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Reduced voltage starters have several effects beyond current reduction. First, the torque available to
start and accelerate the connected load decreases by the inverse-square of voltage. At 60% voltage, for
example, available torque is 60% x 60% = 36%. While this might be sufficient for such loads as fans or
pumps, a mill load requiring 100% motor torque would not start.
Second, the current and start torque keep the same shape as the motor applied at full voltage. The
minimum torque [pull-up torque] also reduces with applied voltage reduction, and may not be high enough
to accelerate some loads to past the critical breakdown [maximum design torque] point. Third, incoming
amps are still highly reactive, so voltage drop to the motor will roughly be reduced in proportion to the
reduction in starting current.
One final note is appropriate. Most synchronous motors started across the line develop torque using a
cage-type rotor winding. The resulting sync motor starting current inrush characteristics are of a
magnitude and shape quite similar to a squirrel cage induction motor of the same size.
IV. Some Effects Of Across the Line Starts On The Motor
Every time a motor is started across the line, it produces several areas of high stress in the motor.
1. The very high starting currents put mechanical stress on the stator windings, Such stress cycles
contribute to winding fatigue that can lead to stator insulation failure.
2. The high current through the stator quickly raises the temperature of the windings. Each
acceleration cycle takes some life from the motor windings insulation. The longer the cycle of
acceleration, the more heat is built up in the stator. Protection is needed to prevent successive
starts from causing irreparable damage to the windings. Motors are specified and designed with an
allowable limit on the number of starts per hour.
3. The rotor also carries very high currents during the full voltage, high-slip acceleration cycle. The
magnitude of the rotor heat is roughly equal to the amount of energy contained in the connected
load at its final velocity. For very high inertia loads, such as a cement kiln ID fan, a motor that must
start the fan across the line must be designed with much more mass to absorb the heat from the
start. Such designs can be very expensive.
Using a reduced voltage starter does reduce stator heating, but does nothing to reduce the amount of
heat induced in the rotor during a direct online start. A reduced voltage start does tend to lengthen the
start cycle and could possibly allow some of the rotor heat to be dissipated during the start cycle.
However, the total amount of heat injected into the rotor for a given start is the same as if it were
controlled by a full voltage starter.
V. Starting motors Using Adjustable Speed Drives [ASDs]
Slip is the difference in actual rotor speed and the synchronous speed of the motor. The synchronous
speed depends on motor design and applied frequency. This relationship is shown by the formula below:
Sync RPM = 120 * frequency / number of poles
For example, a 4-pole motor run on a 60 Hz supply would have a synchronous frequency of 120 x 60/4
= 1800 rpm. At 30 Hz, the same motors sync RPM would be 900 RPM, and so forth.
Figure 3 shows a general induction motor speed-torque characteristics, the shape of which was shown
in the earlier starting current discussions.
Peak
[Breakdown]
Torque, BDT
Torque
Locked
Rotor Tq
Pull Up
Torque
Rated Torque
Rated SlipRPM =
Sync - Rated RPM
RPM
Rated
RPM
Sync
RPM
Figure 3 General speed torque characteristics of an induction motor at a particular applied frequency
Referring to Figure 3, motoring torque is produced only when the motor turns at a small RPM difference
below the synchronous speed. This is typically on the order of about 1% of synchronous speed. The rated
torque of the motor is the design value on the motor nameplate that is developed with rated voltage and
rated frequency at the rated slip RPM below the synchronous RPM. In English units, this rated torque
can be calculated as
Rated Torque in lb-ft = Rated HP x 5252 / Rated RPM
For example, for a 7500 HP 900 RPM synchronous speed and a rated speed of 892 RPM,
Trated = 7500 x 5252 / 892 = 44159 lb-ft
All the across-the-line induction motor starting characteristics discussed so far depend on the motor
current and torque design starting at 100 percent slip. It has already been shown that a motor designed
for 60 Hz will turn at half its rated RPM on a 30 Hz supply. The induction motor characteristic then
becomes a family of curves as frequency increases from near zero, to rated speed. Figure 4 shows this
family of curves.
RPM,RPM
FREQ
Torque, Amps
Torque
Motor AvailableTorque
ne
y Li
Utilit s
C
A
Amp
Note line
amps shown
for PWM VSI
type drive
Full Load
Torque Level
Frequency, RPM
Figure 4 Speed torque characteristics of an induction motor on an increasing [ASD] applied frequency
During the acceleration, frequency and voltage are generally controlled such that full voltage is reached at
the design rated RPM of the motor. Motor voltage and current are regulated to provide speed and torque
control to the load. The voltage to frequency ratio is held roughly proportional. In practice torque
developed at very low frequencies falls off and extra voltage above the value of the volts / HZ ratio is
automatically applied to regain the lost torque.
An AC ASD would accelerate a constant torque load such as a conveyor or cement mill by advancing
frequency as shown below in Figure 5.
Several things can be noted from the simplified drawing in Figure 5.
1. First, the motor delivers torque to the load from the part of the torque curve to the right side of the
peak [breakdown] torque point, at low slip, as if it were operating at its rated running electrical
conditions. This means that the stator or rotor currents are no higher than under normal operation.
Therefore there is no longer any limit on the number of starts in any time period.
2. For a VSI [Voltage Source Inverter] topology drive using DC link capacitors, the AC utility amps reflect
the kW actually being delivered to the load. Figure 5 shows the relation of utility amps vs. load RPM
for a VSI ASD for a constant torque load. Utility amps start out very low [transformer magnetizing
amps plus initial low kW] and increase as speed and kW increase.
3. For a current source topology drive [with DC link inductors], the start cycle utility line amps are higher
than for a VSI drive. In some cases, line current is roughly equal to stator current, and is
approximately constant for a constant torque load. Stator amps are determined by the load torque as
a ratio of rated amps and torque. Essentially, the stator amps and line amps do not exceed the actual
load amps, This eliminates all the utility supply problems described above. If the utility can sustain
the final loaded motor amps then it can always sustain the ASD line amps during a start.
VI. Synchronized Motor Starting Using the ASD
The preceding information provides a basis to apply the advantages of the ASD to what is called
synchronized starting. In synchronized starting, ASDs are used to accelerate a motor and its connected
load to line frequency equivalent speed and then connect them to the power grid. This synchronized
starting causes little impact on utility current or voltage beyond normal running values for the motor and
load.
The arrangement shown in Figure 6 is typical of a VSI ASD connected to a single motor for the purpose
of synchronized starting. A review of the circuit and a synchronized start cycle follows.
Figure 6 Typical one-line of a single VSI ASD synchronized start system for an induction motor
The major components included in the system of Figure 6 are summarized below.
1. M
Induction motor to be started
2. Converter-Inverter ASD variable frequency rectifier and inverter.
3. M1 & M1A
Input disconnect and pre-charge contactor
4. PT
Voltage sensing transformers for input and output
5. Drive control microprocessor- based drive control with synchronizing logic
6. L-1
Output isolation inductor for closed transition of motor to utility
7. M2
Drive isolation contactor and switch open during utility operation
8. M3
Bypass contactor controlled by drive synchronizing microprocessor
9. CTO
Current sensing transformer to assure utility current flow after synchronizing.
10. Relay 25
Independent synchronizing check relay used as verification of synchronize
conditions.
VIII. Sequence of operation for capturing a utility fed motor and reconnecting it to the drive
Once a motor is connected to the line by the drive and is powered entirely by utility power, it can be
captured smoothly by the drive and brought back into variable speed operation or to a smooth stop.
Here is a simple sequence of operation for this de-synchronizing process:
1. Again referring to Figure 6 ,
consider that the motor is
connected to the utility line
through contactor M3 and is
turning its connected load at a Utility Volts
speed
equivalent
to
its
nameplate RPM. Figure 8 shows
traces of de-sync process.
2. A CAPTURE command contact
is received from the user
Drive Volts
requesting the motor to be
captured
from
the
line
[desynchronized].
A
DRIVE ACCELERATES ->
3. The drive control prepares the
inverter to gate the output
switches to produce voltage of
Motor Volts
the correct magnitude, phase,
and frequency point A in Figure
8.
4. The output contactor M2 is
BYPASS CONTACTOR
closed
while
the
bypass Utility Amps
Drive is matched in
contactor M3 is closed.
frequency, phase
5. The bypass contactor M3 is
and volts to line &
UTILITY AMPS END ->
bypass contactor is
commanded to open.
opened
6. After a precisely set time delay,
B
Drive Amps
the inverter gates the output
switches to produce voltage of
DRIVE PICKS UP AMPS ->
the correct magnitude, phase,
CURRENT TRANSITION
and
frequency.
Within
approximately 1/10 of a power
cycle, current flows from the
Motor Amps
drive to the motor, giving smooth
transfer. Refer to Point B of
MOTOR AMPS AND TORQUE ARE
Figure 8. The disturbance in
SMOOTH THRU WHOLE PROCESS
motor current shown is brief, so
no significant torque disturbance
Figure 8 Traces of drive, motor, and utility voltages and
is introduced in the driven load.
currents during VSI ASD de-synchronizing cycle
7. Operation of the motor is now completely
where motor is captured from the utility to the ASD.
under the control of the drive.
Recalling that an ASD-started motor has no limits on the number of allowable starts per hour, if
anything in the process stops the motor, it can be restarted immediately. For a line-started motor, it
might be necessary to wait for the protection relays to determine it is safe to restart the affected
large motor, or risk motor damage.
2.
While on the ASD, the output can be varied to match the needs of the downstream process.
If the process requires operation at less than 100% output, [flow, speed, etc] the energy difference
between max and running points provides the opportunity to save energy.
2.
A typical ASD system operates at a total overall efficiency of around 97%. For those times when
the process requires operation at 100% output, synchronizing to the line provides a direct
connection of the motor to the utility, saving the 3% losses represented by the ASD. During the
time when the motor is synchronized, the ASD is left in standby mode to allow the motor to be
captured and smoothly connected to the ASD.
Following the discussion of motor starting above, synchronized starting reduces motor stress and
could extend motor life and reduce maintenance.
2.
Operating the industrial process at less than top speed on the ASD decreases the mechanical wear
on the driven components. This is particularly obvious on such applications as conveyors,
crushers, etc. This, of course is contingent on the production needs at the time being met at a
reduced speed.
X. Starting And Using Synchronous Motors with ASD Systems
To this point we have been discussing the use of ASDs for the synchronized-to-utility starting of
induction motors, as opposed to synchronous motors. It has also been noted that a synchronous motor,
when starting across the utility line, actually starts as an induction motor, with the rotor construction
including an amortiseur winding in the rotor poles.
Synchronous motors on todays ASD systems are operated synchronously motors from standstill to
running speed, and do not make use of the starting rotor winding to make torque. The rotor field must
then be energized from standstill. Figure 9 shows a single motor ASD system with the field excitation
system shown. Note that exciter and controls included must be able to transition from being controlled by
the drive to being controlled by the demands for reactive power and shaft torque under utility mode
operation.
Functions such as contactor interlocking, sync field reference control, synchronizing supervisory logic,
operator control / HMI interface and overall DCS or plant interface are included in the two blocks labeled
Drive Control and System Sequencer. The functions will likely be spread between the drive and an
external PLC or equivalent.
M1A
VSI AC Drive
CTO
M1
L-1
Converter - Inverter
VL
PT
Sync Check
Drive
Control
System
Sequencer
PT
M-2
Sync
Mot
Field
Exciter
VO
Sync Fld Ref
Figure 9 Typical one-line of a single VSI ASD synchronized start system for a synchronous motor
Synchronous motors can be the technology of choice for large process loads for two main reasons.
First, a synchronous motor is usually more efficient than an induction motor, by about 1 to 1.5 percentage
points. Second, the synchronous motors line power factor can be changed by controlling its DC rotor
field to allow net export of reactive power while supporting the load kW requirements. If sufficient design
margin is included in the motor, this ability to run at leading power factor can be useful in providing
voltage support for the plant and utility system.
It is important to note that the synchronous motor shown in Figure 9 can only deliver its reactive power
benefits to the power system if it is directly connected to the utility and disconnected from the drive, as
when contactor M3 is closed and M2 is open. While connected to the drive, the sync motor is set to run
at a reactive power level [usually between 0.90 leading and unity power factor] compatible with the drive
type. During ASD controlled operation, the power line sees the reactive power level set by the drive
incoming converter, not the motor. For a VSI system with diode rectifier AC-DC conversion, this line
power factor is 0.95 to 0.98 lagging. This is of most importance when the drive will be used to control the
motor for extended periods. When the ASD is used primarily or predominantly for start mode operation,
the sync motor reactive power benefits could be realized most of the time.
One final note on synchronous motors as applied to ASD operation. As mentioned above, a
synchronous motor must have DC field available at zero speed to develop starting and accelerating
torque. A DC brushless exciter type sync motor does not develop field at zero speed, because the exciter
generator must turn to develop field current. This low-current brushless type synchronous motor is
intended for across the line starting as an induction motor to provide the needed field exciter rotation prior
to excitation as a sync motor. The two synchronous motor designs that are suitable for starting on an
ASD either use DC slip rings, or an AC brushless type exciter to energize the field at standstill, during
acceleration, and while running. While under ASD control, the field excitation level is set by the ASD
control. If the motor is synchronized to the utility, control of the motor field excitation is transferred from
the drive to an independent control means to set its level appropriate to the process and power system
reactive power requirements.
VSI Drive
M1A
M1
Motor
Matching
Drive Output
Transformer
Incoming
Transformer
Converter - Inverter
M2
T1
VL
Drive
Control &
Sequencer
PT
25
Figure 10
L-1
T2
PT
VO
General Single Motor Sync-Desync Bypass with possible transformer voltage matching transformer
A more detailed examination of the ASD components will help to understand how the ASD is applied
for motor starting. Figure 11 below shows the major ASD components to be considered.
Breakaway Torque
Type of load, and speed
torque profile from start
to synchronizing
Torque vs Speed
11C, T2, L1
Motor Rating
Entire System
Motor Voltage
Nameplate kW or HP
Entire System
11C, T2, L1
11C, T2, L2
Voltage
Entire System
L1, M2, M3
Utility system
Duty Cycle
1. Type of load, and speed torque profile from start to synchronizing. During a starting cycle on
ASD operation, the load torque as reflected at the motor shaft affects the ASD current output
requirement. Figure 13 below is for a variable torque compressor with valves closed for starting but
a large ID fan with blocked input flow might have the same characteristic.
From the summary chart of Table 1, and the preceding figures, the breakaway torque at A will
affect initial current drawn by the motor. As might be expected, it is very low for a fan or centrifugal
compressor. This in turn affects the current load imposed on the ASD inverter output section. It is
also important to realize that the current seen by the ASD inverter is the total vector sum of the
current required to produce motor torque and the current required to magnetize the motor. The
information in the simplified diagrams of Figures 14 and Table 2 and below illustrates this.
Stator
X1s
ROTOR
R1
X2s
R2/slip
Motor Terminal
LineVolts
Volts V
Torque
Producing
Volts
Xm
EXCITATION
AMPS
No Load
100%
150%
175%
200%
~169
246
318.3
357.5
398.0
Design Full
Excitation Amps
167
167
167.0
167.0
167.0
ApproximateTorque
amps
~20
[Friction & Windage]
180.6
270.9
316.1
361.3
The important things to note is that the ASD inverter section must be rated to carry the maximum
current required during the start, including both the torque component and excitation [magnetizing]
component. This is true both at zero speed and top speed. ASD equipment usually includes an overload
rating for 60 seconds, usually 115% or 150%.
The extreme example motor characteristics of Table 2 were deliberately selected to illustrate the effect
of a very high magnetizing component. This is typical of a low speed induction motor with low [lagging]
power factor. In a more typical design, like a 6 pole 1200 RPM motor, this magnetizing component might
be 25 to 30% of rated amps, where in this extreme example it is 167 / 246 = 67%! This high magnetizing
current has a big impact on total current supplied by the inverter.
It is important to note motor non-linearities require that the ASD also modify the level of excitation from
the initial base level to obtain good torque performance.
Returning to the more typical starting example of Figure 13 its corresponding motor data is as follows:
Nameplate data:
4000 HP, 4160 volts, 3-phase, 60 HZ, 3390 RPM
FL amps = 483, PF = 89% @100% load, 88% @ 50% load
The magnetizing component of such a 2-pole, 3600 RPM motor would be in the order of about 20-25%
of rated amps. The actual value is obtained either by measurement of no load current or from the
manufacturer data sheet. At this more typical and moderate level of excitation current, the total current at
top speed is only about 3% higher than required to support the load and will not significantly affect ASD
inverter current output rating.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Point A of Figure 13 represents full speed, open-valve or closed-inlet running at 3600 RPM, and
about 3900 HP. Point B, with valve or inlet vane closed for reduced load acceleration, is at about
48% torque and 1872 HP and requires about 48% of torque current. Once the motor and load
reaches point B, the synchronizing function connects the motor to the utility, and the drive is
released to standby mode.
Since the motor power factor at 50% load is very nearly the same as the power factor at full load,
a reasonable estimate of the total inverter current demand at 48% load would be 50%, including a
bit of safety margin. So for this case a good selection of the output amp rating of the ASD for
starting duty only would be 243 amps. With the proper use of a particular drives short time ratings,
it is often possible to use an equivalent drive rated at 40 to 50% of the rating required for
continuous duty.
Continuous Operation requirements in terms of motor power, torque and amps.
Inherent in the discussion of the system of Figure 13 was that the ASD system was to be used only
as a synchronized starter. If the process could benefit from variable speed operation, then the
drive must be rated for continuous duty. In the example in Figure 13, the load was reduced during
start, to 48% of maximum at point B. For continuous operation at Point C, all ratings, including
input switchgear, transformer, converter, inverter, output reactor and contactor would have to carry
the power and corresponding current for the Point C load continuously.
Motor rating in voltage, no load and full load current Much has already been said about the
motor current demand on the inverter output. Motor nameplate voltage, which matches the utility
voltage, also plays a key role. At the moment of synchronized transfer, motor voltage from the
ASD must match the utility.
For very high horsepower applications, motor rated voltages of 12.4 to 13.2 kv are often applied.
Drive technology at this higher voltage can be quite expensive, large and contain many
components to achieve voltage rating, affecting system reliability. At this level, the most costeffective solution can be the use of an output matching transformer, shown as T2 in Figure 10.
Again, if the ASD will ever control the load on a continuous basis, T2 will need to be rated to carry
the full KVA load of the motor, with the effect of power factor considered. Special design
constraints also apply to ASD out transformers. They must be able to support the load at low
frequency during starting, have proper insulation for the waveforms applied, and include some
tolerance of dc voltage offset from zero in the phase voltages.
Utility system voltage and short-circuit levels Part of this issue was discussed above under
motor voltages. System voltage does also affect the selection of the input, bypass and output
switchgear. The ASD isolation transformer primary also must match the system voltage. The utility
system short circuit current capacity affects the corresponding rating of the switchgear.
Duty Cycle Even if the determination is made that the ASD will be used as a start system, if
repeated cycles or multiple motors are sequentially started, the ASD rating will be affected.
Repeated cycles [within 5 minutes of the last start] will likely mean that the ASDs short time
overload rating cannot be used. If cycles are frequent enough, then the other components must be
rated on a more continuous basis.
Figure 15 shows a typical two motor VSI ASD, very similar to the single motor diagram of Figure 9. In
Figure 15 a second set of bypass contactors and output contactors is included to select which motor will
be connected to the ASD and then, if desired, to connect to the utility. The motors do not have to be of
the same power rating. Either motor can be brought online & synchronized and the ASD switched to the
other for either synchronizing or operation at variable speed. All the equipment selection criteria in the
previous section apply.
The System Sequencer is either a PLC, relay logic, a portion of drive control logic or a combination of
these. In practice, with so many possible combinations of possible connections and operations, PLC
sequencing is used for systems of 3 or more motors. The system of Figure 14 can be extended to as
many motors as practical. Table 3 later in this paper shows the relative costs of adding multiple motors to
an ASD synchronized start system.
Figure 15 Single drive two motor VSI ASD synchronized start system
Figure 16 below shows an arrangement with two ASDs to control any of 4 motors. In this arrangement,
either drive can start and control any motor. Normal operation would have drive A controlling Motors 1
and 2, while drive B would control Motors 3 and 4. The tie contactor is normally open.
If either drive is out of service for any reason, the tie contactor can be closed and the out-of-service
drive disconnected. The remaining drive can then bring any of the 4 motors up to speed and
synchronized it to the utility. If sized to do so, this drive can then control the speed of one of the 4 motors
continuously.
Figure 16 Dual drive 4 motor VSI VSD synchronized start system with flexible ASD backup operation
Tradeoffs Complexity, flexibility and costs tradeoffs are done to select the best system arrangement for
a particular application is selected.
Complexity Switchgear and control, feedbacks and PLC increase in complexity and cost as
the system control modes and number of motors grows
Flexibility more modes of operation allow possible higher availability due to 100% backup of
critical ASD equipment if more than one drive is used.
Costs as will be shown in a later section, the ASD system costs are affected by performance
and system configuration.
XIII. Example System
Cement raw material supply at the quarry is usually both a batch process and a continuous one. As such,
trucks carry material to a hopper, an apron feeder conveyor operates at variable speed to feed the
primary crusher that prepares rough-sizes the rock. Another fixed-speed conveyor takes the material to
the plant. At the plant, raw mills further reduce the material size.
In one such an actual application, the apron feeder to the crusher is powered by a 2300 volt motor M1 as
shown in Figure 17 below [derived from Figure 15 above] and operates at variable speed. The motor
powering the crusher is a very high torque low speed [400 RPM] 2300 volt 700 HP motor [M2 in the
diagram below] whose torque and ampere characteristics were listed in Table 2 above. These motors
operate on a weak power system, and reducing current inrush at start is very important.
The sequence of operation first has the ASD accelerate and synchronize the M2 crusher motor to the
utility line. Then the ASD accelerates the apron feeder conveyor motor M1 to a speed that matches the
ability of the crusher to process the
M31
material without bogging down.
The ASD itself must be selected to
provide the starting demands of
either motor, plus the continuous
power demand of the 1200 HP
CTO1
M1A
VSI Drive
CONVEYOR
feeder conveyor.
M1
M-21
L-1
This means:
Converter - Inverter
M1
The entire drive from utility feed
V
System
Drive Control
CRUSHER
Sequencer
to motor input must be rated for
PT
PT
M-22
the 1200 HP continuous power.
V
L
25
M2
VSI MV-IGBT PWM technology with integral isolation transformer and incoming switch
3000 HP, 4160 volt, 1200 RPM motor
Continuous ASD
No Sync Start
COLUMN A
COLUMN B
Synchronized Start
ASD Rated for One motor
at a time at Full 3000 HP
Synchronized Start
Torque Mechanically Limited to
50% of 3000 HP
100%
132%
154%
171%
189%
86%
102%
113%
125%
2
3
4
Table 3 Target ASD relative costs comparison versus number of drives, motors and load conditions
The 100% cost of Table 3 is for a single, fully rated 3000 HP 4160 volt ASD without synchronized
start capability.
COLUMN A shows that the extra cost to add synchronized one-motor starting to full 3000 HP
ASD would be 32%. Refer to Figure 6 for this single motor ASD start system.
COLUMN A continues to show the extra cost to add synchronized starting of 2, 3 or 4 motors at
full 3000 HP. This ranges from 54% to 89% over the cost of a single, full-time 3000 HP nonsynchronized drive. Refer to Figure 14 for a two motor ASD start system. The Figure 14 system
can be extended to more motors by adding more switchgear and sequencing equipment.
COLUMN B is similar to COLUMN A except uses a 50% rated drive in a starting duty mode only,
with max HP and torque also limited to 50% of 3000 HP. The torque-speed curve of Figure 13
applies.
The numbers above could possibly be used to do an initial relative cost analysis for system planning.
Note that at ASDs ratings, the output voltage and current levels increase, changing the type of switchgear
required and the cost per horsepower [kW] for the ASD. This will change the relative costs for
incrementally adding motors as in Table 3
[2]
TMEIC GE MV ASD Systems & Motors School, Sessions 2-A ASD Fundamentals, and 3-A Drive Applic
Overview.