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PN 16 375
144
180
144
=
= 50 Hz ; n =
= 9; =
= 20; m =
=3
120
120
9
16 3
16
sin m( / 2) sin m(20 / 2)
144 10
Z 480
kd =
=
= 0.96 ; Z =
= 480; T = =
= 240;
3
2
2
m sin( / 2) m sin(20 / 2)
E ph = 4.44k c k d fT = 4.44 1 0.96 50 0.03 240 = 1534 V
f =
E L = 3E ph = 3 1534 = 2658 V
Page 18 of 32
01-Alternators
Another advantage of large machine is that power output per kilogram increases as the alternator
power increases. If 1 kW alternator weighs 20 kgs (i.e. 50 W/kg), then 10 MW alternator weighting
20,000 kg yields 500 W/kg. In other wards, larger alternators weigh relatively less than smaller ones, and
consequently, cheaper.
However as alternator size increases, cooling problem becomes more serious. Since large
machines inherently produce high power loss per unit surface area (W/m2), they tend to overheat. To keep
the temperature rise within acceptable limits, we have to design efficient cooling system which becomes
ever more elaborate as power increases. For cooling alternators of rating up to 50 MW, circulating coldair system is adequate but for those of rating between 50 and 300 MW, we have to resort to hydrogen
cooling. Very big machine in 100 MW range have to be equipped with hollow water-cooled conductors.
Ultimately, a point is reached where increased cost of cooling exceeds the saving made elsewhere and this
fixes the upper limit of the alternator size.
So for as the speed is concerned, low speed alternators are always bigger than high speed
alternators of the same power. Bigness always simplifies the cooling problem. For example, the large 200
rpm, 500 MVA alternators installed in a typical hydropower plant are air-cooled whereas much smaller
1800 rpm, 500 MVA alternators installed in a system plant are hydrogen cooled.
Armature Resistance
The armature resistance/phase Ra causes a voltage drop/phase of IRa which is in phase with the
armature current I. However, this voltage drop is practically negligible.
01-Alternators
Armature reaction
Armature reaction is the effect of armature flux on the main field flux. In the case of alternators,
the power factor of the load has a considerable effect on the armature reaction. We will consider three
cases: (i) when load of p.f. is unity, (ii) when p.f. is zero lagging, and (iii) when p.f. is zero leading.
In this case, the phase current lags the phase voltage by 90o. This resultant armature-reaction flux
is moved backward by 90o. Thus, the direction of the armature-reaction flux is now seen to be 180o
behind the main filed flux as shown in Fig. 35.25(b). The armature-reaction flux directly opposes and
weakens the main field flux and this is said to be demagnetizing.
To keep the value of generated emf the same, field excitation will have to be increased to
compensate for this weakening.
Page 20 of 32
01-Alternators
In this case, the phase current leads the phase voltage by 90o. This resultant armature-reaction flux
is moved forward by 90o. Thus, the direction of the armature-reaction flux is now seen to be in phase with
the main filed flux as shown in Fig. 35.25(c). This results in added main flux. Hence, armature-reaction is
wholly magnetizing, which results in greater induced emf.
To keep the value of generated emf the same, field excitation will have to be reduced somewhat.
Fig. 35. 25
01-Alternators
Therefore, total voltage drop in an alternator
under load is = IRa + jIX S = I ( Ra + jX S ) = IZ S
Where ZS is known as synchronous impedance of
the armature, the word synchronous being used
merely as an indication that it refers to the working
conditions.
Hence, we learn that the vector difference
between no-load voltage E0 and terminal voltage V
is equal to IZS, as shown in Fig. 35.26.
= tan 1
IX S
V + IRa
= tan 1
V sin + IX S
V cos + IRa
(V cos + IR a ) 2 + (V sin IX S ) 2
= tan 1
(c) Leading power factor
Fig. 35.27
Page 22 of 32
V sin IX S
V cos + IR a
01-Alternators
Before discussing the diagrams, following symbols should be clearly kept in mind.
E0 = No-load emf. This being the voltage induced in the armature in the absence of three factors
discussed in Art. 35.16. Hence it is represents the maximum value of the induced emf.
E = Load induced emf. It is the induced emf after allowing for armature reaction. E is vectorially
less than E0 by IXa. Sometimes, it is written as Ea.
V = Terminal voltage. It is vectorially less than E0 by IZS or it is vectorially less than E by IZ.
where, Z = Ra2 + X L2 . It may also be written as Za.
I = Armature current/phase and = load power factor angle.
In Fig. 35.27 (a) is shown thee case for unity power factor, in Fig. 35.27(b) for lagging power factor and
in Fig. 35.27(c) for leading power factor. All these diagrams apply to one phase of a 3-phase machine.
Diagrams for the other phases can also be drawn similarly.
Example 37.16. A 3-phase, star-connected alternator supplies a load of 10 MW at PF 0.85 lagging and at
11 kV (terminal voltage). Its resistance is 0.1 ohm per phase and synchronous reactance 0.66 ohm
per phase. Calculate the line value of EMF generated.
It is clear that with change in load, there is a change in terminal voltage of an alternator. The
magnitude of this change depends not only to the load but also on the load power factor.
The voltage regulation of an alternator is defined as the rise in voltage when full-load is removed (field
excitation and speed remaining the same) divided by the rated terminal voltage.
E V
%regulation up = 0
100
V
Voltage characteristics of an alternator are shown in Fig. 35.29.
At leading loads, the armature-reaction is magnetizing and tends to produce additional generated
voltage as load is applied, producing a negative voltage regulation.
At lagging loads, the armature-reaction is demagnetizing and its effect in reducing the generated
voltage, results in a rapid decrease in terminal voltage as load is applied, producing a positive voltage
regulation.
A sufficient leading power factor produces a voltage rise. Unity and lagging power factors
produce a drop in terminal voltage with application of load.
01-Alternators
In the case of small machines, the regulation may be found by direct loading. The procedure is as
follows:
The alternator is driven at synchronous speed and the terminal voltage is adjusted to its rated value
V.
The load is varied until the wattmeter and ammeter (connected for the purpose) indicate the rated
values of desired power factor.
Then the entire load is thrown off while the speed and fixed excitation are kept constant.
The open-circuit or no-load voltage E0 is read.
E V
Hence, regulation can be found from: % regulation = 0
100
V
In the case of large machines, the cost of finding the regulation by direct loading becomes
prohibitive. Hence other methods are used where all these methods differ chiefly in the way the no-load
voltage E0 is found in each case.
1. Synchronous Impedance or EMF Method: It is due to Behn Eschenberg.
2. The Ampere-Turn or MMF Method: This is due to Rothert.
3. Zero power factor (PF) or Potier Method: It is due to Potier.
Value of Ra
Armature resistance Ra per phase can be measured directly by voltmeter and ammeter method or
by using Wheatstone bridge. However, under working conditions, the effective value of Ra is increased
due to skin effect. The value of Ra so obtained by 60% or so to allow for this effect. Generally, a value of
1.6 times the DC value is taken.
Page 24 of 32
01-Alternators
Problem. Find the synchronous impedance and synchronous reactance of an alternator in which a given
field current of 20A produces an armature current of 200A on short-circuit and a generated e.m.f
of 50 V on open-circuit. The effective armature resistance is 0.1 ohm. Find the voltage regulation
if it is to deliver a load of 100A at i) 0.8 p.f. lagging ii) 0.8 p.f. leading and iii) unity p.f. with a
terminal voltage of 200V. Comment on the result.
6. After finding Ra and Xs vector diagrams for any load and any power factor may be drawn.
The calculation of no-load voltage fro three cases are considered in Fig. 35.27.
7. After knowing the no-load voltage, the voltage regulation can be calculated as follows:
E V
%regulation = 0
100%
V
The results obtained by this method are too high, owing to the fact that the synchronous impedance
determined at short-circuit is too large due to a very low degree of saturation. Hence, this method is
called the Pessimistic method.
Page 25 of 32
01-Alternators
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Since the voltage caused by the main field flux is added vectorically to that caused by the
armature flux, it is also assumed that both fluxes have sinusoidal distribution. Little error is
introduced because of this with non-salient pole machine, but the error is much greater in the
case of the salient pole machines which have concentrated field windings.
The magnetic reluctance to the armature flux is constant regardless of the power factor. This
is substantially true for a non-salient, or round-rotor machine, whose air-gap is almost constant
but introduces considerable error with salient poles, since the position of the armature flux
relative to the field poles is determined by the power factor.
There is no saturation effect.
The flux under test conditions is the same as that under load conditions.
Example 37.21 (a). A 100 kVA, 3000 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase star-connected alternator has effective armature
resistance of 0.2 ohm. The field current of 40 A produces short-circuit current of 200 A and an
open-circuit EMF of 1040 V (line value). Calculate the full-load voltage regulation at, unity PF,
0.8 PF lagging, and 0.8 PF leading. Draw phasor diagram.
Example 5.8 [6] A 3300 V, 3-phase star-connected alternator has a full-load current of 100 A. On shortcircuit a field current of 5 A was necessary to produce full-load current. The emf on open circuit
for the same excitation was 900 V (phase value). The armature resistance was 0.8 /phase.
Determine the full load voltage regulation for: (i) 0.8 p.f. lagging, and (ii) 0.8 p.f. leading.
[Zs=9, Xs= 8.96, V=3300/3=1905 V, (i) Eo= 2594.3 V, %reg=36.18%, (ii) Eo= 1622.9 V,
%reg = -14.8%]
Problem. Find the power angle () and the no load generated emf (Eo) when a 1500-KVA, 6.6-kV, 3phase, Y-connected alternator having a resistance of 0.4 ohm, and a reactance of 6 ohm per phase
delivers full- load current at normal rated voltage and 0.8-pf lagging. Also draw the phasor
diagram
Example 126 [2/ p.166] A 3-phase Y-connected alternator is of the following rating
164 KVA, 3600rpm, 2200V, 2 poles and 60 cycles.
For a particular value of field current of 31A, the maximum open circuit voltage is 3200V, and the
same excitation produces a short circuit current of 70A. Effective resistance of the armature per
phase is 0.60 ohm. Determine the voltage regulations for unity power factor and also for 0.8
lagging power factor. (Use synchronous impedance method).
Page 26 of 32
01-Alternators
The impedance drop can be neglected because Ra is usually very small and Xs is also small under
short-circuit conditions. Hence, PF on short-circuit is almost zero lagging and the field AT wholly
demagnetizing.
In other words, the demagnetizing armature AT on full-load are equal and opposite to the field
AT required to produce full-load current on short circuit.
Now, if the alternator, instead of being on short-circuit, is supplying full-load current at its normal
voltage and zero PF lagging, then total field AT required are the vector sum of
(i)
The field AT=OA (as shown in Fig. 37.44a) necessary to produce normal voltage (as
obtained from OCC) and
(ii)
The field AT necessary to neutralize the armature reaction AB1 (as shown in Fig.
37.44a). The total field AT are represented by OB1 in Fig 37.44(a) and equals the vector
sum of OA and OB1.
If the PF is zero leading, the armature reaction is wholly magnetizing. Hence, in that case, the field
AT required is OB2 which is less than OA by the field AT=AB2 required to produce full load current on
short-circuit [Fig. 37.44(b)].
If the PF is unity, the armature reaction is wholly cross-magnetizing. Hence, in that case, the field
AT required is OB3 i.e. vector sum of OA and AB3 which is drawn at right angles to OA as in Fig.
37.44(c).
Page 27 of 32
01-Alternators
This method gives results which are less than the actual results, that is why it is sometimes
referred to as optimistic method.
01-Alternators
(ii)
(iii)
Draw AB at an angle (90o) representing If2 to give full-load current on short-circuit (+ve
sign for lagging p.f. and ve sign for leading p.f.).
Find field current If, measuring OB, which will give open circuit emf Eo which can be
determined from OCC.
I f = OB = (OA) 2 + ( BC ) 2
I f = (I f 1 ) 2 + (I f 2 ) 2
I f = OB = (OA + AC ) 2 + BC 2
I f = ( I f 1 + I f 2 sin ) 2 + ( I f 2 cos ) 2
I f = OB = (OA AC ) 2 + BC 2
I f = ( I f 1 I f 2 sin ) 2 + ( I f 2 cos ) 2
Fig. 5.25
8. After knowing the no-load voltage, the voltage regulation can be calculated as follows:
E V
%regulation = 0
100%
V
Regulation given by this method is much lower than that given by the synchronous impedance method,
but it is nearer the correct value. This method is called the Optimistic method.
01-Alternators
The experiment data required is:
(i)
NL curve, and
(ii)
FL zero PF curve also called wattles load characteristic. It is the curve of terminal volts
against excitation when armature is delivered FL curve at zero PF.
The reduction in voltage due to armature-reaction is found from above and (ii) and voltage drop
due to armature leakage reactance XL (also called Potier reactance) is found from both. By combining
these two, E0 can be calculated.
If we vectorially add to V the drop due to the resistance and leakage reactance XL, we get E. if to E
is further added the drop due to armature reaction (assuming lagging PF) then we get E0.
The zero PF lagging curve can be obtained
(a)
if a similar machine is available which may be driven at NL as a synchronous motor at
practically zero PF, or
(b)
by loading the alternator with pure reactors,
(c)
by connecting the alternator to 3-phase line with ammeters and wattmeters connected
for measuring current and power and by so adjusted the field current that we get FL
current with zero wattmeter reading.
Point B (Fig. 37.56) was obtained
in this manner when wattmeter was
reading zero. Point A is obtained from
the SC test with FL armature current.
Hence, OA represents field current
which is equal and opposite to the
demagnetizing armature reaction and
for balancing leakage reactance drop at
FL. Knowing these two points, FL zero
PF curve AB can be drawn as under.
From B, BH is drawn equal to
and parallel to OA. From H, HD is
drawn parallel to initial straight part of
NL curve i.e. parallel to OC, which is
tangential to NL curve. Hence, we get
point D no NL curve, which
corresponds to point B on FL zero PF
curve. The triangle BHD is known as
Potier triangle.
This triangle is constant for a
given armature current and hence can
be transferred to give us other points
like M, L etc. Draw DE perpendicular
to BH. The length DE represents the
drop in voltage due to armature leakage
reactance XL i.e. IXL. BE gives field
current
necessary
to
overcome
demagnetizing effect to armature
reaction at FL and EH for balancing the
armature leakage reactance drop DE.
Let V be the terminal voltage on FL, then if we add to it vectorially the voltage drop due to
armature leakage reactance alone (neglecting Ra), then we get voltage E=DF (and not E0). Obviously,
field excitation corresponding to E is given by OF. NA (=BE) represents the field current needed to
Page 30 of 32
01-Alternators
overcome armature reaction. Hence, if we add NA vectorially to OF (as in AT method) we get excitation
for E0 whose value can be read from NL curve.
In Fig. 37.56, FG (=NA) is drawn at an angle of (90o+) for a lagging PF (or it is drawn at an
angle of 90o- for leading PF). The voltage corresponding to this excitation is JK=E0.
E V
%regulation = 0
100
V
The vector diagram is also shown separately in Fig. 37.57.
Assuming a lagging PF with angle , vector for I is drawn at angle of to V. IRa is drawn parallel
to current vector and IXL is drawn perpendicular to it. FG (=NA=BE in Fig. 37.56) representing field
current equivalent to FL armature reaction, is drawn parallel to current vector OI. The closing side OG
gives field excitation for E0. Vector for E0 is 90o lagging behind OG. DL represents voltage drop due to
armature reaction.
Page 31 of 32
01-Alternators
Fig. 5.41
Now knowing the no-load voltage, the voltage regulation can be calculated as follows:
E V
%regulation = 0
100%
V
References
[1] B. L. Theraja, A. K. Theraja, A Textbook of ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY in SI Units Volume II,
AC & DC Machines, S. Chand & Company Ltd., (Multicolour illustrative Edition).
[2] A. F. Puchstein, T. C. Lloyd, A.G. Conrad, Alternating Current Machines, 1942, Asia
Publishing House, Third Edition (Fully revised and corrected Edition 2006-07).
[3] Jack Rosenblatt, M. Harold Friedman, Direct and Alternating Current Machinery, Indian Edition
(2nd Edition), CBS Publishers & Distributors.
[4] A. E. Fitzgerald, Charles Kingsley, Jr. Stephen D. Umans, Electric Machinery, 5th Edition in SI
units, 1992 Metric Edition, McGraw Hill Book Company.
[5] Irving L. Kosow, Electrical Machinery and Transformers, Second Edition, Prentice Hall India Pvt.
Limited.
[6] ER. R. K. Rajput, Alternating Current Machines second Edition, Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd., New
Delhi.
Page 32 of 32