Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Introduction to
building technology
Siemens Ltd
Infrastructure & Cities Sector
Building Technologies Division
22/F, Two Landmark East
100 How Ming Street, Kwun Tong
Kowloon, Hong Kong
Tel +852 2870 7888
The information in this document contains general descriptions of technical options available,
which do not always have to be present in individual cases. The required features should therefore
be specified in each individual case at the time of closing the contract.
Siemens Switzerland Ltd, 2011 Order no. 0-91916-en 11110
Table of contents
1.
1.1.
Introduction.............................................................................................. 7
1.2.
1.3.
1.3.1.
1.4.
2.
2.1.
Introduction............................................................................................ 15
2.2.
2.2.1.
2.2.2.
2.2.3.
2.2.4.
2.2.5.
2.2.6.
2.2.6.1.
2.2.7.
2.2.8.
2.2.9.
2.2.10.
2.2.11.
2.2.12.
Thermodynamics ................................................................................... 16
Thermal expansion of solid materials .................................................... 21
Thermal expansion of liquids ................................................................. 23
The medium "water" .............................................................................. 24
Thermal expansion of gases.................................................................. 31
The medium air ................................................................................... 34
The enthalpy of substances................................................................... 36
From Kilocalories to Kilojoules and Watts.............................................. 39
Heat transmission.................................................................................. 40
Heat conduction..................................................................................... 40
Heat convection..................................................................................... 42
Thermal radiation................................................................................... 46
The mixing law....................................................................................... 49
Time constant of heat transfer ............................................................... 49
2.3.
2.3.1.
2.3.2.
2.3.3.
2.4.
2.4.1.
2.4.2.
3.
3.1.
3.2.
3.3.
3.3.1.
3.3.1.1.
3.3.1.2.
3.3.1.3.
3.3.1.4.
3.3.1.5.
3.3.1.6.
3.3.1.7.
3.3.1.8.
3.3.2.
3.3.3.
3.3.3.1.
3.3.3.2.
3.3.3.3.
3.3.3.4.
3.3.3.5.
3.3.3.6.
3.3.4.
3.3.4.1.
3.3.4.2.
3.3.5.
3.3.5.1.
3.3.5.2.
3.3.6.
3.3.6.1.
3.3.6.2.
3.3.6.3.
3.3.6.4.
3.3.7.
3.3.7.1.
3.3.7.2.
3.3.7.3.
3.4.
3.4.1.
3.4.1.1.
3.4.2.
3.4.3.
3.4.4.
3.5.
3.5.1.
3.5.1.1.
3.5.1.5.
3.6.
3.6.1.
3.6.2.
3.6.3.
3.7.
3.7.1.
3.7.1.1.
3.7.1.2.
3.7.2.
3.7.3.
3.7.4.
3.8.
3.8.1.
3.8.2.
3.9.
4.
4.1.
Introduction...........................................................................................112
4.2.
4.3.
4.3.1.
3.5.1.2.
3.5.1.3.
3.5.1.4.
4.3.2.
4.3.3.
4.3.4.
4.3.5.
4.3.5.1.
4.3.5.2.
5.
5.1.
Introduction.......................................................................................... 128
5.2.
5.2.1.
5.2.2.
5.3.
5.3.1.
5.3.1.1.
5.3.1.5.
5.4.
5.4.1.
5.4.2.
5.4.3.
5.4.4.
5.4.5.
5.4.5.1.
5.4.6.
5.4.6.1.
5.4.6.2.
5.5.
kV values.............................................................................................. 146
5.6.
5.7.
6.
6.1.
6.2.
6.2.1.
6.2.2.
6.2.3.
6.2.3.1.
6.2.3.2.
6.2.3.3.
6.2.3.4.
6.2.3.5.
6.2.3.6.
6.2.3.7.
6.2.3.8.
6.2.4.
6.2.4.1.
6.2.5.
5.3.1.2.
5.3.1.3.
5.3.1.4.
6.2.6.
6.2.7.
6.2.8.
6.2.8.1.
6.2.8.2.
6.2.9.
6.2.10.
6.2.10.1.
6.2.11.
6.2.12.
6.3.
6.3.1.
6.3.1.1.
6.3.1.2.
6.3.1.3.
6.3.1.4.
6.3.1.5.
6.3.2.
6.3.2.1.
6.3.2.2.
6.3.2.3.
6.3.2.4.
6.3.2.5.
6.4.
6.4.1.
6.4.2.
6.4.3.
6.4.4.
6.5.
6.5.1.
7.
7.1.
Introduction.......................................................................................... 199
7.2.
Measurement....................................................................................... 200
7.3.
7.3.1.
7.4.
7.4.1.
7.5.
1.
Building technology
1.1. Introduction
Types of building
If we look at the picture of a town, we can see immediately that it consists of very
different types of building. These are mainly residential or office buildings (some of
which have integrated shops or apartments "mixed construction"), schools, theaters, sports arenas, hospitals, and factories.
Fig. 1-1
All of these buildings have one thing in common: They are intended to protect their
users from outside influences, to provide security from the outside world, safety
indoors, and to ensure comfortable thermal conditions.
In the industrial nations, people spend up to 95% of their lives inside buildings. The
quality of this "indoor world" is therefore vitally important to our health and wellbeing. The significance of indoor well-being was only recognized as the number of
sick-building syndrome case began to increase. There are many causes of a reduced sense of well-being indoors. Some can be measured objectively, but many
of the problems are also related to the individuals and their social environment.
Indoor air quality
Objectively quantifiable causes include poor indoor air quality, too high or too low a
room temperature or humidity level, cold air drafts and unsuitable lighting.
But the human desire for comfort does not stop at our own front doors or office
doors: It extends to shopping malls, exhibition halls, sports arenas, fitness centers,
museums, and theaters all areas where acceptance is closely linked to perceived
air quality. Our own individual perception of comfort in buildings and rooms has a
highly significant effect on our sense of well-being.
Building automation
and control
From the HVAC viewpoint, the building shell acts as a buffer between controlled
indoor conditions and external environmental influences of the seasons such as
differences in temperature (+/), solar radiation, wind, rain, frost, and snow.
Of special note are the possible combinations of these influences such as wind and
rain, solar radiation and high temperatures, or solar radiation and low temperatures.
The building shell must be constructed to withstand these weather-dependent influences and to respond to them by means of building technology. Depending on its
location, the building shell may additionally need to provide protection against
street noise, rail or air traffic, and in some cases, against industrial noise.
Fig. 1-2
Safety
Energy
We are all familiar with the associated technical equipment, which can and does
vary depending on the type of building and its use.
Fig. 1-3
Not included here are production facilities of all types as well as technical
equipment directly needed for any working process.
Depending on the purpose of an HVAC plant, its functions can be divided into two
subareas:
a. The term "comfort plant" covers all plants designed to create and automatically
maintain comfortable indoor conditions that promote the well-being and performance of people at home and in offices, schools, hospitals, restaurants,
cinemas, theaters, shopping malls, etc.
b. Industrial plant covers all plants designed to generate and maintain the particular indoor conditions required for specific production, storage, or ripening/maturing processes.
10
Heating technology
Ventilation technology
This covers air renewal, especially in areas such as factories, cinemas, theaters,
and restaurants in other words, in buildings where the air is used up or polluted
very quickly. Despite the introduction of fresh air in this process, the room temperature must be maintained at the required level. Heating coils are used for this purpose. The majority of these are heated with hot water, although electricity or steam
is sometimes used.
Air conditioning
Our sense of well-being and efficiency is affected not only by the room temperature, but also by the humidity, cleanliness, and freshness of the air in other words
by indoor conditions tuned as finely as possible to the human organism and
senses. An air conditioning plant can influence these factors. The air is treated by
use of heating coils, cooling coils, and air humidifiers. Air conditioning technology
today ranges from air conditioning plants for individual rooms and residential buildings through to the major plants seen for example in office buildings, shopping
malls, and airports, etc.
All plants must or should always operate automatically and make the best
possible use of the available energy.
Control strategy
defined by energy
costs
11
Building technology may have to meet various requirements depending on the purpose of the building. However, the following three main requirements are prevalent:
1. The human need for comfort and well-being within the building shell, tailored to
specific types of building use, must be adequately met irrespective of external influences.
2. The building shell must provide protection commensurate with the potential risks
to protect occupants, users, and their property against damage by fire or water,
damage to equipment, or attack by third parties.
3. It should be possible to meet these requirements with acceptable investment
costs and minimal follow-on costs for energy, operation, maintenance, and loan
servicing.
7
Bus line
19
11
14
18
10
8
25
1 1
15
15
21
23
20
24
13
4
5
26
16
12
Fig. 1-4
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
4
2
2
3 3
9
22
17
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
Safety
Energy savings
Comfort
Household appliances
1 12
4, 13 18
1, 2, 3, 15, 19 23
24 26
The relevant building technology plants can satisfy the overall requirements. We
can refer to intelligent building technology when all technical equipment works optimally with regard to specific requirements.
12
Planning building
technology
Building automation
and control systems
We not only supply the necessary equipment and systems to solve control issues,
but also prepare application-specific recommendations, and help our customers
engineer, commission, and maintain their plants.
We need the appropriate specialist knowledge to competently support our customers.
13
Flat-roof
buildings
Conditions
Use
Steelworks
Paper-making
Paper storage
Printing
Textiles
Cotton, linen
Spinning
Weaving
Wool spinning
Wool weaving
Multi-story
building
Flat-roof
building
Multi-story
building
Requirement
Tolerable
working temp.
Tolerable
working temp.
Constant humidity
Constant humidity
Constant humidity
Constant humidity
Constant humidity
Constant humidity
Humidity
Volume flow
coefficient (h-1)
18 -26 C
30 60%
5 15 times
22 30 C
40 50%
20 24 C
20 26 C
45 60%
22 25 C
22 25 C
27 29 C
27 29 C
Up to 55%
70 80%
50 60%
60 70%
21 24 C
22 C
Up to 24 C
50 55%
40 45%
65 70%
Temperature
Electrical industry
General
Relays
Insulators
Dust-free
Low tolerance
Humidity
Pharmaceutical
production
21 27 C
30 40%
Photo industry
Production,
development,
storage of films
Dust-free
20 24 C
40 65%
Dust-free
18 22 C
40 60%
Tobacco
Storage
Preparation
Production
Humid
Humid
Humid
21 23 C
22 26 C
21 24 C
60 65%
75 85%
55 65%
Confectionery
industry
Sweets production
Chocolate production
Dry
Cool
24 27 C
25 18 C
30 45%
50 60%
Museums, art
galleries
Indoor pool
Constant humidity
18 24 C
40 55%
20 times
Thermal comfort
26 30 C
60 70%
3 4 times
Thermal comfort
22 24 C
45%
Thermal comfort
22 26 C
40 60%
Precision assembly
Sewing
Sales premises
Laboratory,
chemistry
Laboratory,
physics
Low tolerance
Thermal comfort
21 C
22 26 C
20 26 C
40%
50%
45 60%
50%
45%
Specialty laboratories
Schools
Lecture halls
Office buildings
Hospitals
Hospital wards
Surgical rooms
Hotels, general
Hotel rooms
22 24 C
5 15 times
20 times
5 40 times
4 6 times
8 15 times
22 24 C
Thermal comfort
Thermal comfort
Thermal comfort
Sterile,
low-noise
Sterile,
low-noise
Thermal comfort
Thermal comfort
10 40 C
22 24 C
22 24 C
22 26 C
15 95%
40 60%
40 60%
40 60%
22 24 C
40 60%
20 25 C
40 65%
22 26 C
22 24 C
40 55%
Ca. 40%
8 10 times
3 6 times
5 times
30 times
Footnote: The figures for the air change rate (volume flow coefficient in m3/h) are defined in DIN 1946,
Part 2. DIN 1946 specifies that in rooms normally used by people, the outside air flow rate is to be
based on the number of people present in the room and room utilization. In rooms with additional
sources of air pollution (e.g. odors such as tobacco smoke), the minimum outside air flow rate should be
increased by 20 m3/h per person.
14
2.
Physical principles
2.1. Introduction
From the extensive field of physics, we will cover in this chapter the application of
thermodynamics and hydrodynamics, with reference to the area of HVAC systems.
In addition, we will also be engaged with the hygienic fundamentals of HVAC systems, in particular with the subject of comfortableness. As an introduction, we
would like to define the terms used:
Thermodynamics: Section of physics where the behavior of physical systems
involving supply or delivery of heating energy are investigated along with temperature changes.
The fundamentals of thermodynamics are specified by the Laws of Thermodynamics
Hydrodynamics: Section of fluid mechanics involved with the flow of incompressible materials, that is, mainly with flowing fluids. Flows having considerable
density variations are covered in gas dynamics. At the limit, for static fluids, hydrodynamics reduces to hydrostatics
SI units
The name Systme International d`Units (International System of Units) and the
abbreviation SI were adopted by the 11th General Conference for Mass and
Weights in 1960. SI units comprise the seven basic units and derived units with a
factor of unity.
Basic Unit
Length
Mass
Time
Electrical current
Absolute temperature and temperature
difference
Concentration
Light intensity
Name:
meter
kilogram
second
Ampere
Kelvin
mole
candela
SI Basic Unit
Symbol:
m
kg
s
A
K
mol
cd
Derived units are formed by multiplying or dividing the basic units. The same holds
for the symbols. Thus, for example, the SI unit for speed is: Meters divided by seconds (m/s).
15
2.2. Thermodynamics
How is heat generated?
Heat is generated, for example, when a space capsule reenters the earths atmosphere at almost 40,000 km/h. 2,000 to 3,000C, created from the collision of atoms
of air with the heat shield, causes the atoms of the heat shield to oscillate. In this
case, heat is produced by friction caused by the loss of the capsules kinetic energy. In each material, be it solid, fluid or gas, the atoms or molecules are always
moving, that is, oscillating (Fig. 2-1). And this is the definition of heat, that is, the
oscillation of atoms or molecules. The greater the oscillation, the greater the heat
level. When we measure the temperature of a substance, it is these oscillations
that we measure.
Fig. 2-1
State change
If we hold a piece of metal over a flame, we cause the atoms in the metal to be
thermally excited.
The atoms begin to oscillate strongly and the metal heats accordingly. The metal
expands because the oscillatory movements of the atoms reduce their mutual attraction (binding force). If we continue heating, the atoms in the metal lose their
intrinsic order: The metal melts and individual atoms even shoot from the surface
as vapor, or more exactly, leave the fluidized surface as gas.
We have now become familiar with the three thermodynamic aggregate states:
solid
fluid, and
gaseous
Radiation
While these oscillations of the atoms or molecules, together with their constant interactions, take place, another process occurs, which we also perceive as heat. As
a result of the interactions of the oscillating atoms, individual electrons, constantly
orbiting the atom nuclei, are suddenly flung from their normal orbit to one further
out (Fig. 2-2). This condition is unstable, however, and they return to their normal
orbit relatively quickly, but in only small quantum steps. But so that no energy is
lost, they release as much energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation as was
required to increase their orbit.
If this radiation strikes other atoms or molecules, e.g. in our skin, then the energy
they give up increases the oscillation of the atoms or molecules, which we notice
as heat. This radiation, derived from heat and causing heat is referred to as thermal
radiation or infrared radiation. It is not visible to the naked eye. Radiation allows the
emission of heat without a material carrier between the heat source and the radiated body. This is, for example, how radiant energy from the sun is transmitted to
Earth.
16
Each warm material radiates thermal energy continually. This also holds for the
metal that we heated and also for the flame used to heat it. As soon as we remove
the flame, the oscillations of the metal atoms immediately become weaker, the
temperature falls and the thermal radiation reduces. Just as the flame thermally
excited the metal, now the heated metal excites its cooler surroundings, that is, e.g.
the surrounding air and the pliers we use to hold the hot metal. With this process,
the metal loses its internal energy until its temperature is in equilibrium with the surrounding temperature. Its atoms, however, at that point are in no way quiescent,
rather oscillate with an energy corresponding to this temperature.
Fig. 2-2
The presentation of these concepts of the oscillation of atoms and the leaps of
electrons from orbit to orbit allows us to more easily understand the laws of thermodynamics.
First law of
thermodynamics
Kinetic energy
(Formula symbol W)
Kinetic energy or momentum is that mechanical energy that a body has because of
its movement.
Nuclear energy
The binding energy of an atom nucleus (in the true sense) is set free or made useful during a nuclear reaction. On a commercial basis only the energy released by
nuclear fission processes in nuclear power plants has been used until now. The
impact of atomic particles in an atomic reactor takes place at a very high velocity on
unfissionable material.
Electromechanical
energy
Is mechanical energy generated by electricity. In heat engines, mechanical or electrical energy is generated from heat.
Potential energy
(symbol Epot)
17
Second law of
thermodynamics
Mechanical work can be converted to heat. The reconversion of heat into mechanical work is only partially possible. There are always losses.
Heat is created during transformation processes and is simultaneously a form of
energy:
Heat can, of itself, never pass from a body of lower temperature to a body of
higher temperature.
A warmer body immediately thermally excites a cooler one and in doing so, loses
internal energy. This determines the direction of all heat flows:
All heat transfer processes always proceed from the warmer to the colder
medium.
The cooling that we detect is never a cold transfer, rather a heat loss of our bodies.
Temperature
Apart from pressure, density and specific volume, temperature is the dimension for
the thermal state. The oscillation of the atoms in each heated material shows us
that the lowest temperature, absolute zero, can only be reached if the atoms no
longer move, that is, no longer exhibit the slightest oscillation.
Practically, this point is unreachable, because the smallest heat quantity is sufficient (e.g. from the container or even from the thermometer) to prevent the temperature of the substance from going low enough.
Celsius
The relative temperature scales (the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales) are based on
temperature dependent material characteristics such as the freezing and boiling
points of water.
The Celsius scale was developed by the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius in
1742 (*1701, 1744).
The Celsius scale is the one most used in common daily measurements of temperature.
The calibration points:
0 C
100 C
=
=
18
Kelvin
The absolute temperature Theta is based on absolute zero according to Kelvin and
corresponds to -273.15 C. In physics, the unit for the Kelvin scale is the Kelvin (K)
(Kelvin, British physicist, 1824 1907).
Relative to the Celsius scale 0 C = 273 K and accordingly
n K = 273.15 + n C = absolute temperature T in Kelvin.
Temperature differentials (delta theta) are also specified in Kelvin.
Temperature can be measured by using the thermal expansion of solid materials
(mostly metals), the thermal expansion of liquids (e.g. alcohol in a thermometer), or
by changes in electrical resistance (see under Measuring Systems).
T 400
100
250
200
350
50
300
0
250
- 50
200
150
100
50
0
- 50
- 100
- 150
- 100
150
- 150
100
- 200
50
- 250
0
Fig. 2-3
- 200
- 250
- 300
- 350
- 400
- 450
Temperature scales
19
Comparison and
conversions among
the various scales
Zero point:
0 C =
Degrees Celsius to Kelvin:
K
=
Degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit: F
=
273.15 K = 32 F
C + 273.15
C * 1.8 + 32
283.15 K 50 F
Example: 10 C
3
3
m
5
J5
2
1
E
Fig. 2-4
20
All substances, whether solid, liquid or gaseous, expand upon heating (upon the
addition of energy). The amount of expansion, however, varies. This thermal expansion is associated with powerful forces. Bridges, for example, must be set on
bearings and possess expandable joints, so that they do not crack in winter and do
not destroy their supports in summer.
Let us first compare how strongly and how differently a steel rod of 1 m length and
a copper rod of the same length expand upon heating:
Linear expansion
Temperature difference
Steel
Copper
-100 C
0 C
+ 1.67 mm
+2.65 mm
0 C
100 C
+ 1.20 mm
+1.65 mm
100 C
200 C
+ 1.31 mm
+1.73 mm
200 C
300 C
+ 1.41 mm
+1.77 mm
300 C
400 C
+ 1.52 mm
+1.92 mm
We recognize that differing materials expand differently and this in accordance with
the linear expansion coefficient .
The coefficient of linear expansion is the increase in unit length of a body upon a
1K increase in temperature. This number changes somewhat with temperature increase, so fixed averages are used in calculations.
Body
[mm/K]
Body
[mm/K]
Iron (Fe)
0.012
Platinum (Pt)
0.009
Aluminum (Alu)
0.024
Copper (Cu)
0.017
5003 mm 70C
5000 mm 20C
+ 3 mm
Fig. 2-5
/50C
A radiator made of steel 5 m long expands approximately 0.6 mm per meter upon
warming 50 K, that is, approximately 3 mm (Fig. 2-5). This is a considerable
amount. The radiator expands this much each morning in winter when the heating
system switches from reduced night operation back to full output, becoming some
50 K warmer in the process in a few minutes.
21
If the radiator is fixed in place so that it cannot freely move, the familiar knocking
sound is heard when the radiator insists on expanding. In poorly controlled systems, where the radiator temperature continually oscillates, the knocking can be
heard the entire day.
Bimetallic elements
Thermal expansion of materials not only provides the engineer with difficulties, it
also can be utilized technically: In a bimetallic element, two metals of different linear expansion are soldered together (Fig. 2-6). If this sandwich metal (1 ) is
heated, it is forced to bend because one side expands more than the other. And the
longer the bimetallic element and the higher the temperature, the stronger the
bending. If the element is formed in a circle of spiral and supplied with a pointer
and appropriately calibrated, the bimetallic element becomes a bimetallic thermometer, (2). If it is supplied with a contact, it becomes a thermal, that is, temperature-dependent switch (3-4).
Fig. 2-6
Bimetallic applications
3 Bimetallic switch
4 Bimetallic time switch with heating resistor
Such bimetallic switching systems are often used in technical applications: In simple designs as safety switches against excessive temperature (e.g. in motor windings or for motor protection), and in high-quality designs with adjustable switching
points as thermostats. The temperature-sensitive bimetallic element is specified as
a bimetallic sensor.
If a bimetallic element that, for example, is completely straight at 20 C is suddenly
exposed to a temperature of 50 C, it immediately begins to bend. The bending
stops only when the entire bimetallic element has heated to 50 C. Under identical
conditions, the same time is always required. Thus the bimetallic element is suitable for manufacturing time switches (4) in an operation that, depending on application, delays or accelerates switching on or off. A small electrical heating resistor
can be used to heat the bimetallic element and so accelerate the switching sequence.
Controllers having a solid expansion sensor are related to temperature controllers
using bimetallic sensors. The tube and rod used in this construction also consist of
two metals having differing expansion coefficients. The switching system is activated by the difference in lengths occurring upon heating.
Thermostats having immersion sensors are preferably used as temperature controllers for liquids or gases in storage heaters, boilers, piping, etc. While the medium
can wash round the sensor so that it quickly takes on the temperature of the medium, the operating head remains outside the container. This makes it easily accessible and protects it from excessive heating.
22
-3
-3
Liquid
.10 /K
Liquid
.10 /K
Gasoline
1.20
Water (20 to 70 C)
0.20 to 0.59
Fuel oil EL
0.7
Toluene
1.08
Thermal expansion of liquids is again used for thermometers and in the construction of temperature-dependent switches (Fig. 2-7).
In the thermometer (1), the liquid in the globe expands upon heating and moves up
into the capillary. If the temperature of liquids is to be measured exactly, the entire
thermometer inclusive capillary must be immersed into the liquid because the liquid
in the capillary also expands.
Fig. 2-7
1 Thermometer
2 Liquid expansion sensor
3 Thermal valve
23
Water expands as do all liquids. While others expand more and more from their
melting point with each K temperature increase, water first contracts from 0 to 4 C
(the anomaly of water) and only then does it begin to behave in a standard manner, that is, to expand.
1,000 kg water
-1 C
approx. 1,090.0 liter
0 C
1,000.2 liter
2 C
1,000.1 liter
4 C
1,000.0 liter
10 C
1,000.4 liter
20 C
1,001.8 liter
30 C
1,004.4 liter
40 C
1,007.9 liter
50 C
1,012.1 liter
60 C
1,017.1 liter
70 C
1,022.8 liter
80 C
1,029.0 liter
90 C
1,035.9 liter
100 C
1,043.5 liter
The above table also indicates the level of expansion of water in a central heating
system. Assume that just 1000 liters of water at 20 C is in a boiler, the piping and
the radiators. Also assume that this system in winter is often operated with water at
a temperature of 70 C.
This means that there is a volume increase of 21 liters.
These 21 liters must be collected somewhere or else the system will burst. For this
purpose, each hot water central heating system has an expansion tank.
Since water expands so strongly, it becomes correspondingly lighter because its
3
density (rho) [kg/m ] changes.
24
Density
Physics: (mass density, specific mass) symbol (rho), the quotient of mass and
volume of a body. Besides depending on the material of the body, the density is
also dependent on pressure and temperature (especially for gases and liquids).
3
Density kg/dm
2.699
1.52.4
Lead
11.35
0.917
Iron
7.86
Gold
19.3
Wood (dry)
0.40.8
Sand (dry)
1.51.6
Foam material
Uranium
0.020.05
18.7
Water 20 C
0.9982
1.000
Fig. 2-8
In heating plants, this lifting effect of the heated water is used for gravity heating.
In every boiler or hot water storage tank the heated (and expanded) water moves
so fast upwards that it only gives up a fraction of its heat to the surrounding cold
water (Fig. 2-8). In this way, the hot water collects at the top and is withdrawn there.
Cold water enters from the bottom. The temperature layering is so stable that even
the swirl of the entering cold water hardly affects it.
25
Temperature
stratification
The fact that warm water layers over cold water also makes life difficult for us: For
example, in indoor swimming pools, we cannot simply supply hot water through an
inflow from above or below; that would most surely lead to a temperature stratification. Such stratification would only be very slowly eliminated by the churning
movements of the swimmers. Further, measuring the effective water temperature in
a pool with temperature stratification is very difficult. In order to get around this
problem, systems designed for comfort supply filtered and heated water at many
locations along the bottom of the pool.
The tendency of warmer water to form a layer over colder water is so strong that
such stratification even remains preserved in piping over long distances (Fig. 2-9).
We have to take this into account when considering the installation locations for
temperature sensors or controllers in piping.
m
1
1
2
2
Fig. 2-9
Water has the highest density at 4 C and expands both when heat is supplied or
when heat is removed. While other liquids contract when solidifying, water expands
in an amount exactly equal to 1/11 of its volume (Fig. 2-10). This is why ice can
rupture with enormous force rocks, road surfaces and house facades as well as
piping, radiators, etc.
+ 10C
Fig. 2-10
26
0C
- 10C
11 V
Frost damage occurs in heating systems mostly in unused and unemptied systems
or if the heating is reduced excessively in winter. In ventilation and air conditioning
systems, on the other hand, it is standard that in winter outside air of -10 C or
lower is blown through air heating coils heated with hot water. It is our responsibility
to ensure a secure freezing protection function through dependable temperature
monitoring, because if the hot water supply stops even for a few minutes in such
icy conditions, then expensive frost damage can occur.
Vaporization
We now wish to observe the aggregate state of water in somewhat more detail. As
we know, water vaporizes. And this has a basis in the movement of molecules: In
contrast to solids, the water molecules do not oscillate about fixed points. Because
of this, those molecules that find themselves at the surface of the water can easily
shoot out from it. Some of these will reenter the water, while the rest remain as invisible water vapor in the air. And each particle that escapes and is carried away by
the wind takes its heat of vaporization with it. When this procedure takes place on
our skin, we clearly notice the heat loss through this vaporization as a cooling effect.
We take an approximately half filled container of water and cover it (Fig. 2-11). Because of the cover, the air can no longer carry the vaporized water molecules away.
A water vapor-air mixture thus forms over the water surface as more and more water molecules vaporize. Water molecules are also returning into the water from the
vapor-air mixture. Initially, however, more water molecules on average leave the
water surface than return until a dynamic equilibrium situation is finally reached,
where the number of water molecules leaving the water surface equals the number
returning to the water. At this point, the air is said to be saturated with water vapor.
Fig. 2-11
If we raise the temperature of the water, the water molecules increase their oscillations and so more can leave the water surface. Initially, again, more water molecules will leave the water surface than return to it until the concentration of the water molecules in the air reaches a level where the number of molecules leaving the
water surface equals the number returning. Thus, the higher we raise the temperature, the higher the fraction of water vapor in the vapor-air mixture.
27
Boiling point
If we heat the water strongly, bubbles of hot vapor (that is, steam) suddenly appear
in the water. The water boils. At this point, the formation of vapor is no longer restricted to the water surface, it also forms within the water. We now keep adding
heat to the container so that the amount of steam continually increases (the boiling
rate increases although the water temperature remains the same). Eventually, sufficient pressure will built up within the container to lift the cover, allowing some
steam to escape (Fig. 2-12). Another way of looking at this is to say that, at the
same pressure, steam needs more volume than water.
Fig. 2-12
At standard air pressure, water boils at 100 C. What is meant by standard air
pressure"?
This definition states that standard air pressure exists if the weight of air at sea
level is 101,325 N/m2 (or 101.3 kPa = 1.013 bar). Thus, an air column of 1 m2 cross
section reaching out into space has this weight.
The sentence At standard air pressure, water boils at 100 C" means that the boiling temperature is evidently dependent on the pressure over the water. In other
words, the higher the pressure on the water, the higher the oscillations required of
the water molecules, that is, the higher the temperature needed in order to convert
liquid water to steam. We can then draw the conclusion that for pressures above
standard, the boiling point will increase. This is also the case: At 1.5 bar (overpressure of 0.5 bar), e.g. in a pressure cooker, water actually does boil at approximately
110 C (Fig. 2-13).
0,7 bar
1 bar
90C
100C
0 m . M.
Fig. 2-13
1,5 bar
110C
Air pressure and boiling point of water depend on the elevation above sea level
The boiling point of water, that is, the temperature where the transition from liquid
water to water vapor occurs, is dependent on pressure.
28
Fig. 2-14
Water temperatures above 100 C occur frequently in district heating plants. This
means that a pressure of more than 1 bar must exist in the piping network to keep
the water from boiling.
In the next step, we wish to investigate the amount of energy required to convert
ice into water and then into vapor. The relationship is shown in the temperatureenthalpy graph (Fig. 2-15).
In order to heat one liter of water from 0 C to 100 C, we need 419 kJ.
We determine that the temperature does not remain constant during this process.
Sensible (noticeable) heat is being transferred.
At 100 C, the water begins to vaporize internally also, creating steam. Were we
now to stop adding heat, the water temperature would immediately drop, the internal vaporization would stop, halting the production of steam. In order to completely
convert one liter of water to steam, we would have to add heat until no water remained. For this we need an additional 2,257 kJ, that is, more than five times the
amount of heat required to heat the water from 0 C to 100 C.
29
We determine that the temperature remains constant at 100 C during this conversion process. Thus, no sensible heat is being transferred, rather what is called the
latent heat of vaporization is being consumed in order to change the aggregate
state of the water from liquid to gas.
C
115
100
28,3
-335
419
10
0
A
0
Fig. 2-15
2257
419
2676 2704,3
h (kJ / kg)
Latent heat
Latent heat is the heat added to a material to cause its state to completely change
from solid to liquid or from liquid to vapor. No temperature change takes place during these conversions.
Enthalpy
Enthalpy is the sum of the sensible and latent heat possessed by a substance. If
processes are involved having considerable pressure and volume changes (e.g.
compression), mechanical work (potential energy) done on the material must be
added in (units of [kJ/kg]).
With the exception of waters strange behavior between 0 C and 4 C and the
fact that each liquid has its own specific coefficient of expansion, everything we
have said about water also holds for other liquids.
30
If we heat a bar shape of iron, water and air each of 1 cm cross section and 10 cm
in length to 100 K and compare the thermal expansion of the three materials, we
obtain the result shown in Fig. 2-16.
Fig. 2-16
We know why the difference is so large: For iron, the atoms are fixed in place relative to one another, for water the relationship is less distinct and for gases, there is
only a very small mutual attractive force among the atoms. And the lower the mutual attractive force, the stronger the thermal stimulus (the increased oscillation of
the atoms and molecules needs more space).
While solid and liquid materials expand depending on material type, all gases behave essentially the same. The behavior is often expressed in terms of an ideal
gas, that is, a gas that obeys the following laws:
Boyle-Mariottes Law
The law discovered by R. Boyle and E. Mariotte: In a given amount of an ideal gas,
the product of pressure and volume at constant temperature is a constant
Pressure: p1 * V1 = p2 * V2
Density:
r1 * V1 = r2 * V2
Density behaves like the associated pressure.
Gay-Lussacs Law
Gay-Lussacs Law states that the volume V of a gas at constant pressure p increases linearly with absolute pressure T:
V1 = V0 (1 + *T1 ) = V0 + V0 *T1 (T in K)
The (isobaric) coefficient of expansion for all ideal gases has the value =
1/273 K. (V0 = volume at 0C). Consequently at constant pressure, the gas volume
in question is proportional to the absolute temperature, or,
V1 / V2 = T1 / T2
Gases and gas mixtures, such as air, expand 1/273 of their volume at 0 C for
-1
each K heating. ( = 0.00366 K )
31
1 m air at
0 C = 1.293 kg
20 C = 1.205 kg
50 C = 1.093 kg
From this we can see that 1 m of air, moving past a radiator and heating up from
20 C to perhaps 50 C, experiences a buoyancy of approximately 1N.
Buoyancy
Fig. 2-17
32
What we have here then is the same gravity circulation effect as for a hot water
gravity heating system.
Since the air molecules can move freely, they mix much more easily with one another than molecules in liquids. The result is that there are less sharply delineated
temperature layers in gases.
The temperature behavior caused by the gravity circulation within a room is shown
in the graph below.
3m
2m
1m
0m
18C
Fig. 2-18
20C
22C
24C
26C
28C
33
Air is a mixture of gases, vapors and contaminants. Dry, clean air exists only theoretically. Dry, clean air would consist of:
Gaseous material:
Chemical
symbol:
Volume
%
Weight
%
Nitrogen
N2
78.060
75.490
Oxygen
O2
20.960
23.170
Argon
Ar
0.930
1.290
Carbon dioxide
CO2
0.030
0.040
Hydrogen
H2
0.010
0.001
Neon
Ne
0.002
0.001
He, Kr, Xe
0.008
0.008
In addition to the thermal state of the air, the purity, gas percentages and mainly the
water content of the air play a large roll in ventilation and air conditioning systems.
The humidity of air
34
t (C)
0
40
2 4
8 10 12 14 16 x (g/kg)
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
-15
Fig. 2-19
h,x diagram
Fig. 2-19 shows the dependence of the largest possible water vapor amount which,
dependent on temperature, can be contained in a specified volume of air.
The variables relative and absolute humidity are used to provide a numerical representation of the amount of vapor contained in the air. The exact relationships are
shown in the h,x diagram. They can be easily determined by measurements and
made available with the help of graphs.
We now know what heat is, know the source of thermal radiation and also have
received an idea of how difficult it is in practice to obtain exact temperature measurements. After that, we examined thermal expansion of materials and have seen,
using practical examples, how this phenomena can be constructively used and
which processes it gives rise to in heating systems and heated rooms.
We have already seen how much energy is needed to heat or vaporize water, and
know that air can only dissolve a certain quantity of water vapor, and that this portion of water vapor is dependent on air temperature and pressure.
35
The quantity of heat Q can be calculated. But first we have to get to know a few
variables. If we try to raise the temperature of 1 kg of copper, 1 kg of water and
1 kg of air by 1 K, we would determine that we would need almost three times as
much heat energy for air as for copper, and for water eleven times as much.
The results are just as different for other materials. The quantity of heat necessary
to raise the temperature thus does not depend only on mass, but also on the heat
storage capacity of the material. We designate this as the specific heat c of the
material.
It is always referenced to 1 kg of material and 1 K, and has units of [J/kg K].
The specific heat for copper, water and air are:
Copper: c = 381 [J/kg K]
Water: c = 4190 [J/kg K]
Air:
c = 1004 [J/kg K]
We would now like to closely examine the values for specific heat of other materials, that is, the number of kJ required to heat 1 kg of the material 1 K.
Material
Hydrogen
Helium
Water
Air
Steel
Copper
Oils
c in
kJ/kg K
14.25
5.24
4.19
1.0
0.48
0.39
2.00
If we ignore hydrogen and helium, then water has the highest specific heat of all
materials (including those not mentioned here). We thus need much more heat energy to bring water to a higher temperature than other substances. In exchange,
however, we have correspondingly more heat energy with which we can operate
stored in this quantity of water.
36
When making calculations involving the quantity of heat, we are thus interested in
the weight (mass m), specific heat c and the temperature difference (K) before
and after heating. The reason for this is that these determine, in a definitive manner, how much heat we have to add to the material. If we go in the other direction
and place a heated body in a colder environment, then, from its mass, specific heat
and the temperature drop between it and its environment, we can calculate the
maximum quantity of heat this body can release.
Quantity of heat Q
If this water flows into the radiator at 90 C and returns from there to the boiler at a
temperature of 70 C, then it has given up the 16,760 kJ acquired earlier. The heat
is given up mostly as heat to the room, but some small part, referred to as heat
loss, is given up through the piping to the environment (Fig. 2-20).
90C
- 16 760
kJ
90C
70C
+ 16 760 kJ
Fig. 2-20
37
Heat output
The example shows that we need 16,760 kJ in order to increase the temperature of
200 kg of water by 20 K. We have also seen that this heat energy is given up from
the radiator to the air and as heat loss to the piping, so that the water returns to the
boiler at 70 C again. We have thus essentially sent a flow of heat to the radiator.
This heat flow must be adjusted in winter to heating requirements. In other words,
the boiler in this heating system has to generate the quantity of heat energy per
hour that is used by the radiators, that is, the rooms.
Energy (work) used in a specific time (h) is referred to as power, in our case thermal output or heat flow Q.
The required thermal output in our example is
Q = 16,760 kJ / 3,600 s
The relationship between Joules and Watts is explained in the following paragraph.
In order to obtain a feeling for the magnitude of the heat content of different materials, we next examine the heat energy supplied by common fuels:
Material
Enthalpy
3
[kJ/kg]
[kJ/m ]
42,000
35,500
Fuel oil
Bituminous coal, 30,000
coke
16,000
Town gas
46,000
93,000
Propane gas
39,000
34,000
Natural gas
Thermal output / h
3
[kW/kg]
[kW/m ]
11.6
9.75
8.3
12.75
10.8
4.4
25.75
9.5
Accordingly, for our heating system, which heats using oil, the hourly consumption
of fuel amounts to 4.66 kW: 11.6 kW/kg = 0.4 kg fuel oil.
38
=
=
=
=
force x distance
(mass (kg) x acceleration (m/s2)
meter (m)
2 2
kgm /s = Joule
2
The unit kgm /s does not have anything to do with heat. How can we relate these
mechanical units with a heat-related variable?
J.P. Joule, an English scientist (18181889), proved the relationship experimentally.
He built the experimental apparatus shown in Fig. 2-21 and found the heat equivalent.
m
h
Fig. 2-21
Through the movement of the rotor, the temperature of a given amount of water is
raised by a given amount (interaction of the molecules increases their oscillation).
This corresponds to supplying heat in kJ/kg.
Joule discovered: A mass of m = 1 kg has to fall a distance of h = 427 m to create a
quantity of heat equivalent to Q = 4,188 Joules. This mass has a force (G) acting
on it equal to the gravitational acceleration of the earth (g) times its mass (m). (G =
m x g).
For Joules experiment, this means:
Energy = mass x acceleration x distance
2
39
Fig. 2-22
Heat transmission through heat conduction also takes place where two materials
intimately touch, e.g. from electric heating plate to cooking pot, from iron to the material being ironed, etc. (Fig. 2-23).
Fig. 2-23
Thermal conductivity
We know of good and poor conductors. Heat conductivity is measured by the coefficient of thermal conductivity . It specifies the amount of heat energy transferred
in one second between two parallel surfaces one meter apart having a cross2
section of 1 m with a temperature drop of 1 K.
The coefficient of thermal conductivity has the unit of W/mK.
40
= 1K
in W/mK
Cu
Copper
Fe
Iron
360
360
48
48
Beton
1,2
Concrete
1.2
1m
Fig. 2-24
Ziegel
Brick
0,6
0.6
Wasser
Water
0,6
Air
Luft
0,025
Kork
Cork
0,03
0.03
0.6
0.025
1m
The illustration shows that copper conducts heat approximately eight times better
than iron, while air and porous air-filled materials such as cork, foam, our clothing,
etc., conduct heat the least. These latter materials are also designated as insulating materials.
Heat conduction is thus the flow of heat into a material, or from material to material
when the material particles come into close contact.
What happens, though, if heat should be transferred from a solid to a liquid or
gaseous material, for example, from a wall to water or air? Isnt there only minimal
intimate contact here because the particles of the materials are continually flowing
or moving in unordered fashion? Besides, doesnt the heated air or heated water
immediately flow from the heat source away and up? The heat transfer can thus
not be as complete as when two solid bodies come into intimate contact.
And this is correct. For flowing media, such as water and air, the particles of the
materials, because of their own movements, really only have brief contact with the
solid material or, as we wish to say, with the wall. They can thus only accept heat
through conduction during the short contact some particles more and others
less. The medium, water or air, is thus only warmed up and only in the area near
the wall or heat source (Fig. 2-25). The material heated here expands, becoming
lighter (reduced specific density) and moves upwards, taking its added heat with it.
There is thus a heat flow. As they flow on, the particles exchange their captured
heat with one another and with their colder environment. They also exchange heat
with any wall they meet. Of course, the heat transfer here is also incomplete again
because of the transient nature of the mutual contact of materials.
41
Heat transfer from a wall to a flowing medium thus always creates a flow which carries heat that can again be retransferred to a solid wall.
(physics).
2. Transporting air masses in a vertical direction.
The unconstrained natural upward flow of the heated medium is referred to as free
flow; guiding through pipes or air ducts is referred to as constrained flow.
The quantity of heat transferred per unit time by convection depends on the:
temperature difference between the wall and the flowing medium,
size of the wall surface,
coefficients of thermal conductivity of the wall and the flowing medium, but
mainly
type and velocity of the flow; the larger the flow velocity, the larger the number of
particles that come in contact with the wall and in doing so take up or release
heat from it.
Heat transfer
Calculating the type, direction and velocity of flow is very difficult. Practitioners
know that even the most careful of calculations only approximate the actual heat
transfer from wall to medium or vice versa. Because of this, a characteristic value is
used in practice. This value was established through frequent trials and is available
in tables and diagrams. This characteristic value is referred to as the
Heat transfer coefficient (alpha)
The value for alpha is always referenced to a surface area of 1 m2 and specifies
how many Watts are transferred from the medium to the wall or vice versa for a
temperature difference of 1 K
42
As an example, here are some alpha values for air and water:
2
W/m K
Stationary air
Flowing air
Stationary water
Flowing water
3 to 20
20 to 100
500 to 2,000
2,000 to 4,000
These few examples already indicate how strongly flowing velocity affects heat
transfer, above all for air. For water, the effect of flow is not as strong because the
water particles contact the wall more firmly than the transient air particles. From
these values we can see why we can hold our hand for a long time in air flowing at
80 C, but not in water at 80 C: Heat transfer is approximately 20 times larger for
water.
There are alphavalue tables and diagrams for all heat transfers occurring in practice, e.g. for water and air as a function of flow velocity at the heat transfer surfaces.
Heat flow
If you know the heat transfer coefficient () for given flow conditions, you can calculate the heat flow phi () from the size of a given wall surface area (A) and the
temperature difference (W - M) between the wall and medium:
2
A (W - M)
M
Fig. 2-26
In our field, we are often interested in the heat transfer from air or water to a temperature sensor, or how fast we can obtain a correctly measured result. In order to
obtain good heat transfer, the installer of a ventilation system will, if possible, locate
a rod-shaped temperature sensor at a position in the air duct where the flow velocity is especially large.
43
In practice, however, we are not only dealing with heat transfer processes where a
wall restricts the flowing medium. We also are rather involved with processes
where the wall separates two flowing media from one another, e.g. two gases with
differing temperature, two liquids or a gas and a liquid.
Examples:
Hot combustion gas / boiler wall / boiler water
Hot boiler water / radiator wall / room air
Room air / house wall / outside air
Heat throughput
All these examples involve two heat transfer processes. We are interested in how
much heat is transferred through the wall. As little heat as possible should pass
through a house wall. On the other hand, as much heat as possible should pass
through a boiler wall. This heat transfer, through a separating wall between two
media and involving a dual heat transfer, is referred to as heat throughput.
We now know the factors that determine heat throughput. We recall what is involved here is not pure heat conduction because a prerequisite of that requires firm
contact between the bodies, and firm bodily contacts for liquids or gases on this or
that side of the wall do not exist. Heat throughput instead is considerably influenced
by both heat transfer coefficients, e.g.
1
2
44
If you know the U-value of a wall, the calculation of the heat flow through the wall
(transmitted quantity of heat) is not difficult.
Fig. 2-27 shows the mathematical variables involved with the U-coefficient of a wall
when the wall is made up of three layers of varying thickness d and different coefficients of thermal conductivity .
Fig. 2-27
Of course, house walls in no way always consist of only three layers, for example,
of two brick layers and one insulation layer. Plaster is also there and possibly the
inner wall is additionally covered with tiles or woodwork.
Further, there is a difference whether the masonry consists of customary bricks,
clinker bricks, hollow bricks or similar. The thickness of the masonry varies with the
purpose of the building. As a result, it is not surprising that tables of k coefficients of
building materials can fill several pages in the building system handbooks.
Some examples:
U in W/m2 K
approx.
2.5
approx.
approx.
2.5
Inner door
2.5
approx.
approx.
1.5
approx.
approx.
2.5
approx.
When engineering a heating system, the heat flow through all the components of
the enclosed surfaces of a house is calculated using the U-values. The heat flow,
that is, the heat losses are then known. Also known is the required capacity of the
heating system and the required heat emission of the radiators in the individual
rooms. This allows being able to compensate for the heat losses even under extreme winter conditions. We will go into this subject in more depth later. Nevertheless, we can make a summary at this point:
45
Water and air are the media with which we will be predominately dealing in HVAC
systems. Heat transmission from a solid body or a wall to these media or vice versa
takes place through convection, where we differentiate between heat transfer and
heat throughput. The heat transfer coefficient and the overall coefficient of heat
transfer U are the characterizing quantities for heat transmission from warmer to
colder media. Using them allows calculating not only the heat losses through walls,
windows, doors and piping, but also the required capacity of the heating system
and radiators.
Fig. 2-28
Since it is electromagnetic energy, thermal radiation does not need any solid
transmitting medium. On the contrary, it propagates essentially unimpeded through
vacuums or air-filled rooms alike (e.g. radiation from the sun, light from light bulbs).
When it strikes solid or liquid particles, it excites them thermally and, in doing so,
looses energy itself. Simple gases such as oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2) and hydrogen (H2), as well as dry air and all noble gases are diathermic, that is, transparent
to thermal radiation. And gases that cannot absorb thermal radiation can also not
radiate it. Gases and vapors consisting of molecules such as steam (H2O), carbon
monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2), ammonia (NH3), etc.,
absorb and emit radiation at certain wavelengths with differing intensities. The intensity of the radiation is a function of the gas temperature (e.g. flame of an oil or
gas burner).
On the other hand, solids and liquids always emit thermal radiation, and the higher
their temperature, the stronger the thermal radiation. Energy radiated by a material
as thermal radiation increases with the fourth power of its absolute surface temperature.
46
Radiation constant C
The intensity (power) of the emitted thermal radiation at a specific temperature is,
however, not the same for all substances. It is dependent on the radiation constant
C. For solid substances, this constant is strongly dependent on surface composition:
Surface
Black body
Highly polished metal
White, glossy enamel
Oil paints (all colors)
Aluminium paint (bronze
paint)
Masonry, plastered
Water
C in W/m K
-8
5.75.10
-8
0.25.10
-8
5.20.10
-8
5.40.10
-8
2.20.10
-8
5.40.10
-8
5.40.10
The table shows: An absolutely black body produces the most radiation. An identically sized, highly polished body of precious metal on the other hand, the least. The
color does not play so large a roll. If we compare how much radiation a body emits
relative to the amount an identically sized body absorbs, we will arrive at the same
value.
Emission and absorption of thermal radiation are thus in balance: A material that
emits small amounts of radiation also absorbs small amounts, and vice versa.
Calculating the heat energy transferred from one body to another by thermal radiation is nevertheless not so simple. This is because the angle of incidence of radiation must be taken into account as must the strength and frequency of the reflections as well as the fact that both bodies are simultaneously radiating and absorbing. As a result, we do not wish to get into the calculations, rather examine a couple
of examples of heat transmission by radiation:
The glowing coils of an electric heater are strong heat radiators, especially since
the directivity of the reflector is added in. The heat emission through convection is,
however, negligible because the heat transmission surface (coils) is very small (Fig.
2-29).
Fig. 2-29
47
If we blow on the glowing coils with a fan, they immediately cool because now the
large number of air particles flowing past the coils remove the heat by convection
(heat transfer in connection with forced flow). As a result, the thermal radiation immediately drops off: The thermal radiator has become an electric heat convector.
Certain heaters of a hot water central heating system are referred to as radiators
because they give up a large portion of their heat into the room as radiation. If panelling is placed in front of the radiator, the radiation is blocked and the radiator functions as a convector only (Fig. 2-30).
In the case of convectors, we strive to bring the air into the closest possible contact
with the heating surface. This achieves a high efficiency of heat emission by convection.
Fig. 2-30
In ceiling radiant heating systems (left of Fig. 2-31) pipes are embedded in the ceiling or hung close to it. This provides a very large surface area, but the horizontal
orientation of the "radiator" in the hottest area of the room provides for very little air
movement. Heat emission takes place almost exclusively through radiation.
Fig. 2-31
Heat emission by ceiling heating (left) and floor heating system (right)
For the inverse orientation of floor heating systems (right of Fig. 2-31), the relationships are similar. Here, however, the portion of heat emission through convection is
larger because the heated air can move upwards in contrast to ceiling heating
where the heat, so to speak, stays put under the ceiling.
These examples show us that when there is heat transfer from one material to another, heat conduction, heat convection and thermal radiation almost always work
together:
48
The mixing law can be expressed as an equation for determining the mixing temperature tm that occurs when two liquids having masses m1, m2 with associated
temperatures t1, t2 and specific thermal capacity c1, c2 are mixed together without
adding or removing heat.
From the equilibrium of released and absorbed quantity of heat we have:
Q auf = Q ab
m1 c 1 (t m t 1 ) = m 2 c 2 (t 2 t m )[C]
tm =
m1 c 1 t 1 + m 2 c 2 t 2
[C]
m1 c 1 + m 2 c 2
m1 t 1 + m 2 t 2
[C]
m1 + m 2
In HVAC engineering, mixing processes occur on the water-side for hydraulic circuits (flow temperature control) and on the air-side for air mixing control (air
damper control).
In all heat transmission processes, the following question always crops up:
Which quantity of heat would be transmitted per unit time from a wall to a gas or
to a liquid or from these to a wall for a given temperature difference of x Kelvin?
We have learned that the quantity of heat transmitted is dependent on certain characteristics of the wall, namely the coefficient of heat transfer or the overall coefficient of heat transfer k. Thus in a specific case, that is, for a wall of given size and
material, the quantity of heat transmitted per unit time is only a function of the temperature difference. But this temperature difference becomes smaller as the heat
transfer process continues. Thus, the quantity of heat transmitted becomes smaller
and smaller. If, for example, a cold metal cube is placed on a hot plate preheated to
100 C, the temperature of the cube initially increases rapidly because the temperature difference is relatively large. Towards the end of the heat transmission period, however, the cube temperature increases only slightly during the same
amount of time because the temperature difference is perhaps only 1 K and correspondingly less heat is transmitted. The quantity of heat transmitted per unit time
decreases continuously.
Exponential function
Processes in which there are changes in the magnitude of the magnitude itself are
known as exponential functions, or simply e-functions. In Fig. 2-32, we clearly see
how the change in temperature per unit time decreases continuously because the
49
T1
max.
T2
T3
86
,4%
63
,2%
Fig. 2-32
T4
95
%
T5
98
%
T6
99
,3%
T7
T8
99
,74 99,9%
%
99
,99
%
t
0
Nearly 2/3 (mathematically exact: 0.632 or 63.2%) of the total temperature difference is overcome in time T1 (referred to as the time constant).
During the next identical unit of time T2, once again 63.2% of the remaining 36.8%
is overcome.
And exactly the same change occurs in the third unit of time T3: again 63.2% of the
remaining temperature difference is overcome, etc., until after approximately eight
periods, the balance is essentially reached
A specific example:
We immerse a thermometer into melting ice until it indicates 0 C. Then, we remove
it and immediately immerse it in water which is held at a constant 100 C. At the
same time, we start a stop watch and measure how long it takes the thermometer
to reach 63 C. Lets assume that for our experimental conditions, this takes 20
seconds. Now, we can predict that after an additional 20 seconds, the thermometer
would show 86 C and after another 20 seconds, 95 C. Afterwards, the temperature would increase only very slowly. Only after about eight times 20 seconds,
would it finally show almost 100 C. Theoretically, that is, mathematically speaking,
100 C would be attained only after an infinite period of time.
50
Flow is the coherent movement of fluids, gases and plasmas occurring in a continual manner.
We differentiate between:
laminar flow
turbulent flow
Friction-free flow
If we neglect the friction occurring between individual liquid layers at the border
surfaces of bodies and liquids, we then speak of friction-free or ideal flow. While
friction-free flow has importance for the general understanding of flow processes
and for calculating speed and pressure relationships (e.g. of a turbine blade or an
airplane wing), it is not relevant for HVAC systems.
Frictional flow
The flow of a liquid or gas in a pipe can be laminar or turbulent. In laminar flow, the
individual (liquid) particles move along parallel flow lines generally with different
velocities w.
There is friction between the individual current threads. The more viscous the fluid,
the greater the friction.
Fig. 2-33
Fig. 2-34
HVAC applications deal almost exclusively with turbulent flow. Angled air ducts,
ventilation equipment such as air heating coils, fans, etc., and projecting edges
51
swirl the flow. The definitive flow profile in a pipe only occurs following a certain
distance whose length corresponds to approximately 10 x the diameter of the pipe
under consideration.
Reynolds number
For a given pipe, the transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs at a specific
critical velocity defined by the so-called critical Reynolds number (Re = coefficient
of friction). The transition from laminar to turbulent flow is influenced by wall friction,
velocity changes and other factors
Flow resistance
Flow resistance in pipes, air ducts and elbows is also dependent on material composition (piping or duct walls).
HVAC applications are involved almost exclusively with turbulent flow. Bent air
ducts, technical air equipment such as heat transfer devices, fans, etc. and protruding edges cause eddy currents in the flow. The definitive flow pattern occurs in
a pipe only after a certain run-time corresponding to a length of approximately 10x
the piping diameter.
In order to transport a liquid or gas through a pipe, a pressure differential p must
be applied to overcome frictional resistance. To keep the pressure drop as small as
possible, deflectors are built into the air ducts or the piping is designed accordingly.
p = p
w
2
[Pa]
p
1,5
1,0
0,5
0
= 14
= 12
= 0,76
= 0,38
= 0,2
p
0,5
0
Fig. 2-35
= 0,4
= 0,3
= 0,21
= 0,2
= 0,18
= 0,11
A square duct has sides of 10 cm and laminar flow at the entry. The flow pattern 20
cm after a 90 bend displays a strongly distorted velocity profile. Reverse currents
can even occur. After approximately 80 cm, the velocity profile is again symmetrical. If no further disturbances occur, the previous flow profile is only again reached
after approximately 7 to 8 meters.
These processes, of course, have to be taken into account when making measurements in piping or ducting networks.
52
10 cm
10
Fig. 2-36
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90 [cm]
Abstand
ca. 7 m7m
Approx.
From the rule of conservation of mass for an incompressible liquid flowing in a pipe:
A1 w1 = A2 w2
2
A1,2 = cross-section [m ]
w1,2 = velocity [m/s]
A1
A2
W1
w1
A1
v
v
Fig. 2-37
a)
A2
W2
W2
Pstat1
Pstat2
b)
Continuity equation: The same mass flows through each cross-section of a pipe per
unit time. For incompressible media, it is the same volume.
If a small volume of liquid flows with volume v and mass m without any height
change through a horizontally narrowing pipe, the velocity increases at the narrowest point from w1 to w2 and thus the dynamic pressure from pdyn1 to pdyn2 (Fig.
2-37a). The static pressure also changes correspondingly because the velocity
changes in accordance with the new cross-section (Fig. 2-37b).
53
According to Bernouli, the sum of the static pressure and the dynamic pressure is
constant at all locations in the pipe for lossfree flows.
pges
pst
pdyn
pges
This means that velocity energy can be converted into pressure energy, and vice
versa. In practice, these processes are of course subject to losses. These losses
(pv) accumulate from the frictional resistance R (R = pressure drop per m pipe)
multiplied by the piping length in meters plus the individual resistances derived
from pdyn. If, then, a medium having a pressure drop (pv) flows through a horizontal piece of pipe from point 1 to point 2, the total pressure at point 2 is given by:
pges2 = pges1- pv
You can determine the velocity and thus the amount flowing due to the pressure
differential.
Ptot
Fig. 2-38
Pstat
Pdyn
The fluid column pdyn can be provided with a velocity scale because pdyn = /2 w
Velocity is thus determined indirectly with the Pitot tube.
Pressure losses due to friction occur in ventilation systems with their obstacles,
bends, etc. These must be overcome by the fan by increasing the static pressure.
Fig. 2-39 shows the typical pressure variation for such a system.
54
Fig. 2-39
Ptot 1
Pstat 1
Pdyn 1
Ptot 1
Ptot
Ptot 1
Ptot 2
Pdyn 2
The static and total pressure decrease upstream of the fan because of suction. The
highest values for these variables are reached just downstream of the fan. Heat
transfer units account for considerable pressure losses, as do 90-bends, but less
so in the duct sections between bends. The initial pressure po is again reached in
the room following air discharge.
Po
55
35 %
6%
35 %
24 %
Fig. 2-40
The percentages given above are averages. In summer or during intensive activity,
the heat is released more through evaporation; in winter, more by convection and
radiation.
However, in whichever form the heat is transferred, the body always strives to
maintain its normal temperature, since it is only at this temperature that life functions can be carried out normally. In winter, therefore, the body reduces its heat
transfer by contracting the skin: Heated blood can no longer reach the outer capillaries. On the other hand, in summer or in heated rooms, these capillaries expand,
56
so that more heat can be transferred through evaporation. There are limits to this
natural temperature control, however. Continuous contraction of the blood vessels
can lead to frostbite, while continuous expansion can lead to an extreme drop in
blood pressure (heat stroke). People supplement this automatic temperature control mechanism by wearing suitable clothes, by adjusting food intake and by heating or cooling the rooms they inhabit.
The total amount of heat given off by a body is not only a function of the temperature of its surroundings, but even more of its momentary physical activity. (Fig.
2-41).
W
80
Fig. 2-41
100
110
120
170
300
700
These heat quantities become interesting when designing heating, ventilation or air
conditioning systems mainly for rooms frequently occupied by large numbers of
persons (e.g. department stores, offices, schools, movie theatres or restaurants).
Interior heat gains
Because of the good insulation of buildings and the thick building walls, the heat
increase caused by interior heat sources, such as lamps, computers, copying machines, etc., is often so large in peak periods that department stores must even be
cooled in winter. The resulting heat is referred to as interior heat gains.
This example shows that a comfortable heating and ventilation system must not
only be configured for the normal case, but that even in the design phase the
maximum and minimum personnel loading conditions must be taken into account.
In winter, the interior heat gain can be recovered as a heat contribution, thus reducing energy consumption. In summer, on the other hand, the heat gain has to be
cooled away using considerable energy.
In a medium-sized movie theatre, 300 people produce about 30 kW which, for a
three-hour showing, amounts to a thermal output of approximately 100 kWh.
People do not become conscious of the ongoing heat release from their bodies as
long as their bodies have not trouble maintaining a heat balance with the surroundings. Only when this limit is exceeded and persons begin to shiver or perspire, that
is, when they feel uncomfortable, only then do they notice that they have a temperature and also notice that, due to this temperature, they have an ongoing heat
exchange with their surroundings.
The goal of HVAC technology is thus to treat the rooms which people occupy in
such a manner that their bodies can effortlessly maintain a temperature balance
with the room environment. This task is certainly not an easy one because the feeling of comfort for each person is as different as each persons personality.
57
Fig. 2-42
58
15 C
18 C
12 C
Fig. 2-43
17 C
The only way out of this situation is to raise the room temperature so that the temperature sensed is about 20 C even though the effective temperature may lie between 22 and 23 C.
The graph (Fig. 2-44) illustrates these temperature relationships. It is a plot of wall
temperature versus room air temperature.
59
C
30
25
20
15
10
10
Fig. 2-44
15
20
25
30 C
Graph for determining the room temperature needed to compensate for the wall temperature
in order to provide comfort
If the point of intersection of the two temperature values lies within the hatched
area, the room temperature is generally found to be comfortable. It goes without
saying that this graph is valid only for living rooms, offices and working rooms in
which no heavy physical work is carried out.
Windows are also cold surfaces which are correspondingly detrimental to comfort.
Double glazed or insulated windows can reduce these disturbances.
In addition, radiators are always mounted under windows. This way they not only
create a warm curtain in front of the windows, but by their thermal radiation compensate almost fully for the increased thermal radiation of persons to the cold window surfaces.
Fig. 2-45 illustrates the mutual radiation exchange for various heat sources.
Excess thermal radiation from excessively hot radiators is uncomfortable because
then persons cannot give off their own share of radiation unhindered: In this case,
they heat up even more.
Comfort also plays a role for radiation ceiling heating in rooms less than 2.50 m
high. Here, a ceiling temperature of 32 C may not be exceeded. In the case of
floor heating, the maximum allowable surface temperature in those areas that are
frequented often is 25 to 26 C.
A chilled ceiling against this would be perceived as pleasant because body heat
can now radiate (a cool head and warm feet are always desirable).
60
2,5 m
30 ... 32 C
40 ... 70 C
Fig. 2-45
25 ... 26 C
If the air is too dry, the mucous membranes are irritated by dust particles in the air
much more than they would be if the humidity were normal. On the other hand, we
sense excessively humid air to be muggy because we cannot give off unhindered
the perspiration share of our total heat transfer.
Air movement
Too rapid a movement of air at normal temperature increases the amount of heat
transfer by evaporation or convection and this is sensed as cold or drafty.
Air purity
Oxygen content
If the oxygen content of the air is too low, the carbon dioxide (CO2) level becomes
too high. This can occur in overfilled, generally also overheated rooms and can
produce conditions ranging from drowsiness to nausea and fainting.
Degree of ionization
The electric charge in the air, especially before and after thunderstorms and foehns
(warm winds blowing over mountains), etc., strongly influence the feeling of comfort
producing nervousness, irritation, blood circulation complaints, etc.
In addition to temperature control, all the above mentioned factors must be taken
into account in ventilation and air conditioning systems.
Besides this, the color and size of the rooms, their furniture, carpets, illumination,
etc., play an important role with respect to comfort because these elements are
also sensed as hot or cold, making a stay in these rooms a comfortable or uncomfortable experience. Thus, we see that each of us has our own, fully individual
sense of comfort so that rooms used collectively can only be designed for average
comfort.
61
Hence we see: The comfortable room temperature does not really exist. But with
regard to living (and working) comfort we note:
What is important is not the set and measured temperatures, rather only the
sensed room temperature
Poorly insulated buildings with consequently cold inner walls will always have a
room temperature which is sensed to be cooler than it really is because the
body loses an abnormally high amount of heat. The only help here is a somewhat higher room temperature. This also holds for new buildings which are not
yet completely dry
Due to all these reasons, a room temperature controller should always be set only
according to the feeling of comfort, whereby the usual standard values should
only be used as guide values to facilitate the initial setting
62
3.
Fig. 3-1
Heat generation
1
Boiler
2
Burner
3
Domestic hot water heater
4
Boiler pump
5
Safety valve
6
Expansion vessel
Heat distribution and control
7
Heating pipes (flow, return and bypass pipes)
8
Circulating pump
9
Regulating valve with actuator
10 Heating controller
11 Flow temperature sensor
12 Outdoor temperature sensor
Heat output
13 Radiator
63
Heating systems
Central heating
District heating
LTHW
LTHW
100 C
100 C
Hot water
Hot water
Steam power
- Electricity
- Heat for
heating
CGP
120 C
120 C
(Cogeneration plant)
PHW
> 120 C
- Community htg.
Steam
Air
64
Solar plant
TABS
(thermo-active
Steam
Fig. 3-2
Heat pump
building systems)
Boilers designed specifically for these fuels are available in various versions. They
can be grouped into the following types:
Type A
Cast-iron and steel boilers with low limit control of the boiler water temperature and
low flue gas temperature. This type can be considered as standard for large boilers. Due to the relatively high boiler water temperature, a mixing valve is almost
always required for flow temperature control with this type of boiler.
Type B
Boilers for modulating boiler water temperature and relatively high flue gas temperature. With modulating control, a special combination of materials in conjunction
with a "hot combustion chamber" prevents the formation of flue gas condensate.
However, low flue gas temperatures are not possible with this type of boiler.
Type C
Chromium steel boilers for a modulating boiler water temperature and a low flue
gas temperature. Constructing the boiler from a corrosion-proof material does away
with the limitations of Types A and B. However, the price of a chromium steel boiler
is higher.
Type D
Condensing boilers: By condensing the water vapor content of the flue gases as
fully as possible (dew point approximately 47 C for extra-light oil and approximately 57 C for natural gas), these boilers also utilize the latent heat of vaporization (approximately 10% for gas and 67% for oil). Because boiler efficiency is
normally related to the net calorific value Hu, which does not include latent heat,
condensing boilers may appear to have a relative efficiency of more than 100%.
Technically, this interpretation is not acceptable, of course. More correctly, efficiency should be related to the gross calorific value Ho, which reflects the overall
heat quantity generated in the fuel combustion process. Sufficiently low return temperatures (<40 C) from the heat consumers are essential for condensation of flue
gas. Furthermore, certain problems in relation to corrosion, pollution, dirt, and the
removal and neutralization of the condensate, etc. need to be solved. These problems are much easier to solve with gas-fired boilers than they are with oil-fired boilers.
Combination boilers
If there is a separate heater for the DHW storage tank (a supplementary boiler) with
additional electric heating to meet the daily demand, the boiler can be switched off
in summer. For combinations with solar panels, refer to section 3.3.3.
In large plants, the requirement to store a day's heating demand results in very
large volumes of stored energy. At the same time, the domestic hot water temperature falls because of heat losses associated with the long distances covered by the
(often poorly insulated) circulating system.
65
With a separate, smaller boiler for the hot water system only both problems can be
avoided: The required storage volume is smaller and the hot water temperature in
the tanks does not need to be boosted to an extra high temperature to ensure that
it will still be hot enough toward the end of the day.
3.3.1.3. Burners
The following types of burner are used today for oil and gas-fired boilers:
Oil atomizing burners
3
1
2
10
6
8
9
7
Fig. 1
Fig. 3-3
1
2
3
4
5
Oil supply
Optional return to tank
Filter
Oil pump and pressure regulating valve
Solenoid valve
Fig. 3-4
66
Expansion vessel
Fan
Burner head
Ignition transformer
Ignition electrodes
Multi-boiler plant with oil atomizing burner (at back with sound insulating hood)
Blue-flame burners
Through the evaporation of oil, the oil burner becomes a gas burner, and creates a
blue flame (blue-flame burners). This method makes atomization unnecessary, improves the quality of combustion, and reduces the emission of harmful gases (CO,
CH, NOx). To start the burner, an electric heater is used for evaporation, thereby
increasing power consumption.
Capacity
Single-stage burners
from approx.10 kW
Two-stage burners
from approx.25 kW
Modulating burners (proportional, from approx. 40%)
from approx. 200 kW
Forced-draft gas
burners
The construction and output stages are similar to those for oil atomizing burners.
However, the main problem here is the air tightness of the gas supply pipe rather
than how finely the oil is atomized. The gas train (3) monitors the gas supply system for leaks.
3
7
2
5
6
1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3-5
1
2
3
4
Fan
Damper
Gas train
Gas injector
5
6
7
Burner head
Ignition transformer
Ignition electrodes
Dual fuel burners are forced draft burners, which can be operated with gas and oil
without conversion, and for which changeover can be effected automatically. They
can be operated with single-stage, two-stage, or modulating burner control, and are
available with capacities from approximately 25 kW. Their advantages are reliability
and reduced gas costs, because of the possibility of switching to oil-fired operation
in periods of peak gas consumption.
67
6
9
5
4
10
11
3
2
12
13
14
Fig. 3-6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Left: Special gas boiler in gray cast iron with burner without fan (Source: Buderus)
Right: Wall-mounted condensing boiler (gas) with forced draft burner (cross-section)
Heat insulation
Combustion gas
Gas/air mixture
Gas jets
Air nozzles
Forced draft for combustion
Air supply for combustion
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Flue gas
Flow water
Positive pressure in combustion chamber
Path of hot gas
Return water
Cast aluminum finned pipes
Condensate
Gas injector burners also belong to the category of atmospheric gas burners.
Part of the combustion air is drawn in by the gas injector in the form of primary air.
The secondary air follows, due to the thermal lift caused by the flames, or (in the
case of high boiler resistance) it is sucked in by a flue gas fan. Instead of a continuously burning pilot light, an electronic ignition system is now more common.
1
Fig. 3
Fig. 3-7
1
2
3
68
Gas supply
Gas train
Gas injector
4
5
6
Burner
Flame supervision
Pilot light
Burn-out combustion describes the case where the entire volume of loaded fuel is
actually in the fire. The wood chips are loosely layered, leaving plenty of space for
air, so that they burn with a surplus of air. With this method, combustion efficiency
is therefore little above 70%.
Combustion with
burn-down at the bottom
Furnaces with burn-down at the bottom: The pieces of wood (split logs up to 1.6 m
long) are layered in a fairly compact formation up to 1.5 m high, and are only
burned in the lowest part of the furnace. The combustion air is supplied by fans and
regulated for optimum combustion. As the wood, which is not yet burning, is located
in the hot combustion chamber, pyrolytic gases are released which mix with secondary air and are burned in a recombustion zone designed specifically for this purpose. In this way, a combustion efficiency of over 90% can be achieved. It takes
46 hours for complete burn-out of a load, and the heat generated in the process
is generally sufficient to meet a 24-hour heating demand.
Fig. 3-8
69
Fig. 3-9
70
Wood pellets
Fig. 3-10
Wood pellet specifications are clearly defined in the various standards, (DIN and
the Austrian standard etc.). The following is an example of the Austrian specification for high grade wood pellets:
Calorific value
4.8 kWh/kg
Piled density
Density
1.12 kg/dm3
Moisture content
Max. 10.0%
Ash content
Max. 0.5%
Length
Max. 25 mm
Cross-section
5 -6 mm
Dust content
Max. 10%
Constituents
Modern wood pellet boilers are highly convenient. There are small models which
can be located in living rooms. They are fed every 2-3 days with pellets supplied in
handy bags.
Fig. 3-11
Wood pellet stove for residential use with pellet hopper for temporary storage
(cross-sectional diagram)
71
Larger wood pellet boilers are installed in plant rooms. The pellets are stored in a
separate room, from where they are fed to the boiler automatically via a spiral conveyor or suction system. The pellets are delivered by tanker, which discharges the
pellets into the storage room.
Fig. 3-12
1
2
3
Pellet boiler
Pellet storage
Vacuum delivery plant
This section deals with the use of solar energy not only for heating, but also for
domestic hot water.
In central Europe, the sun provides the least heat at that time of year when the
heating demand is at its greatest, i.e., in the months of December and January.
These are not ideal circumstances for heating a building exclusively (monovalent
heating) using the warmth of the sun. Such plants have been developed for research purposes, but to date, they have always demonstrated a poor cost/benefit
ratio. In our climatic regions, solar energy is therefore normally used in combination
with other energy sources (oil, gas, wood, electricity, etc.). The rule of thumb is to
use "as much solar heat as makes sense under prevailing circumstances". Many
factors determine what proportion of the annual heating demand is met by the sun.
This "solar coverage" is expressed in relation to the "net energy demand" (after
deducting heat gain from solar radiation and internal waste heat).
Combined heat generation for space heating and domestic water in a singlefamily home with the level of thermal insulation prevalent today results in a solar
coverage of 50%. Values greater than 50% can be achieved, but only with outstanding thermal insulation and an exceptionally large, and thus uneconomical,
solar heating plant.
72
For domestic hot water heating, solar coverage in summer is close to 100% (assuming that the storage tank is sufficiently large).
In large buildings, the coverage depends on the purpose for which the solar heat
is used, on the climatic zone, and on the overall strategy. It is possible, therefore,
that a very low solar coverage of 520% may turn out to be the economical optimum.
Outdoor swimming pools can be heated exclusively with solar heat, provided
occasional restricted use (e.g. in bad weather) is acceptable.
3.3.3.1. Bivalent system for space heating and domestic hot water
In the bivalent plant (Fig. 3-13), the solar circuit is responsible for the majority of the
heat generated in the transitional seasons, i.e., fall and spring. The boiler is primarily needed in winter when it is used to the full.
Thus, both the solar circuit and the boiler operate within the correct working range.
The conventional system (B) is supplemented by the solar component (A). The solar heat generated in the panel (1) is emitted via the solar circuit (2) and transferred the storage tank (3). If the storage tank temperature is inadequate, the
boiler (4) provides the required additional heat. The heating water, after being
heated in the storage tank, circulates directly through the room heating surfaces
such as radiators (5) and heats the domestic hot water via the chromium steel tube
bundle (6).
2
4
3
Fig. 3-13
Example of a bivalent solar heating plant with a conventional heat generator and
distribution system for space heating and domestic hot water
This plant example shows the heat storage tank (3) not only as container for the
water storage medium, but also in its equally important function as a means of hydraulically separating the thermally interacting heat generation and heat consumption circuits. This enables the pump of the solar heating circuit, for example, to be
switched on and off without affecting the pressure conditions in the boiler supply
and demand circuits. Similarly, enabling the boiler circuit affects the temperature in
the storage tank, but not the pressure. Finally, the variable volumes of water in heat
consumer circuits 5 and 6 have no effect hydraulically on the two supply circuits. It
would be an interesting exercise to sketch the hydraulic strategy of this plant without a storage tank! The solar heating section (A) shown in this diagram is seen in a
similar form in many other examples of application. Its main components are described briefly below.
73
Fig. 6
Fig. 3-14
1
2
Sheet-steel housing
Glass panel
3
4
Absorber plate
Thermal insulation
Flat plate panels contain a black absorber plate on which the solar radiation is converted into heat. The absorber plate has cooling channels through which the heat
transfer fluid circulates. The plate is built into an insulated housing and covered
with glass on the side facing the sun. Panels of this type reach maximum temperatures of over 100 C making them capable of supplying the temperatures of
3070 C needed for heating and domestic hot water, directly and very efficiently.
For heating outdoor swimming pools, unglazed flat-plate panels are normally
more suitable and more economical because of the lower temperatures required.
Heating capacity
While the sun's rays pass unimpeded through the glass, the thermal radiation emitted by the absorber plate is reflected by the glass surface. However, because the
panel housing also contains air, and because this air is heated, some of the generated heat is transferred to the glass panel, and the heated glass emits this heat to
the outside air. This means that in the case of flat plate panels with single glazing,
3040% of the solar radiation received is wasted. Experiments with double-glazed
panels produced poor results because not only were they considerably more expensive, but they also broke more frequently due to the tension created by thermal
expansion. For these reasons, preference was given to larger panel surfaces with
single glazing. The following are guide values in central Europe for the gross annual value of single-glazed flat plate panel:
400...500 kWh/(m2a) for an average panel temperature of 60 C
2
74
The panels must be able to withstand the peak temperatures at standstill. Even so,
they should be covered during long standstill periods, to protect them from radiation
and extend their service life.
Example 1
Example 2
As a rough guide, a storage capacity of 50100 liters can be assumed for each m
of the panel surface. The higher value is more applicable to plants for space heating and domestic hot water, and the lower value to domestic hot water plants only.
On this basis, a domestic hot water tank with a capacity of approximately 350500
liters or a combined heating and domestic hot water tank with a capacity of
10002000 liters would be required for a single family home.
3.3.3.5. Examples of solar heating plants
Direct solar heating for industrial processes or for preheating the domestic
hot water by direct flow method
If heat consumption is continuous and even, the solar heat flows directly "from the
supplier to the consumer". The only "middleman activity" is limited to the heat exchanger and the solar circuit without motorized valves. The cost of such a plant is
between a third and a quarter that of the solar panel. Plants with direct utilization of
this type are exceptionally economical.
Larger plant for pre-heating the domestic hot water
Plants with heavy domestic hot water consumption (such as those in hotels, sports
facilities, barracks etc.) present good conditions for economic efficiency: The larger
the panel surface area, the smaller the proportion of the overall cost represented by
the solar heating circuit; efficiency is also high, because in the range 1030 C,
the plant operates in the cold water zone. As a result, there is practically no unutilized surplus heat.
75
Fig. 7
Fig. 3-15
Example 3
Fig. 8
Fig. 3-16
76
The efficiency of a solar plant depends on the capital costs, the net heat value, the
cost of other energy media, the service life of the plant and the cost of plant maintenance. Economic efficiency is an unquestionable benefit of larger plants used to
pre-heat water and sometimes also for space heating in cold sunny regions. For
swimming pool facilities, solar heat from unglazed solar panels is also significantly
cheaper than electricity, heating oil, or gas. Should the time ever come when the
price of non-renewable energy resources like natural gas and oil reflects their actual cost, the economic efficiency of solar heating plants will not even come into
question.
A demand-controlled air flow transfers the heat from the storage mass to the
air/water heat exchanger (finned-pipe cooling coil)
A moving heat exchanger is inserted into the storage mass at a depth which
varies according to the heat demand.
2.
7
11
2
1
10
3
12
4
B16-9
Fig. 3-17
1
2
3
4
5
6
Storage blocks
Heating elements
Heat exchanger
Thermal insulation
Charge control unit
Residual heat sensor
7
8
9
10
11
12
Outdoor sensor
Discharge control unit
Fan
Motor
Flow sensor
Heating pump
77
Fig. 10
Fig. 3-18
Bivalent wood/electricity heating plant with electric storage tank, including scope
for partial loading
The construction and principle of operation of the heat pump is technically like that
of a refrigeration machine or chiller. The principle of operation of the compressor
and absorption refrigeration machine/heat pump is described in Section 4 (Refrigeration technology).
3.3.5.1. Common heating systems
A monovalent heat-pump heating system derives its heat solely from the heat
pump. The heat pump therefore has to be capable of meeting the heating requirements of the building independently, at the nominal outside air temperature. Monovalent operation is most easily achievable when thermal energy from underground,
waste water, ground water, and surface water is utilized.
A bivalent heat-pump heating system has two heat generators: the heat pump
and, for example, an oil, gas or wood-fired boiler. The boiler supplies the heat at
low outside temperatures, either independently (alternating operation) or in conjunction with the heat pump (parallel operation). Another possibility is partial parallel
operation of the same plant.
Water/water heat
pumps
78
These derive heat from waste water, ground water, rivers or lakes. The method by
which the water is removed and returned, and the minimum temperature at which it
is returned must be officially authorized. Since water temperatures, unlike air tem-
peratures, are significantly above 0 C all year round, and also remain relatively
constant, water/water heat pumps are suitable for both monovalent or bivalent parallel operation.
Brine/water heat pumps
These differ from water/water heat pumps in the sense that the circuit on the cold
side contains a heat medium which is protected from freezing (brine). The brine
takes in heat from the ground, for example, or from elements such as unglazed
solar panels, "solar energy roofs" or "solar energy fences". This makes it possible
to utilize heat from the environment even at temperatures below freezing point. Because of the less advantageous physical properties of brine (specific heat capacity
and viscosity), the heat exchanger and circulating pump are larger.
Larger plants (with a heat output of approx. 300 kW and above) also use heat
pumps with combustion engines. The advantage of these is that not only the heat
output from the condenser, but also the majority of waste heat from the combustion
engine can be fed into the heating circuit. This ensures optimum utilization of the
primary energy. Twice as much useful thermal energy can be gained compared
with an oil or gas fired system. In addition, higher flow temperatures (up to approximately 80 C) can be achieved by means of the engine cooling and exhaust
gas heat recovery downstream of the condenser. Capital costs are higher than for
electric heat pumps, due to the need for sound-proofing and exhaust emission control.
79
boilers are normally required. Heat storage tanks help to ensure economically
efficient operating hours.
One cogeneration plant (Fig. 3-19) comprises:
3b
5
4
2
1
Fig. 3-19
1
2
3a
3b
3a
Fig. 11
Schematic diagram showing a plant with a cogeneration plant (without a heat consumer)
Cogeneration plant
Diesel engine
Cooling-water heat exchanger
Exhaust-gas heat exchanger
4
5
6
Generator
Storage tank
Peak load boiler
The motive power may be natural gas, heating oil, sewage treatment gas, biogas,
landfill gas or pyrolytic gas.
Why cogeneration?
When heating oil or gas is burned in a large heat-generating power station in order
to generate electricity, we know that the power efficiency of the electricity generating plant is no more than 3035%, depending on the type of power station. The
rest is waste heat, which can only be utilized if a sufficient number of heat consumers can be found, not too far away from the power station. However, large power
stations tend to be built well away from residential estates, so that it would be uneconomical to construct a district heating network. As a result, the waste heat is
emitted via the cooling plant into the environment (the outside air or surface water).
On the other hand, by building small power stations in the form of cogeneration
plants close to the heat consumers, 3035% of the 100% calorific value of the oil
or gas can be utilized as high grade electrical energy, and a further 5055% as
heating energy. In other words, some 8095% can be utilized.
By using the generated electricity to drive an electric heat pump, which in turn
emits approximately three times this motive power in the form of useful heat, it is
possible to generate over 150% of useful heat from the 100% primary energy (oil or
gas).
If a cogeneration plant is to be located in the heating control center of a building, or
in the middle of a residential area, noise and harmful emissions must be kept within
the limits prescribed by local regulations.
80
Losses 10...20 %
Oil
Oil100 % heating
Usable heat
80...90 %
Losses 10...20 %
50 %
CHP
Usable heat
> 130 %
Heat
pump
Oil
100 %
Ambient
heat 55 %
Fig. 3-20
100 %
Losses 5 %
B16-12E
Heat flow diagrams for oil heating (top) and CHP (bottom):
From 100% primary energy, the CHP with a heat pump generates some 150% useful energy
Cogeneration plant is used to meet the intrinsic demand for heat and electricity.
What is important, is that both types of energy are required in the existing ratio and
at the same time. A cogeneration plant can also replace an emergency power supply either fully or in part.
Tandem plants
81
1. Cogeneration mode
The combustion engine drives the generator to cover peak electricity loads. The
waste heat from the combustion engine is used for heating. The heat pump is separate.
G
100 %
54 % useful heat
90 C
Fig. 3-21
32 %
current
B16-13D
Mechanically, the generator rotor connects the drive shaft of the combustion engine
to the heat pump (with a transmission loss of approximately 2%)
100 %
54 % useful
heat 90 C
Fig. 3-22
3. Cogeneration plant
operated with heat
pump
90 % useful heat
50...60 C
The combustion engine drives both the generator and the heat pump simultaneously. Useful heat is obtained from the waste heat from the combustion engine and
the heat pump condenser. Compared with cogeneration only (see 1 above), only
half the amount of electricity is generated.
G
100 %
54 % useful
heat 90 C
Fig. 3-23
16 %
current
45 % useful
heat
60 C
The combustion engine is disabled and disconnected from the other units. The heat
pump is operated e.g. on low-tariff electricity or (in summer) as a refrigeration machine.
M
32 %
current
Fig. 3-24
45 % useful heat
60 C
The generator, acting as an electric motor, drives the heat pump/refrigeration machine
82
Fig. 3-25
Today's mini-cogeneration plants are fitted with speed-controlled motors and incorporate the necessary power electronics to feed the generated current into the
mains grid at constant frequency. Speed control means that there is no need for
additional configurations to cover peak loads. These mini-cogeneration plants can
also be operated as monovalent plants, with correspondingly lower capital costs.
Fig. 3-26
Mini-cogeneration plant Interior and gas motor with 270 cm3 swept volume
(source: ecopower)
83
A fuel cell converts the energy stored in chemical form in the (generally gaseous)
fuel, directly into electricity and heat.
It works very much like a battery. A fuel cell consists of electrodes (cathode and
anode) separated from each other by an electrolyte. The fuel is oxidized at the anode. The electrons freed in this process flow via an external circuit to the cathode.
In this process they can perform electrical work. At the cathode, the electrons are
absorbed by the oxidant, which is reduced in the process. In addition to electricity,
the chemical reaction produces heat.
The difference between this and a battery is that fuel cells carry on producing electricity and heat for as long as they are supplied with fuel.
Air
Cathode
Electrolyte
O2
O2
O2
O2
External
power
circuit
Anode
84
H2O, CO2
Benefits
No other known technology for the simultaneous generation of electricity and heat
has so many advantageous properties in total as the fuel cell:
Good electrical efficiency:
35% in pilot plants and 60% under laboratory conditions
Broad output range:
From just a few watts to several megawatts
Low-level emission of harmful pollutants:
Primarily water vapor and carbon dioxide (with carbon-based fuels). Further, owing to the greater efficiency of fuel cell technology, the carbon dioxide balance is
significantly better than with conventional heat engines.
Low operating costs:
Few moving plant parts, and hence, low maintenance and operating costs
Wide range of suitable fuels
Quiet operation, as few moving plant parts
The different types of fuel cell are classified according to the type of electrolyte
used. This may be a liquid or a solid, and determines the following characteristics:
Requirements relating to the type and purity of the fuel and the oxidant
Operating temperature
Construction
At present there are basically five common types of fuel cell. There are further variants which are still in the early stages of development. The fuel cell is selected on
the basis of the type best suited to a given application.
For domestic applications, the following types seem to be becoming established:
Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PE(M)FC)
are the currently preferred option in the automotive industry
Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC)
are currently in use in pilot projects for residential buildings
Cell type
Alkaline fuel cell
The choice of electrolyte influences the requirements in relation to the fuel, the oxidant, the operating temperature and the construction of the fuel cell.
85
Type
Fuel
Oxidant
Physical state of
Operating tem-
the electrolyte
pass through
perature
the electrolyte
AFC
Pure H2
Air + H2 (without
Solid
OH
Approx. 70 C
CO2)
PE(M)FC
Pure H2
Solid
H+
Approx. 80 C
PAFC
H2
Liquid in a matrix
H+
Approx. 200 C
MCFC
CH4, H2, CO
Air + CO2
Molten
CO32
Approx. 650 C
SOFC
CH4, H2, CO
Air
Solid
Approx.
700-1000 C
Fig. 3-29
Fuel cells in
heating plants
Fuel, oxidant and operating temperatures for various types of fuel cell
There are currently some highly promising field tests with fuel cell heating equipment operated with natural gas (e.g. Sulzer Hexis) in Germany, Switzerland and
other countries in Europe. The heating equipment consists of the actual fuel cell
with an output of 1 kW of electricity and 2.5 kW heat, an integrated gas boiler to
meet the additional demand, and a back-up storage tank for hot water. Overall, this
configuration can meet the entire heating demand and basic electricity demand for
a single-family home. The field tests are carried out in cooperation with local authorities and electricity companies, who offer these plants in the context of energy
contracting. The heater is installed on the customer's site and the power used is
billed at a fixed price per kilowatt hour. The pilot plants currently in operation are
not yet economically efficient but are expected to be so by approximately 2010.
1
3
Fig. 3-30
1
2
3
86
District heating is useful thermal energy which is prepared in a central location and
distributed over a wide geographical area by use of a heat transfer medium and a
system of pipework. The most commonly used heat transfer media are hightemperature hot water and steam.
The key feature of district heating supply systems is that they make it possible to
supply areas, towns or regions from just one or a small number of highly powerful
heat sources. Another feature of this type of heating is that the owner of the heat
source(s) and distribution network(s) is not, as a rule, the owner of the properties
supplied with heat.
A district heating supply system (Fig. 3-31) basically comprises four plant parts:
the heat source (1), the distribution network (2) with distribution pipes and local
networks, the district heat transfer station (3) with shutoff, control, metering, and
safety arrangements, and the end-user installation (4) for space heating, domestic hot water, and other heat consumers.
1
Q1
Q2
Q12
Fig. 3-31
1
2
3
4
Q3
Q23
B16-17
Heat source
Distribution network
District heat transfer station
End-user installation
87
a)
b)
c)
Fig. 18
Fig. 3-32
a)
b)
c)
1)
Radial network
Ring network
Meshed network
Heat generators
The routing of the pipework depends on the topography, the local conditions and
the condition of the ground. Numerous routing systems have been developed for
district heating pipes, each of which has its own advantages and disadvantages. To
keep distribution losses as low as possible, the complete distribution network is
insulated. Where possible, the flow temperature is modulated as a function of the
outdoor temperature. Efforts are made to minimize the overall cost of the distribution network by selecting the optimum flow velocities and ensuring a wide temperature differential between the flow and return temperatures.
88
a)
C
3
2
b)
Fig. 3-33
a)
b)
A
B
C
1
2
3
4
Fig. 19
89
In heating plants, the function of the pump is to supply the energy consumers with
the required quantities of water. The pressure losses which arise due to the pipework, molded parts and control valves have to be overcome in this process. The
most common pumps for this purpose are centrifugal pumps, where kinetic energy
is transmitted to the impeller via the motor and converted into pressure energy at
the pump output.
Fig. 3-34
Pump characteristic
2
3
.
V
Fig. 3-35
1
2
90
3
4
Plant characteristic
The pump delivery head, as already stated, is primarily determined by the resistance to be overcome. For most plant, the resistances are approximately quadratic,
as a function of the delivery volume V& . The following is therefore true:
p V& 2
On a p, V& graph, this is represented by a parabola which passes through the zero
point. For a given plant, this parabola can be plotted using the calculated values for
the design condition. Hydraulic adjustments in the network (e.g. a closing control
valve) result in a steeper plant characteristic (cf. Fig. 3-36).
p
3
1
.
V
Fig. 3-36
1
2
3
Fig. 3-37 shows that the delivery head along the pump characteristic n1 rises from
p1 to p2 when the delivered volume flow in the plant is reduced to 50% (the operating point moves from 1 to 2). In the extreme case, the delivery head can even
rise to "zero-delivery head H0" when the volume flow drops to 0. These considerations apply to plant with variable-volume hydraulic circuits.
However, from the plant characteristic (I) it is clear that the delivery head effectively
required is much lower, i.e. p3. This operating point (3) lies on a different pump
curve with a lower speed, n2.
This information is of particular relevance in conjunction with the power consumption of the pump. As with the pressure loss referred to earlier, this too, follows a
rule. This is of particular relevance in conjunction with the power consumption of
the pump.
For most plant, the power consumption is approximately equivalent to the cube of
the delivered volume V& (or speed).
For most plants it can be said that the power consumption is approximately equivalent to the cube of the delivered volume V& (or speed):
P V& 3
91
Example:
Volume flow rate 50%
Hence, reducing the delivered volume flow to 50% produces a reduction in power
consumption down to 12.5%, i.e. 1/8 of the originally required power. This is, of
course, a purely theoretical value, because other factors also have to be taken into
account, such as the efficiency of the motor and, above all, the admission pressure
actually required at the consumer units. Realistically, the power consumption can
be reduced to anything from approximately 50% down to 30% of the original consumption, which, in the light of the pump hours run, may still represent substantial
savings.
The achievable reduction in speed also depends on the characteristic of the pump
curve. Pumps with steeply downward-sloping curves are more suitable than those
with flat characteristics.
p
2
p2
p1
1
n1
p3
n2
Fig. 3-37
I
1
2
3
.
V
Plant characteristic
Operating point at design conditions
Operating point at 50% volume flow rate and pump without speed control
Operating point at 50% volume flow rate and the required delivery head
92
Fig. 3-38
Two-port valve (screwed); three-port valve (flanged) both shown with actuator
Two-port valves
The flow cross-section of the two port valve is reduced or enlarged by changing the
stroke. This results in a variable volume flow.
Three-port valves
The three-port valve has a constant volume valve port. Altering the stroke will produce a different result, depending on whether the valve is installed as a mixing
valve or a diverting valve.
Mixing:
The volume flow rate at the valve outlet remains constant; it is a mixture of two
variable volume flows (see diagram below right).
Diverting:
An incoming volume flow rate at a constant volume is divided into two variablevolume flow rates at the valve outlet.
(Note: Not all three-port valves are suitable for installation as diverting valves.)
Two-port valve
Fig. 3-39
Three-port valve
93
Fig. 3-40
3
1 2
Fig. 3-41
1
2
3
4
Safety arrangements in a low temperature hot water system with a sealed expansion vessel
The relevant regulations and directives (which may vary from one country to another) specify which safety components need to be installed. The following is an
example of the relevant DIN standards (for Germany).
94
Standard
DIN 4752
Group 1 a:
Maintenance of a maximum permissible
flow temperature of 130 C by means of pressure limiting
equipment with a pressure threshold of maximum 1.5 bar.
Water content [m3] x operating pressure [bar] = < 10.
Group 1 b:
Maintenance of a maximum permissible
flow temperature of 130 C by means of temperature limiting
equipment with a pressure threshold of maximum 1.5 bar,
Water content [m3] x operating pressure [bar] = < 10.
Group 2: All other HTHW heating plants with temperatures
above 110 C
Substations for the connection of HTHW district heating networks
Safety temperature
detector
Safety temperature detectors cut off the energy supply when a preset limit temperature is reached. They are automatically reset when the temperature returns
below the limit value or when the fault which caused them to trip has been cleared.
Safety temperature
limiter
Safety temperature limiters are temperature limiters which disable the plant
(burner) when the limit temperature is reached. These devices must be manually
reset on site (sometimes with a tool) and this cannot be done until the fault which
caused the temperature limiter to respond has been cleared and the temperature
has returned to below the limit value.
Fig. 3-42
Safety temperature detector and safety temperature limiter for installation in a boiler
95
Safety valve
Safety valves are valves which prevent a predefined pressure from being exceeded
by opening automatically against atmospheric pressure. In an emergency they
must be capable of releasing the entire heat output of the heat producer in the form
of high-temperature hot water and steam. The connecting pipes should be kept as
short as possible and any significant resistance (e.g. bends) should be avoided.
The relief pipe, used to dissipate the hot water or steam, should be routed so that
the outlet is in an area (e.g. behind the boiler, close to the ground etc.) which will
not endanger people in the vicinity of the boiler.
1
Fig. 3-43
Expansion vessel
Safety valve; cross-section, and installed (1) in a plant with relief pipe (2)
Every hot water heating plant needs a "cushion" for the expansion caused by heating; this takes the form of an expansion vessel. The size of this vessel depends on
the overall water content of the heating plant.
Nowadays sealed plants normally have a "low-lying" expansion vessel which has
the following benefits:
Simple and cost-effective to install
Oxygen cannot enter the system, and hence there is no corrosion (provided the
vessel is the correct size)
No risk that safety devices might freeze
Long and costly runs of safety pipes, susceptible to heat losses, are not required
The installation of plants of this type is subject to various conditions and regulations
(which may vary from country to country).
There are two different types of expansion vessel:
Pressure expansion vessel with half diaphragm (for small plants)
Pressure expansion vessel with full diaphragm
Principle of operation
The expansion vessels are fitted with a gas-tight bubble diaphragm (see Fig. 3-44).
It divides the vessel into a space for gas and a space for water. The gas is outside
the bubble membrane, while the inside of the bubble is linked with the connecting
pipe of the vessel, and accommodates the expansion overflow (water) from the
plant.
An admission pressure is applied to the vessel. When the temperature rises in the
plant, the increased water volume presses into the bubble against the gas pressure. With a fall in temperature and the associated decrease in volume, the gas
pressure acting on the bubble wall ensures that sufficient water is supplied to the
plant. Depending on make, the pressure "cushion" consists of nitrogen or compressed air.
96
Intermediate vessel
The diaphragms (elastomers) age faster at higher temperatures. For this reason, a
separate intermediate vessel is installed, in which the water can cool down before it
flows into the expansion vessel.
Fig. 3-44
Pressure maintenance
plant
Pressure maintenance plants are useful for plant involving a large volume of water,
and where the differential between the static pressure and the highest operating
pressure needs to be kept as small as possible. The counter-pressure of the gas
cushion is controlled by compressors, so that the expansion water can flow into the
vessel without restriction and hence more easily, i.e. without increasing counterpressure as in the case of a stationary gas cushion. These plants are often delivered as ready-to-operate assemblies, i.e. with the compressor, switching devices
and valves already fitted to the vessel.
3
1
Fig. 3-45
Pressure maintenance plant (1) with pre-fitted compressor (2) and intermediate vessel
connected upstream (3) and pressure expansion vessel (4) for a small plant
97
Fig. 3-46
The distribution component as the link between the heat generation and heat consumer side
The distribution component specification is affected by the heat consumer and heat
generation side in certain ways, e.g., pressure conditions, constant or variable flow,
required flow and return temperatures, etc.
Different types of distribution components are required to satisfy all these conditions.
DISTRIBUTION COMPONENT
Primary pump
Pressure conditions
at distribution system
Pressurized
Low
Variable
(Type 2)
Unpressurized
(Typ 4)
Constant
(Type 3)
Constant
High
The distribution component cannot be considered on its own. It is essential that the
heat consumer circuits used are suited to the distribution component type. At the
same time, it is important to ensure that heat consumer circuits with the same (or
similar) response pattern are used.
98
Fig. 3-47
Distribution component without primary pump for consumer zones in a mixing circuit:
valves to the consumer zones are closed (left) and open (right)
Features:
Low return temperature (between cold and consumer return water)
Variable volume flow across heat generator, and constant flow across heat consumers
Consumer zones with a significant mutual influence
(i.e. every significant change in one zone results in pressure changes in the distribution component which affect the other zones and must be compensated by
them)
Risk of incorrect circulation, e.g. when domestic hot water is loaded at end of the
distribution component
Zone pumps are required proportionally to accommodate the pressure loss in the
heat generation circuit
Field of application:
Heat generators which require a low return temperature (e.g. condensing boilers)
Thermal storage
99
Fig. 3-48
Distribution component with a primary pump for consumer zones in a throttling circuit
or injection circuit with a two-port valve
Features:
Low return temperature (heat consumer return)
Variable volume flow across heat generator
Field of application:
Boiler charging
Supply system in district heating network (e.g. community heating network)
Fig. 3-49
100
Distribution circuit with primary pump for consumer zones in a diverting circuit:
or injection circuit with three-port valve
valves to the consumer zones closed (left) and open (right)
Features:
High return temperature (between consumer return water and close to heat generator flow temperature)
Constant volume flow across heat generator
In diverting circuits, the primary pump must also be able to accommodate the
pressure loss across the heat consumer
Hydraulic balancing is demanding
Later expansion makes repeated hydraulic balancing necessary
Field of application:
Heat generators with low temperature limit control
Fig. 3-50
Distribution circuit with primary pump for connection without differential pressure to consumers in a mixing circuit: Valves to the consumer zones closed (left) and open (right)
Features:
High return temperature (between consumer return water and heat generator
flow temperature)
Constant volume flow across heat generator
Clear hydraulic separation between heat generation and heat consumer side
Balancing valves only needed in heat consumer zones
(to set the nominal volume flow)
Field of application:
Heat generators which require a high return temperature
101
In multiple boiler plants, distribution components with a primary pump for connection without a differential pressure to the heat consumer (see 3.5.1.4), are very
common. A generously-sized hydraulic compensating circuit is installed between
the flow and return, which serves to separate the heat generation side from the
heat consumer side. This circuit should always be installed vertically, to allow thermal layering. It is referred to as a "system header" or sometimes as a "hydraulic
switch".
To ensure that the "system header" operates correctly, sizing and installation must
comply with certain guidelines (VDMA 24 770).
In principle, we can distinguish three operating phases in this type of plant (see Fig.
3-51).
The volume flow rate on the heat consumer side is equal to the volume flow on
the heat generator side, i.e. V& V = V& E .
In this case, the system header has no function.
The volume flow rate on the heat consumer side is greater than the volume flow
rate on the heat generator side, i.e. V& V > V& E .
Here, the difference in water volume flows via the system header from the
heat consumer return to the heat consumer flow.
The volume flow rate V& V on the heat consumer side is smaller than the volume
flow rate on the heat generator side.
In this case the excess volume of water flows from the heat generator flow to
the heat generator return.
B1
B2
3
5
V& E
&V
V
1
Fig. 3-51
1
2
3
4
5
B1
B2
V& E
V& V
102
System header
Boiler sequence controller
Control sensor
Boiler thermostat
Control of boiler inlet temperature
Boiler 1
Boiler 2
Volume flow rate on the heat generator side
Volume flow rate on the heat consumer side
Fig. 20
Fig. 3-52
Gravity distribution system with distribution at the bottom and an open expansion vessel
In this system (Fig. 3-53) the flow distribution pipe is above the level of the highest
radiators. In gravity systems, this ensures that circulation starts more quickly when
the water heats up.
1
Fig. 21
Fig. 3-53
Two-pipe system with upfeed and centrally located bleed vessel (1)
If a circulating pump is used, both the flow pipe and the common return pipe can be
located above the highest radiators. In such cases, however, the pump delivery
head must be sufficient to force the water, when heated, out of the "cold water
pocket".
Two-pipe upfeed
system
This is the most common type of system. The flow and return pipes are routed under the ceiling of the cellar or basement. The radiators are connected to the vertical
risers.
Fig. 3-54 shows distribution with risers (vertical distribution pipes). This arrangement is normally easy to implement in construction terms.
103
Fig. 22
Fig. 3-54
1
2
3
The pipes are routed in such a way that the overall length of the complete circuit is
the same for each radiator. Hence, the same hydraulic pressure conditions apply to
every radiator.
Fig. 3-55
Two-pipe system with normal layout (left) and Tichelmann layout (right)
Several boilers or hot water storage tanks are connected in accordance with the
Tichelmann layout. This method of connection is especially important with solar
panels.
104
Single-pipe systems consist of ring circuits to which the radiators are connected
with their flow and return in parallel. This enables the heating water to continue to
circulate through the ring circuit even if individual radiators are completely shut off.
As with two-pipe systems, a single-pipe heating system can be constructed as a
vertical or horizontal system.
The vertical system with downfeed is sometimes used in high-rise buildings. It
facilitates rationalized installation.
The horizontal system can be adapted to the building structure and allows the use
of individual heat meters. The main risers are routed in the pipe shaft of the bathrooms, for example. The ring circuits connected to the risers are set in the screed
or routed behind skirting boards.
Fig. 3-56
Fig. 3-57
105
Fig. 3-58
Where possible, the heat output should not be impeded by any obstacles. In practice, however, it can be impaired by a whole range of influences (see 3.7.1.2).
In such cases, the average radiator temperature (normally, therefore, the flow temperature) has to be increased to compensate for these influences (standard heat
capacity of radiators: see DIN 4703)
Cladding
Installation
If the clearances specified by the manufacturer in respect of walls, floors and window sills are not observed, the heat output can be reduced by 15% or more.
Type of connection
If a radiator is not connected in the conventional manner (with the flow at the top
and the return at the bottom), heat capacity can be reduced by up to 25%.
Air density
Air density and hence, height above sea level has a significant effect on the
heat output from a radiator. The reduction in output is approximately 5% for each
1000 m above sea level.
Paint
Whether light or dark colors are used is immaterial. The application of metallic
bronze paint, however, reduces heat output by approximately 10% (and up to 25%
according to other sources).
106
Numerous different floor heating systems are available on the market. Depending
on make, the pipes may be laid under the floor in rings or spirals under the floor
(see Fig. 3-59). The objective is to maintain as even a surface temperature as possible and where necessary, to provide more intense heating of the perimeter zones
along the outside walls, by laying the pipes closer together. Floor heating systems
are typical low-temperature heating systems, and can therefore be operated very
economically with low-temperature boilers, heat pumps or solar energy. Further,
they are perceived to contribute significantly to a sense of well-being, and are
therefore primarily used in residential buildings and (for base load heating) in hotel
rooms.
Fig. 3-59
Floor heating or
low-temperature
radiators?
Compared with low-temperature radiator heating, floor heating has the following
advantages and disadvantages:
Advantages:
Particularly suitable for heat pumps and solar heating, because of the lower
heating water temperatures (max. 35 C) and the ability to store heat
Fewer pipe vents, and hence less additional construction work
No curtains in front of radiators
No problem with location of radiators
Disadvantages:
More thermal lag and hence less easily controllable
High cost of later modifications or repairs to the heating surfaces
Constraints in relation to carpeting and flexible room partitioning
107
a)
b)
c)
d)
Fig. 3-60
a)
b)
c)
d)
Fig. 32
Today, radiant panel heating is virtually the only one of these systems to be used
industrially, e.g. in warehouses, factories and hangars.
108
Boiler
Steam boiler
HTHW/steam converter
HTHW/steam mixing condenser
(return water is heated by mixing with steam)
Electric flow heater
Electric boiler with high-voltage electrodes
Heat exchanger for utilization of waste heat from gas or diesel engines
109
These systems utilize the intrinsic thermal storage capacity of the building to store
the heating and cooling loads. At the same time, the ceilings and walls are used as
heating and cooling surfaces. For this purpose, pipework is installed directly into
the concrete ceilings of the building. Water circulates in the pipes, which can be
heated or cooled in accordance with demand, to reach the required ceiling temperature. To utilize the storage capacity, there must be no cladding on the underside of the ceiling.
Fig. 3-61
Tempered water
from approx. 1826 C
Embedded pipework for tempering of the exposed ceiling between floors of a building
(Source: Zent-Frenger)
Practical experience
Utilization of alternative
sources of heating and
cooling energy
The moderate water temperatures mentioned earlier give rise to the possibility of
economical use of alternative methods of recovering heating and cooling energy.
So, for example, (with the help of a heat pump) underground heat can be utilized,
or groundwater or lake water can be used as a heat source. For cooling purposes,
these sources can be used directly for cooling energy or as a heat sink.
In some buildings, the heating or cooling energy available in the ground can be
used for tempering of the water, by routing pipes in ground piles, floor tiles or retaining walls.
110
Fig. 3-62
Heat pump/refrigeration
machine with changeover
Energy pile (left) and thermo-active flooring (right) to utilize underground thermal energy
(Source: Zent-Frenger)
Electrically operated heat pumps and refrigerating machines operate all the more
efficiently, the smaller the temperature differential between the cold evaporator side
and the warm condenser side. Therefore, when the heat pump is used in heating
mode in winter, the more or less constant temperature of the heat source (underground temperature approximately 12 C) some of the electricity required to drive
the system can be saved. Similarly, in summer, when cooling energy is generated
in the air conditioning plant, if the exhaust heat can be emitted into the ground (especially with high outside temperatures in summer), the electricity demand is reduced substantially.
Due to the moderate water temperatures already referred to in systems with
thermo-active building components, this potential can be fully exploited. With correct sizing of the heat pump, an annual energy coefficient of 4.5 to 5 is fully achievable.
111
4.
Refrigeration technology
4.1. Introduction
The demand for cooling energy originated in connection with the food preservation.
This explains why human beings have been concerned with the subject of cooling
since the earliest times.
One way of cooling foods and liquids was to use clay container and bottles
wrapped in damp cloths.
This illustrates the principle of the removal of heat through evaporation of water.
Mechanical cooling
The first known ideas on the subject of mechanical cooling and hence "refrigeration
technology" come from a patent written in 1834, in which Jacob Perkins described
a cold vapor compression machine using ethyl ether in a closed circuit. Approximately 40 years later, in 1876, Carl Linde became the first to use ammonia as a
refrigerant in a cold vapor compression system with a reciprocating compressor.
The first domestic refrigerators appeared in 1910, and in 1930, the refrigerants
R 11, R 12, R 13, R 22, R 113 and R 114 were developed.
In principle, the refrigeration machine is no different from the domestic refrigerator
with which we are all familiar.
How it works: Warm foods are placed inside it; heat is emitted, transferred to the
exterior (via the back of the refrigerator), and dissipated into the outside air.
Energy distribution
The energy is distributed by a medium (the refrigerant) which evaporates as it absorbs heat, and condenses again as it emits heat.
The energy is distributed by a medium (the refrigerant) which evaporates as it absorbs heat, and condenses again as it emits heat.
From a study of thermodynamics, we know that heat can only travel from a substance at a higher temperature to a substance at a lower temperature, and from
fluid mechanics we know that a liquid flows from a higher level to a lower level.
However, a liquid can be made to flow from a lower level to a higher level by use of
a pump. The refrigeration machine/heat pump cycle operates on the same principle in relation to the transfer of energy.
Fields of application
of refrigeration
technology
Based on the origins of refrigeration, this technology can be divided into the following areas:
Large-scale refrigeration (industrial refrigeration)
Small-scale refrigeration (commercial refrigeration)
Refrigerators and freezers (domestic refrigeration)
Industrial refrigeration systems are built for breweries, abattoirs, cold-storage premises, ice-plants, and marine refrigeration.
After World War I, refrigeration demand grew considerably and these areas were
divided into refrigeration systems for:
Food, process engineering and ventilation technology.
The table below shows the various applications and how fit into these groups. The
bold headings indicate the processes better known to us.
112
Food technology
Process technology
Ventilation technology
- Production
Breweries
Trawlers
-Chemical industry
Dissipation of reaction and solution heat
Crystallization of salts
Liquifaction and separation of
gases
- Air conditioning
Assembly rooms
Theaters, offices, etc.
Hospitals
Printing presses
Swimming pools
Mines
- Transportation
Sea
Rail
Road
Air
- Storage
Cold storage
Refrigerated storage
Commercial cold-storage cells
- Sales
Display cabinets
Beverage vending machines
- Domestic
Refrigerators
Freezers
- Refineries
- Cryotechnology
(Low temperature)
Production of noble gases
Superconductor technology
- Construction engineering
Shaft sinking
Concrete cooling
- Aerospace
Simulation of environment
Wind tunnel
- Manufacturing
Materials testing
Precision measuring environment
- Medicine
Blood banks
Cryoanesthesia
- Vacuum technology
- Marine transport
Liquid gas
- Sports arenas
Ice rinks
In the food industry, refrigeration is the best and healthiest method of keeping
food fresh for long periods of time and across different climatic zones, thereby securing the food supply chain.
In process technology, the use of refrigeration allows faster and more costeffective production.
In the field of air conditioning, refrigeration technology is a key factor for our
sense of well-being in the workplace and indoors in general.
In air conditioning technology, in addition to heating energy required in winter, there
is also a need for cooling energy in summer to cool and dehumidify the air.
Methods of generating
cooling energy
113
Fig. 4-1
Wet cooling
Surface cooling
In the surface cooling system, water is passed through a heat exchanger in an air
duct. As the air moves across the (cold) surface of the heat exchanger, it is cooled
down and possibly dehumidified (i.e. moisture is removed).
In summary: - The air cools down
- The water becomes warmer and is returned to its source
- The water has to be topped up continuously
This type of water-to-water heat pump is very common in heat pump technology.
The energy from the surface water is emitted into a heating circuit via the refrigeration cycle. (See the description under "Compression cycle".)
114
115
A "heat pump" uses the mechanical refrigeration process to remove heat from one
medium and transfer it to another medium.
Example
Water-to-water heat
pump
Imagine that we want to cool a given quantity of water by removing the heat
from it, so that we can then use this extracted heat to raise the temperature of
another, identical quantity of water.
In practical heating engineering terms, this could mean cooling a quantity of
ground water from 10 C down to 5 C, in order to operate a floor heating system with a flow temperature of 45 C and a return temperature of 30 C.
Refrigeration technology underwent a significant upsurge in the 70s and 80s, due
to the increased use of heat pumps in response to the "energy crisis".
116
Designation:
Melting
Fusion (for water: freezing)
Evaporation (vaporization)
Condensation (liquefaction)
Sublimation
(Re-)sublimation
Temperature-enthalpy
diagram
We can depict the temperature and state changes of water using a temperatureenthalpy diagram (Fig. 4.2.). The enthalpy values shown are valid for 1 kilogram of
water at an atmospheric pressure of 1.013 bar.
t (C)
115
100
28.3
-335
419
10
0
A
0
Fig. 4-2
2257
419
2676 2704.3
h [kJ / kg]
Temperature-enthalpy diagram
Since only enthalpy differentials are required for heat quantity calculations, the
origin of the enthalpy scale can be defined arbitrarily. In the commonly used steam
tables, the selected zero point is identical with the freezing point of water. This
means that the enthalpy values shown do not include the latent heat of fusion
(melting).
The straight line A B represents the sensible heat required to heat 1 kg of water
from 0 C to 100 C. On the enthalpy scale at point B we can see that the required
value h required for this purpose is 419 kJ/kg.
The straight line B C represents the evaporation process. Heat is continuously
added along this (constant temperature) line until, at point C, the kilogram of water
is completely transformed into saturated steam. The enthalpy of this dry, saturated
steam at that point amounts to 2,676 kJ. This is the sum of 419 kJ of sensible heat
and 2,257 kJ of latent heat of vaporization.
The process of condensation (liquefaction) can be described as the reversal of the
above process (the removal of an identical amount of heat along the straight line
from C to B).
If we add a further 28.3 kJ to the saturated steam between points C and D, the
steam is superheated to 115 C and the enthalpy at point D is h = 2,676 + 28.3 =
2,704.3 kJ.
117
Melting/freezing
It takes a heat quantity of 335 kJ (Fig. 4-3) to melt 1 kilogram (kg) of ice at 0 C,
that is, to turn it into water at 0 C. This aggregate state change takes place at a
constant temperature. The heat of fusion (melting) subsequently contained in the
water is thus referred to as latent (insensible) heat.
1 kg
0 C
335 kJ
0 C
Fig. 2
Fig. 4-3
118
100
200
300
400 t (C)
Evaporation
The conversion of water to steam is another aggregate state change which takes
place at constant temperature. 2,257 kJ has to be added to one kg of water at
100 C in order to convert it completely to steam at 100 C. The steam then
contains this quantity of heat as the latent heat of vaporization. If we add the 419 kJ
of sensible heat, used to heat 1 kg water from 0 to 100 C, to the 2,257 kJ latent
heat of vaporization , this gives 2,676 kJ as the heat content or enthalpy h of 1 kg
saturated steam at 100 C (Fig. 4-5). (The zero point of the enthalpy scale is fixed
at the substance temperature, 0 C).
2676 kJ
100 C
419 kJ
1 kg
2257 kJ
Fig. 4-5
Superheating
If heat is added to the dry saturated steam at 100C, the temperature rises and the
steam is "superheated" (Fig. 4-6). The heat used for superheating is also sensible
heat. To increase the temperature of the kilogram of steam at 100 C by 15 K, for
example, a quantity Q of sensible heat amounting to 28.3 kJ is required. This can
be calculated from the following formula:
Q
= m cp ( - s)
= 1 1.88 (115 C - 100 C)
= 28.3 kJ
cp
m
2676 kJ
1 kg
100 C
2704,3 kJ
100 C
+ 28,3 kJ
Fig. 4-6
119
Condensation
The aggregate state change from a liquid to a gaseous state is reversible. In other
words, the steam can be returned to the liquid state. In this process, the latent heat
of vaporization, 2,257 kJ/kg, will be removed from the steam (Fig. 4-7).Our
consideration of the above state changes is based on purely theoretical, completely
loss-free processes which are not possible in practice.
2
2257 kJ
1
4
Fig. 8
Fig. 4-7
1
2
3
4
Pressure-enthalpy
diagram
(p,h diagram)
Condensation (liquefaction)
In refrigeration or heat pump engineering, the diagram of choice is the pressureenthalpy diagram (see below) rather than the temperature-enthalpy diagram. A
logarithmic scale is used for the pressure axis on practical grounds. In this diagram
the state changes are not shown at standard pressure (1.013 bar); instead, they
can be read off at various pressures and associated temperatures. Pressureenthalpy diagrams of this type are available for all refrigerants used in practice.
Planned heat pump/refrigeration cycles can be drawn on these diagrams and the
associated changes in enthalpy can be read directly from the enthalpy scale. The
figure below shows the pressure-enthalpy diagram for water.
t (C)
bar
374
221
4
5
1,013
100
6.98
1
2
3
4
5
6
419
2107.4
2676
h [kJ / kg]
AB
120
0.01
0
Fig. 4-8
2257
The curve ascending from the origin to the critical point indicates where the liquid
starts to evaporate. The extension of this curve, from the critical point to the right
and down to the enthalpy axis, shows where superheating of the saturated steam
begins. If we draw a horizontal line through these two curves at a specific pressure
(e.g. 1.013 bar), we can read the enthalpy of the saturated liquid at point A and the
enthalpy of the saturated steam at point B. The difference between the values at
points A and B is the latent heat of vaporization.
The diagram shows that the latent heat of vaporization decreases continuously with
increasing pressure and temperature, until finally, at the critical point, a condition is
reached where there is no heat of vaporization at all, and the point at which the
liquid starts to evaporate is identical to the point at which the steam starts to be
superheated. For water, the critical pressure is 221.2 bar and the critical
temperature is 374.1 C.
4.3.3. Refrigerants
The working medium circulating in a refrigeration machine/heat pump cycle is
known as the refrigerant. To explain the basic principle of the cycle, we have so far
only considered the state changes of water. Water has many of the characteristics
required of a refrigerant. Water is non-toxic, non-flammable and has a relatively
large capacity for the latent heat of vaporization. As a result, water is used as a
refrigerant in steam-jet and absorption refrigeration machines/heat pumps.
Refrigerant
requirements
121
=max+60C
p=15,5 bar
=max+100C
p=15,5 bar
liquid
gaseous
in the condensor
in the
expansino
valve
in the
compressor
in the evaporator
liquid
gaseous
change in aggregate state
- takes in heat of evaporation
=+2 C
p=3,3 bar
Fig. 4-9
=+2 C
p=3,3 bar
Cyclical process
Let us now consider in detail how and why the refrigerant is influenced.
In the compression cycle, the refrigerant circulating in a closed circuit goes through
the four state changes described below:
Evaporator
Compressor
122
Condenser
Condensation (liquefaction) of the "hot" refrigerant vapor. Here, the refrigerant vapor in a heat exchanger emits the previously absorbed latent heat of vaporization
and the superheat into the circulating water or air, which must be at a temperature
below the condensing temperature of the refrigerant.
If heat continues to be transferred from the refrigerant vapor on the primary side to
the cooling medium on the secondary side, the refrigerant vapor is liquified continuously. At the condenser outlet, the refrigerant is fully liquid at a temperature of
approximately 60 C and at an unchanged pressure of 15.5 bar.
Expansion valve
Expansion of the hot refrigerant condensate from the condensing pressure to the
evaporating pressure in a special throttling and dosage unit (the expansion valve).
The pressure/temperature level of the liquid refrigerant is still too high to allow it to
be fed back directly into the evaporator. A throttling/dosage device is therefore used
to allow it to re-expand to the evaporating pressure. This device not only reduces
the pressure, but also supplies the correct amount of refrigerant according to the
required capacity of the evaporator. Depending on the required method of control of
the cycle, this may be an expansion valve, controlled manually, by pressure or by
level, or in small cooling units it may be a simple capillary tube.
Examples of application
Both direct and indirect cooling are used in ventilation and air conditioning technology.
Direct cooling
Indirect cooling
1
2
3
4
Compressor
Evaporator
Condenser
Expansion valve
5
6
7
Since exactly the same functions and physical interactions apply to the heat pump
cycle, we can combine the processes in the diagram which follows.
123
From the
heating system
Back to the
heating system
Condenser
15,5 bar
+ 60 C
Expansion
valve
3,3 bar
15,5 bar
max + 100 C
Compressor
+ 2 C
Evaporator
Verdampfer
1
2
+ 2 C
3,3 bar
Back to the
heat distributor,
e.g. back into
the source
Fig. 4-11
= + 5 C
= + 10 C
Motor-driven
Gas
Oil
Electrial
energy
124
4
8
2
9
10
1
7
5
11
Fig. 4-12
1
2
3
4
5
6
Absorption process
Evaporator
Condenser
Absorber
Generator
Heat exchanger
Pumps
7
8
9
10
11
Chilled-water circuit
Energy supply
Cooling-water circuit
Refrigerant circuit
Solvent circuit
Fig. 4-13
1
2
3
Thermochemical compressor
Condenser
Throttling/dosage unit
4
5
6
Evaporator
Cycle as heat pump
Cycle as refrigeration machine
125
If the refrigerant circuit process is compared to the compression refrigeration machine, the following four function components can be recognized immediately:
Evaporator (4)
Compressor (1)
Condenser (2)
Throttling/dosage unit (3).
Here too, a refrigerant (e.g. water) is evaporated in the evaporator at low pressure
and with external heat supply, the steam is compressed to a higher pressure and
higher temperature and condensed in the condenser by emitting evaporation heat
to an external refrigerant, and expanded to low pressure in the expansion valve.
4.3.5.1. Working substance combinations
The best-known working-substance combinations for absorption refrigeration machines/heat pumps are:
Water and lithium bromide (LiBr) with water as the refrigerant)
Ammonia water (with ammonia as the refrigerant)
Ammonia and lithium nitrate
Methyl amine and water
Methanol and lithium bromide
where the first in each pair is the refrigerant. While ammonia is a field-proven refrigerant used primarily for evaporating temperatures from 0 C to 60 C, the most
common working-substance combination in the air conditioning industry is water
and lithium bromide. However, water can only be used in conjunction with evaporating temperatures above 0 C, as at lower temperatures, it freezes.
Another significant difference between the ammonia/water and water/LiBr cycle is
the difference in operating pressure between the two systems. While ammonia absorption systems operate at pressures between approximately 1.5 and 16 bar, the
operating pressure in the evaporator and absorber are significantly below atmospheric pressure in the case of water/LiBr systems.
In fact, the pressure in the evaporator is approximately 0.008 bar corresponding to
an evaporating temperature of approximately 3 C, and the pressure in the condenser is 0.1 which corresponds to a condensing temperature of approximately
50 C. With these low pressures, the machine must be construed very strong and
solid.
The absorption refrigeration machine/heat pump operates with two circuits. Although these operate in phases, one within the other, each can be described separately in terms of function.
One cycle is the refrigerant cycle with the compressor, condenser, throttling/dosage
device and evaporator, and the other is the refrigerant/absorbent solution cycle,
which, within the refrigerant cycle, performs the function of a compressor.
126
4.3.5.2. Application
The applications of the absorption refrigeration machine/heat pump cover virtually the
entire range of reciprocating and turbo-compressors, certainly those with a refrigeration
capacity ranging from approximately 30 kW to over 5 000 kW.
The decision of whether to use a compression or absorption refrigeration machine depends largely on the energy available for operation. If for example, a steam or hot-water
boiler is available which would otherwise only be fully exploited in winter using the
free capacity of the boiler by linking it to an absorption refrigeration machine for cooling
in summer makes sense.
Using an absorption machine is ideal when exhaust vapor from a production process or
a back-pressure turbine engine is available. Another useful application is in combination
with a turbo-refrigeration machine. The turbo-compressor in this case is operated with a
back-pressure turbine. The low-pressure vapor from the back-pressure turbine then
heats the generator of the absorption machine, and is then returned to the vapor boiler
in condensate form.
Absorption machines heated directly with oil or gas are normally designed as heat
pumps that can be switched to cooling mode in summer.
Finally, the significant advantages of the absorption machine are its vibration-free and
virtually silent operation as well as its scope for simple capacity control from 0 to 100%.
Disadvantages are the relatively high energy consumption, the high condenser capacity and thus the high consumption of cooling water. Oftentimes, these disadvantages can be counterbalanced by making use of the dissipated heat to reduce energy costs significantly.
127
5.
5.1. Introduction
Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) plants are used to create comfortable environmental conditions for human beings.
To satisfy this requirement in our climatic zone, heat but also cooling energy
must be generated, adequately regulated and delivered to the right place at the
right time.
Hydraulic systems are designed to facilitate integration of the required plant components in the circuit between the heat / cooling source and the consumer in a way
that optimum operating conditions can be created for the:
heat / cooling source (temperature, flow of water)
transportation of the heat / cooling energy carrier such as
water or steam (temperature, flow of water)
integrated control equipment
The present documentation contains key information of the training modules that
constitute part of the training program Hydraulics in building systems. It is also
designed as a piece of accompanying and reference documentation to the training
program.
The majority of the graphs and illustrations are taken from the training program.
Many of them are animated in the training program and interactive, so you can try
for yourself how hydraulic circuits and components behave under different operating conditions.
"Hydraulics in building systems" and this documentation focuses especially on
hydraulics on the consumer side.
This does not mean, however, that the heat / cooling source side is less important
the contrary is the case. As a result of the continued technical development of the
heat / cooling sources, hydraulic considerations on that side are becoming more
and more important also. However, it is not the purpose of the present training program to cover those aspects in detail. But much of the knowledge gained from the
consumption side is also applicable to the heat / cooling source side.
Training program
as e-learning
128
Controller
(with sensor)
Radiator
(heat supply)
Actuator
Controlling
element
(three-port
Circulating pump
Flow
Balancing throttle
Heating
boiler
(heat generation)
Fig. 5-1
Return
Valve closed
Fig. 5-2
Valve
V
open
129
Heat source
Pictorial diagram of a plant
Fig. 5-3
Geographic diagram
Return
Often, the schematic diagram shown above is used for basic plants. It is referred to
as a geographic diagram and is closely related to the actual design of the plant.
The geographic diagram is not suited for larger plants, however, because it becomes more and more difficult to understand, especially when interrelationships
between consumers and heat / cooling sources are getting complex, e.g. like in the
case of a ground water heat pump with storage tank and additional heating boiler
that delivers heat to several distributed consumers.
Fig. 5-4
130
For these reasons and due to the extensive use of CAD systems, the kind of diagram frequently used today is a structured diagram.
Synoptic diagram
The synoptic diagram facilitates the schematic representation of very complex and
extensive hydraulic plants in a clearly structured and easy-to-understand manner.
With the synoptic diagram, a number of important rules must be observed:
The flow is shown at the top, the return at the bottom. Heat / cooling source and
consumers are shown parallel in the direction of flow between flow and return
Flow
Direction of flow
Consumer
Generator
Return
Geographic diagram
Fig. 5-5
Synoptic diagram
In the schematic diagrams of hydraulic circuits, it is also important that the correct
symbols of a number of plant components be used.
One plant component where this is of particular importance is the three-port controlling element (seat or slipper valve).
The two triangles representing the ports with variable flow must be shown filled
while the triangle representing the port with constant flow must be shown empty.
Fig. 5-6
Triangle filled
Triangle empty
= variable flow
= constant flow
131
In a large number of the schematic diagrams contained in the training program Hydraulics in building systems and in this documentation, controlling elements are
shown without their actuators, the reason being that the diagrams are easier to understand. In addition, the assumption is made that the controlling element is always
a valve.
Examples of geographic and synoptic diagrams
Geographic diagrams
Fig. 5-7
132
Examples
Synoptic diagrams
5.3. Distributors
Normally, a heat source distributes heat to several consumers.
The distributor is used as the connecting element between the heat source and
several consumers. It distributes the flow water to the different consumers and collects the return water from them.
Fig. 5-8 Distributor as the connecting element between heat source and consumer side
Both the consumer and the heat source place certain requirements on the distributor such as pressure conditions, constant or variable volumetric flow, flow and return temperatures, etc.
To satisfy these requirements, different types of distributors are available.
Main pump
Pressure conditions
at the distributor
Volumetric flow
through the heat
source
Return temperature
to the heat source
Fig. 5-9
Variable
Low
Pressureless
(type 4)
Variable
Constant
(type 2)
(type 3)
Constant
High
133
The distributor cannot be looked upon by itself. It is important to use the type of
consumer circuit that is suited for the respective type of distributor. It should also be
ensured that consumer circuits with the same (or similar) behavior are used.
5.3.1.1. Distributor without main pump (type 1), for consumer zones with
mixing circuits
Fig. 5-10
Characteristics
Low return temperature (between cold and consumer return)
Volumetric flow through the heat source variable, constant across the consumers
Consumer zones strongly affect one another
(this means that any major change in one of the zones causes pressure changes
on the distributor the effects of which on the other zones must be compensated
by them)
Risk of wrong circulation if, for example, dhw. is heated at the end of the distributor
The zone pumps must proportionally compensate for the pressure drop in the
heat source circuit
Important for troublefree operation
Heat sources that require a minimum flow rate should not be used
Maximum pressure drop in the heat source circuit < 20% of the lowest zone
pump head short and slightly oversized pipes
Controlling elements of the consumer zones must be correctly sized
Temperature differential between flow and return of the zones must be maintained
(balancing throttle correctly adjusted)
Field of use
Heat sources that require low return temperatures (e.g. condensing boilers)
Storage tanks
134
5.3.1.2. Distributor with main pump (type 2), for consumer zones with
throttling circuits or injection circuits with two-port valves
Fig. 5-11
Characteristics
Low return temperature (consumer return)
Volumetric flow across the heat source variable
Important for troublefree operation
Controlling elements of the consumer zones must be correctly sized
Main pump must be speed-controlled (cuts energy consumption,
OFF when there is no load to prevent damage),
or adjustable bypass (at the beginning of the distributor) for
minimum circulation
(disadvantage: return temperature will be raised again)
Field of use
D.h.w. storage tank charging
Supply lines in district heating networks (e.g. in community district heating systems)
135
5.3.1.3. Distributor with main pump (type 3), for consumer zones with
diverting circuits or injection circuits with three-port valves
Fig. 5-12
Characteristics
High return temperature (between consumer return and close to the heat source
flow)
Volumetric flow through the heat source constant
When using diverting circuits, the main pump must also handle the pressure
drop across the consumer
Hydraulic balancing is difficult
Later extensions necessitate new hydraulic balancing
Important for troublefree operation
Controlling elements of the consumer groups must be correctly sized
To be recommended only if, in terms of pumping power, major consumers can be
operated without zone pump (that is with a diverting circuit)
When using injection circuits, distance A must be a minimum of 10 times the pipe
diameter ( sufficient space); otherwise there is a risk of creeping circulation
Heat source must be suited for high return temperatures
Field of use
Heat sources with minimum limitation of the return temperature
136
5.3.1.4. Distributor with main pump (type 4), for differential pressureless consumer connection with mixing circuit
Fig. 5-13
Characteristics
High return temperature (between consumer return and heat source flow)
Volumetric flow through the heat source constant
Clear hydraulic decoupling between heat source and consumer side
Balancing throttles required only in the consumer circuits
(for adjusting the nominal volumetric flow)
Important for troublefree operation
Distributor and especially the bypass should be slightly oversized
Consumer zones with constant or year round heat demand must be connected
to the beginning of the distributor. This prevents an unnecessary flow of water
through the distributor
Distributor can be combined with throttling circuit(s), provided their output is
small compared to the total output of the distributor
Field of use
Heat sources requiring high return temperatures
137
Fig. 5-14
Geographic diagram
Installers and planning engineers often give preference to the geographic diagram
which presents the plant the way it is in the boiler room.
From the heat source, flow and return are connected to the distributor which shows
the individual consumer circuits side by side.
Fig. 5-15
138
& V& T
Q
Hence, in hydraulic circuits, the following variables can be used for adjusting the
output:
The volumetric flow is changed
while maintaining the temperature at a
constant level
Control of mixing
Both control of the flow (variable volumetric flow) and control of mixing (constant
volumetric flow) use two different basic hydraulic circuits. With control of the flow
(variable volumetric flow), the hydraulic circuits used are the following:
Throttling circuit
Diverting circuit
Throttling circuit
Fig. 5-16
Diverting circuit
Diverting circuit
Both hydraulic circuits adjust their outputs by varying the volumetric flow passing
through the consumer.
Control of mixing
With the control of mixing (constant volumetric flow) the hydraulic circuits used are
the following:
Mixing circuit
Injection circuit (with a three- or two-port valve)
Mixing circuit
Fig. 5-17
Mixing circuit
Both hydraulic circuits adjust their outputs by delivering different medium temperatures to the consumer.
139
When the valve is adjusted, the volumetric flow will change both in the heat / cooling source section and in the consumer section of the hydraulic circuit. As a result,
pressure conditions will greatly vary throughout the system.
Fig. 5-18
Characteristics
Throttling circuit
Field of use
Types of diagrams
Geographic diagram
Fig. 5-19
140
Synoptic diagram
Depending on the position of the valve, a certain proportion of the hot water delivered by the boiler is supplied to the consumer, the rest to the bypass. The output of
the consumer is regulated via the volumetric flow. The temperature drop across the
consumer is the greater, the smaller the volumetric flow. When the valve is fully
closed, the temperature of the boiler return nearly reaches the temperature of the
boiler flow.
Fig. 5-20
Characteristics
Diverting circuit
Field of use
Types of diagrams
Geographic diagram
Fig. 5-21
Synoptic diagram
141
A three-port valve subdivides the hydraulic circuit into a primary or heat source circuit and a secondary or consumer circuit. The hot water delivered by the heat
source and the cooler return water are mixed to attain the flow temperature required for the consumer, thereby adjusting the output to meet the demand for heat.
Fig. 5-22
Characteristics
Mixing circuit
Field of use
Types of diagrams
Geographic diagram
Fig. 5-23
142
Synoptic diagram
Fig. 5-24
Mixing circuit
Characteristics
Field of use
Consumer circuits where the flow temperature is lower than that of the heat
source circuit
Control of floor and radiator heating systems with low temperature heat sources
or heat pumps
Types of diagrams
Geographic diagram
Fig. 5-25
Synoptic diagram
143
The pump to the left produces the pressure required in the heat source circuit, including the pressure drop across the valve, while the pump to the right produces
the pressure in the consumer circuit. The pump in the heat source circuit injects
more or less hot flow water into the consumer circuit, depending on the position of
the three-port valve. The hot water mixes with cooler return water from the consumer which the consumer pump sucks in via the bypass. As a result, there is a
constant volumetric flow with varying temperatures in the consumer circuit.
Fig. 5-26
Characteristics
Constant volumetric flow in both the heat source and the consumer circuit
Relatively high return temperatures (corresponding heat source flow temperature
when load = 0%, and consumer return temperature when load = 100%)
Even temperature distribution across the heat consumer
Air heating coils with a small risk of freezing
Field of use
Types of diagrams
Geographic diagram
Fig. 5-27
144
Synoptic diagram
The pump in the heat source circuit injects more or less hot flow water into the consumer circuit, depending on the position of the two-port valve.
As a result, there is a constant volumetric flow with varying temperatures in the
consumer circuit.
In the heat source circuit, by contrast, the volumetric flow and pressure greatly
vary, a fact to be taken into consideration in the case of plants consisting of several
zones.
Fig. 5-28
Characteristics
Field of use
Types of diagrams
Geographic diagram
Fig. 5-29
Synoptic diagram
145
5.5. kV values
kV value: flow value at a certain valve stroke
The kV value of a valve is dependent on the valves position (stroke). It gives the
flow rate at a constant pressure differential of 1 bar across the controlled port.
kVS value: flow value when the valve is fully open
The kV value resulting from the valves fully open position (that is, at the nominal
stroke H100) is called the kVS value.
The manufacturers of seat valves and throttling valves specify this designdependent variable kVS for every type of valve.
To be able to compare different makes and types, all valves are specified in a uniform manner:
kV values in relation to the kVS value:
kV / kVS = 0...1
H / H100 = 0...1
If kV / kVS is shown as a function of the stroke range 0...1, the valve characteristic is
obtained.
Fig. 5-30
Equal-percentage
characteristic
The same change of stroke produces the same percentage change of the relevant
kV value, that is, the greater the stroke (the more open the valve), the greater the
146
impact of the stroke change on the volumetric flow. In the lower stroke range, the
characteristic is flat. In the upper stroke range, it becomes steeper and steeper.
Equal-percentage /
linear characteristic
Basic form of the characteristic that is linear in the lower stroke range and that
adopts an equal-percentage characteristic from about 30% of stroke.
The basic form of the characteristic represents the basis for designing the valve
plug which then determines the valves basic characteristic.
Linear characteristic
Fig. 5-31
Equal-percentage characteristic
147
Fig. 5-32
148
Fig. 5-33
149
6.
Plant with no thermodynamic functions or with only one such function (e.g. heating)
Plant used to maintain either the room air temperature or the room air humidity at a
desired value (through heating/cooling or humidification/dehumidification respectively), whatever the load status. A plant which is capable, for example, of maintaining the temperature at a desired value through heating or cooling, and which is also
able to humidify the air (but not to dehumidify it), would, by definition, still be referred to as a partial air conditioning plant.
Plant used to maintain both the room air temperature and the room air humidity at a
desired value (through heating/cooling and humidification/dehumidification) irrespective of the load status.
This is a plant (formerly known as a low-pressure system) in which the air flows
through the ducts at less than 10 m/s. The majority of these plants are industrial
plants with large volumes of air and relatively short distances to cover. Air diffusers
can be set directly into the ducts.
This is a plant (formerly known as a high-pressure system) in which the air flows
through the supply air ducts at velocities greater than 10 m/s. The majority of these
plants are comfort control plants with smaller volumes of air and relatively long distances to cover. Air diffusers cannot be set directly into the ducts, as the air velocity
first has to be reduced (by expansion) from high to low pressure.
Outside air
Supply air
Room air
Extract air
Recirculated air
Exhaust air
Siemens publication CM1Z011en "Graphical symbols" sets out the symbols for individual items of equipment and provides additional information.
150
This section describes the main components of the plant ("aggregates") used in the
field of ventilation. Only a brief overview is provided here, without detailed information on sizing or notes on specific criteria relating to use. The training module "Control of ventilation and air conditioning plants" deals with the use of this equipment in
conjunction with the control functions.
Fig. 6-1
Schematic diagram of an air conditioning plant with typical component parts (aggregates)
Fig. 6-2
Weather-protected grille
6.2.2. Dampers
Function
151
Types of construction
B17-1
Fig. 6-3
Rectangular dampers (or "louver dampers") are normally designed with several
blades, which can be opened and closed either synchronously or in contra-rotation
(Fig. 6-4). Both types can be used as throttle dampers, depending on the control
requirements. For shutoff dampers, preference is almost always given to the (less
costly) synchronous version.
Fig. 6-4
Special types
152
Safety dampers and fire dampers serve to close the air ducts quickly and ensure
tight shutoff in the event of a hazard.
Air filters are used in air handling equipment to isolate and filter contaminants in the
form of particles and gaseous impurities in the air.
Normal untreated air contains contaminants at concentration levels between 0.05
3
and 3.0 mg/m . In industry, air filters are economically efficient for concentrations
3
up to approximately 20 mg/m .
Fig. 6-5
153
Filter classes EU 10 to EU 14 are also known as HEPA filters (High Efficiency Particulate Air filters, H10 to H14). Filter classes EU 15 to EU 17 are also known as
ULPA filters (Ultra Low Penetration Air filters, U 15 to U 17).
Filter class
Arrestance %
Penetration Former
%
classification
Description
G1
< 65
EU 1/A
G2
65...80
EU 2/B1
Coarse dust
G3
8090
EU 3/B2
filter
G4
> 90
EU 4/B2
F5
EU 5
F6
EU 6
Fine dust
F7
EU 7
filter
F8
EU 8
F9
EU 9
EU 10
85
15
EU 11
95
EU 12
99.5
0.5
EU 13
99.95
0.05
Aerosol
EU 14
99.995
0.005
ST
filter
EU 15
99.9995
0.0005
EU 16
99.99995
0.00005
EU 17
99.999995
0.000005
Fig. 6-6
The typical pressure differentials for new air filters are as follows:
Final pressure
differential
Rising differential
pressure during
operation
154
The different characteristics of this increase in pressure allow for variations in the
design of filter systems. At the same time, different weightings (depending on the
particular circumstances of the plant) are applied to influential factors such as capital investment costs, energy costs and operating and maintenance costs.
Normal service life
Under normal operating conditions (i.e. at the nominal volume flow rate, normal
dust concentration and operation for 8 hours per day), a filter can be used for the
service periods shown below:
Coarse dust filter ... year
Fine dust filter
... year (with coarse dust filter fitted upstream)
Aerosol filter
1...4 years (with coarse and fine dust filters fitted upstream)
depending on runtime and flow velocity at the filter surface.
6.2.3.3. Filter types
There are numerous different types of filter. They have a wide and diverse range of
names relating to the material, mode of installation, type of use, filter class etc. Below is an example of some of the possible names for various types of filter.
Materials
Metallic filter
Fiber (or "dry") filter
Installation mode
Vertical filter
Duct filters
Use
Disposable filter
Filter class
Type of operation
Stationary filter
Automatic filter
Fig. 6-7
Here, the filter medium, with an overall thickness of approximately 50 mm, is supported in a rigid frame of perforated metal or card. Another type of construction
involves folding the medium into pleats, held apart with cardboard or plastic spacers.
155
Fig. 6-8
Pocket filters
Filter cells, filter frame with pleated filter material (to increase surface area)
Pocket filters are the most common form of dry filters. Various arrangements (such
as wedge-shaped seams, individual tacking threads, glued or stitched strips of felt
etc.) stop the pockets from billowing out. The filter consists of 6 to 12 pockets, accommodated in a frame.
Fig. 6-9
Pocket filter
Pocket filters have a particularly high dust-holding capacity and occupy relatively
little space. The ratio of filter surface area to projected surface area is in the range
20:125:1. The air flow velocity is 2.5 m/s in relation to the projected surface
area, and 1 m/s in relation to the filter surface area.
Although these filters are not normally washable, they have a long service life.
Aerosol filters
These are normally used as the last stage in a multi-stage filter (pre-filters are absolutely essential). Their primary use is in industrial applications, such as laboratories, operating theaters, clean rooms and pharmaceutical applications.
Aerosol filters often take the form of pleated filter material in an individual frame.
The effective filter area is 20 to 50 times greater than the area exposed to the flow.
For a front-on velocity of 1.5 m/s this gives a flow velocity of 2.5 cm/s.
When installing a filter, it is important to ensure a tight-sealing fit, and it is essential
that this is double-checked.
In clean rooms, because of the high volume flow rate and continuous operation,
special attention must be paid to the pressure drop, as this has a significant effect
on energy consumption. Recent developments in filter classes EU 13EU 16 (formerly S, T and U) have therefore aimed to reduce the initial pressure differential
156
(e.g. 90150 Pa). For this reason, for example, electrostatic and mechanical arrestance effects have been combined, giving a lower initial pressure differential
(e.g. 5590 Pa).
Fig. 6-10
Aerosol filters
Fig. 6-11
The filters are cleaned by washing them in washing-up liquid (this applies, for example to cooker-hood filters) or in oil or solvents, according to the type of air contaminant.
6.2.3.6. Activated carbon filters
Activated carbon filters are used for the adsorption of harmful or undesirable gaseous or vaporized impurities in the air. These include not only odors from kitchens,
lavatories, public assembly rooms, but also gases and vapors from industrial processes. The activated carbon works on the basis of physical and or chemical adsorption, depending on the state of the contaminant and the carbon.
Small external surface
area and vast adsorption surface area in the
pores of the medium
The base material for activated carbon may be coal, coconut shell or wood. The
base material is treated in a special process to produce an end-product which is
highly porous. The basic material thus has an exceptionally large surface area to
intercept the contaminant molecules. In contrast to the visible, macroscopic format
and surface area, we refer to the surface area represented by pores as the "internal" or specific surface area of the activated carbon. As a guide, we can say that
157
To enable an activated carbon filter to filter out specific contaminants, the adsorption surface area often has to be treated, or impregnated, with a chemical. Optimum adsorption requires that the activated carbon, the chemical used for impregnation and the substance to be adsorbed are present in an ideal combination. Activated carbon cannot be used for the adsorption of gases such as N2, O2 and CO2,
as these gases are always present, and the activated carbon itself already contains
these molecules.
Types of construction
Activated carbon filters are available in various forms, for example, as activated
carbon plates or regenerative activated carbon filter cartridges. The processes
used to reactivate the filter (e.g. high temperature treatment) vary considerably,
depending on the adsorbed contaminant.
Fig. 6-12
Service life
Pre-filters are absolutely essential to ensure that the effectiveness of the activated
carbon is not impaired by contamination with dust. Correctly installed and maintained, an activated carbon filter has a service life of 312 months.
6.2.3.7. Electric filters
Electric filters are quite rare in the field of ventilation and air conditioning, but they
are used in special cases (e.g. in atmospheres with a high dust-content, where 24hour operation is required, or for extract air containing oil mists, etc.)
Most electric filters operate according to Penney's principle, and consist firstly of an
ionization zone, with positively charged tungsten wires, where the incoming dust
particles attract ions, thereby acquiring a positive charge, and secondly of a dust
arrestor in the form of a plate capacitor. Depending on the type of particles to be
filtered out, the surface can be sprayed with dust-binding substances. Cleaning is
achieved by spraying with water at approximately 3040 C and can be automated
with the appropriate equipment.
Electric filters are efficient at removing dust, including the smallest particles down to
0.1 m and below (e.g. tobacco smoke, mists, pollen and bacteria). They have a
low air resistance but are costly to buy.
Electrostatic filters
158
In some cases, electric filters are used which operate according to electrostatic
principles and do not have a charging (ionization) zone. In such cases, fibrous materials can be used as the filter medium. This material is either specially processed
Increasingly, because of their ability to remove pollen etc., electric filters are even
used in small domestic plants. However, it is important to remember that the electricity consumed can be counterproductive in relation to any efforts to save energy
by use of controlled domestic ventilation plants (see 6.5).
6.2.3.8. Automatic filters
With these filters, the filter medium or layer is renewed or cleaned, either continuously or intermittently, during operation. Essentially, a distinction is made between:
Roll filters
Automatic viscous filters
With roll filters, the clean filter medium is unwound from a roller and wound onto a
second roller as it becomes increasingly dirty. The winding mechanism is driven by
an electric motor.
These filters have a more or less constant operating-pressure differential, but the
air distribution varies according to height (e.g. a higher air velocity near the top,
where the filter material is relatively clean, and a lower air velocity near the bottom,
where the filter is dirtier).
Fig. 6-13
Automatic viscous
filters
Roll filter
Automatic viscous filters operate with a continuous moving roll made up of cells or
plates. The plates are cleaned in the oil receptacle by washing them in moving oil.
The cleaned surfaces are then turned towards the air inlet. The dust washed out in
this way collects at the bottom of the oil receptacle and is removed by emptying the
oil and scraping out the sediment, or by use of a self-cleaning oil circuit.
159
6.2.4. Fans
Function
To move the air through the air handling plant. Fans generate the required volume
flow rate and the increase in pressure corresponds to the pressure loss in the plant.
Fig. 6-14
Radial fan with separate motor and fan-belt drive (for installation in a central ventilation unit)
A distinction is made between radial fans (Fig. 6-15) and axial fans (Fig. 6-16). In
air conditioning and ventilation plants, radial fans are used in principle for relative
3
small volumes of air (up to approximately 50,000 m /h) delivered at high pressure
(up to 3,000 Pa). Axial fans are used for relatively large volumes of air (>50,000
3
m /h) delivered at low pressure (up to 1,000 Pa).
Radial fans
The radial fan draws in the air by axial flow and delivers it by radial flow. The spiral
casing is designed to guide the air in this fashion. The impellers may be fitted with
forward-curved, backward-curved or straight blades.
Mechanical design
Application
Backward-curved blades
Forward-curved blades
Straight blades
4
2
1
3
Fig. 6-15
160
Radial fan with impeller (1), spiral casing (2), air inlet (3) and air outlet (4) (Source: LTG)
Axial fan
The axial fan moves the air flow in a direction parallel to the actuator shaft itself.
With the better, higher-performance versions, the swirl caused by the impeller
wheel is trapped by a fixed guide vane.
Mechanical design
Application
Wall-mounted fan
Without impeller
With impeller
Counter-impellers (2 impeller
wheels moving in opposite directions)
3
1
Fig. 6-16
Axial fan with impeller (1), guide wheel (2), air inlet (3) and air outlet (4) (Source: LTG)
Selecting the correct fan type depends on various aspects, and every type has certain advantages.
Radial fans
Low noise level
Easy speed adjustment*
Easily replaced motor *
Axial fans
Require little space
Low-cost purchase
Controlled by blade adjustment
Fan law 1
Fan law 2
(Equation 1)
Fan pressure increases as the square of the speed or volume flow rate.
2
2
n
p1 V& 1
=
= 1
p 2 V& 2
n2
Fan law 3
(Equation 2)
The motor output varies in proportion to the cube of the speed or volume flow rate
(provided the fan efficiency remains constant).
3
3
n
P1 V& 1
=
= 1
P2 V& 2
n2
(Equation 3)
161
Equation 1 expresses the fact that, for example, the volume flow rate can be
doubled by doubling the speed.
Example:
-1
If the speed of a fan is increased from 1000 to 2000 min , then the volume flow
3
rate changes from 4,000 m /h as follows:
n
V& 1 n1
2000 min -1
=
V& 2 = V& 1 2 = 4'000 m 3 /h
= 8'000 m 3 /h
n1
V& 2 n 2
1000 min -1
Equation 2 shows, for example, that doubling the volume flow rate results in four
times the pressure.
Example:
3
The fan delivers 4,000 m /h at a pressure of 350 Pa. If, as calculated above, we
now double the speed (and thus the volume flow rate) the pressure increases as
follows:
2
2
2
2
V& 2
8'000 m 3 /h
n1
p1 V& 1
=
=
= 1'400 Pa
p 2 = p1 V& = 350 Pa
3
p 2 V& 2
n2
4'000 m /h
1
Equation 3 shows, for example, that if the volume flow rate is doubled, eight
times the power is needed, or, in the reverse process, if the volume flow rate is
halved, the power consumption is reduced to 1/8 (see speed control).
Example:
If the fan is used in a VAV plant, for example, and if, while operating on low load,
3
3
it is required to deliver only 4,000 m /h instead of 8,000 m /h, the power consumption is reduced as follows from a the original 3.0 kW (at the shaft) to:
3
3
3
3
V&
4'000 m 3 /h
n
P1 V& 1
= 0.375 kW
=
= 1 P2 = P1 2 = 3.0 kW
8'000 m 3 /h
V&
P2 V& 2
n2
162
II
I
3
p3
p2
p1
n3
n4
n1
V& 1
Fig. 6-17
Confused?
V& 4
n1...n4
I, II
14
1
1 2
3
1 4
Fan curves normally look rather different from those in Fig. 6-17, and are more
likely to be presented as a confusing mass of lines, curves and scales, the meaning
of which is not always immediately apparent.
Normally, between one and three lines are measured for each fan size (volume,
pressure, required power and speed). All the other pressure/volume curves plotted
on the graph field are extrapolated on the basis of the fan laws. Note, therefore,
that
not every pressure-volume curve shown represents a line that has been measured.
163
To simplify the way in which the data is displayed, fan manufacturers use what is
referred to as a "log-log" format. The result is that the plant characteristics are no
longer shown as parabolas as in Fig. 6-17, but as straight lines via the function pt
2
= f (V ).
Fig. 6-18
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
A
164
Used to heat the supply air to the required temperature (e.g. the discharge air temperature of a room heating system).
Mechanical design
based on working
media
Finned-pipe heat exchanger, operated with low temperature hot water, high temperature hot water or refrigerant vapor (Fig. 6-19)
Electric heating coils (Fig. 6-21)
Heating coils are used as pre-heaters or re-heaters in air heating and air conditioning plants.
Fig. 6-19
Finned-pipe heating coil and example of installation in a plant (with a mixing circuit)
Heat exchangers normally show a non-linear response in terms of the mass flow
passing through them and the associated output. Depending on how they are constructed and on the supply temperatures, this "heat transfer characteristic" varies
from a steep curve to a shallow curve, as expressed by the "a-value". The characteristic curve of the heat exchanger is shown in relation to the maximum volume
& 100
flow rate V& 100 and the maximum output Q
.
Fig. 6-20
Electric heating coils have a number of built-in spiral heating elements which become hot as the current flows through them. They emit the heat acquired in this
way into the air. They are installed in areas where there is no hot water heating, or
where the connection point is too far away, or where, for other reasons, an LTHW
heating coil cannot be used. Owing to the risk of fire, electric heating coils require
special safety arrangements and devices (e.g. safety thermostat, fan run-on etc.)
165
Fig. 6-21
Electric heating coil (steel pipes with integrated heating coils; Source: Loysch)
Fig. 6-22
1
2
Example of installation of a chilled water cooling coil in the plant (with diverting circuit)
Fig. 6-23
166
6.2.8. Humidifiers
Principles
Air washers
Water is pumped from a reservoir into the spray nozzles distributed in the air flow.
The majority of the fine droplets evaporate and become steam, in the process of
which the latent heat of vaporization is extracted from the air flow. Since the energy
required for evaporation is taken solely from the air, the air cools down (adiabatic
cooling). The non-evaporated water droplets are separated in a drip screen at the
air washer outlet, and then routed back to the collecting tray.
2
1
2
3
3
4
Fig. 7-15
Fig. 6-24
1
2
3
4
Water atomizers
Spray nozzles (several adjacent rows, often with the spray directed against the air flow)
Drip screen
Collecting tray
Circulating pump
The water is converted by use of atomizing nozzles into a fine spray mist. The water droplets or "aerosols" are so small that they are initially suspended in the air,
and then evaporate completely. The latent heat of vaporization is removed from the
air, which becomes slightly cooler (adiabatic cooling).
Fig. 6-25
167
Surface water
evaporator
Porous ceramic plates with a large surface area are located downstream of the water atomizer described above. Any aerosols which have not yet evaporated are
trapped by these plates and then evaporate fully (see Fig. 6-25).
Cold water
steam humidifier
In plants required to satisfy stringent hygiene requirements, cold water steam generators can be used for humidification. Compared with the methods of humidification described above, the characteristic features of a cold water steam generator
are a much lower consumption of water and energy.
The incoming air is first made to vibrate by means of infrared sound generator, for
example, or alternatively, it may be passed through a vortex grid designed to create
turbulence. The water is then injected into the air at high pressure at high pressure
(20150 bar) through nozzles. The vibration or turbulence ensure that the air in
this process is well mixed. In this case too, latent heat of vaporization absorbs the
humidity in the air. This causes a drop in the temperature of the treated air (along
the line of enthalpy in the h,x diagram, or psychrometric chart).
1 2
Fig. 6-26
1
2
3
4
Air turbulence
Atomizer nozzle(s)
Mixing zone
Drip screen
168
Water is fully evaporated first, and only then is it injected into the air (there is no
adiabatic cooling of the air). Steam humidification is becoming increasingly common in comfort air conditioning plants, and is gradually replacing the use of evaporative humidifiers in plants where there is no requirement to cool the air at the same
time. Steam is hygienic and free of bacteria.
The evaporator (an "electrode boiler") contains heating electrodes which degrade
over time (see Fig. 6-27). Further, because the limescale from the water remains in
the evaporator, the complete electrode boiler has to be replaced at regular intervals. Modulating control of these steam humidifiers can be arranged, subject to the
appropriate electronic interfaces.
3
4
1
1
B17-15
Fig. 6-27
1
2
3
4
5
Condensate pipe
Connection to water supply
2
2
1
1
Fig. 6-28
Steam humidifier with control valve (1) and manifold (2) for externally generated steam
169
6.2.9. Dehumidification
There are three basic methods of removing humidity from the air:
Cooling the air, so causing the water to condense
Absorption of water in hygroscopic liquids
Adsorption of the water vapor (steam) on solid surfaces
Cooling with
condensation
This method of drying the air involves cooling the air with a cooling medium which
is cold enough to condense the water in the air. This humidification process is
therefore simultaneously an air cooling process.
It is noteworthy that the air does not necessarily have to be cooled to its dew point
temperature. It is sufficient if the temperature of the cooling surface is below the
dew point temperature of the air. The chiller or cooling coil does not even have to
be very large. This is because even cooling the air very slightly causes condensation.
The same cooling media can be used for humidification as are normally used for
cooling, i.e. chilled water (produced in a chiller or refrigeration machine), surface
water from lakes and rivers, brine etc., and the various refrigerants used for direct
cooling.
Air conditioning plants frequently use this principle to dehumidify the air while simultaneously reducing its temperature. The same method is also common in mobile units, which can be used irrespective of their location.
Absorption
Here the water is dissolved in a hygroscopic liquid, thereby diluting the liquid. The
amount of vapor absorbed increases with the concentration of water vapor in the
air, with increasing pressure and with a fall in temperature. Hygroscopic liquids are
normally regenerated by heating.
The most commonly used hygroscopic liquids are salt solutions of lithium chloride,
lithium bromide or calcium chloride in water.
Adsorption
With this method of dehumidification, the water vapor collects on the surface area
of a solid, porous material, the "adsorbent", which is made up of the smallest possible pores.
The usual material for the adsorption of water vapor is sodium silicate, better
known as silica gel. It consists of 90% SiO2 and has an internal surface area of up
2
to 1,000 m /g.
In the adsorption process, the heat of adsorption contained in the adsorbent is
released, causing the air to rise in temperature. It may therefore be necessary to
cool the air after dehumidification by this method.
The adsorbent is regenerated by heating to approximately 150 200 C. Once it
has cooled down again, it is ready for re-use.
170
For continuous operation of an adsorption plant, two silica-gel containers are required. One adsorbs the moisture in the air while the other is being regenerated
and cooled.
The principle of adsorption for dehumidification of the air is put into practice in
"DEC" (desiccative and evaporative cooling) plants (see 6.2.11). The rotating exchanger in these plants consists of a compound of ceramic material and silica gel.
However, the temperatures required for regeneration are not as high, and this
means that that the waste heat can be utilized.
Fig. 6-29
The purpose of a heat recovery plant is to utilize the heat contained in the extract
air.
Heat recovery plants are among the most important air handling components, because they significantly reduce energy consumption in air conditioning plants. This
is why reference is also often made to energy recovery plants (see VDI 2071). In
many places their use is a statutory requirement.
6.2.10.1. Types of heat recovery
Mixing of recirculated
air (bypass control)
If required, some of the extract air from the room can be mixed directly with the
outside air, via a bypass. The result is a mixed-air temperature and humidity in the
air flow, which can then be re-conditioned as required. The outside air, exhaust air
and recirculated air dampers are normally mechanically interconnected, as illustrated below. The outside air damper is only closed to the minimum permissible
position (for reasons of air quality). Recirculated air is often mixed with outside air
in heat-up mode. In VDI 2701, this type of plant is not regarded as a heat recovery
plant.
2
B73-9
Fig. 6-30
1
2
3
171
Recuperators
These have fixed walls which segregate the exhaust air flow from the outside air
flow. They are normally designed as cubes consisting of plates, but some are constructed with pipes. The material (e.g. aluminum, chromium steel, glass or synthetic
materials) depends on the application and the state and quality of the air. The output is controlled by a bypass damper (normally in the outside air duct) which forces
some of the outside air across the heat exchanger, at the same time preventing the
extract air from becoming too cold, and so preventing icing.
4
2
Fig. 6-31
1
2
Regenerators
Rotary heat exchangers
Outside air
Supply air
3
4
Extract air
Exhaust air
Outside air and extract air is passed alternately across a rotating, cellular storage
mass. The extent of the heat transfer can be varied by changing the speed of the
rotor. With a hygroscopic coating of the surface area of the storage medium, it is
possible to transfer humidity or enthalpy as well.
1
4
2
B17-9
Fig. 6-32
1
2
172
Outside air
Supply air
3
4
Extract air
Exhaust air
Run-around coil
heat exchanger
Two finned-pipe heat exchangers are located, one in the outside air flow and the
other in the extract air flow. The heat is transferred between the two units via a hydraulic circuit, normally containing a water/glycol mixture as the heat transfer medium. The heat transfer medium itself is circulated with a circulating pump. A threeport diverting valve can be used to control the amount of heat transferred.
This type of heat recovery is used primarily in cases where the outside air and extract air are physically some distance apart, or in the case of plant renovation.
Icing protection
Icing protection is particularly important with run-around coil heat exchangers (see
Fig. 6-33). At very low outdoor temperatures, the transfer medium (water/glycol
mixture) is cooled down significantly by the outside air. If (because of the cold
transfer medium) the temperature falls below the dew point of the extract air, the
moisture in the air condenses, and the heat exchanger on the extract air side may
"ice up". For this reason it is particularly important to select the correct hydraulic
circuit and install the diverting valve (4) and limit sensor (5) in the correct location.
2
1
B17-10
Fig. 6-33
1
2
3
4
5
Outside air
Exhaust air
Circulating pump
Three-port diverting valve
Limit sensor (icing protection)
173
Heat recovery
"efficiency"
The effectiveness of heat or humidity transfer is expressed in terms of a heat recovery or humidity recovery ratio. These represent the relationship between the
actual change in the temperature or humidity of the outside air and the theoretically
possible change. This is also sometimes expressed in terms "temperature approach" or transfer or change efficiency (e.g. temperature change efficiency, enthalpy transfer efficiency).
EXH.
EXTR.
12
11
21
22
OA
SA
2 =
t 22 t 21
t 11 t 21
where
t11
t12
t21
t22
2 =
x 22 x 21
x 11 x 21
x11
x12
x21
x22
For the operation of air conditioning plants in winter (where t11 > t21 and x11 > x21)
and in high summer (where t11 < t21 and x11 < x21), the heat recovery can be described in terms of enthalpy transfer efficiency:
Enthalpy transfer efficiency
h2 =
Properties of various
heat recovery systems
h 22 h 21
h11 h 21
Possibility of mixed
flow / cross-leakage
Transfer efficiency/
heat recovery ratio 1)
Pressure loss on
air side 1)
Recuperators
Plate / pipe
Yes
No
45...65%
150...300 Pa
Yes
70...90%
50...100 Pa
70...90%
50...100 Pa
40...70%
100..200 Pa
heat exchangers
Regenerators
Rotary heat exchanger
Yes
without hygroscopic
(slight)
coating
Rotary heat exchanger
Yes
with hygroscopic
Yes
(likely)
coating
Run-around coil system
Fig. 6-34
174
No
No
Principle of operation
(in summer)
After the normal filtering process, the outside air (e.g. at 32 C and 35% rh) is dehumidified in an adsorption system (1). This dehumidification is a continuous process, and virtually adiabatic. The heat of adsorption released in this process is emitted into the air flow, thereby heating up the outside air.
The basic thinking underlying DEC technology is the replacement of the conventional generation of cooling energy in air conditioning plants (with electrically operated compressors) by a method involving air dehumidification functions. To do this,
a special process is used which combines the familiar process of adiabatic cooling
with adsorptive dehumidification (see 6.2.9). Normally, solid sorbent media with a
proven record are used (e.g. silica gel). The motive energy for this process (see 5
in Fig. 6-35) is heat, at not too high a temperature, which is often available in the
form of waste heat especially in summer. From the diagram below, it can be seen
that this process takes place at a relatively high temperature compared with the air
temperature (regenerative heating coils up to 70 C).
The dry warm air is then pre-cooled in a regenerative heat exchanger (2) (which, in
winter, is used to preheat the outside air via the extract air). The air, pre-cooled in
this way, is then passed through an evaporative humidifier (3) which brings it to the
required supply air temperature and humidity.
In a second evaporative humidifier (4) the extract air temperature is reduced to enhance the pre-cooling of the supply air in the heat exchanger (2). The extract air is
warmed in this process. The heating (5) is then used for reheating, in order to regenerate the adsorption heat exchanger (1). This causes the extract air to cool
down, and the humidity to increase. This process is also referred to as "adiabatic
desorption".
II
1
5
EXH
4
1
EXT
5
I
1
2
3
OA
Fig. 6-35
SA
1
2
3
4
5
I
II
175
Fig. 6-36
Various air diffusers: Swirl diffuser; ball diffuser rail; special ceiling diffuser (Source:Trox)
176
All-air systems
Room heating and cooling with air only
in a low velocity plant
or a high velocity plant
Single-duct system
with variable
volume flow rate
with constant
volume flow rate
Single-zone
systems
with variable
volume flow rate
with constant
volume flow rate
Multi-zone
systems
Air/water systems
Energy transfer via air and water
with local heat exchanger in the room
Systems
Induction
Fan
with local
systems
convector
reheaters /
Chilled ceiling/
systems
displacement
ventilation system
cooling coils
2-pipe
system
3-pipe
system
4-pipe
system
- With changeover
(changeover system)
Summer: chilled water
Winter: LTHW
- Without changeover
Fig. 6-37
177
5
8
4
B17-21
9
Fig. 6-38
1
2
3
4
5
10
All-air system
Outside air
Exhaust air
Supply air
Extract air
Room
6.3.1.1.
6
7
8
9
10
Recirculated air
Primary air handling
Air ducts (supply and extract air)
Boiler
Refrigeration machine
In this system (Fig. 6-39), the entire volume of supply air is prepared in the primary
plant and then delivered to the rooms via the duct system. The output is adjusted
on the basis of the state of the extract air; this takes place in the primary plant only.
Plants with primary air handling only are suitable for air conditioning in open-plan
offices and in groups of rooms with equally varying loads. Varying loads which constantly differ from one individual room or zone to another can only be accommodated by modifying the air volume at start-up.
7
1
6
2
5
Fig. 6-39
1
2
3
4
178
Outside air
Exhaust air
Supply air
Extract air
5
6
7
Room or zone
Recirculated air
Primary air handling
10
10
Fig. 6-40
1
2
3
4
5
6
11
Outside air
Exhaust air
Supply air
Extract air
Room
Recirculated air
7
8
9
10
11
In single-duct systems with centralized after-treatment for the zones (Fig. 6-41), the
after-treatment takes place immediately downstream of the primary plant. In this
case, the LTHW, CHW or steam pipes are only need to be installed in the plant
room. The air ducts to the zones, on the other hand, need to be heat-insulated, so
that the energy transferred to the air in the after-treatment process is not wasted in
the distribution process.
179
11
2
5
10
11
4
12
13
II
III
B17-24
Fig. 6-41
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Outside air
Exhaust air
Supply air
Extract air
Recirculated air
Filter
Preheater
8
9
10
11
12
13
Cooling coil
Humidifier
Reheater
Fan
After-treatment unit (reheater)
Zone valve
The after treatment units are standard finned-pipe heat exchangers and air humidifiers as described in section 6.2. The choice of humidifier depends largely on where
it is to be installed. All types can be used in the plant room or zone duct, as all the
necessary incoming and outgoing pipes can be installed without great difficulty. For
terminal unit installation before the zone, only steam humidifiers are suitable in
most cases.
These plants are used in buildings with a small number of relatively large zones,
with a correspondingly high supply air volume flow rate (>1,500 m3/h).
They are unsuitable for buildings with numerous smaller zones due to the large
amount of space required for the ducts. For the same reason, the zones must neither be too far apart nor too far away from the primary plant. To avoid wasting energy, it is important that the required supply air temperatures in the individual zones
do not differ greatly.
6.3.1.3. Multi-zone system with multi-zone primary plant
Multi-zone systems are ideal for buildings with a small number of zones but which
require a relatively large volume of air (e.g. shopping centers or conference halls in
hotels) and have different heating and cooling loads in each zone (Fig. 6-42).In the
primary plant, the outside air and recirculated air are first mixed, and the total volume of supply air is filtered and preheated. When it leaves the supply air fan, the
supply air flow is split into two separate air streams (Fig. 6-43. One of these passes
through the reheater and the other across the cooling coil. The hot and cold air
streams are then mixed via the zone dampers to provide the individual supply air
temperature required for each zone. The zone dampers are arranged vertically,
with a hot and a cold air damper on the same damper shaft. The cold air damper is
set at an angle of 90 in relation to the hot air damper, so that whenever the cold
air damper is closed, the hot air damper is fully open. The supply air is distributed
to the individual zones by provision of the appropriate number of zone dampers.
180
6
5
4
Fig. 6-42
1
2
B17-25
Multi-zone system
Outside air
Multi-zone primary plant
3
Supply air ducts (low pressure)
46 Individual zones
2
4
5
9
6
A
8
1a
B
1
3 4
7
Fig. 6-43
1
2
3
4
5
6
B17-26
Outside air
Recirculated air
Minimum outside air duct
Minimum outside air cooling coil
Filter
Preheater
7
8
9
1a
A
B
Fan
Cooling coil
Heating coil
Zone dampers
Hot air
Cold air
The reheater is always located at the top and the cooling coil at the bottom, to ensure that any condensate does not come into contact with the reheater, where it
would be re-evaporated.
Multi-zone systems are designed as low velocity systems. In terms of volume, this
means that the ducts need to be relatively large, and should not, therefore be
routed over long distances. In addition, in relation to the consumption of heating
and cooling energy (mixing losses), it is preferable if the supply air temperatures
required in individual zones do not differ too widely from each other (< 5K).
6.3.1.4. Dual duct systems
The term "dual duct" refers to two parallel air ducts, one hot and one cold, which
are routed to each room (Fig. 6-44). As with single-duct systems, the extract duct is
not taken into account here either. However, to minimize space requirements as
much as possible, the duct system is normally designed as a high velocity system.
The air streams are expanded from high pressure to low pressure and the air is
mixed in the required ratio of hot to cold air in specially constructed mixing boxes
installed in the rooms. The mixing ratio is controlled by the room temperature controller.
181
9
10
11
6
2
12
4
3
5
Fig. 6-44
1
2
3
4
5
6
Dual duct system with dehumidification of the overall supply air flow
Outside air
Exhaust air
Supply air
Extract air
Room
Dampers
7
8
9
10
11
12
In the early days of air conditioning technology, when energy consumption was not
seen as important, the hot and cold air ducts were operated at the same temperatures all year round. As a result, especially with low loads, energy consumption was
unnecessarily high, because heating energy was used to compensate for cooling
energy. So for example, a mixing air temperature of 20 C was reached in the mixing chamber in the primary air conditioning plant. Half of this was then cooled to
10 C while the other half was heated to 30 C. At the end of this process, both air
streams were mixed (yet again!) in the mixing boxes to a temperature of approximately 20 C.
Once energy consumption became a serious issue, planners stopped using dualduct systems until control technology eventually overcame the problem of unnecessary energy consumption in this otherwise convenient solution. Today, the supply
air temperature setpoints do not remain constant. Instead, the hot-air temperature
is always defined by the highest, and the cold-air temperature by the lowest supply
temperature setpoint transmitted by all the connected room temperature controllers. Modern digital technology allows us to read the current values via a building
bus and to select the maximum and minimum values at any given time. This helps
reduce mixing losses. Rooms with the maximum cooling load will receive cold air
only, while those with the maximum heating load will receive hot air only, and rooms
with a moderate heating or cooling load will receive a mixture of hot and cold air.
In the primary plant, the air for the cold air duct is brought to the correct temperature and dehumidified, and the air for the hot air duct is heated and perhaps dehumidified. The arrangement of the cooling coil as shown in Fig. 6-44 enables controlled dehumidification of the overall supply air flow. Combining this arrangement
with steam humidification in the hot air duct results in a full air conditioning plant
with room temperature and humidity control. This level of comfort has to be paid
for in terms of relatively high energy consumption to dehumidify and subsequently
reheat the supply air, and is therefore now only permitted in special cases. The
standard solution for normal comfort control is the arrangement shown in Fig. 6-45,
involving partial, non-regulated dehumidification through condensation from the
cold air flow.
182
15
10
5
12
14
11
3
13
Fig. 6-45
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
B17-28
Outside air
Exhaust air
Supply air
Extract air
Dampers
Filter
Preheater
Humidifier
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
The mixing boxes are designed for installation in ceiling voids or under windows.
The air outlets are normal discharge grilles or ceiling diffusers.
Fig. 6-46 shows the design principle of a dual duct mixing box. The mixing boxes
also act as expansion units, fitted simultaneously with an air mixing arrangement
(valves or dampers) and soundproofing elements. They also incorporate a mechanical volume controller, which maintains the supply air volume flow rate at a
constant level, even in the case of fluctuating pressure in the supply air ducts. Mixing boxes are also available with a variable cold-air volume flow rate (Fig. 6-47).
6
3 M
1
B17-30
B17-29
Fig. 6-46
1
2
3
4
5
T
Cold air
Hot air
Mixing valve (mixing damper)
Constant volume control
Supply air
Temperature sensor
Fig. 6-47
1
2
3
4
5
6
T
M
Cold air
Hot air
Mixing valve (mixing damper)
Constant volume controller (50%)
Cold air volume controller (up to 100%)
Supply air
Temperature sensor
Actuator motor
183
1
5
2
7
7
4
3
Fig. 6-48
1
2
3
4
5
Outside air
Exhaust air
Supply air
Extract air
Dampers
6
7
8
9
Even in the early days of air conditioning, engineers already know about the benefits of VAV systems compared with constant-volume all-air systems. However, they
were nervous of the time and cost involved in ensuring an even distribution of the
supply air even with a variable supply air volume. This was virtually impossible
with fixed discharge vents such as perforated ceilings or grille-style diffusers. It was
necessary to wait until special air diffusers with built-in control of the air volume
became available at a reasonable price. Major efforts on the part of the manufacturers of control equipment and their development teams finally bore fruit and led to
the breakthrough of VAV system technology.
184
Fig. 6-49
With displacement ventilation, the treated air is introduced into the room near floor
level at a temperature slightly below room temperature, and with laminar flow or
minimal turbulence (Fig. 6-50). The supply air temperature should be lower than
the room temperature by no more than 13 K in offices (and up to 8 K in factories). At the same time, however, (to avoid cold drafts at foot level) it should be less
than 21 C in offices (or 17 C in industrial premises). The discharge velocity is approximately 0.2 m/s in offices and up to 0.6 m/s in other applications. This allows
the formation of a "cold air pool" in the occupied space. The thermal buoyancy created by people and equipment in the room causes the air to rise towards the ceiling, where it extracted. Due to the fact that the cold air only rises towards the ceiling in the vicinity of heat sources, the heat and any contaminant load is removed
directly where it arises, without being circulated throughout the room. This makes it
possible to maintain good air quality with relatively small volumes of air (i.e. more
effective ventilation). The normal number of air changes in this process is in the
range 14 h-1.
The ventilation principle described above only works with supply air at a relatively
low temperature. Displacement ventilation plants are not suitable for room heating,
because the hot air at the outlet would rise immediately. For this reason there is a
need for static heating using radiators or convection heaters under the window.
This type of heating can also be used for base load heating when the air conditioning plant is switched off.
To maintain thermal comfort in the occupied spaces, a certain distance must be
maintained from the air outlets (see 3 in Fig. 6-50).
185
25 ... 27 C
0,1 m/s
= 24 25 C
0,1 m/s
24 C
ca. 1 m
< 0,2 m/s
> 21 C
0,15 m/s
1
Fig. 6-50
1
2
3
22 C
Removal of small
cooling loads only
Owing to the fact that the supply air temperature is only 13 K lower than the room
temperature, only very small cooling loads have to be dissipated. This is why displacement ventilation is combined with additional cooling surfaces in the room, e.g.
chilled ceilings.
Fields of application
Displacement ventilation is especially suitable for rooms where loads do not fluctuate widely, or in areas where air quality is of particular importance (e.g. in manufacturing, sports halls, hotels, theaters, schools and restaurants). This system, especially in conjunction with chilled ceilings, is capable of meeting very stringent comfort requirements.
6.3.2.2. Chilled ceilings
With air, which is a poor conductor, it is often not possible to deliver sufficient cooling energy to the room, because the air cannot be discharged at an air temperature
as low as is sometimes required. For this reason, an air conditioning plant is often
combined with static cooling components. The main task of the air conditioning
plant in this case is to replace the stale indoor air. The static cooling components,
either mounted on the ceiling, or an integral part of it (thus "chilled ceiling") cool the
room to the required temperature, using water as the cooling medium. The mechanisms by which sensible heat is dissipated are thermal radiation (from all warmer
surfaces with sightlines to the ceiling) and thermal convection (for air cooled at ceiling level and moving downward).
For sealed chilled ceilings, the proportion is approximately 60% radiation to 40%
convection they are therefore called "radiant chilled ceiling systems". There are
also other systems, in which the ratio is the other way round, with more convection
than radiation, and these are referred to as convective chilled ceilings or convective
chilled beams.
The radiant chilled ceilings available on the market today have a cooling effect of
up to 125 W/m2, while convective chilled beams are capable of as much as 160
2
W/m .
186
Risk of condensation at
temperatures below
dew point
Fig. 6-51
Chilled beams
5
7
B17-33
Fig. 6-52
1
2
3
4
Control elements
Finned-pipe heat exchanger
Fan
Adjustable supply air grille
5
6
7
187
A good way of operating a fan coil system is by use of a water/water heat pump, in
which the condenser generates the heat for the heating circuit, and the evaporator
generates the cooling energy for the cooling circuit. This configuration also provides optimum heat recovery between the heating and cooling circuit. Further, the
hot-water storage tank required for operation of the heat pump can be combined
with a solar collector circuit, because the hot water flow temperature for the heating
circuit can be relatively low.
Fan coil units fitted with a direct expansion cooling coil make up the ventilation part
of a "DX split system" (see 6.4.4). For heating purposes, the unit also incorporates
an LTHW heating coil or in exceptional cases, an electric heating coil.
Fan coil units are ideal for heating and cooling the air in hotel rooms. In heating
mode, an outdoor temperature compensated central heating system (floor heating)
provides the base load heating, for example by maintaining the room at approximately 15 C in economy mode. After switching to comfort mode, the fan coil unit
reaches the required comfort temperature within just a few minutes. The fan coil
units in all the other rooms remain off.
6.3.2.4. Fan coil units with primary air and induction systems
If the air conditioned rooms in a building require a constant proportion of outside air
of at least one air change per hour while the building is in use, it may not be possible to achieve this by opening windows at regular intervals. In such cases, the air is
heated centrally and humidified if necessary, or (depending on outside air conditions) cooled centrally and dehumidified if necessary). It is then distributed to the
individual rooms in the form of "primary air" via the high velocity or low velocity duct
system. Either fan coil units or induction units are located in each individual room to
heat or cool the room air.
Fan coil units
with primary air
The primary air is distributed round the building via a high velocity or low velocity
duct system, and it can be discharged directly into the room, either through the fan
coil units (Fig. 6-53) or through separate air diffusers (Fig. 6-54).
2
3
4
8
9
7
1
10
B17-34
Fig. 6-53
1
2
3
4
5
188
Fan coil unit with primary air supplied via the fan coil unit
Outside air
Exhaust air
Supply air
Recirculated air
Fan coil unit
6
7
8
9
10
Room
Primary air handling in the central plant
Boiler
Chiller
Alternative route for primary air supply
1
3
5
2
B17-35
Fig. 6-54
1
6
3
4
Fan coil unit with primary air supplied directly to the room
Primary air
Exhaust air
Supply air
Recirculated air
5
6
7
Fan-coil unit
Outer zone
Inner zone
The air flow in a high velocity duct system has to be expanded to reduce it to a low
velocity air flow before it is discharged into the room or fan coil unit. In principle, the
heating or cooling load in the room or zone is handled by the water system. However, any necessary humidification or dehumidification can be carried out at the
primary air handling stage. To avoid interfering with room temperature control, the
primary air is normally discharged into the room at a constant temperature, which
generally corresponds to the room temperature heating setpoint.
Induction systems
The typical and most commonly used air/water system is the induction system. It is
suitable for the same area of application as a fan coil system with primary air. Like
fan coil units, the induction units located in the rooms accommodate the necessary
finned-pipe heat exchangers to heat or cool the indoor air or secondary air. However, no fans are required with induction units. The centrally treated outside air is
distributed through the building in the form of primary air via a high-velocity duct
system and delivered to the individual induction units (Fig. 6-55).
Instead of a fan, the induction units incorporate a sound-absorbent primary air
chamber fitted with plastic nozzles through which the primary air is injected at high
velocity into a mixing chamber where a negative pressure is generated. Due to this
negative pressure, the room air is drawn in (or "induced") in the form of "secondary
air", and passed across the finned-pipe heat exchanger where it is heated or
cooled as necessary (Fig. 6-56).
Depending on the design of the unit, the induction ratio of primary air to secondary
air is normally between 1:2 and 1:4.
189
2
7
1
6
9
4
B17-36
10
Fig. 6-55
1
2
3
4
5
Outside air
Exhaust air
Supply air
Recirculated air (secondary air)
Room
6
7
8
9
10
Induction unit
Primary air handling in the central plant
Primary air duct
Boiler
Refrigeration machine
4
5
6
6
1
5
4
Fig. 6-56
1
2
3
Induction uni
Primary air
Secondary air (room air)
Supply air
190
Chilled ceiling
induction system
The chilled ceiling induction system can be considered as a special type of induction unit.
3
4
1
5
5
B17-38
Fig. 6-57
1
2
3
4
5
Induction units, designed as chilled beams (Fig. 6-57), supply the primary air and
cool the room air, while the room is heated with standard radiator or convector
heating. The result is ideal draft-free ventilation, because the system works on the
basis of the natural gravitational circulation of the air. The air which is heated in the
room, and is therefore lighter, rises to the ceiling, where it is cooled and mixed with
primary air. It then sinks again, because of its now increased density.
6.3.2.5. Hydraulic connection of fan coil and induction systems
The required heating and cooling energy is delivered to the rooms solely via the
hydraulic circuits. The hot or cold water (LTHW or CHW) prepared in the primary
plant transfers its heating or cooling energy in a fan coil unit (fan convector) or induction unit to the room air. These systems are therefore especially suitable for
rooms such as hotel rooms with window ventilation, where there is no need for
forced ventilation with outside air.
Two-pipe system
In respect of the hydraulic circuits, a distinction is made between two-pipe, threepipe and four-pipe systems. The two-pipe system (Fig. 6-58) can be used for heating only or cooling only, because the same hydraulic circuit is used for both heating
and cooling.
The system is switched from heating to cooling mode ("changeover") in the primary
energy production plant. Problems can arise in this system in the transition time
from heating to cooling mode and vice versa, because if the heat loads are different, some rooms may need to be heated while others need to be cooled.
191
4
2
3
1
7
7
Fig. 6-58
1
2
3
4
Recirculated air
Supply air
Room air heating and cooling unit
Room
5
6
7
Boiler
Water chiller
Changeover valves
Three-pipe system
The three-pipe system has a separate CHW and LTHW flow circuit and a common
return. Although this solves the problem of simultaneous heating and cooling
modes, it does waste energy, because the heating energy available in the common
return has to be recooled in the refrigeration machine, and the cooling energy has
to be reheated in the heat producer.
Four-pipe system
A neat solution for the problems described above is the four-pipe system with two
separate hydraulic circuits, one for heating and the other for cooling.
192
44 C
14
2
12
12
10
5
32 C
15 C
3
1
9
8
15
4
6
11
25 C
13
B17-17
Fig. 6-59
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Principle of operation
Window unit
Outside air
Exhaust air
Supply air
Recirculated air
Fans
Evaporator
Compressor
Condenser
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Expansion valve
Refrigerant circuit
Air filter
Ventilation grille
Condensate trap
Housing
Window
Room
The room air is drawn in by a fan, cooled and partially dehumidified in the evaporator and returned to the room via an air discharge grille. The required proportion of
outside air can be adjusted manually via an internal damper. A second fan draws in
outside air to cool the condenser, and then discharges it back into the environment.
The condensate from the room air which collects in the evaporator is either drained
away externally, or sprayed on the condenser, where it evaporates. The window air
conditioner is thus a small packaged refrigerating system with a fully hermetically
sealed compressor and an air-cooled condenser. The thermodynamics of the refrigeration cycle are described in Section 4, "Refrigeration technology".
193
liver the refrigerant to the console air conditioner. Units with water-cooled condensers can also be installed either as fixed hydraulic connections or as portable units
with the water connected by hose.
Electric or LTHW heating coils can be installed as auxiliary components in these
units. Console air conditioners capable of heating and cooling are also available on
the market. In these units, too, the system changes from heating to cooling via a
four-port valve, by reversing the direction of refrigerant flow.
5 6 7 8 9
1
Fig. 6-60
1
2
3
4
5
10
3 4
Motor compressor
Capacitor
Copper-nickel condenser
Pressure switch, high/low-pressure
Air filter
6
7
8
9
10
Evaporator
Room thermostat
Controller
Fan
Adjustable outlet grille
194
Fig. 6-61 shows the functional design of a cupboard air conditioner. The principles
are the same as for the console air conditioner.
17
5
3
12
15
6
14
9
13
1
5
2
2
10
11
16
Fig. 6-61
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Application
Outside air
Exhaust air
Supply air
Recirculated air
Fan
Evaporator
Compressor
Condenser
Expansion valve
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Refrigerant line
Housing
Ventilation grille
Damper
Air filter
Electric heating coil
External wall
Room
Smaller cupboard air conditioners can be used as individual room air conditioning
units with or without ductwork. Larger units are normally used for a group of rooms
or zone. Typical examples of application are offices and shops etc.
A special version of these cupboard air conditioners can be used to dehumidify the
air in swimming pools. The recirculated air is first cooled and dehumidified in the
direct expansion evaporator and then reheated in the built-in air-cooled condenser.
195
the air, an auxiliary component, a heating coil, can be installed as a reheater in the
recirculated air unit.
Split air conditioning units are available with refrigeration capacities from approximately 10 to 500 kW.
9
6
12
14
3
13
4
5
11
10 7
1
8
Fig 6-62
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Condenser
Expansion valve
Refrigerant line
Condenser set
Fan-coil unit
Ventilation grille
Filter
Looking at the development of the heating energy demand in residential and office
buildings, we can see that improved construction of the building shell (insulation,
windows, etc. reducing transmission losses) is the principal cause of reduced demand.
Ventilation heat losses represent an ever greater proportion of the heat demand,
and is now often as large as the heat demand required for distribution.
A reduction in energy consumption as specified in standards and regulations in
various European countries can be achieved with tight-sealing windows and appropriately insulated brickwork. However, if this results in a failure to ensure the
required number of air changes, poor air quality becomes a serious problem, owing
to humidity, radon, organic compounds, formaldehyde and other substances emitted by the building fabric, furniture and fittings etc.
196
Controlled mechanical
ventilation reduces
ventilation heating
demand
Window ventilation is not only inadequate for highly insulated buildings, but also
undermines any attempt at saving energy. It is therefore vital to give serious consideration to the installation of a ventilation system. The ventilation heating demand
can only be reduced rationally and without the potential damage caused by humidity, by use of a controlled mechanical ventilation system with heat recovery.
Domestic comfort is improved by installing controlled mechanical ventilation because
disturbing noise from outside can be reduced (no need to open windows)
The outside air is filtered, and is free of dirt, dust, insects and pollen when it enters the room; this is a huge benefit to allergy sufferers.
Controlled mechanical ventilation plant should always be fitted with a heat recovery
system, as it is otherwise impossible to satisfy the various standards and regulations applicable to ventilation heating demand. The economical use of energy is an
equally important consideration, and this cannot be achieved with three-phase AC
motors. This type of equipment is therefore often fitted with DC or DC commutator
motors.
Individual room
ventilation units
Individual room units are installed directly on the external wall or window sill. The
have the advantage of being easy to install, and supply the room with filtered outside air, which is preheated by utilizing the heat recovered from the extract air. The
noise level associated with the individual room unit is often seen as a drawback,
and the fan is not very efficient mechanically.
Fig. 6-63
Individual ventilation
system (for a single
apartment)
A separate ventilation system is installed for each apartment. The outside air is filtered and heated via the heat recovery system before being supplied to the living
areas and bedrooms. The extract air is drawn through outlets in the bathrooms and
toilets; this "stale" air flows from the living areas and bedrooms through vents in the
doors or via special sound-insulated diffusers built into the ceilings. These systems
often have 3-speed fans, allowing the user to adapt the supply air volume to requirements. There is no problem with noise in living areas, because the ventilation
unit itself can be installed in a location where it will not be a nuisance in this regard.
The mechanical efficiency of the fans is often quite low.
197
Some individual ventilation units are also fitted with heat pumps. These can remove
heat from the extract air and use it to heat the domestic water.
Fig. 6-64
Central ventilation
systems for multifamily homes
In the case of central ventilation systems for multi-family homes, the air is conditioned centrally and then supplied to the individual apartments. A certain amount of
space is therefore required for the ducting. Depending on how the heating costs
are billed, it may also be necessary to install the heat recovery system locally, i.e. in
individual apartments. This increases the complexity of the system and can lead to
higher costs.
An advantage of this solution is that mechanically, the fans are highly efficient.
In buildings with centralized ventilation systems but also for individual ventilation
units the outside air can be supplied via an "earth-to-air" heat exchanger. The
outside air is passed through pipes set into the ground. In this way, the outside air
is slightly preheated in winter and slightly pre-cooled in summer, thereby providing
minimal cooling in the living areas.
Maintenance of
residential ventilation
systems
None of the domestic ventilation systems described above require much maintenance, apart from the filters, which must be replaced regularly. This is something of
a problem in practice, especially in the case of individual room units and individual
systems, because not all users carry out this task regularly. In a central ventilation
system, however, it can be done by the plant operator.
198
7.
7.1. Introduction
As the title indicates, this section deals with measurement and control technology.
This subject has received a new and important meaning through the development
of building automation and control systems with direct digital control (DDC). With
the present state of development of building automation and control systems and
the associated market potential we are seeing the growth of an independent, interdisciplinary field of design engineering encompassing measuring and control technology, and building automation and control. Consulting engineers specializing in
measuring and control technology are increasingly offering their services for the
design of systems for control, operational management and optimization of energy
consumption for the entire range of building services.
The scope and context of measuring and control technology are defined in the following DIN standard:
DIN 19226
VDI
ISO
Self-learning program
"Automatic control in
HVAC systems"
This section gives basic definitions and describes basic functions, but for further
study of control technology, we recommend the computer-based training (CBT)
module "Automatic control in HVAC systems" available from Siemens Building
Technologies. This is an ideal module for self-tuition.
To obtain the CBT program, please contact your local Siemens Building Technologies representative (Sales or Training).
199
7.2. Measurement
The term "measuring technology" covers all the methods and equipment used to
determine empirically (i.e. to measure) numerically quantifiable variables in the
fields of science and technology. Measuring technology is also used to check for
adherence to measurement tolerances, to measure consumption, to monitor production, and generally (within the context of measuring and control technology) to
control technical processes on the basis of measured values.
It has been a long hard journey through thousands of years in the history of civilization from the early days of measurement, when the first attempts were made to define length and time, to the mechanical and electronic measuring instruments used
today.
In the age of building automation and control and of facility management (management, operation, and maintenance of buildings), accurate measurement of
physical variables is vitally important. Decisions in favor of system changes, or
statements about energy consumption and building maintenance costs all depend
on the accuracy of the recorded measurements. Within the control loop, exact
measurement is critically important for the accuracy and stability of the associated
control. The selection of the correct measuring device is a decisive factor to obtain
a correct measurement, and correct (reliable) measurement is essential for meaningful judgments.
The basic terms associated with measuring technology are defined in DIN standard
1319 and VDI/VDE26000, Sheet 2.
Basic units
The International System of Units (SI Units) as we know it today (from the French
Systme International d'Unit) imposes a clear structure on the various units of
measurement:
Variable
Eng.
unit
Abbreviation
Thermodynamic
temperature
Kelvin
Length
meter
Time
second
Electric current
ampere
Mass
kilogram
kg
Luminous intensity
candela
cd
Amount of substance
mole
mol
Measuring is the process of determining a physical variable (the measured variable) such as temperature, humidity, pressure etc. with the appropriate measuring
device, and displaying it as a known and comparable variable, or converting it into
a standard DC 0... 10 V, 0... 20 mA signal. A standard signal of this type can be
recorded as a measured value by a chart recorder, displayed on a remote display
unit, or imported into a measured data acquisition system.
200
Rj
R1
Fig. 7-1
T
R1
Rj
D
N
Temperature sensor
Sensing element (measured variable)
Trimming resistor (to compensate for line losses)
Measuring equipment (measuring arrangement)
Voltage source
3
1
Fig. 7-2
1
2
3
4
5
4
5
z
Fan
Room temperature
Disturbance variables (e.g. sun, wind, etc.)
The controller (2) operates only in accordance with the outdoor air temperature (1)
and does not receive feedback information on the current room temperature (5). At
a given room temperature, therefore, the outdoor air/recirculated air damper (3) is
set at exactly the same position, whether or not the sun is shining directly into the
barn, and irrespective of the number of animals inside. However, this open-loop
control system does not allow to keep the room temperature at a constant value,
but only within a given range.
201
One or several input variables in an open-loop process exert an influence on variables (without feedback) other than output variables, based on the intrinsic characteristics of the system.
Control equipment
Equipment which influences the controlled process in accordance with the control
path.
Controlled variable
Open-loop control
(process)
One or several input variables in an open-loop process exert an influence on variables (without feedback) other than output variables, based on the intrinsic characteristics of the system.
Controlled process
Section of the plant to be influenced in accordance with requirements by the openloop control system.
202
The occupant of a room (see below) wants a room temperature of 20 C, but finds
by looking at a thermometer, that the current room temperature is 24 C.
The problem is the deviation between the actual temperature (x = 24 C) and the
desired temperature (w = 20 C). In this case the deviation amounts to
x w = 24 C 20 C = + 4 K (Kelvin). To lower the excessively warm room temperature to the desired value of 20 C, the person in the room firstly needs a way of
lower the heat output from the radiator (in this case, the manually adjustable radiator valve), and secondly, must have enough intelligence to work out whether the
valve needs to be opened or closed. Having partially closed the valve, the room
occupant will look at the thermometer every so often and adjust the radiator valve
accordingly, until the room temperature reaches the desired 20 C.
Fig. 7-3
w
x
y
z
Manual control
This control process, carried out by a human being is a closed control loop. The
room occupant reads room temperature x from the thermometer, compares it to the
mentally stored desired value, w, notes the difference, and thinks about how to correct it. The person then corrects the valve position y, the room temperature
changes and can be read again. The control engineer refers to this process as
"manual control".
203
Fig. 7-4
Automatic closed-loop
control
In an automatic control system (see below), the control equipment performs the
tasks of measurement, comparison, and correction. A sensor (1) measures the
room temperature x and transmits it to the controller (2). The controller compares
the measured value with the programmed setpoint w, and transmits an appropriate
positioning signal yR to the radiator valve (3). The adjustment of the valve produces
a change in the room temperature measured by the sensor. This closes the loop
again.
1
3
Fig. 7-5
1
2
3
z
Radiator valve
Disturbance variables (e.g. sun, wind, etc.)
Within the closed control loop, the room temperature sensor (1) registers every
control deviation. If, for example, the room temperature rises due to "disturbance
variables" (z) such as solar radiation, wind, or heat gains inside the room due to
electrical equipment or extra people, the heating valve is closed as far as necessary, until the desired temperature is again reached.
204
Comparison of open
and closed-loop control
We can demonstrate the main difference between open and closed-loop control by
using a mixed outdoor air/recirculated air system as an example.
Fig. 7-6 shows, on the left, open-loop control of the outside air via the outside air
temperature. Every outside air temperature value measured by the sensor (1) corresponds to a specific position of the damper, indicated by a command from the
open-loop controller (2). The mixed-air temperature changes accordingly, but the
new temperature is not fed back to the controller.
2
Fig. 7-6
1
2
3
4
x
3
Open loop control of the mixed-air temperature (left); closed-loop control of the mixed
air temperature (right)
w
x
y
Fig. 7-6 the outside air/recirculated air mixing arrangement, this time in a closed
control loop. The setpoint, w, for the mixed-air temperature is set on the controller
(4). At the controller input, the measured value, x, registered by the sensor (3) is
compared to the setpoint, w. In the event of a deviation, the controller adjusts the
damper position until the mixed-air temperature is equal to the programmed setpoint.
Example: Open and
closed loop control of
a heating system
The most common type of domestic heating control, outdoor-temperature compensated flow temperature control, is a combination of open and closed-loop control.
Fig. 7-7 shows the principle of this combined system.
1
Au
y
4
Fig. 7-7
1
2
3
4
x
z
205
Open-loop control
The outdoor air temperature sensor (1) transmits its measured signal to the openloop controller (2). Taking the programmed heating curve as a basis, the open-loop
controller calculates the hot water flow temperature necessary to achieve a minimum room temperature of e.g. 20 C at the current outdoor air temperature, and
transmits the required setpoint to the flow temperature controller. A room temperature of at least 20 C is then established, but this temperature is not again measured by any sensor nor adjusted by any controller. Solar radiation, heat generated
by electrical equipment or a large number of people may cause the room temperature to rise above the value calculated by the open-loop controller, or if windows
are opened drop below the calculated value. This is, in other words, an open-loop
room temperature control system.
Closed-loop control
As discussed previously, the open-loop controller (2) calculates the setpoint, w, for
the closed-loop flow temperature controller (3). The controller compares the actual,
measured flow temperature, x, with setpoint, w. Based on the difference (x w), the
controller then calculates the positioning signal y, which causes the actuator (4) to
adjust the mixing valve so that the flow temperature is equal to the setpoint. Because the flow temperature is continuously measured, and the measured value
constantly fed back to the controller, the "flow temperature control" loop is a closed
control loop.
206
The place where the sensor is located, i.e., where the controlled variable is
measured.
Sensor
Actual value xi
Controlled variable x
The physical variable (temperature, humidity, etc.) measured in the controlled system, to be maintained, i.e., controlled at a desired value or amount. The controlled
variable is the output variable of the controlled system and the input variable of the
controller.
Reference variable w
The variable fed into the control loop from an external source. The reference variable determines the current setpoint.
Setpoint xs
The currently required value of controlled variable x to be maintained constant despite disturbance variables (e.g. the value set via the setpoint adjuster).
Disturbance variable z
External variable affecting the closed control loop and exerting an unwanted influence on the controlled variable, e.g. external heat gains, solar radiation, etc.
Error variable e
Closed-loop control
(system)
The objective of closed-loop control is to bring a physical variable (controlled variable x) to a specified value (reference variable w), and to maintain it at this value
irrespective of any disturbance variables. To achieve this, controlled variable x must
be continuously measured, compared to reference variable w, and adapted accordingly.
Closed-loop control
(process)
The process whereby the variable to be controlled (the controlled variable) is continuously registered, compared with the reference variable and depending on the
result of this comparison modified to adapt it to the reference variable. This process takes place within a closed control loop.
Controller
The equipment that carries out the required control within the controlled process,
i.e., measures the difference between the actual and desired value of the controlled
variable, and then operates the control equipment as necessary to eliminate the
deviation.
Input variable:
Controlled variable x
Output variable: Manipulated variable y
Manipulated variable y
Variable which can be adjusted by the controller, and which, in turn, intentionally
affects the value of the controlled variable (e.g. valve stroke). The manipulated
variable is both the input variable for the controlled process and the output variable
of the controller.
Control equipment
This adjusts the controlling element in the assigned direction in accordance with
the output signal from the controller (e.g. electric motor, electro-magnetic actuator).
Actuator
This adjusts the controlling element in the assigned direction in accordance with
the output signal from the controller (e.g. electric motor, electro-magnetic actuator).
207
Controlling element
Device (such as a valve) installed in the control loop to control the flow of energy or
other quantity.
Control point
The point in the control loop where the flow of energy is influenced.
Controlled system
The system to be controlled, i.e., that part of the control loop in which controlled
variable x is to be maintained at a constant value despite any unforeseen disturbance variables. The controlled system begins at the control point (where the controlling element performs its function) and ends at the sensing point (where the
controlled variable is measured), i.e., it consists of the controlling element, various
sections of the plant (e.g. pipework, heat exchangers, room, etc.), and the sensor.
Input variable:
Manipulated variable y
Output variable: Controlled variable x
Closed-loop control
equipment
Equipment which influences the controlled system in accordance with requirements. It starts at the sensing point and ends at the control point. It consists of the
closed loop controller and the actuator.
Fig. 7-8
208
Buildings with a variety of building services equipment (elevators, lighting, piped services
(plumbing), refrigeration, ventilation and air conditioning systems, security and alarm systems, etc., coordinated and operated at optimum efficiency by building automation and control systems.
The hardware of a building automation and control system is hierarchical in structure and divided into at least the following three levels:
Management level
Automation level
Field level
1
Fig. 7-9
1
2
3
Management level
Management level
Automation level
Field level
209
Automation level
Automation level to control and monitor building services or electrical and mechanical plants. Operation at this level is largely independent so that in the event of a
failure at the management level, the plant continues to operate uninterrupted.
However, under these circumstances, inter-system optimization functions cannot
be maintained. The hardware at the automation level normally is located in the control panel of the respective plant and provides (more or less) comfortable manual
operator elements. Modular input/output devices (I/O modules) represent the communications interface between the process controllers at the automation level and
the measuring, positioning, and signaling equipment in the plants. The input/output
(I/O) signals are processed by the process controllers and only transmitted to the
management level if required.
Binary signals (On/Off, 1/0, High/Low etc.) can be processed directly, while analog
signals (electrical resistance, voltage, current or pressure) must first be converted
into digital signals with an analog/digital (A/D) converter.
The automation level performs functions such as:
Field level
The field level incorporates the measuring, positioning, switching, and signaling
equipment of the building services systems as well as the individual room or zone
control loops. In the building services systems, the present operating states are
acquired via sensors and modified via actuating devices. In practice this involves:
The acquisition of measured values such as temperature, pressure, volume,
humidity, or meter pulses (sensors).
The switching of motors and electric heating registers (actuating devices).
The transmission of feedback signals to indicate the switch settings of monitoring
equipment (sensors).
The positioning of valve and damper actuators (actuating devices).
The field level also includes building services equipment in individual rooms. At this
level, individual room or zone temperatures are controlled directly by positioning
signals from the controllers acting on
Radiator valves
Heating and cooling valves in fan coil or induction units
Volume controllers in VAV systems
Mixing dampers in dualduct mixing boxes
The building automation and control system can adjust setpoints remotely or read
manipulated variables in hundreds of control loops and use this information to determine the overall load status of the HVAC plants. This facilitates load management of the primary heating and cooling plant.
Within the building automation and control system, data is exchanged over a system-specific data bus with depending on the system size, transmission speed,
future extendibility, or operational reliability different forms (e.g. a line, star, ring,
or tree configuration).
210
Standard
BACnet
LonWorks
EN 14908-1 -4
KNX
211
Reference
This brochure is an extract of the training module
BO1HV Introduction to building technology produced by:
Siemens Switzerland Ltd
Infrastructure & Cities Sector
Building Technologies Division
CPS Training
Gubelstrasse 22
CH-6301 Zug
Further references
Recknagel Sprenger Schramek Taschenbuch fr Heizung + Klimatechnik
Handbuch der Klimatechnik C.F. Mller Verlag
Fachartikel Die Ventilator-Kennlinie Ing. Josef Lexis
Buderus Handbuch fr Heizungstechnik
Impulsprogramm Haustechnik Bundesamt fr Kulturfragen, CH-Bern
212
Das h,x-Diagramm
The psychrometric chart
0-91910-de
0-91910-en
Messtechnik
Measuring technology
0-91911-de
0-91911-en
0-91912-de
0-91912-en
0-91913-de
0-91913-en
Regeltechnik
Control technology
0-91914-de
0-91914-en
Kltetechnik
Refrigeration technology
0-91915-de
0-91915-en
Wrmerckgewinnung im Kltekreislauf
Heat recovery in the refrigeration
0-91916-de
0-91916-en
0-91917-de
0-91917-en
0-91918-de
0-91918-en
0-92166-de
0-92166-en
Bedarfsgeregelte Lftung
Demand-controlled ventilation
0-92189-de
0-92189-en
213
Introduction to
building technology
Siemens Ltd
Infrastructure & Cities Sector
Building Technologies Division
22/F, Two Landmark East
100 How Ming Street, Kwun Tong
Kowloon, Hong Kong
Tel +852 2870 7888
The information in this document contains general descriptions of technical options available,
which do not always have to be present in individual cases. The required features should therefore
be specified in each individual case at the time of closing the contract.
Siemens Switzerland Ltd, 2011 Order no. 0-91916-en 11110