ATOMS, MOLECULES AND MOLES

In ancient time, people believe in phlogiston theory

Antoine Lavoisier (around the end of 18th century)
experiments comes into the conclusion of conservation
of mass law:
In any chemical reaction, mass is neither
created nor destroyed
- Joseph Proust (around the end of 18th century)
experiments results law of definite proportions
(composition):
In any sample of a pure chemical substance, it
always finds the same elements in the same
definite proportions by mass
-

Postulates of the atomic theory (John Dalton,

beginning of 19th century):
1. Matter is composed of tiny indivisible particles called
atoms.
2. All atoms of given elements are identical, but differ
from atoms of other elements.
3. A chemical compound is composed of the atoms of
its element in a definite fixed numerical ratio.
4. A chemical reaction merely consists of a reshuffling
of atoms from one set of combinations to another.
The individual atoms themselves, however, remain
intact and do not change.

Lets see molecule AB where an atom of A is twice as

heavy as an atom B
Number of
Molecule

Number
of Atoms
of A

Mass of
A

Number
of Atoms
of B

Mass of
B

Mass Ratio
(Mass A)/
(Mass B)

1
2
10

1
2
10

1
2
10

500

500

2 units
4 units
20
units
1000
units

1 units
2 units
10
units
500
units

2/1
4/2 = 2/1
20/10 =
2/1
1000/500
= 2/1

500

By product of Daltons atomic theory: The multiple

proportions:
If the masses of one element are the same in the two
samples, then the masses of the other element are in ratio
of small whole numbers
Example: For CO and CO2; ratio of O in CO / O in CO2 is
The Mole Concept
1 atom C + 1 atom O 1 molecule CO
100 atoms C + 100 atoms O 100 molecules CO
6.02x1023 atoms C + 6.02x1023 atoms O

1 mole atoms C + 1 mole atoms O

1 C + 1 O

6.02x1023 molecules CO

1 mole molecules CO

1 CO
2

C + O

CO

Atomic Mass:
Carbon-12 is assigned as exactly 12 u (units)
1 mole Carbon-12 = 12.0000 g
1 mole C (mixture of C-12 and C-13 in nature) = 12.011 g
- Percentage Composition
- Molecular Formula and Molecular Structure
- Relative Molecular Mass and Molecular Mass

CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND THE MOLE

CONCEPT
Chemical Reaction:
H2 + O2

H2O

C + O2

CO2

Na2CO3 + HCl

NaCl + H2O + CO2

Pb + HC2H3O2 + O2
Pb(OH)C2H3O2 + CO2

Pb(OH)C2H3O2

Pb3(OH)2(CO3)2 + H2O + Pb(C2H3O2)2

Balancing Chemical Equations

Step 1. Write an unbalanced equation, being careful to
write the correct formula for each substance
involved.
Step 2. Balance the equation by adjusting the coefficients
that precede the formulas of the reactants and
products so that there is the same number of atoms
of each kind on both sides of the arrow.
Example:

Na2CO3 + HCl

NaCl + H2O + CO2

Na2CO3 + HCl

2NaCl + H2O + CO2

Na2CO3 + 2HCl

2NaCl + H2O + CO2

4

Is it correct to write the reaction in the following way?

5Na2CO3 + 10HCl 10NaCl + 5H2O + 5CO2
Exercise

C8H18 + O2

CO2 + H2O

Calculations Based on Chemical Equations

The combustion of ethanol:
C2H5OH + 3O2

2CO2 + 3H2O

1 molecule C2H5OH + 3 molecules O2

2 molecules CO2 + 3 molecules H2O
1 x 6.02x1023 molecules C2H5OH + 3 x 6.02x1023 molecules O2
2 x 6.02x1023 molecules CO2 + 3 x 6.02x1023 molecules H2O

1 mol C2H5OH + 3 mol O2

2 mol CO2 + 3 mol H2O

The coefficients in a chemical equation provide the ratios

by which moles of one substance react with or form
moles of another
Problem: How many moles of oxygen are needed to burn
1.80 mol C2H5OH.

Calculation Involving Grams

How many grams of oxygen are required to react with
0.300 mol Al and how many grams of Al2O3 will be
produced in the reaction: Al + O2 Al2O3
Limiting-Reactant Calculations
In an experiment, 12.0 g of Zn is mixed with 6.50 g of S
and allowed to react. Which is the limiting reactant?
Theoretical Yield and Percentage Yield
actual yield

Percentage yield =
theoretical yield

x 100 %

Ethylene, C2H4, is burned in air to form CO2 and water

according to the equation C2H4 + O2 CO2 + H2O.
When 1.40 g ethylene is burned and gives 1.44 g of water,
what is the percentage yield of water?

Reactions in Solution
H2 + O2

H2O

C + O2

CO2

Na2CO3 + HCl

NaCl + H2O + CO2

Pb + HC2H3O2 + O2

Pb(OH)C2H3O2

In what phase are the reactants?

NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq)

AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)

(aq) to show that the compounds are in an aqueous solution

(s) to show that the compounds are in an solid phase (precipitate)
(g) to show that the compounds are in an gas phase

(l)
Terminology applied to solution
Solute
Solvent
Concentration: molar (M), molal (m), mole fraction (x),
% (w/w), % (w/v), %(v/v)
Concentrated
Dilute
Mole(s) of solute
molarity (M) =
liter of solution
mole(s) of solute
molality (m) =
kilogram of solvent
7

Calculating the molarity of solution

A 2.00 g sample of sodium hydroxide, NaOH was
dissolved in water to give a solution with a volume of
exactly 200 mL. What is the molarity of this solution?
mass of an element
number of moles (n) =

relative atomic mass

mass of a compound
number of moles (n) =

relative molecular mass

How many milliliters of 0.250 M NaOH solution are
needed to provide 0.020 mol of NaOH?
How many grams of NaOH are needed to prepare 500 mL
of a 0.300 M solution?
Preparing solution by dilution
Reagent
Sulfuric acid, H2SO4
Hydrochloric acid, HCl
Phosphoric acid, H3PO4
Nitric acid, HNO3
Acetic acid, HC2H3O2
Aqueous ammonia, NH3

Density Percent by Molarity

(g/mL)
mass
1.84
96
18
1.18
36
12
1.70
85
15
1.42
70
16
1.05
100
17.5
0.90
28
15
8

M.V = (mol/L) x L = mol

M1.V1 = M2.V2
How many milliliters of concentrated sulfuric acid are
required to prepare 750 mL of 3.00 M H2SO4 solution?
The stoichiometry of reactions in solution
Aluminium hydroxide, Al(OH)3, one of the antracid
ingredients in Maalox, can be prepared by the reaction of
aluminium sulfate, Al2(SO4)3, and sodium hydroxide,
NaOH. The balanced equation for the reaction is
Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 6NaOH(aq)

2Al(OH)3(s) + 3Na2SO4(aq)

How many milliliters of 0.200 M NaOH solution are

needed to completely react with 3.50 g Al2(SO4)3?
Limiting reactant in solution reaction
How many grams of solid AgBr will be formed if 50.0 mL
of 0.180 M AgNO3 are mixed with 60.0 mL of 0.850 M
CaBr2, where the balanced equation is
2AgNO3(aq) + CaBr2(aq)

2AgBr(s) + Ca(NO3)2(aq)

THE PERIODIC TABLE AND SOME PROPERTIES OF THE

ELEMENTS
Some properties of the elements
At room temperature: gas, liquid, solid
metallic, non-metallic
soft, hard
very dense, low density
Is it possible to classify the elements, so they can be easily
studied?
The simplest method: divide into three categories
1. Metals: iron, aluminum, copper
have a high electrical conductivity
2. Nonmetals: carbon, helium
very bad conductor
3. Metalloids: silicon, arsenic, antimony
semiconductor
Dmitri Mendeleev (early of 1869) and Julius Lothar Meyer
(the end of 1869) arranged the elements in order of
increasing atomic mass; they found that the elements with
similar properties occurred at periodic interval.
They have made the first periodic table.

10

11

The modern view of the atom

Is atom indivisible particle?
In the late of 19th century, subatomic particles, proton
(+1.60x10-19 C = 1+), neutron (neutral particle), and
electron (-1.60x10-19 C = 1-) were found.
1 Coulomb = 1 ampere of electrical current flows for 1 second
Particle

Mass
Atomic Mass
Grams
Unit

Charge
Electronic
Coulombs
Charge Unit

Proton

1.67 x 10-24

1.007276

+1.60x10-19

1+

Neutron

1.67 x 10-24

1.008665

Electron

9.11 x 10-28

0.0005486

-1.60x10-19

1-

Mass of an atom is primarily determined by the number of

protons and neutrons in its nucleus
Nucleus is so tiny with the density of about 1014 g/cm3
Number of proton in nucleus = atomic number of the atom
Atom is neutral!!!
Number of proton = number of electron
An atom represented symbolically by writing its mass number
as a superscript and its atomic number as a subscript
12

A
Z

Z = atomic number
= number of protons
= number of electrons in (neutral) atom
A = mass number
A Z = number of neutrons
12
6

and

13
6

are isotopes of carbon

and Cu are isotopes of copper whose the masses are

62.9298 and 64.9278 u, respectively, and their abundance are
69.09 % and 30.91 %. What is the average atomic mass of this
element?
63
29

Cu

65
29

Atomic number and the modern periodic table

See the modern periodic table

13

Formation of ionic compound

When two or more substances combine to form a single
product the reaction sometime called a combination reaction
2Na(s) + Cl2(g)

2NaCl(s)

Atom of sodium loses one electron, which is transferred to a

chlorine atom
Sodium atom loses one electron, become positive ion, with the
charge 1+ called a cation, written as Na+
Chlorine atom gains one electron, become negative ion,
chloride ion, with the charge 1- called an anion, written as ClNaCl is an ionic compound
Metals tend to react with nonmetals to form ionic
compounds
IA
Li+
Na+
K+
Rb+
Cs+

IIA
Be2+
Mg2+
Ca2+
Sr2+
Ba2+

Group number
IIIA
IVA
VA
C4N3Al3+
Si4P3-

VIA
O2S2Se2Te2-

VIIA
FClBrI-

The transition metals are able to form more than one ion
14

Cations formed by some transition elements

Chromium
Manganes
Iron
Cobalt
Nickel
Copper
Silver

Cr2+
Cr3+
Mn2+
Mn3+
Fe2+
Fe3+
Co2+
Co3+
Ni2+
Cu+
Cu2+
Ag+

Au+
Au3+
Zn2+
Cd2+
Hg22+
Hg2+

Gold
Zinc
Cadmium
Mercury
Sn2+
Sn4+

Tin

Pb2+
Pb4+

Lead
Bismuth

Bi3+

Rules for writing formulas for ionic compound

1. The positive ion is always written first in the formula.
2. The total of positive charges equals the total number of
negative charge; the formula unit must be electrically
neutral.
3. The smallest set of subscripts that give electrical neutrality
is always chosen.
Example:
The compound form from Ca2+ and ClThe compound form from Ca2+ and O2The compound form from Na+ and O2The compound form from Al3+ and O2Ions can contain more than one atom

is CaCl2
is CaO
is Na2O
is Al2O3

15

Cations
NH4+ ammonium
H3O+ hydronium
Anions
CO32- carbonate
HCO3- hydrogen carbonate
(bicarbonate)
2C2O4 oxalate
CNcyanide
NO3- nitrate
NO2- nitrite
OHhydroxide
SO42- sulfate
HSO4- hydrogen sulfate
(bisulfate)
2SO3
sulfite
HSO3- hydrogen sulfite
(bisulfite)

ClO4- perchlorate
ClO3- chlorate
ClO2- chlorite
ClO- or OCl- hypochlorite
PO43phosphate
HPO42- hydrogen phosphate
H2PO4- dihydrogen phosphate
CrO42- chromate
Cr2O72- dichromate
MnO4- permanganate
C2H3O2- acetate

Writing the formula of calcium phosphate: Ca3(PO4)2

Formation of molecular (non-ionic) compound
The nonmetals elements can react with each other to form
molecular (non-ionic) compound.
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)
Simple compound of nonmetals with hydrogen
16

Group IVA
CH4
SiH4
GeH4

Group VA
NH3
PH3
AsH3
SbH3

Group VIA
H2O
H2S
H2Se
H2Te

Group VIIA
HF
HCl
HBr
HI

Simple compound of nonmetals with oxygen

Group IIIA
B2O3

Group IVA
CO2
SiO2
GeO2

Group VA
N2O3
N2O5
P2O3
P2O5
As2O3
As2O5
Sb2O3
Sb2O5

Group VIA
SO2
SO3
SeO2
SeO3
TeO2
TeO3

17

Some properties of ionic and molecular (nonionic) compound:

1. Melting point: ionic compounds have a high melting point.

NaCl, an ionic compound, melts at 800 oC.
eicosane (C20H42), one of the compounds in a mixture of
substance called paraffin wax, a non-ionic compound, melts
at 37 oC.
2. Ionic compounds can be crushed become powder, not with
non-ionic compounds.
3. Ionic compounds dissolve in water; non-ionic compounds
dissolve in liquids such as gasoline and paint thinner.
4. Electrical conductivity:
- Both ionic and non-ionic compounds in the solid form do
not conduct electricity.
- Molten non-ionic compounds do not conduct electricity,
molten ionic compounds does.

Naming chemical compound

2 groups of compounds:
Inorganic compounds: their structures are not determined
primarily by linking together of carbon atoms.
Organic compounds: their structures primarily determined by
linking together of carbon atoms.
18

Names of anions:
IVA
VA
C4- carbide
N3- nitride
Si4- silicide
P3- phosphide
As3- arsenide

VIA
O2- oxide
S2- sulfide
Se2- selenide

VIIA_____
F- fluoride
Cl- chloride
Br- Bromide

Common (systematic) name:

For metals that occur in one oxidation state:
NaCl sodium chloride
SrO
strontium oxide
Al2S3 aluminium sulfide
For metals that occur in more than one oxidation state:
Cr3+
chromic ion
CrCl3 chromic chloride
Cr2+
chromous ion
CrCl2 chromous chloride
Fe3+
ferric ion
Fe2S3 ferric sulfide
Fe2+
ferrous ion
FeS
ferrous sulfide
2+
Cu
cupric ion
CuO
cupric oxide
Cu+
cuprous ion
Cu2O cuprous oxide
Sn4+
stannic ion
Sn(SO4)2 stannic sulfate
Sn2+
stannous ion
SnSO4 Stannous sulfate
3+
Co
cobaltic ion
Co2(CO3)3 cobaltic carbonate
Co2+
cobaltous ion
CoCO3 cobaltous carbonate
Stock name (system):
FeBr3 iron(III) bromide Co2(CO3)3
FeBr2 iron(II) bromide CoCO3
Cu2SO4 copper(I) sulfate Pb(C2O4)2
CuSO4 copper(II) sulfate PbC2O4

cobalt(III) carbonate
cobalt(II) carbonate
lead(IV) oxalate
lead(II) oxalate

19

Non-metal compounds
NO2
nitrogen dioxide
N2O4
dinitrogen tetroxide
N2O5
dinitrogen pentoxide
PCl3phosphorus trichloride
PCl5phosphorus pentachloride

CO carbon monoxide
CO2 carbon dioxide

Acids (when they dissolved in water)

HF(aq)
Hydrofluoric acid
HCl(aq)
Hydrochloric acid
HBr(aq)
Hydrobromic acid
HI(aq)
Hydroiodic acid
H2S(aq)
Hydrosulfuric acid
Oxoacids
H2SO4
H2SO3
HNO3
HNO2
HClO4
HClO3
HClO2
HClO

sulfuric acid
sulfurous acid
nitric acid
nitrous acid

SO42SO32NO3NO2-

sulfate
sulfite
nitrate
nitrite

perchloric acid
chloric acid
chlorous acid
hypochlorous acid

ClO4ClO3ClO2ClO-

perchlorate
chlorate
chlorite
hypochlorate

20

CHEMICAL REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS

SOLUTION
Solution:
Concentrated: a large amount of solute dissolved in solvent
Dilute: small amount of solute dissolved in solvent
Saturated: contains maximum solute can dissolved
Unsaturated: contains less than maximum solute can
dissolved
Supersaturated: contains more than maximum solute can
dissolved (this solution is not stable).
Electrolytes
Water is very poor conductor.
When NaCl dissolved in water, the solution will conduct
electricity. The compounds that have the same property
with NaCl said to be electrolytes.
In water NaCl dissociates. The ions surrounded by water
molecules (in the reaction indicated by aq after the
formula of the ions), and said to be hydrated.
NaCl(s) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
HCl(g) + H2O H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
These reactions called ionization reactions
For simplicity, labels (s), (aq) and (g) are very often leaved off
Strong and weak electrolytes
Compare the conductivity solutions of C12H22O11 (sugar),
NaCl, HCl, CaNO3, HC2H3O2 (acetic acid), NH3 (ammonia),
HCN (hydrogen cyanide)
C12H22O11 (sugar) is not electrolyte (non-electrolyte)
21

HC2H3O2 (acetic acid), NH3 (ammonia), HCN (hydrogen

cyanide) are weak electrolytes
NaCl, HCl, CaNO3 are strong electrolytes
Dissociation of weak electrolytes
% dissociated in 1.00 M solution
HC2H3O2 + H2O H3O+ + C2H3O20.42
NH3+ H2O

NH4+ + OH0.42
HCN + H2O H3O+ + CN2.0 x 10-3
HC2H3O2 + H2O
NH3+ H2O
HCN + H2O

H3O+ + C2H3O2NH4+ + OHH3O+ + CN-

Reaction between ions

AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq)

AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)

In the solution electrolyte will dissociates

Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

AgCl(s) + Na+(aq) + NO3-(aq)

There are no change the ions of NO3-(aq), Na+(aq) in the

solution, so the reaction can be written as
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s)

22

Acid base reactions

Acid: - has sour taste
- can changes color of blue litmus paper to become pink
- a substance that in aqueous solution increases the
concentration of hydronium ion, H3O+ (Arrhenius
definition).
Base: - has bitter taste
- can changes color of pink litmus paper to become blue
- a substance that in aqueous solution increases
hydroxide ion, OH- (Arrhenius definition).
HC2H3O2 + H2O
More simply:
HC2H3O2

H3O+ + C2H3O2H+ + C2H3O2-

Polyprotic acids: H2S, H2SO4, H2CO3, H3PO4,

Bases: NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2, Mg(OH)2
Neutralization reactions
H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq) 2H2O
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O
Neutralization stomach acid:
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2H+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + 2H2O
Al2O3(s) + 6H+(aq) 2Al3+(aq) + 3H2O
Removing rust:
Fe2O3(s) + 6H+(aq) 2Fe3+(aq) + 3H2O
23

Acid salts formation:

2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq)

Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O

NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq)

NaHSO4(aq) + H2O

Principle of the reactions

Metathesis reactions (double replacement or changes the
partners)
- precipitation:
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s)
Ca2+(aq)+ C2O42-(aq) CaC2O4(s)
- weak electrolyte is formed:
H3O+ + NaC2H3O2 HC2H3O2 + H2O + Na+
H+ + NaC2H3O2 HC2H3O2 + Na+
- gas is formed:
CaCO3(s)+ 2HCl(aq)
CaCO3(s)+ 2H+(aq)

CaCl2(aq) + H2O + CO2(g)

Ca2+(aq) + H2O + CO2(g)

Oxidation reduction reactions

From the time that oxygen was discover, the term oxidation
has been associated with the reaction of this compound with
another compounds or elements to form oxides compounds.
24

Since known that iron oxide could be broken down (reduced)

to give the free metal, recovery of metal from its oxide known
as reduction.
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 2Fe2O3(s)
Fe loses 3 electrons to become Fe3+
Each O in O2 molecule gains 2 electrons to become O2Oxidation is the loss of electron(s) from a substance
Reduction is the gain of electron(s) from a substance
2Mg(s) + O2(g)

2MgO(s)

product of this reaction is an ionic compound, MgO, contains

Mg2+ and O2-, so the reaction can be considered as
Mg Mg2+ + 2e
(oxidation)
O2 + 4e 2O2(reduction)
O2 is oxidizing agent, it takes electrons from the substance
that is oxidized. O2 itself is reduced in fact.
Mg is reducing agent, it gives electrons to the substance that
is reduced. Mg itself is oxidized in fact.
Oxidation number
are numbers (either positive or negative) that we assign to
atoms in a compound so we can follow the changes that take
place in redox reaction
25

The oxidation number are assigned according to a set of rules

Rules for assigning oxidation numbers

1. The oxidation number of any element in its elemental form
is zero (Ne, H2, N2, P4, S8, Fe, Cu, etc.)
2. The oxidation number of any monoatomic ion (an ion
composed of only one atom) is equal to the charge of the
ion.
3. The sum of all the oxidation numbers of all the atoms in a
compound is zero. For polyatomic ions, the sum of the
oxidation numbers must equal to the charge of the ion.
4. Fluorine has an oxidation number of 1.
5. Hydrogen has an oxidation number of +1.
6. Oxygen has an oxidation number of 2.
Examples:

FeCl3
KNO3
H2O2
Fe2(SO4)3
Cr2O72ClO3-

26

Identifying oxidation and reduction in a reaction

14HCl + K2Cr2O7
+1 -1

+1 +6 -2

2KCl + 2CrCl3 + 3Cl2 + 7H2O

+1 -1

Redox reactions
Mg Mg2+ + 2e x2
O2 + 4e 2O2 x1
2Mg + O2 2MgO

+3 -1

+1 -2

(oxidation)
(reduction)
(redox)

Solubility rules
1.
2.
3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

All salts of the alkali metals are soluble

All salts of the ammonium ion, NH4+, are soluble
All salts of the nitrate ion (NO 3-), chlorate ion (ClO3-),
perchlorate ion (ClO4-), and acetate ion (C2H3O2-) are
soluble
All salts of the chlorides, bromides, and iodides are soluble,
except those Ag+, Pb2+, and Hg22+
All salts of the sulfates (SO42-) are soluble, except those of
Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, and Pb2+
All metals oxides are insoluble, except for those of the
alkali metals, Ca2+, Sr2+, and Ba2+
All hydroxides are insoluble, except for those of the alkali
metals, Ca2+, Sr2+, and Ba2+
27

8.

All carbonates (CO32-), phosphates (PO43-), sulfides (S2-),

and sulfites (SO32-) are insoluble, except for those of NH4+
and the alkali metals
Ion-electron method for balancing redox reaction equations

for acidic solution

Step 1. Devide the skeleton equation into half-reactions
Step 2. Balance atoms other than oxygen and hydrogen
Step 3. Balance the oxygen in each half-reaction by adding
water molecules to the side that needs oxygen atoms.
Add one H2O for each of oxygen needed
Step 4. Balance the hydrogen atoms in each half-reaction by
adding H+ to the side needs hydrogen. Add one H+ for
each hydrogen needed
Step 5. Balance the charge in each half-reaction by adding
electrons to the appropriate side
Step 6. Multiply each half-reaction by appropriate factors to
make the number of electrons gained equal to the
number lost.
Step 7. Add the two half-reactions together
Step 8. Cancel anything that is the same on both side of the
equation
Example: reaction between HCl and KMnO4 solutions will
produce Cl2 and Mn2+. Show the balanced ionic and
molecular reaction.
In water, both of HCl and KMnO4 will dissociated to be their
ions. The skeleton equation is:
Cl- + MnO4- Cl2 + Mn2+
28

Step 1.

Cl- Cl2
MnO4- Mn2+

Step 2.

2Cl- Cl2
MnO4- Mn2+

Step 3.

2Cl- Cl2
MnO4- Mn2+ + 4H2O

Step 4.

2Cl- Cl2
MnO4- + 8H+

Step 5.

Step 6.

Step 7.

Mn2+ + 4H2O

2Cl- Cl2 + 2e
MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e
(2Cl- Cl2 + 2e
(MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e
10Cl- + 2MnO4- + 16H+

Mn2+ + 4H2O
)x5
Mn2+ + 4H2O) x 2
2Mn2+ + 8H2O + 5Cl2

The ionic reaction is:

10Cl- + 2MnO4- + 16H+

2Mn2+ + 8H2O + 5Cl2

The molecular reaction:

10Cl- + 2MnO4- + 16H+

2Mn2+ + 8H2O + 5Cl2

10Cl- +10H+ + 2MnO4- + 2K+ + 6H+ + 6Cl-

2Mn2+ + 4Cl-+ 8H2O + 5Cl2 + 2K+ + 2Cl29

10HCl + 2KMnO4 + 6HCl

16HCl + 2KMnO4

2MnCl2+ 8H2O + 5Cl2 + 2KCl

2MnCl2+ 8H2O + 5Cl2 + 2KCl

Redox reaction in basic solution

Step 1. Balance the reaction as it occurred in an acidic solution
Step 2. For eah H+, add OH- to both side of the equation
Step 3. Combine H+ and OH- to form H2O
Step 4. Cancel H2O that are the same on both sides
Example: reaction between KMnO4 and FeSO4 in basic
solutions will produce Ferric compound and
insoluble MnO2. Show the balanced ionic and
molecular reaction.
KMnO4 + FeSO4

MnO2 + Fe3+

Following the procedure as for acidic solution, will give

oxidation and reduction equations:
MnO4- + 4H+ + 3e

MnO2 + 2H2O
Fe2+ Fe3+ + e
Now, follow the procedure of redox reaction in basic solution
MnO4- + 4H+ + 4OH- + 3e

MnO2 + 2H2O + 4OHMnO4- + 4H2O + 3e MnO2 + 2H2O + 4OHMnO4- + 2H2O + 3e

MnO2 + 4OH- x 1
Fe2+

Fe3+ + e
x 3

(reduction)
(oxidation)
30

MnO4- + 2H2O + 3Fe2+

MnO2 + 4OH- + 3Fe3+ (ionic-redox)

KMnO4 + 2H2O + 3FeSO4 MnO2 + KOH + Fe2(SO4)3 + Fe(OH)3

6KOH + Fe2(SO4)3 3K2(SO4) + 2Fe(OH)3

Examples:
1. How would you prepare a solution of 2.00 % (w/w) NaCl in
water?
2 % (w/w) NaCl means 2.00 g NaCl in 100.00 g solution
So, to prepare the solution, mix 2,00 g NaCl and 98.00 g
water. Because of the density of water is 1.00 g/mL, we can
use 98.00 mL.
2. A 500 L sample of air with a density of 1.20 g/L was found
to contain 2.40 x 10-3 g of the pollutant SO2. What is the
concentration of the pollutant express in % by mass and in
part per million (ppm) by mass
% means 1/100
ppm means 10-6
Mass of air = its volume x density
= 500 L x (1.20 g/1.00 L) = 600 g
% by mass = (mass of SO2/mass of air) x 100 %
= (2.40 x 10-3 g/600 g) x 100 %
= 4.00 x 10-4 %
ppm by mass = (mass of SO2/mass of air) x 106 ppm
31

= (2.40 x 10-3 g/600 g) x 106 ppm

= 4.00 ppm
3. What is mass of aluminium (ion) in 100 mL of solution of
0.240 M Al2(SO4)3?
Any reaction must fulfill the law of conservation of mass,
and conservation of ion.
Aluminium sulfate is an ionic compound. This compound will
dissociate in water according to the reaction
Al2(SO4)3 2Al3+ + 3SO42Therefore Al3+ concentration = (2/1) x 0.240 M
= 0.480 M
= 0.480 mol/L
= 0.480 mol/1000 mL
= 0.0480 mol/100 mL
this means in 100 mL of the solution contain 0.0480 mol Al3+
ion, or 0.0480 mol x 26.98 g/mol = 1.30 g
4. How many mL of 0.350 M CaCl2 are needed to give 1.25 g
of Cl2 gas in the reaction
10Cl- + 2MnO4- + 16H+ 2Mn2+ + 8H2O + 5Cl2
From the atomic mass table, the formula mass (or relative
molecular mass) of Cl2 is 70.9 g/mol, therefore
Mol amount of 1.25 g Cl2 = 1.25 g /(70.9 g/mol)
= 1.76 x 10-2 mol
Cl- needed = (10/5) x 1.76 x 10-2 mol
32

= 3.52 x 10-2 mol

Solution of 0.350 M CaCl2 contains 0.700 mol Cl-/1000 mL.
Solution of CaCl2 needed = 3.52 mol/(0.700mol/1000 mL)
= 50.3 mL
Chemical analysis and titration
Chemical analysis is an experimental determination of either
qualitative or quantitative of a chemical in a sample.
Titration is an analytical procedure to measure the amount of
a solution needed to react exactly with the content of another
solution (also called volumetric analyses).
Examples:
1. A white powder was known to be a mixture of NaCl and
Na2SO4. A sample of the powder weighing 1.244 g was
dissolves in water and a solution of Ba(NO3)2 was added
until the precipitation of BaSO4 was complete. The reaction
mixture was filtered carefully to be sure that none of the
precipitate was lost, and the BaSO4 was then dried and
found to weigh 0.851 g. What was the percentage by mass
of Na2SO4 in the original sample?
From the atomic mass table, the formula mass (or relative
molecular mass) of BaSO4 is known = 233.4 g/mol
Therefore, the mol number of BaSO4 = 0.851 g/(233.4 g/mol)
= 3.65 x 10-3 mol
BaSO4 formed from the reaction
33

or

Ba(NO3)2 + Na2SO4
Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

BaSO4 + 2NaNO3
BaSO4(s)

Hence, the mol number of SO42- = the mol number of Na2SO4

= 3.65 x 10-3 mol
Relative molecular mass of Na2SO4 = 142.0 g/mol
So the mass of Na2SO4 = 3.65 x 10-3 mol x (142.0 g/mol)
= 0.518 g
% (w/w) Na2SO4 = (mass of Na2SO4/mass of sample) x 100 %
= (0.518 g/1.244 g) x 100 %
= 41.6 %
2. To measure the concentration of NaOH solution, a 20.00
mL of 0.100 M HCl was inserted into a beaker and a few
drops of phenolphtalein were added into the HCl solution. A
buret was filled with NaOH solution and used for titrate the
HCl solution. The titration required 18.47 mL of the base in
order to reach the end point. What is the molarity of the
NaOH solution?
Balanced chemical equation of the reaction
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O
First calculate the moles number of HCl in 20.00 mL before
titration begun.
The moles number of HCl in 20.00 mL before titration =
20.00 mL x 0.100 mol/1000 mL = 2.000 x 10-3 mol
34

At the end point (the mol amount of HCl is in balance with the
mol amount of NaOH). The mol amount of NaOH =
(1/1) x 2.000 x 10-3 mol = 2.000 x 10-3 mol
Remember: M x V = mol number, or M = mol number/V
Therefore:
Molarity of NaOH = 2.000 x 10-3 mol/18,47 mL
= 0.1083 10-3 mol/mL
= 0.1083 mol/L
Do the same ways for any chemical analysis
Equivalent weights and normality
Acid-base reaction:
An equivalent of an acid is defined as the amount of acid that
furnishes 1 mol of H+
An equivalent of a base is defined as the amount of base that
furnishes 1 mol of OHNumber of equivalent = number of mol x n
n = is a the number of H+ provided by 1 molecule of acid or
the number of OH- provided by 1 molecule of base
In any reaction,
the reaction is always in the equivalent ratio of 1 : 1
Example:
How many mol of NaOH can react with 0.1 mol H2SO4.
35

Compare the calculation using mol and equivalent systems.

Oxidation-reduction reaction:
An equivalent of an oxidizing or reducing agents in a redox
reaction is the amount of substance that gains or loses one mol
of electron.
Number of equivalent = number of mol x n
n = is the total number of electrons gained or lost by one
formula unit of substance (also can be calculated from the
change of oxidation number)
Examples:
1. How many equivalents are there per mole reagents in the
following reactions, show the calculations using the change
of oxidation number and the electrons are involved.
a.
Ca(IO3)2 Ib.
NO3- NH4+
c.
KMnO4 MnO2
d.
KMnO4 Mn2+
2. How many mole FeSO4 can react with 0.1 mole KMnO4.
Compare the calculation using mole and equivalent systems.
Normality = number of equivalents/1 liter of solution
N=Mxn
36

VA.NA = VB.NB
Examples:
1. How many grams of K2Cr2O7 are needed to prepare 100 mL
of a 0.100 M K2Cr2O7, if in the reaction, the chromium
converted to be Cr3+ (the reaction in acid solution)
2.

How many mL of 0.20 N K2Cr2O7 are needed to react with

60 mL of 0.40 M H2C2O4 (the reaction in acid solution), and
how many grams CO2 will be produced as the result of
conversion of H2C2O4

37

Chapter 11

PROPERTIES OF GASES
Matter can exist in three different physical forms or states i.e.
solid, liquid and gas
Intermolecular forces (attraction or repulsion) between gas
particles are weak, cause independent movement and, physical
behavior controlled by:
volume, pressure, temperature and number of mole
Gas occupy entire volume of container
Gases mix freely with one another in the container, and
volume of each gas is the same as the volume of container
Pressure force per unit area
100 lb force exerted on a piston whose total area 100 in2
Pr essure

100 lb
lb
1 2 1 psi
2
100 in
in

SI unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa)

1 Pa = 1 N/m2
1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 760 torr = 101,325 Pa

38

Manometer pictures
Determination of pressure using manometer
Robert Boyles experiment (1662): If the temperature of a gas
is held constant, its volume is inversely proportional
to the pressure.
V 1/P
(at constant temperature)
V = constant /P
P x V = constant
Jacques Alexander Charless experiment (1787): At constant
pressure, volume of a gas is directly proportional to
its temperature, provided the temperature is
expressed in Kelvin.
VT
(at constant pressure)
V = constant x T
V /T = constant
Joseph Gay-Lussacs experiment: At constant pressure,
volume of a gas is directly proportional to its
temperature, provided the temperature is expressed in
Kelvin.
PT
(at constant volume)
P = constant x T
P /T = constant
The combined gas law:
PV/T = constant
PV/T = nR
PV = nRT ( the ideal gas law)
Pi x Vi / Ti = Pf x Vf / Tf

39

STOICHIOMETRY OF GASEOUS REACTION

2C4H10 (g)+ 13O2 (g)
4.50 L
?L

8CO2 (g)+ 10H20 (l)

?L

How many liters 1 mole gas at STP?

DALTONS LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE
PT = pa + pb + pc + .........
Example: If 200 mL N2 at 25 oC and 250 torr are mixed with
350 mL O2 at 25 oC and 300 torr in the volume of
300 mL, what would be the final pressure?
GAS PRESSURE OVER WATER
PT = pgas + pwater
pgas = PT - pwater
GRAHAMS LAW OF EFFUSION
Rate of effusion
Rate of effusion A

Rate of effusion B

1
d

dB
dA

MB
MA

40

Daltons law of partial pressure:

pA = xAPT
Moles number of A
xA =
Total moles number of gas in the mixture
REAL GAS
The ideal gas law:

PV = nRT
V = nRT/P
Whe the pressure extremely high ( P = ), V = 0
From experiment, V is never became 0
J.D. van der Waals (1837 -1923) gave a correction:
Vmeas = Videal + nb
Videal = Vmeas nb
Real gas has a lower pressure compare to the ideal gas.
J.D. van der Waals (1837 -1923) gave a correction:
Pideal = Pmeas + n2a/V2
Combination of the equations:
nRT/Videal = Pmeas + n2a/V2
Pmeas = nRT/(Vmeas nb) - n2a/V2
P = nRT/(V nb) - n2a/V2
P = RT/(Vm b) - a/Vm2
(P + n2a/V2)(V nb) = nRT
(P + a/Vm2)(Vm b) = RT

41

CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS
What is it that determines whether or not a chemical or
physical changes is possible?
Thermodynamics is basically concerned with the energy
changes that accompany chemical or physical processes.
Some common terms:
System and surroundings
State of system and state function
Isobar, isothermal and adiabatic changes
Internal energy, U
First law of thermodynamic: if a system undergoes some
series of changes that ultimately brings it back to its
original state, the energy change is zero, E = 0
E = Efinal Einitial
E = Eproducts Ereactants
E = q + w
Example:
A system absorbs 50 J of heat and does 30 J of work
Esystem = (+50 J) + (-30 J)
= + 20 J
Esurroundings = (-50 J) + (+30 J)
= - 20 J
Esystem + Esurroundings = 0
q positive (q > 0): heat is added to the system
42

q negative (q < 0): heat is evolved by (removed from) the

system
w positive (w > 0): work is done on the system; energy is
added to the system
w negative (w < 0): work is done by the system; energy is
remove from the system
Work in physical and chemical processes
work = force x distance
w = F h
A
= F h A
F
= A (A h)
= P V
= P (Vfinal Vinitial)
wsurroundings = P V
wsystem = -P V
How many Joule is the work done by a system when its
expanded from 1 liters to 100 liters opposes pressure equal
to zero?
How many Joule is the work done by a system when its
expanded from 2 liters to 10 liters opposes pressure equal
to 1 atm?
Heats (enthalpy) of reaction
43

Esystem = q - P V
If during the change of state, the pressure is constant
Esystem = qp - P (Vfinal Vinitial)
qp = E + P Vfinal - P Vinitial
= (Efinal + P Vfinal) (Einitial + P Vinitial)
= Hfinal - Hinitial
qp = H
Bond energy and enthalpy (heats) of reactions
Bond energy: the amount of energy needed to break a
chemical bond to produce electrically neutral fragments
(atoms)
Heats (enthalpy) of formation: the amount of energy
needed or liberated in a chemical reaction whereas a
compound formed from its elements.
Energy (enthalpy) of chemical reaction: the amount of
energy needed or liberated in a chemical reaction whereas
the reactants converted to the products.

Enthalpy
44

C(g) + 4H(g)
H2 =
+872 kJ
C(g) + 2H2(g)

H3= ?

H2 =
+715 kJ
C(s,graphite) + 2H2(g)

Hf =
CH4(g) -74.9 kJ

Hf = H1 + H2 + H3
H3 = Hf - H1 - H2
H3 is the energy needed to break all 4 C-H bond

What is (are) the factor(s) that control spontaneity?

The second law of thermodynamics: in any spontaneous
change, there is always an increase the entropy (tendency
toward disorder) of the universe.
If the entropy increase, S > 0, or S = +
The universe is an isolated system
Our system can be isolated, closed or open system!
Some reaction can happen spontaneously with H = Some reaction can happen spontaneously with H = +
45

Some reaction can happen spontaneously with S = +

Some reaction can happen spontaneously with S = Gibbs combines these phenomena to determine the
spontaneity with single thermodynamics quantity, G,
called the Gibbs free energy, defined as
G = H TS
G = H TS
Any process will spontaneously happen if the Gibbs
free energy decrease, G < 0, or G =
Goreaction = Horeaction TSoreaction
Horeaction = Hof, products Hof, reaactants
Soreaction = Soproducts Soreaactants
Goreaction = Gof, products Gof, reaactants

46

THE pH CONCEPT
Hydrogen ion and hydroxide ion in aqueous solution may
range from 10 M to 10-14 M, so it is frequently necessary to
specify their concentrations, and a logarithmic notation has
been devised to simplify the expression for very low
concentration. In general, for low concentration of X, the
quantity pX is defined as:
pX = log X
Hence, to specify low concentration of hydrogen ion in a
solution, it is defined:
pH = log [H+]
For a solution contains 10-3 M of hydrogen ion, then
pH = log [H+] = log 103 = 3
To specify low concentration of hydroxide ion in a
solution, it is defined:
pOH = log [OH]
Then, for a solution contains 10-3 M of hydroxide ion,
pOH = log [OH] = log 103 = 3
Water can dissociate to produce H+ and OH, where their
multiplication is Kw = 1 x 1014 M2
Kw = [H+][OH]
log Kw = (log [H+]) + (log [OH])
pKw = pH + pOH = log 1 x 1014 = 14
Pure water has the same concentration of H+ and OH, so it
has pH = 7
Acid solution has pH < 7, and basic solution has pH > 7
47

When weak acid is dissolved in water, only small part of

the acid dissociates to produce its ions
HC2H3O2 + H2O
H3O+ + C2H3O2
acid
base
acid
base
In this case acid constant:
Ka = [H3O+][C2H3O2]/[HC2H3O2] = 1.8x10-5 M
Hence, when concentration of the acid is 0.1 M, level of its
dissociation () can be calculated as follows:
(0.1 x 0.1 )/0.1 (1- ) = 1.8x10-5
Due to this compound is weak acid, 1- 1, so
2 = 1.8x10-4 or = 1.34 x 10-2 or [H3O+] = 1.34 x 10-3
And pH of this solution is:
pH = -log 1.34 x 10-3 = 2.87
When into a weak acid solution is added its salt, then the
mixture will has a buffer property (it means that the pH
relatively constant when small amount of acid or base is
added). As an example, if we have a solution contains 0.1
M of acetic acid and 0.1 M of sodium acetate,
Ka = [H3O+][C2H3O2]/[HC2H3O2]
[H3O+] = Ka [HC2H3O2]/[C2H3O2]
-log [H3O+] = -log (Ka [HC2H3O2]/[C2H3O2])
pH = -log (1.8x10-5 x 0.1/0.1) = 4.74
If into this solution, 0.01 M of NaOH is added, then
pH = -log (1.8x10-5 x 0.09/0.11) = 4.83
If into this solution, 0.01 M of HCl is added, then
pH = -log (1.8x10-5 x 0.11/0.09) = 4.66
48

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF INORGANIK

COMPOUND
In general, solid phase of inorganic compounds (NaCl,
KBr, CuCl2, FeCl3, etc.)are in crystal form.

Properties of the unit cells of the seven

System
Edge lengths
Cubic
a=b=c
Tetragonal
a=bc
Orthorombic
abc
Monoclinic
abc
Triclinic
abc
Rhombohedral
a=b=c
Hexagonal
a=bc

crystal systems
Angels
===90o
===90o
===90o
==90o

==90o
== 90o; =120o

There are 3 kinds of lattice of cubic unit cells:

1. Simple cubic (frozen of oxygen)
2. Body centered cubic (chromium, iron, tungsten)
3. Face centered cubic (nickel, copper, silver, gold,
aluminium).
The crystal lattices could be determined by X-ray
diffraction method where the Bragg equation is fulfilled
49

2d sin = n
d is the spacing between the successive layers that are
reflecting the X ray,
is the angle at which the X ray enter and leave the
particular layers,
n is integer (1, 2, 3, etc.)
is the wavelength of the X ray.
Soil contains crystals of inorganic compounds, hence
type of soil can be determined by X-ray diffraction
method
Base on X-ray diffraction method, it is known that
metallic sodium crystallizes with a body-centered cubic
lattice. The element has density of 0.97 g/cm3. What is
the length of the edge of the unit cell in Na expressed in
nanometers?

8 corners x 1/8 Na per corner = 1 Na

1 Na in the center
= 1 Na
Total Na per unit cell = 2 Na
(AB)2 = (AC)2 + (BC)2
(AC)2 = (AD)2 + (CD)2
(AD) = (CD) = (BC)
(AC)2 = (BC)2 + (BC)2 = 2(BC)2
50

(AB)2 = 2(BC)2 + (BC)2 = 3(BC)2

(AB) = 4r
(BC)

(AB) 2

(4r) 2
3

Volum 1 mol Na =

23.00g
6.02x10 23

0.97g/cm
2

4r 2

Hence the radius of Na atom (=r) can be determined.

51