static
properties of lightly cemented sand. J. Geotech.
Engrg. Div., 104(12), 14491465.
Schnaid, F., Prietto, P. D. M., and Consoli, N. C.
(2001). Characterization of cemented sand in
triaxial compression. J. Geotech. Geoenviron Eng.,
127(10), 857868.
Sharma, S. S., and Fahey, M. (2003). Degradation
of stiffness of cemented calcareous soil in cyclic
triaxial tests. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 129(7),
619629.
Thomas, P. A., and Bray, J. D. (1999). Capturing
nonspherical shape of granular media with disk
clusters. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 125(3),
169178.

December 13-15, 2012, New Delhi (Paper No. F636.)
EFFECT OF REINFORCEMENT STIFFNESS ON THE OBLIQUE PULLOUT BEHAVIOR OF

REINFORCED SOIL
Shantanu Patra, Doctoral Student, Dept. of Civil Engng., I.I.T. Delhi. E-mail: patrashantanu@gmail.com
J. T. Shahu, Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil Engng., I.I.T. Delhi. E-mail: shahu@civil.iitd.ac.in
ABSTRACT: With the advent of geosynthetic as extensible and quasi-extensible reinforcement, the design and construction
of reinforced soil structures such as walls, embankments and slopes has gained much more momentum. Stability of these
structures depends on extensibility of the reinforcement in addition to localized mobilized reinforcement force and its direction
in the vicinity of the failure surface. Localized soil-reinforcement behavior again depends on kinematics of failure of these
structures. However kinematics of failure is such that the failure surface intersects the reinforcement obliquely and thus
causing oblique pullout of the reinforcement. Therefore obliquity of the reinforcement force should be considered for stability
analysis of these structures against pullout. This paper presents an oblique pullout analysis of an extensible sheet reinforcement
resting on a subgrade soil idealized by a two-parameter linear elastic Pasternak model. Effect of extensibility on deformed
shape of the reinforcement and mobilized reinforcement strain are studied. Localized behaviour of reinforced soil in the
vicinity of failure surface is also investigated in the present analysis. The present study removes the drawback of the earlier
work by assuming more realistic soil reinforcement model characteristics.
INTRODUCTION
In the last few decades, with the advent of geosynthetic
product, reinforcing a soil mass with more extensible type
inclusions has gained much popularity. Consequently, a large
number of reinforced soil structures such as reinforced soil
walls, slopes and embankments have been built as permanent
structures. Stability of these structures is important and
depends on extensibility of the reinforcement, localized
mobilized reinforcement force and its direction in the vicinity
of the failure surface. Localized soil-reinforcement behavior
again depends on kinematics of failure of these structures.
However kinematics of failure is such that the failure surface
intersects the reinforcement obliquely (Fig. 1) and thus
causing oblique pullout of the reinforcement. Therefore
obliquity of the reinforcement force should be considered for
stability analysis of these structures against pullout. However,
most available methods do not incorporate any of these
factors. As a result, these methods do not adequately describe
real reinforced soil behaviour. Application of these methods
requires an extra level of conservatism and sometimes results
in apparent inconsistencies in interpretation of experimental
data (Rowe and Ho 1993).
This paper presents an oblique pullout analysis of an
extensible sheet reinforcement resting on a subgrade soil
idealized by a two-parameter linear elastic Pasternak model.
Effect of extensibility on deformed shape of the
reinforcement and mobilized reinforcement strain are studied.
Localized behaviour of reinforced soil in the vicinity of
failure surface is also investigated in the present analysis. The
present study removes the drawback of the earlier work by
assuming more realistic soil reinforcement model
characteristics.
Reinforcement (R)
Failure surface (S)
(b) Reinforced slopes
(a) Reinforced retaining walls
Tmax
R
Tangent to R
wL
S (or Tangent to S)
P
(c) Enlarged View at Y
Fig. 1. Kinematics of failure of reinforced structures (Patra and

Shahu 2012b)
PROBLEM DEFINITION AND ANALYSIS

An extensible sheet reinforcement of stiffness factor J* and
normalized length 1.0 unit is resting on a subgrade soil (Fig.
2a) having subgrade stiffness factor = ks L / D and shear
stiffness factor G* = GH/DL . The reinforcement is subjected
to a normalized oblique pullout force P*(=P/THP where THP =
axial pullout capacity of the reinforcement) at point B where
the sliding mass intersects the reinforcement at an obliquity
(see Figs. 1a-d). The resulting horizontal extension U of
the reinforcement at any point is determined from the
tension-strain relationship as T*=J*dU/dX where T* is
reinforcement tension at any point X on the reinforcement.
For the analysis, a rigid plastic soil-reinforcement interface is
assumed where angle of interface frictional resistance is r.
The soil above the reinforcement is represented by a uniform
overburden stress at the top of the reinforcement.
Shantanu Patra & J.T. Shahu
+ 2cosci tanr sinciZ*c,i secci
(4)
2
n+1
W
WLWiG*WL 2i +2cosci tanrZ*c,i
X
i =1
n+1
tanr
L
(a) Reinforcement subjected to oblique force
Reinforcement
q = D
w0
tan =
Springs
wL
P* =
Tmax
uL
x
p
(c) Forces on the reinforcement
wL
Fig. 2. Schematic of the model used (Patra and Shahu

2012b)
The proposed model for the analysis is shown in Fig. 2(b).

The amount of tension T* in the reinforcement at end B is
* with an inclination . Vertical displacement W at ends
Tmax
L
A and B are W0 and WL, respectively. The displacement W
and tension T* at any point along the reinforcement can be
calculated by solving the following two governing coupled
equations as (Patra and Shahu 2012b)
2Wi
0.5
WLWi G *WL
n
X 2
tan
i
+ 1 + 2 Z i* + T i*
tan
2 tan T * cos2
2 tanrTi* cos2 i dTx*,i dWi
*
r i
i
(
)
+
+
G
W
W
i 1
3
2
i+1
J *Z*
dX dX
Zi*
Wi =
4 tan T * cos2

r i
i
+
+ 2G*
2
n2
Zi*
(1)
(2)
T x*, i
and i is the number of elements into
where Z *i = 1 +
*
J
which the reinforcement strip is divided (i.e., x = 1/ n ). The

assumed boundary conditions are:
at X = 0,
dWi
dX
n +1
WLW iG *WL
2n cos i =1
+ 2 cos ci Z *c, i
X 2
2Wi
(5)
Shear layer
(b) Deformed model
T i*+1 =
2Wi
uL
i =1
z,w
WLWi +WLWiG*WL
= 0 and T*= 0; and at X = 1, W = 1.
(3)
Final governing equations for overall equilibrium as (Patra

and Shahu 2012b)
Tc*, x, i
, = tan 1 [nW (W W )] , and
where Z *c, i = 1 +
ci
L
i +1
i
*
J
i = ( ci + ci1 ) 2 subscripts c denotes elemental values at the

centre of the element and subscript i is nodal number.
Solution and Range of parameters

Eqs. 1 and 2 are solved in conjunction with the boundary
conditions (Eq. 3) and overall equilibrium equations (Eqs. 4
and 5) to obtain Wi and Ti* at all nodes. A trial and error
procedure is adopted for the solution. Ranges of parameters
for the analyses are taken as: = 500-2000 and G* = 0-1000,
J* = 1-1000, r = 20-40.
RESULTS
Mobilized strain and displacement profile
Variation of reinforcement strain and displacement W with
distance X at pullout are shown in Figs. 3 and 4, respectively,
for different values of model parameters J*, G*, , and . Fig.
3 shows that mobilized reinforcement strain decreases, as the
reinforcement stiffness factor J* increases. The effect of J* on
displacement is negligible (Fig. 4) compare to reinforcement
strain. As the subgrade shear stiffness factor G* increases,
reinforcement strain and displacement decreases (Figs. 3 and
4) and more uniform distribution is observed. However, for
the increase in subgrade normal stiffness factor the
reinforcement strain increases (Fig. 3) whereas displacement
reduces (Fig. 4). But in both the cases, the distribution is
more localized. As the obliquity of the pullout force and
angle of interface frictional resistance r increases, the
reinforcement strain and displacement also increases (Figs. 3
and 4).
For higher subgrade shear stiffness factor G*, greater
proportion of the applied pullout force is distributed by the
subgrade soil by the interaction of neighboring soil elements
(Patra and Shahu 2012a). Consequently, normal and shear
stresses developed over the inner part of the subgrade reduce.
As the interface shear stresses reduce pullout capacity also
reduces. As a result, mobilized reinforcement strain and
displacement W also reduce.
Effect of subgrade shear stiffness on the oblique pullout behavior of reinforced soil
Distance X
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
in practice, depending on subgrade shear stiffness G* and

reinforcement stiffness J*, IF lies in between these two
extremes 0 and 1 (Bergado et al. 2000).
Reinforcement strain max
0.05
G* = 10
0.10
J* = 10
0.15
Nominal case
0.20
0.25
= 500
= 75
0.30
0.35
Unless otherwise stated: J*=5,

G*=0, =2E3, r=30o, =60o
r = 40
0.40
Fig. 3. Strain along reinforcement
Distance X
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
0.000
2.00
J* = 10
0.005
G* =10
0.010
0.015
= 75
= 500
r = 40
Unless otherwise stated: J*=5,

G*=0, =2E3, r=30o, =60o
0.020
Fig. 4. Displacement along reinforcement
Horizontal pullout capacity PH*
Displacement W
Nominal case
Nominal case
1.75
r = 40
Fig. 5 shows shear stiffness factor G versus inclination

factor IF plot. As G* increase (stiffer subgrade), inclination
factor IF decrease. However, as the reinforcement stiffness J*
increases (stiffer reinforcement) inclination factor IF
increases (Fig. 5). Inclination factor IF also increases as the
obliquity and angle of interface friction r increases (Fig.
5). However, subgrade normal shear stiffness factor has
negligible effect on the inclination factor (Fig. 5).
A high value of inclination factor IF (=1) indicates that the
orientation of the deformed reinforcement is almost the same
that of the applied oblique pullout force. However, a lower
value of IF (= 0) indicates almost a horizontal orientation of
the reinforcement. For a high value of shear stiffness G* (>
50) inclination factor IF is very low (approaching zero value)
which indicates that the reinforcement remains horizontal (IF
= 0) near the failure surface (similar to the conventional
method). However, as G* decreases bending of the
reinforcement increases and reinforced slope becomes equal
to the obliquity of pullout force at failure surface (IF = 1). But
J* = 10
= 500
1.50
J* = 100
1.25
Unless otherwise stated:
J*=5, =2E3, r=30o, =60o
1.00
0
Inclination factor
Inclination factor IF ( = L , where L is the inclination of
the reinforcement at final deformed state and is the oblique
of the pullout force refer Fig. 2d), quantifies the deformation
behavior of the reinforcement subjected to oblique pull.
= 75
0.2
0.4
0.6
Inclination factor IF
0.8
*
Fig. 6. Inclination factor IF versus horizontal pullout capacity PH
Fig. 6 shows that the horizontal pullout capacity PH*

increases as the inclination factor IF increases. The horizontal
component of pullout capacity PH* also increases as the
reinforcement stiffness J* decreases. As J* decreases the
extension of the reinforcement increases and thus
contribution of the extended part of the reinforcement also
increases. Horizontal pullout capacity also increases as the
obliquity of the reinforcement and angle of interface
frictional resistance increases (Fig. 6).
Fig. 7 shows that maximum reinforcement strain increases
with the increase in inclination factor. As the reinforcement
stiffness increases reinforcement strain decreases. Maximum
reinforcement strain also increases with the increase in
obliquity of the pullout force and with the increase in angle of
interface frictional resistance. Fig. 8 shows that as the
inclination factor IF increases end displacement WL increases.
For lower subgrade stiffness factor a high value of end
displacement WL is observed. Subgrade normal stiffness
factor is found to be the single most important factor on the
end displacement WL.
Shantanu Patra & J.T. Shahu

0.60
Maximum strain max

J*=5, =2E3, r=30o, =60o
0.40
= 75
r = 40
= 500
J* = 10
Nominal case
0.20
J* = 100
0.00
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Fig. 7. Inclination factor IF versus maximum strain max
0.04
End displacement WL
= 500
J* = 10
0.03
J* = 100
0.02
Nominal case
r = 40
0.01
= 75

J*=5, =2E3, r=30o, =60o
0.00
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Fig. 8. Inclination factor IF versus End displacement WL
CONCLUSIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The horizontal component of pullout capacity PH*

increases as the reinforcement stiffness J* decreases, as
contribution of the extended part of the reinforcement
increases.
Mobilized reinforcement strain decreases, as the
reinforcement stiffness factor J* increases. The effect of
J* on displacement is negligible
Horizontal pullout capacity
PH*
increases as the
inclination factor IF increases.

The end displacement WL increases as the inclination
factor IF increases
Convention method of pullout analysis does not consider
extensibility of the reinforcement whereas present
analysis removes this drawback and can be suitably
applied for the analysis of more extensible type of
reinforcement.
Conventional method which considers pullout capacity
in the axial direction gives highly conservative value of
pullout capacity where as Winkler based oblique pullout
model overpredicts the pullout capacity. The present
method gives a more rational and realistic value of
pullout capacity.
REFERENCES
1. Bergado, D.T., Teerawattanasuk, C. and Long, P.V.
(2000). Localized mobilization of reinforcement force
and its direction in the vicinity of failure surface.
Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 18, 311-331.
2. Rowe, R. K. and Ho, S. K. (1993). Keynote lecture: A
review of the behaviour of reinforced soil walls. Earth
Reinforcement Practice,Proc., Int. Symp. on Earth
Reinforcement Practice, Vol. 2, H. Ochiai, S. Hayashi,
and J. Otani, eds., Balkema, Rotterdam, The
Netherlands, 801830.
3. Patra, S. and Shahu, J.T. (2012a). Pasternak model for
oblique pullout of inextensible reinforcement. J.
Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng.,http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/
(ASCE) GT.1943-5606.0000720. Posted on web ahead
of print on March 2012.
4. Patra, S. and Shahu, J.T. (2012b). Pasternak model for
oblique pullout of extensible reinforcement.
Geosynthetics International, communicated.

December 13-15,2012, Delhi (Paper No.F637)
NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF DIRECT SHEAR TEST ON INFILLED ROCK JOINT

A.K.Shrivastava, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, DTU, Delhi, aksrivastava@dce.ac.in
K.S.Rao, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT, Delhi, raoks@civil.iitd.ernet.in
Ganesh W. Rathod, A. P., Department of Civil Engineering, NIT, Warangal, ganesh.rathod@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT: Despite their frequent natural occurrence infilled discontinuities have been studied much less experimentally,
perhaps because of the difficulties arising from the sampling, preparation of the sample and requirement of very good testing
facility. Constitutive modelling of infilled rock joints are also difficult because joint behaviour has to consider a large number
of assumption and uncertainties, which may sometimes unable to predict correctly the stress and deformation behaviour of the
joints. The availability of sophisticated softwares and high speed computer has made numerical approaches of analysis popular
and easy. Hence, in the present work capability of numerical study in predicting the shear behaviour of the infilled rock joints
under constant normal load (CNL) and constant normal stiffness (CNS) boundary conditions is evaluated. A comprehensive
numerical modelling has been performed using universal distinct element code (UDEC) based on the discrete element method
of numerical analysis. The predicted shear behaviour is compared with the experimental results [1 and 2] and the detailed
account of this is discussed in the present paper.
INTRODUCTION
The proper understanding of rock mass behaviour is
important for design of underground openings in jointed
rocks, stability analysis of rock slopes, risk assessment of
underground waste disposal, design of foundation on rock
and design of rock socketed piles. An in-situ rock mass
derives its strength and deformation characteristics from
physical and mechanical properties of the competent intact
material and properties of discontinuities such as joints,
faults, foliation surfaces or bedding planes. The physical and
mechanical properties influencing shear behaviour of joints
mainly are: (a) Joint roughness (b) Scale effect (size of joint)
(c) Stiffness of the surrounding rock (d) Shear rate (e)
Condition of the joint i.e. unfilled joint/infilled joint (f) Infill
type (g) Infill thickness (h) Drainage condition of the infill
material [3]. Hence rock joint models for predicting the shear
behaviour has to include the influence of all these
parameters.
The influence of these parameters on shear strength of jointed
rock has been studied by different researchers such as [1, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12]. Based on their laboratory,
analytical and numerical studies various shear strength
models have been proposed in the past.
It is very difficult to simulate all these factors influencing the
shear behaviour of the rock joints by constitutive modelling
and experimental study. A constitutive model has to consider
the large number of assumptions and uncertainties or requires
the input of complex parameters for analysis. The
experimental studies require very good testing facilities. The
availability of sophisticated softwares and high speed
computer has made numerical approaches of analysis popular
and easy.
Hence, in this paper an attempt has been made to model the

shear behaviour of infilled joint under both constant normal
load (CNL) and constant normal stiffness (CNS) conditions
using UDEC. The behaviour of simulated rock joints (Plaster
of Paris) with asperity angle 300-300 has been modelled in
UDEC and the predicted shear strength is compared with the
experimental results [1].
NUMERICAL SIMULATION
Numerical method can be used to model large scale projects
as well as for the physical model studies conducted on the
jointed rock mass in the laboratory. In this method first
geometry of the problem is established, than the estimated
rock mass parameters are applied to it and finally these
parameters are than be adjusted so that the output from
numerical methods agrees with the observed laboratory study
or behaviour of the structures as construction proceeds.
The simplifications made in it to solve the systems of the
differential equations either inside the continuum or at the
boundaries of discretization. Hence numerical modelling
leads to approximations to the correct or exact mathmetical
solutions. The accuracy of these models depends upon the
selection of numerical methods, geometry of the problem,
loading process or history and the response of the
discontinuity to the loading. Numerical methods can be
broadly classified as continuum or discontinuum method [13
and 14]. There are no quantitative guidelines to determine
when one method should be used instead of the other one.
In continuum method the discontinuous materials are
modelled by the interface elements or slide lines. However,
their uses are restricted in rock mass modelling because of
the limitations like, logic may break when many intersecting
interfaces are used, or there may not be an automatic scheme
of recognizing new contacts and this formulation may be
A. K. Shrivastava, K. S. Rao & Ganesh,W. Rathod
Excavation or construction on rock masses usually involves

slip and separation along the discontinuities. Hence
modelling of the discontinuities is an essential component.
Influence of discontinuities on the mechanical behaviour of
the unfilled and infilled rock joints were experimentally and
numerically investigated by researchers like [15, 16, 17 and
18]. Therefore, in the present study, discrete element scheme,
UDEC [19] is used for modelling the discontinuities.
The Universal Distinct Element Code (UDEC) is a twodimensional numerical program based on the distinct element
method for discontinuum modelling. UDEC simulates the
response of discontinuous media (such as a jointed rock
mass) subjected to either static or dynamic loading. The
discontinuous medium is represented as an assemblage of
discrete blocks. The discontinuities are treated as boundary
conditions between blocks; large displacements along
discontinuities and rotations of blocks are allowed. Individual
blocks behave as either rigid or deformable material.
Deformable blocks are subdivided into a mesh of finitedifference elements, and each element responds according to
a prescribed linear or nonlinear stress-strain law. The relative
motion of the discontinuities is also governed by linear or
nonlinear force-displacement relations for movement in both
the normal and shear directions. UDEC is based on a
Lagrangians calculation scheme that is well-suited to model
the large movements and deformations of a blocky system.
The detail of this is described in [19] manual.
UDEC Analysis
The deformability of the discontinuities between the blocks
and their frictional characteristics in UDEC are modelled by
spring slider system with prescribed force displacement
relations enabling the normal and shear forces between the
blocks to be calculated. The UDEC contains three
constitutive models for the joint. First is the Coulomb slip
model which provides a linear representation of joint stiffness
and yield limit. It is based upon elastic stiffness, frictional,
cohesive, tensile strength properties and dilation
characteristics common to rock joint. Second, continuously
yielding model which is more realistic than the Coulomb
joint model as it accounts for nonlinear behaviour observed in
physical tests. This joint model, displays a continuous
accumulation of plastic displacement from the onset of
shearing. The instantaneous slope (i.e. tangent to the shear
stress vs. shear displacement curve) is governed not only by
the stiffness k, but also by the factor F. For a given shear
displacement, F depends on the distance from the actual
shear stress curve () and the bounding strength curve (m)
(Fig. 1).
The bounding strength is given by
m = Pn tan eff
Where, Pn and eff
(1)
are the normal stress and effective
friction angle respectively. During the shearing process

is continuously reduced from
b + i0
to
b . Where b
eff
and
i0 are the basic friction angle and initial angle of the

dilatancy respectively. In practice the factor F and the law of
reduction of effective friction angle is determined
empirically. The third joint model i.e. Barton-Bandis model is
also a nonlinear joint model that directly utilizes index
properties from laboratory tests on joints.
FKs
Shear stress ()
limited to small displacement and rotation. On the other hand

discontinuum methods allow finite displacements and
rotations of discrete bodies, including complete detachment
and recognize new contacts automatically as the calculation
progress.
Shear displacement
Fig.1 Shear stress displacement curve and bounding shear

strength [19]
During the numerical simulation of direct shear test on
unfilled rock joints [18], it was observed that the constitutive
models available for the joint in UDEC i.e. Coulomb slip or
continuously yielding are not predicting well the peak shear
stress as compared to experimental results. The results reflect
that Coulomb slip joint model is suitable only for planar joint.
It has been also observed during analysis by [2] that the
asperity degradation cannot be modelled properly by
continuously yielding joint model of UDEC, because of the
over prediction of the dilation of the joint and hence over
prediction of the corresponding normal stress. Under
conventional CNL, the asperity degradation is less prominent
at the same initial normal stress and at similar shear
displacement; hence UDEC in present form are more
appropriate for CNL than CNS conditions.
Hence, exiting continuously yielding model needs to be
modified to consider the effect of the CNL and CNS
boundary conditions and the law of reduction of effective
friction angle for infilled joint. It is modified by writing FISH
function to incorporate the equation proposed by [2] based on
Numerical Simulation of Direct Shear Test on Infilled rock Joint
the experimental results on physically simulated infilled rock

joints as given by Eq. (2 , 3 and 4) for predicting the shear
strength of infilled joint, normal stress corresponding to peak
shear stress and decay in the effective friction angle for
infilled joints.
'
pinfil = Pn tan (b + iinfill
)
(2)
Pn = aPi + b
(3)
'
iinfill
i = x ln( Pn / c ) + y
(4)
Where,
pinfil , Pn , Pi , c , b , i
top of the sample is applied for CNL and CNS boundary

conditions as calculated from Eq. 3. The model is run for
large number of cycles to reach equilibrium and give desired
shear displacement to the sample. At equilibrium, the force
on one side of a grid point nearly balances the opposing
'
and iinfill are shear stress
in MPa, normal stress in MPa, initial normal stress in MPa,

uniaxial compressive strength in MPa, basic friction angle in
degree, initial asperity angle in degree and effective infill
asperity angle in degree respectively. The regression
constants are a, b, x and y, which depend upon the initial
asperity angle , c and normal stiffness (kn) of the rock
Fig. 2 UDEC model geometry of infilled joint.
joints. The values of these constants are given in Table 1.

Table 1 Values of constants for different asperity angle, infill
thickness (t) and normal stiffness of joint [17]
a
B
x
y
R2
I
t
kn
(mm) (kN/
mm)
300
5
8
1 0.16 -0.26
-0.49 0.96
300
Modelling of Direct Shear Test on Infiled Joint
Model geometry of size 297 mm X 297 mm X 125 mm is
created in the UDEC software which is same as of laboratory
specimen. The 300-300 asperity of rock joints having asperity
height (a) as 5mm and thickness of infill material (t) as 5mm
created by crack command, which makes t/a = 1. The UDEC
and physical model of 5mm thick infilled joints with asperity
300-300 is as shown in Fig. 2 and 3.
The properties of the material and the joint used for UDEC
analysis is given in Table 2. A proper joint roughness
parameter (jr) is selected, as it controls the rate at which
effective friction angle decreases with plastic shear
displacement. A smaller value of jr causes effective friction
angle to decrease rapidly, which is resulting into smaller peak
stress.
Initial boundary condition is applied on the sample in such a
way that the lower shear box is only allowed to move in X
direction and movement in Y direction is restricted by
imposing Y velocity at the bottom of the lower shear box as
zero. The upper shear box is allowed to move only in the Y
direction and movement in the X direction is restricted by
imposing X velocity at the sides of the Upper shear box as
zero. The boundary conditions are similar to the conditions
used during laboratory testing [2]. Initial normal stress at the
Fig. 3 Physical model of infilled sample [18]

Table 2 Model properties used in UDEC.
Property key
Description
Value
word in
UDEC
D
Block mass density
1234 kg/m3
K
Baulk modulus of
1.357 GPa
block
G
Shear modulus of
0.934 GPa
block
Jkn
Joint normal stiffness
0.8 GPa/m
Jks
Joint shear stiffness
0.8 GPa/m
Jen
Joint normal stiffness
0
exponent
Jes
Joint shear stiffness
0
exponent
Jfric
Joint intrinsic friction
38.50
angle
Jif
Joint initial friction
Calculated from
angle
Eq.4
Jr
Joint roughness
0.01mm
parameter
A. K. Shrivastava, K. S. Rao & Ganesh,W. Rathod
Force. The sample is then sheared by imposing the shear

velocity on the lower sample. The average normal and shear
stresses and normal and shear displacements along the joints
are measured with a FISH function (av_str).
3.
4.

The UDEC results are compared with the experimental
results [1]. The average shear stress vs. shear displacement
plot along the infill joints under CNL and CNS boundary
conditions for 300-300 asperity joint is plotted in Fig. 3.
2.5
CNL, kn=0 kN/mm

CNS, kn=8 kN/mm
Shear Stress (MPa)
2.0
1.0
Exp.(CNL) Pi=0.10
UDEC(CNL)Pi=0.10
Exp.(CNL) Pi=1.02
UDEC(CNL)Pi=1.02
Exp.(CNL) Pi=2.04
UDEC(CNL)Pi=2.04
UDEC(CNS)Pi=0.10
8.
UDEC(CNS)Pi=1.02
9.
UDEC(CNS)Pi=2.04
0.5
6.
7.
MPa
1.5
5.
Exp.(CNS) Pi=0.10
Exp.(CNS) Pi=1.02
Exp.(CNS) Pi=2.04
0.0
0
10
12
14
16
Shear Displacement (mm)
Fig.3 Comparison of shear bhaviour (CNL and CNS)

It is observed that the predicted peak shear stress based on
modified UDEC capability is in close agreement with the
experimental results, although the pre and post peak shear
stress response is under estimated at higher Pi. The predicted
shear stress increases with shear displacement and once the
peak shear stress is reached, the shear displacement does not
cause increase in the shear stress, indicating the complete
shearing of the asperity at that shear displacement and after
that sliding of the sample takes place.
CONCLUSIONS
The shear behaviour of the simulated infilled joints were
analysed using UDEC. The UDEC capability is modified to
accommodate the effective or realistic infilled joint friction
angle and CNS conditions for proper modelling the shear
behaviour of the infilled rock joints. The variations of the
shear stress with shear displacement were studied for CNL
and CNS boundary conditions at different initial normal
stress. The UDEC predictions were compared with the
experimental results for same set of joints. The results
indicate that the modified UDEC is well capable of predicting
the peak shear stress for infilled joints, but pre and post peak
shear stress is under estimated.
REFERENCES
1. Shrivastava, A.K., Rao, K.S. and Rathod, G.W. (2011),
Shear behaviour of infill joint under CNS boundary
condition, IGC, Kochi, 981-984.
2. Shrivastava, A.K. (2012), Physical and numerical
modelling of shear behaviour of jointed rocks under CNL
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
and CNS boundary conditions, Doctoral Thesis, Indian

Institute of Technology, Delhi, India.
Shrivastava, A.K., Rao, K.S. (2009), Shear bhaviour of
jointed rock: a state of art, IGC, Guntur, 245-249.
Patton, F.D. (1966), Multiple modes of shear failure in
rock and related materials, Doctoral Thesis, University
of Illinois, Urbana.
Ladanyi, B. and Archambault, G. (1977), Shear strength
and deformability of filled indented joints, Proc. Int.
Symp. on Geotechnics of Structurally Complex
Formations, Italian Geotech. Assoc., Capri, Vol. l, 317326.
Barton, N. (1973), Review of a new shear strength
criterion for rock joints, Engineering Geology, 287332.
Barton, N. and Choubey, V. (1977), The shear strength
of rock joint in theory and practice, Rock Mech., 10, 154.
Saeb, S. (1989), Effect of boundary conditions on the
behaviour of a dilatant rock joint, Doctoral. Thesis,
University of Colorado, Boulder.
Saeb, S. (1990), A variance on the Ladanyi and
Archambault's shear strength criterion, Proceedings of
the International Symposium on Rock Joints, Loen,
Norway, Barton, N. and Stephansson, O. (eds), Balkema,
A.A., Rotterdam, 701-705.
Indraratna, B., Haque, A. and Aziz, N. (1999), Shear
behaviour of idealized joints under constant normal
stiffness, Geotechnique, 40(2), 189-200.
Welideniya, H.S. (2005), Laboratory evaluation and
modeling of shear strength of infilled joints under
constant normal stiffness (CNS) conditions, Doctoral.
Thesis, University of Wollongong, Australia.
Oliveira, D.A.F and Indraratna, B (2010),.Comparison
between models of rock discontinuity strength and
deformation, J.of Geotech and Geoenv. Eng, 136(6),
864-874.
Jing, L. and Hudson, J.A. (2002), Numerical methods in
rock mechanics, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci., 39, 409427.
Jing, L. (2003), A review of techniques, advances, and
outstanding issues in numerical modeling for rock
mechanics and rock engineering, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min.
Sci., 40, 283353.
Cundall, P.A. (1990), Numerical modelling of jointed
and faulted rock, Proc. of Int. Conf. on Mechanics of
Jointed and Faulted Rock, 11.
Indraratna, B., Jayanathan, M. and Brown, E. T. (2008),
Shear strength model for overconsolidated clay-infilled
idealized rock joints, Geotechnique, 58(1), 5565.
Oliveira, D.A.F. (2009), An advancement in analytical
modeling of soil infilled rock joints and their practical
application, Doctoral Thesis, University of Wollongong,
Australia.
Shrivastava, A.K., Rathod G.W. and Rao K.S. (2012),
Numerical simulation of direct shear test on rock sample,
ASCE, GSP, 225, 2177-2186.
Itasca Manual (2004), Users guide UDEC version 4.0.

SETTLEMENT PREDICTION OF SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS USING

ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS
M Harikumar, PG student, National Institute of Technology, Calicut, harikumar0907@gmail.com
N Sankar, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Calicut, sankar@nitc.ac.in
ABSTRACT: During the past three decades, many methods have been developed to predict the settlement of shallow
foundations on cohesionless soils. However, methods for making such predictions with the required degree of accuracy and
consistency have not yet been developed. A realistic prediction of settlement is essential since settlement, rather than bearing
capacity, generally controls the foundation system design. In this work, artificial neural networks will be used in an attempt to
obtain more reliable settlement prediction. A large database of actual measured settlements is used to develop and verify the
ANN model. Parameters such as footing stress, bearing capacity of soil, foundation dimensions and water table depth, which
were found to have a major impact on settlement, are required to be input by the user, through interfaces designed in MS
Visual Basic 2010. The settlements predicted using these parameters are then compared with the values predicted by four of
the most commonly used traditional settlement prediction techniques. Comparisons were made between the ANN model and
other conventional techniques of settlement prediction by means of sensitivity analyses.
INTRODUCTION
Settlement prediction is a major concern and is an essential
criterion in the design of shallow foundations. The
complexity in estimating the settlement of shallow
foundations can be attributed to the uncertainty associated
with the factors that affect the magnitude of this settlement,
such as the distribution of applied stress, the stressstrain
history of the soil, soil compressibility, and the difficulty in
obtaining undisturbed soil samples. In geotechnical
engineering, both theoretical and experimental methods can
be found to predict the settlement of shallow foundations.
But, all these methods rely upon various assumptions in
geotechnical engineering and hence, the settlements predicted
are often unreliable and inconsistent.ANN is a relatively a
new tool in the field of prediction and forecasting and in this
paper, an attempt is made to utilize ANN for settlement
prediction of shallow foundations. The objectives of the
paper are:
1. To develop an artificial neural network system for
settlement prediction of shallow foundations based on various
criteria such as the stress on the footing, bearing capacity of
the soil, footing geometry and water table depth, which are
commonly encountered in practical designs.
2. To validate the results by comparing the predicted
settlement values with the values calculated by conventional
settlement calculation techniques.
3. To conduct sensitivity and accuracy studies on the results
predicted and comparison with the conventional settlement
calculation techniques.
Artificial Neural Networks (ANN)
ANNs are a form of artificial intelligence, which by means of
their architecture, try to simulate the behaviour of the human
brain and nervous system. A typical structure of ANNs
consists of a number of processing elements (PEs), or nodes,
that are usually arranged in layers: an input layer, an output
layer and one or more hidden layers, as shown in Fig.1. Each

PE in a specific layer is fully or partially joined to many other
PEs via weighted connections. The input from each PE in the
previous layer (xi) is multiplied by an adjustable connection
weight (wji). At each PE, the weighted input signals are
summed and a threshold value or bias (j) is added. This
combined input (Ij) is then passed through a non linear
transfer function (f(.)) to produce the output of the PE(yj).
The output of one PE provides the input to the PEs in the next
layer. The process is summed up as follows:
Ij=wjixi+j ---- summation
(1)
yj= f (Ij)
(2)
---- transfer
Fig. 1 Structure and Operation of ANN

The actual output of the network is compared with the
desired output and an error is calculated. Using this error and
utilizing a learning rule, the network adjusts its weights until
it can find a set of weights that will produce the input/output
mapping that has the smallest possible error.
ANN Model for Settlement Prediction
The ANN model developed in this paper uses multilayer
perceptrons (MLP) that is trained with the back-propagation
training algorithm for feed forward ANNs [1]. The model has
five inputs representing the footing width, B, net applied
M.Harikumar, N.Sankar
footing load, q, average blow count, N, obtained using a
standard penetration test (SPT) over the depth of influence of
the foundation as a measure of soil compressibility, footing
geometry (length to width of footing), L/B, and footing
embedment ratio (embedment depth to footing width), Df /B.
The single model output is foundation settlement, S. The
ANN hierarchy is shown in Fig.2.In this figure; vij represents
the connection weights from the input to the hidden layer and
wij, the connection weights from the hidden to the output
layer.
Table 2 Data ranges used for ANN variables

Model variable
Min.
value
Footing net applied pressure, q
33
(kN/m2)
Average SPT blow count, N
0
Footing dimensions, L/B
0.727
0
Footing embedment ratio, Df/B
Water table depth, w (m)
0
Measured settlement, S (mm)
0.6
Max.
value
697
60
50.792
3.444
15
254
The simple linear mapping of the variables practical

extremes to the neural networks practical extremes is
adopted for scaling as it is the most common method for data
scaling. Using this method, for each variable x with minimum
and maximum values of xmin and xmax, respectively, the scaled
value xn is calculated as follows:
x x min
xn =
x max x min
Fig. 2 ANN hierarchy
The database used for the training of the ANN model consists
of 272 records, collected from literature and incorporate field
measurements for settlement of shallow foundations over a
wide range of footing dimensions and soil parameters. The
database is summarized in Table 1.
Table 1 Database collection from literature
Reference
No. of
cases
Vargas, 1961
2
Levy and Morton, 1974
46
Burland and Burbidge, 1985
114
Picornell and del Monte, 1988
1
Papadopoulos, 1992
83
Wahls, 1997
21
Maugeri et al, 1998
5
Total
272
Data Division
The ranges of the data used for the input and output variables
along with statistical parameters such as the mean and
standard deviation are summarised in Table 2. The available
data were divided into three sets (i.e. training, testing and
validation) in such a way that they are statistically consistent
and thus represent the same statistical population. In total,
80% of the data were used for training and 20% were used
for validation. The training data were further divided into
70% for the training set and 30% for the testing set.
Before presenting the input and output variables for ANN
model training, they were scaled between 0.0 and 1.0 to
eliminate their dimension and to ensure that all variables
receive equal attention during training.
(3)
Optimization of Weights
The source code for to determine the optimized weights was
developed using Turbo C compiler. Initially, random values
are assigned for the weights. The output, predicted after
suitable calculations using activation functions, is compared
with the measured settlement. The resulting error is back
propagated and weights are adjusted accordingly.
Feedforward networks trained with the back-propagation
algorithm have already been applied successfully to many
geotechnical engineering problems [9], and are thus used in
this work. Details of the back-propagation algorithm are
beyond the scope of this paper and can be found in many
publications. After training, the final set of optimized weights
was obtained by taking the arithmetic mean of all optimized
weights, and is given in Table 3.
Table 3 Final set of optimized weights for the ANN
Hidden layer wji (weight from node i in the input layer to
node j in the hidden layer)
nodes
i=1
i=2
i=3
i=4
i=5
j=6
1.2756 0.0273 1.026 2.5664 2.0493
j=7
1.2686 -0.2753 0.887 2.2264 1.8078
Output layer wji (weight from node i in the input layer to
nodes
node j in the hidden layer)
i=6
i=7
j=8
-1.8981 -1.6224
Conventional Methods of Settlement Prediction
Many traditional methods for settlement prediction of
shallow foundations on cohesionless soils are presented in
literature. Among these, four are chosen for the purpose of
assessing the relative performance of the ANN model. These
include the methods proposed by Meyerhof (1974), Schultze
and Sherif (1973), Bowles (1977, 1982) and Terzaghi and
Settlement prediction of Shallow foundations using Artificial Neural Networks

Peck (1948, 1967). These methods are chosen as they are
commonly used and the database used in this work contains
most parameters required to calculate settlement by these
methods.
120
predicted settlement(mm)
Results and Discussions

A comparison of the results obtained from the ANN model
and the conventional indicates that the results given by the
former are much more accurate and consistent compared to
the others. The Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) and the
Mean Absolute Error (MAE) of the model are also
considerably less, compared to the other models, as shown in
Table 4.
140
100
80
60
40
ANN
Terzaghi and Peck
20
Table 4 Comparison of ANN and Conventional methods for

Settlement Prediction
Error
ANN Terzaghi Schultze Bowles Meye
-rhof
RMSE
32.32
267.53
58.29
41.12
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
measured settlement(mm)
Fig. 3 Measured vs. predicted settlement for ANN model
83.56
10
MAE
0.88
4.16
1.36
1.21
2.39
In order to test the robustness of the predictive ability of the

ANN over a range of valid data, i.e. within the ranges of data
used in the training process, the predicted settlements are
examined against changes to the input variables. All input
variables except one are fixed to the mean values of the data
used in the database, and a set of synthetic data for the single
varied input is generated by increasing the value of this input
in increments equal to 5% of the total range between its
minimum and maximum values. The results obtained are
shown in Fig.4 and Fig.5.
The results from the analysis are compared with the common
geotechnical data. It can be seen that the direction of the
trends are in agreement with what one would expect based on
the physical sense of settlement prediction. For example, as
shown in Fig.7, there is an increase in the predicted
settlement as net applied footing load, as one would expect.
On the other hand, the predicted settlements decrease as the
average SPT blow count, as shown in Fig.8.The analysis was
also extended to the other parameters such as the footing
geometry and footing embedment ratio. The results were
found to agree with the geotechnical theories perfectly. This
indicates that the equation is robust and can be used for
predictive purposes.
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Footing stress(kPa)
Fig. 4 Footing stress vs. predicted settlement for ANN model
12
10
Predicted settlement (mm)
Sensitivity Analysis
The results of sensitivity analysis are shown in Fig.3. Plots
are made between measured and predicted settlement. It is
evident that for the ANN model, the measured and predicted
settlement lie close to each other, whereas, considerable
scattering is obtained for Terzaghi and Peck model. Similarly
the analysis has been extended other models and it was
concluded that the ANN model presented the best results.
Predicted settlement (mm)
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Average SPT blow count
Fig. 5 Average SPT blow count vs. predicted settlement for

ANN model
M.Harikumar, N.Sankar
Reliability and Accuracy Analysis
Accuracy is defined as the average value of calculated
settlement divided by measured settlement. A value of this
ratio equal to unity represents the best possible accuracy.
Reliability is defined as the percentage of the cases for which
the calculated settlement is greater than or equal to the
measured settlement. A value approaching 100 percent
represents the most desirable characteristics of reliability.
The results of reliability and accuracy studies on the ANN
model and other techniques of settlement calculation are
shown in Fig.6.
RELIABILITY
(% of cases where calculated>measured settlements)
100
Perfect accuracy & reliability
90
BOWLES
80
MEYERHOF
70
60
SCHULTZE AND SHERIF
ANN
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
10
ACCURACY
(calculated/measured settlement)
Fig. 6 Accuracy and Reliability analysis on models

It can be seen that the ANN model performance lies very
close to the ideal condition of Reliability 100% and accuracy
1, as compared to the other methods of settlement calculation.
For all the other models, as is evident, only one of the two
conditions of reliability or accuracy is satisfied. That is, as
the reliability of the model increase, the accuracy decreases
and vice versa. An optimum condition connecting accuracy
and reliability is observed in case of the ANN model.
Features of the Program interface
The front end of the program was coded in Microsoft visual
basic 10.The basic features of the interfaces include:
a Illustrations and Bubble help feature aiding easy data entry.
b. IS 8009(I)-1976, for settlement of shallow foundations
subjected to symmetric static vertical loads, included for
ready reference.
c. ANN sensitivity and accuracy charts included.
d. User action and error messages minimizing data entry
error.
e. Access to ANN database and the C program for ANN
training.
CONCLUSIONS
An ANN based application for settlement prediction is
attempted in this paper. The system concentrates on the
settlement of shallow foundations, taking into account the
significant factors affecting their settlement. The front engine
is developed in MS Visual Basic 10 and the back-end coding
is performed in Turbo C compiler. The results from the

model are compared with the results obtained from four
conventional settlement calculation techniques that are
widely in use. Sensitivity analyses performed on the model
indicate consistent and accurate settlements, which are in
perfect agreement with geotechnical theories. The RMSE and
MAE of the model were also found to be lesser compared to
the other methods. Reliability and accuracy studies confirm
that the ANN model exhibits an optimum combination of
reliability and accuracy. Hence the ANN model proves to be
superior to the conventional methods in settlement prediction.
REFERENCES
1. Rumelhart, D. E., Hinton, G. E., and Williams, R. J.
(1986), Learning internal representation by error
propagation, Parallel Distributed Processing, D. E.
Rumelhart and J. L. McClelland, eds., MIT Press, Cambridge
2. Vargas, M. (1961), Foundations of tall buildings on sand
in Sao Paulo, Proc., 5th Int. Conf. On Soil Mech. & Found.
Engg., Paris, 1, 841-843.
3. Levy, J. F. and Morton, K. (1974), Loading tests and
settlement observations on granular soils, Conf. Settlement
of Structures, Cambridge, 43-52.
4. Burland, J. B., and Burbidge, M. C. (1985), Settlement of
foundations on sand and gravel, Proc. Institution of Civil
Engineers, London, 78-Part 1, 1325-1381.
5. Picornell, M. and del Monte, E. (1988), Prediction of
settlements of cohesive granular soils, Proc., Measured
Performance of Shallow Found., Geotech. Special
Publication No. 15, ASCE, Nashville, Tennessee, 55-72.
6. Papadopoulos, B. P. (1992), Settlements of shallow
foundations on cohesionless soils, J. Geotech. Engrg., ASCE,
118(3), 377-393.
7. Wahls, H. E. (1997), Settlement analysis for shallow
foundations on sand, Proc. 3rd Int. Geotech. Eng. Conf.,
Cairo, Egypt, 7-28.
8. Maugeri, M., Castelli, F., Massimino, M. R. and Verona,
G. (1998), Observed and computed settlements of two
shallow foundations on sand, J. Geotech. & Geoenv. Engrg.,
124(7), 595-605.
9. Basheer, I. A. , Reddi, L. N. & Najjar, Y .M. (1996), Site
Characterization by Neuronets An Application to the
Landfill Siting Problem, Ground Water , Vol. 34, N o. 4, pp
610-617.
10. Meyerhof, G.G.(1965), Shallow foundations, J. Soil
Mech. & Found. Div., 91(SM2), 21-31.
11. Schultze, E., and Sherif, G. (1973), Prediction of
settlements from evaluated settlement observations for sand,
Proc.8th Int. Conf. Soil Mechanics & Found. Eng., 1, 225230.
12. Bowles, Joseph E. (1977), Foundation Analvsis and
Design, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York.
13. Terzaghi, K., and Peck, R. B, (1948), Soil mechanics in
engineering practice, Wiley, New York

December 13-15, 2012, Delhi (Paper No. J 1012)
YELD DESGN APPLED TO EARTH RETANNG STRUCTURES

B. Simon, Scientific director, TERRASOL, b.simon@terrasol.com
ABSTRACT: Yield Design Theory has been worked out by Professor Salenon as a sound general framework for assessing
the stability of any structure when the failure criterion of its constituent material is known. The exterior approach defined
within this frame proves well suited to geotechnical structures and has been implemented in Talren4 software. Some
applications are given for different kinds of earth retaining structures. They cover the evaluation of limiting active or passive
pressures along retaining walls, stability of double sheet pile walls and cellular cofferdams, stability of soil nailed structures
and checking of the absence of interaction between a tieback wall and its anchors.
INTRODUCTION
Yield Design Theory has been worked out by Salenon [1, 2,
3]. It comes as a rigorous comprehensive framework for
assessing the stability of any structure when the failure
criterion of its constituent material is known. It provides
lower and upper bounds of the ultimate loads that can be
sustained by the system, respectively by an interior approach,
based on statically admissible stress fields, and by an exterior
approach, based on kinematically admissible virtual velocity
fields.
The exterior approach proves well suited to geotechnical
structures. It has been implemented as a new calculation
method in the Talren4 software, which enables to check the
general stability of geotechnical structures with or without
reinforcement. It adds to other already implemented ones
referred to as slice methods: the well known Fellenius,
Bishop or perturbation methods. Results obtained by any of
these methods can thus be easily compared in any situation.
Application of the Yield Design Theory to earth retaining
structures using this new tool appears quite fruitful as it
overcomes some limits met with the other methods and also
gives in some cases a better insight into failure mechanisms.
best upper bound of the resisting work Prm and that it was
possible to restrict analysis to these specific velocity fields.
In this particular framework:
The velocity field is defined by the pole P of the spiral

arcs and the angular rotation velocity vector of the
block; it should be noted that velocity, perpendicular to
the vector radius, is not tangent to the block boundary,
but inclined at an angle to it; this boundary can
therefore not be assimilated to a slip surface;
Along the plane tangent to the boundary, one observes

that no stress state that is admissible with the Mohr
Coulomb failure criterion (a point inside the "triangle"
domain with green boundaries, Fig. 1) can contribute to
resisting forces by more than an amount which depends
on cohesion only. The maximum resisting contribution
of soil in this movement is thus bounded. This
contribution may be measured, in this specific case, as
the maximum moment of resisting forces (Mrm) through
the log spiral pole.
A block can be in equilibrium only if the moment of all

external forces applied on it (Me) is less than this upper
bound of the moment of resisting forces (Mrm).
THE EXTERIOR APPROACH BY THE YIELD

DESIGN THEORY
Its implementation in the Talren4 software
In Talren4, the Yield Design exterior approach is restricted to
the specific case of:
velocity fields representing movement of a rigid block
with respect to the rest of the supposedly stationary soil
mass;
Mohr Coulomb failure criterion:
c + tan
(1)
Where =shear strength; c =cohesion; =normal stress; and

=friction angle.
J. Salenon [1] established that in this particular case, rigid
motions of blocks limited by a succession of logarithmic
spiral arcs: r() = r0 e tan sharing the same pole supplied the
Fig. 1 Yield design exterior approach with Mohr-Coulomb

failure criterion
Considering the ratio F of these quantities (Mrm)/(Me):
When F is found less than one, the stability condition is

not satisfied, no equilibrium is possible, instability of
the system is certain (the block fails). That is why the
ratio F should rather be considered an instability factor
or a failure coefficient [4].
B. Simon
If on the other hand, F is found higher than or equal to

one, one can only presume that equilibrium is possible:
the system is potentially safe and the exterior approach
must be complemented by the static interior approach
under the same framework of Yield Design Theory to
reduce this uncertainty.
The boundary of any block is a chain of logarithmic spiral

arcs with one common pole and successive angle values
equal to the friction angle of each layer. Any chain can be
described by its intersections with the slope line (entry and
exit points) and the centre angle between extreme radii.
When the centre angle is nil, the pole is extended to
infinity, the successive spiral arcs become straight lines and
form a polyline: if the friction angle remains moreover
constant across layers this becomes a segment and defines a
simple wedge. When is positive and the friction angle in
any layer is nil, then the boundary is circular. The user may
choose to scan log spiral arcs with either upwards or
downwards concavity.
Fig. 2 Boundary of a block as a chain of logarithmic spiral

arcs sharing same pole
Benefits of the yield design calculations
The Yield Design exterior approach offers great advantages
over the well-known slice methods:
No complementary assumption is required further than

the choice of the appropriate failure criterion for
materials under consideration;
It always provides upper bounds of the extreme loads:

the failure load is always overestimated, which strongly
characterizes this approach with respect to the Fellenius,
Bishop or perturbation methods which by introducing
additional constraints or weakening others do not make
it possible to decide on the excess or default character of
the estimated failure load;
Its capacity to take into account situations where

traditional methods are generally at fault: passive
pressure equilibrium, inclined loads, overhangs, stiff
reinforcing elements.
EXAMPLES OF APPLICATIONS
Estimation of active and passive earth pressures
Introduction of loads (especially non vertical) is a difficult
matter in all stability calculations based on slice methods as
the influence of loads on the distribution of stresses along
failure surfaces depends on other factors than solely the
failure criterion. Some arbitrarily chosen assumptions about
diffusion of loads are thus generally taken into account in

these methods.
Contrary to this, no other assumption needs to be made with
the Yield Design method. The contribution of any point load
applied to the block under study or of any surface load
applied on slope boundary between its extremities is simply
added to the appropriate driving or resisting cumulative
moment with respect to the common pole of log spiral arcs.
A straightforward application is the estimation of limiting
active or passive earth pressures along the face of a
cohesionless mass. Assuming this pressure is inclined at an
angle with the normal to this face, the limiting profile is
obtained by finding the maximum value max of a triangular
distributed load in an active state equilibrium (Fig. 3a, where
gravity is a driving force) or a passive state equilibrium (Fig.
3b, where gravity is a resisting force) under the condition that
failure coefficient is equal to 1.
Earth pressure coefficient values obtained in this way can be
compared to the rigorous numerical solutions established by
Krisel and Absi [5] for any similar boundary conditions.
Values obtained by the Yield Design exterior approach differ
by only a few percent from these rigorous values. It is
moreover observed that active earth pressure coefficient
values are always underestimated while passive earth
pressure coefficient values are always overestimated. This
finding is consistent with the use of an exterior approach
which gives upper bounds of the failure loads.
With noticeable inclination, the most unfavourable block
geometry differs from the wedge shape associated with
Coulombs theory or Cullmans graphical solution.
Fig. 3a and 3b Estimation of limiting active and passive

pressures ( = 30, / = +2/3 and -2/3)
This application can be readily extended to cover:
any layered soil mass; the limiting pressure profile can

be drawn layer by layer, starting from the surface. It
resolves into a continuous broken line quite opposite to
the discontinuous line routinely obtained by assimilating
overlying layers as surcharge loads applied on top of
underlying layers;
any slope geometry as for instance when a shoulder is

left against a diaphragm wall to improve earth passive
pressure in an excavation;
any situation where seepage takes place within the soil

mass; seepage forces iw are simply to be added to the
Yield design applied to earth retaining structures
gravity forces in the cumulative moment of all external

forces Me with respect to the common pole;
a pseudo-static approach of stability under seismic
conditions; contribution from forces arising from the
horizontal and vertical seismic coefficients ah and av is
added to the cumulative moment Me of external forces;
limiting pressure profiles obtained this way generalize
those obtained by the Mononobe-Okabe analytical
formulations.
Overall stability of double sheetpile walls and cofferdams

Double sheet pile walls (or cellular cofferdams) are
sometimes used to enable dry excavation in coastal or fluvial
conditions. They have to resist the differential water pressure
between upstream and downstream sides. With reduced
distance, interaction between upstream and downstream walls
can no longer be neglected and determine very complex
stress conditions in the fill between them [6]. Stability is to
be checked considering the whole domain.
Yield Design method is well adapted for this analysis:
differential water pressure which acts as a driving force on
the system is to be balanced by resisting forces arising from
gravity and cohesion (if any) for the work to be safe. In the
example of Fig. 4, systematic search for blocks with their
extremities at wall toes and upwards concavity finds the
degenerated log spiral = 0 as the one giving the lowest
failure coefficient: this corresponds to a plane slide
mechanism at cofferdam basis. If this search is extended to
log spiral with downwards concavity, it appears that a less
favourable block is found having a centre angle = 60 in
that particular case. This mechanism is the same as the
X-convex one described by Brinch-Hansen [7].
gives credit to the prescriptions made in the French national

standard for soil nailed walls [8] for that particular stage of
construction. One may also find that vertical face stability is
at risk at any newly excavated stage (Fig. 5b).
Fig. 5a and 5b Some unfavourable mechanisms found during

construction of a soil nailed wall
The French national standard [8] also calls great attention
upon mechanisms extending at a very short depth under the
wall toe. As an approximate way to meet that requirement, it
suggests that the soil located downstream of the toe vertical
plane is replaced by the limiting passive earth pressures that
can develop if this plane moves downwards and then that
stability of mechanisms ending in any point of this toe
vertical plane is checked (Fig. 6). The same design steps can
of course be followed using the Yield Design exterior
approach which can provide a fairly good estimate of the
limiting passive earth pressure in a first step and integrate this
pressure profile in the stability calculation of the upstream
part of the model in a second step.
Fig. 6 Two-block analysis of a soil nailed wall
Fig. 4 Scanning spirals with upwards/downwards concavity

Stability of soil nailed walls
Incapacity of slice methods to deal with overhangs does not
hold for the block boundaries checked by the Yield Design
method. Overhangs are obtained whenever the log spiral pole
elevation is lower than the entry point. The Yield Design
Theory still applies without any need for further assumption.
When checking the stability of a soil nailed wall at every
construction stage, one may thus find out that the critical
mechanism during the second excavation stage is the one
described on Fig. 5a: the log spiral pole comes close from the
first row of nail direction, meaning that its contribution to the
resistance moment Mrm is drastically reduced. This
potentially unsafe situation is indeed what observation has
unfortunately confirmed on many works on progress; this
The most unfavourable mechanism is obtained by combining

downstream and upstream solutions ending at the same point
in the toe vertical plane. This procedure can also be applied
to the 3-piece partition defined by the vertical plane
originating at wall toe and another vertical plane located just
behind nail ends. The stability calculation of the middle block
incorporates the limiting active earth pressures on the
upstream vertical boundary and the limiting passive earth
pressures on the downstream vertical boundary.
The different mechanisms obtained in the same example are
compared on Fig. 7. It is concluded that associating the
solutions in all 3 parts of the model (each obtained with a
reduction factor F on c and around 1.4) gives a potentially
more unfavourable mechanism than the 1-block mechanism
commonly used (F around 1.7) or the 2-block mechanism
suggested by French national standard (F around 1.5).
B. Simon
Fig. 7 Comparison of the most unfavourable block or blockcombination boundaries

Stability of a tieback embedded wall
In order to verify the absence of interaction between an
embedded wall and its anchorage (grouted anchorage, dead
weight anchorage or anchor wall), Kranz [9] suggested to
check the stability of the soil domain defined by a cutting
made along the wall interior side (Fig. 8).
Fig. 8 Stability of a tieback embedded wall

In this vertical plane, the action of the downstream soil mass
consists of:
the reaction of the wall against the soil which balances

the total stresses exerted by the soil on the wall;
the forces Pi in any anchor row, which are external

actions to the investigated domain.
The limiting value of the anchorage load in any anchor row is
obtained as the lowest value Pdst of the force causing
instability of all blocks ending in any point m of the cutting
plane OB. Usually these blocks start from a specific point Ai
attached to each anchorage and action of the soil mass
located upstream from the vertical plane containing this point
is replaced by the limiting active earth pressures on segment
i Ai.
The block bottom boundary may be assumed to be a segment,
a circular arc or a log spiral arc. With the segment
assumption, limiting Pdst value comes straight from the force
balance equation. With the circular arc assumption, one slice
method is to be used provided that it can also incorporate the
non vertical loads applied on either block side. The Yield
Design exterior approach is perfectly suited to check the
stability of blocks [i Ai m O] with the log spiral assumption.

Its foremost benefit is to enable exploration of blocks with
bottom boundaries of either positive or negative concavity.
With the Yield Design approach, blocks defined by the
negative concavity log spiral assumption most often lead to
lower limiting destabilizing forces than with the other
postulated shapes. The strong theoretical consistency of the
exterior approach means that these values are true upper
bounds and as a consequence it must be concluded that other
commonly used approaches may sometimes err on the unsafe
side. Safety factors used in conjunction with these other
methods have up to now certainly compensated and hidden
this potentially unsafe feature.
CONCLUSIONS
A new calculation method corresponding to an exterior
approach under the sound theoretical framework of the Yield
Design Theory by Salenon has been implemented in the
software Talren4. This development has been limited to the
Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion together with rigid virtual
motion of one block bounded by log spiral arcs. Quite a wide
range of applications to earth retaining structures has been
illustrated to demonstrate the extended capacity brought by
the Yield Design Theory. It covers:
earth pressures under any slope geometry, soil layering,

seepage conditions and/or set of seismic coefficients;
the stability of double sheet pile walls or cellular

cofferdams;
a sound assessment of the difficulties met during

construction of soil nailed walls as well as a better
approach of the most unfavourable failure mechanism
likely to develop at some short depth below the wall toe;
a most suited frame to check the interaction between an

embedded wall and its anchorages.
REFERENCES
1. Salenon J.(1983) Calcul la rupture et analyse limite
, Presses de lEcole Nationale des Ponts et Chausses,
Paris.
2. Salenon J. (1990) An introduction to yield design
theory and its application to Soil Mechanics ,
European J. Mech. A/Solids, Vol. 9, 5, 477-500.
3. Salenon J. (2002) De llasto-plasticit au calcul la
rupture, Editions de lEcole Polytechnique, Paris.
4. Coussy O., Salenon J. (1979) Analyse de la stabilit
des ouvrages en terre par le calcul la rupture ,
Annales des Ponts et Chausses, 4e trimestre 1979.
5. Krisel J., Absi E. (2003) Tables de pousse et de
bute des terres, Presses de lEcole Nationale des Ponts
et Chausses, Paris.
6. Houy A. (1986) Dimensionnement des ouvrages en
palplanches en acier.
7. Brinch Hansen J. (1953) Earth pressure calculation,
The Institution of Danish Civil Engineers, Copenhagen.
8. AFNOR (1998) Soutnement et talus en sol en place
renforc par des clous. , Norme XP 94-240.
9. Kranz E. (1953) ber die Verankerung von
Spundwnden , Wilhem Ernst & Sohn, Berlin.

F PDF

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originalbeschreibung:

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

F PDF

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Proceedings of Indian Geotechnical Conference

December 13-15, 2012, Delhi (Paper No. F 601)

A BOUNDARY ELEMENT SOLUTION FOR SINGLE PILE SUBJECTED TO COMBINED

SOIL STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOUR

where, Gt is the initial tangent modulus of soil and Rf is a

S. Basack & S. Sen

where, is the angle of twist of the top surface of the pile

correlation proposed by Randolph [2] is no more valid for the

where, [C] is a coefficient matrix of order (n+1) x (n+1),

Fig.1 Boundary element discreatization of pile.

where, is the angle of twist of the top surface of the pile

where, [D] is a coefficient matrix of order (n+1) x (n+1),

where, [M] is a coefficient matrix of order (n+1) x (n+1),

Combined Torsional and Axial Loads

In case of combined effect of torsional and axial load, the

Input parameters for pile, soil

Analysis for torsion only

Fig.3. Comparison of computed load-settlement response with

Print output data

Fig.2 Flowchart of the computer programme..

Fig.4 Assumed soil and pile parameters for clay (after

S. Basack & S. Sen

and sharply decreases thereafter. The vertical shear stress is

Fig.6 Variation of normalized shear stress with normalized

Proceedings of Indian Geotechnical Conference

STABILITY ANALYSIS OF 18 M DEEP EXCAVATION USING MICRO PILES

Common Uses of Micropiles

Amit Srivastava, Pawan Kumar, G. L. Sivakumar Babu

Fig. 1 Drilled micropiles installation process

support excavations with adequate factor of safety, it is

and placed at designed horizontal spacing, it is necessary to

Fig. 2 plan view-micropiles arrangements per meter length of

Amit Srivastava, Pawan Kumar, G. L. Sivakumar Babu

Fig. 3 deformation pattern of micropiles supported deep

Proceedings of Indian Geotechnical Conference

ANN BASED PREDICTION AND SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF CBR VALUES

networks were developed for the prediction of CBR values,

Grain Size Distribution

Soaked CBR (%)

Table 1 Typical experimental data used in modeling

Sina Borzooei, M.R.Madhav, V.Padmavathi, Srinivasulu S.

ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS

samples are assigned to the training set, 20% to the validation

Fig.1 Trial and error procedure for networks

evaluate the efficiency of models and for the sensitivity

A NN Based Prediction and Sensitivity Analysis of CBR Values

changing percentage, the input variables can be ranked for

Sina Borzooei, M.R.Madhav, V.Padmavathi, Srinivasulu S.

influential input parameters. Based on the analysis carried out

Proceedings of Indian Geotechnical Conference

ANALYSIS OF NEARBY RIGID STRIP FOOTINGS ON ELASTIC SOIL BED SUBJECTED TO

rotation and settlement as given in Eq. 1 and Eq. 2

Fig. 1 Problem definition sketch

Rotation of left footing owing to interference

Rotation of isolated footing of width, load inclination as of

Maximum settlement of left footing owing to interference

Rotation of right footing owing to interference

Maximum settlement of right footing owing to interference

L. S. Nainegali, P. K. Basudhar, P. Ghosh

therefore not detailed here for reasons of space and brevity.

Results were obtained with Youngs modulus, E = 30 MPa,

Fig. 2 Footings, foundation soil domain with boundary conditions