PMA Writing Workshop notes

Vernon Blackmore

WMG, University of Warwick, 2014

Writing a PMA

Writing a PMA, especially your first, can be worrying. You may never have written an
assignment as long as 5,000 words. You may be struggling with an unfamiliar language, with
untested skills and with uncertain requirements. These notes are aimed to help you. In them
I offer practical advice on writing PMAs.
I have organised these notes as an overview of the writing process, interspersed with some
practical guides. During the workshop you can add your own notes to the slides and in a
separate document there are extracts from three PMAs: one good, one merely OK and one
very poor. This means you will have to skip between resources, but it allows you to ignore
the topics you already know.
The style of these notes is very prescriptive: there are lots of do this instructions. I
apologise. Writing is a personal thing. Everyone has their own approach, so rules and
demands can be out of place. But time is short, and you probably do not want a long
resource, sensitively written to embrace your personal preferences. Your first PMA is just
around the corner, you need guidance, you need tips. And you need these now!
So tips are what I am giving you. But please use this year at WMG to explore what works
best for you in writing. In setting PMAs, WMG is not using cruel punishments for reluctant
students. We believe that learning to write clearly, to present an argument that is based on
well-researched evidence, is a skill in high demand. In the future, you will be writing
business strategies, project proposals and sales bids. These dont have the format of a PMA,
but do require the techniques. If you want a good job, dont leave WMG without this skill!
You may think of writing as a single task that you do right at the end of hours of reading and
thinking. It isnt. It is a process that starts when you first receive details of your assignment:
Before you write
1. Planning Checking the question, starting your thinking, planning your time.
2. Mapping Collecting your ideas and recording them, but in an unsorted order.
3. Reflecting Adding value to your ideas by including your own evaluation.

When you write

4. Organising Sorting your ideas into a pattern that answers the assignment.
5. Drafting
Writing out your first draft, which will be full of faults.
6. Polishing Editing and proof reading your draft to produce a final version.

After you write

7. Checking

Scanning over your final copy for omissions and errors.

This 7-stage process is not linear. You will have more than one draft.
I suggest you see the process as a spiral: yes, it progresses in one direction towards a final
goal, but it sometimes twists and turns and repeats certain steps. These are your resources:
1. The Notes work through the stages of PMA writing, from planning to checking.
2. The Extracts offer three example PMAs (good, OK and poor) with commentaries.
3. The Moodle area on Academic Writing gives further resources and links.
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Writing a PMA
Planning

The famous scientist Louis Pasteur said that chance only favours the prepared mind. Once
a module is finished, the temptation is to abandon the subject for a while and leave the
PMA for less busy times. You may indeed have to delay the writing, as you have other
modules or PMAs demanding your time. But always take the first short step of planning as
soon as you know your assignment. Check out the question (or questions) you have to
answer; put them in your mind. You will be surprised how you will then see answers to the
question as you study and read completely different material. An item in a newspaper, on
the TV, from another module, or in talking with your friends, will suddenly be relevant. The
previous week you may have ignored that item; now it yells read me!
Look at your diary and start to plan when and where you will do your reading and writing.
We are all optimists, believing that we can achieve something more quickly than is actually
likely. You may be able to estimate how much you will write in a week, but you will not be
able to foresee the interruptions that will throw this plan off course: the last minute
invitation to go out with your friends, your need for an extra hour (or six!) of sleep, your
delay in finding the right book in the library. You will also have demands from your
dissertation, and leaving that until your modules are completed is a certain path to disaster.
Your first step, therefore, is to draw up a checklist based on the question set in the
assignment. To do this, look at the tool Analysing the PMA question. This defines PMA as
Parts, Matters and Action. That is, what parts are there in the assignment? What really
matters in the question? And what actions or activities do you have to do for example,
what is the difference between a request to analyse as opposed to one to describe?
Assignments can be very different, so working out what is required is vital. Store a PMA
plan away in your mind and schedule writing times in your diary.
The words used to describe the task you have to do (analyse, evaluate, justify...) can be very
exact. If English is not your first language and even if it is the differences between these
words can be difficult to discern. Yet tutors do make distinctions. If you are in doubt, check
with your tutor as some tutors will review work in advance of its submission.
At MSc level there is a big emphasis on critical or analytical writing compared with
descriptive writing. In descriptive writing you are asked to list (maybe in depth) the aspects
of a problem or process. You will be given marks for your knowledge, for your organisation
of your material and the clarity with which you express it. In analytical or critical writing, you
need to take a further step. You need to evaluate the relevance of this knowledge to the
question asked, making your own judgements on what is appropriate based on the evidence
you have researched. You need to evaluate and not simply describe. So the task of planning
is to determine the exact question, or questions, and the actions you must take to answer it.

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Writing a PMA

Analysing the PMA question

As soon as you can, PMA your PMA! Using P for parts, M for matters and A for action, think
very carefully about the question set. This sounds obvious, and it is. But a few minutes spent
creating a written checklist will help you to focus on what your tutor wants rather than what
you find interesting to include!
This can be a purely mental exercise, but writing it out makes you think more deeply and
gives you something at the final editing stage that ensures you have answered the question.
Parts
How many parts are there in the PMA? How many words are required for
each, and what does that imply for your schedule? If you allow no more than 10% for the
Introduction and 10% for the Conclusion, how many words do you need? Where does the
balance of the marks lie and what do you have to include or exclude?
Matters
What matters most in the question? Underline the keywords to form a
checklist that you can use throughout your writing. Those who set assignment questions
write them very carefully; each word matters.
Action
What actions are required? Does the question want you to analyse the
situation or only describe it? Do you have to justify your choices or evaluate them?
The University of Leicester has a very helpful list that explains the meaning of action words:
Analyse, Assess, Clarify, Comment upon, Compare, Consider, Contrast, Critically evaluate,
Define, Demonstrate, Describe, Discuss, Elaborate, Evaluate, Examine, Explain, Explore, Give
an account of, Identify, Illustrate, Interpret, Justify, Outline, Review, Show how, State.

http://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/ld/resources/writing/writing-resources/essay-terms.

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Writing a PMA
Mapping
Do not head for the library straight away! Start by writing down all that you already know
about the subject. How would you now, before doing any further reading, answer the
assignment? This process will help you in two ways:
1. It will sort out what you do and do not know! It will raise questions for which you
need answers. Put question marks on your notes; take your list to the library.

2. For an MSc, writing is not simply repeating all you can discover about a subject. Yes,
content is important in showing you understand the subject, but your tutors are
looking for your own conclusions as well. If you jump straight into books from the
library, these will easily overwhelm your own thinking. As books are written by
experts, their thinking so you argue will be better than yours. However, every
book or journal article comes with its own background and this may not fit 100% the
questions of your assignment. Record your own ideas now, before they are lost.
Once you have your own mind map, create another based on the books and articles you
read. See the tool on Mind mapping. The trick is to make notes as you discover topics. Do
not try very hard, at this stage, to get the subject organised in your mind. I prefer using mind
mapping software such as MindJet or XMind because it allows me to collect my ideas
completely at random and only at the end sort them into an order than makes sense for
writing. The structure you see in these notes only appeared after I had noted down all my
thoughts. As I write now, I am following a mind map that was once a complete jumble, but
which I gradually sorted into a logical order. The map below is for the PMA in the extracts.

As you note things down in your map, make sure you carefully record where you found the
information. Do not waste time just before you have to submit your PMA hunting down a
lost reference in the library. I like to use free reference management software such as
Mendeley. Remember to look for good quality sources of evidence, for journal articles and
recent books rather than Wikipedia and blogs. And if you find a quotation that beautifully
summarises an important point, make sure you record it in your notes with quotation marks
around it (and record the page number from the source). This will prevent you mistaking,
much later, a quotation for your own work, and so inserting the exact words of the author
into your PMA without acknowledgement. If you do, this is plagiarism, however unintended.
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Writing a PMA
Mind maps
A mind map is a graphical approach to making notes. You start with a central idea (such as
the title of an assignment or chapter in a dissertation) and add ideas as they occur to you.
The important point is to allow ideas to arise freely, record them immediately, and only
later re-order them into groups or the linear structure necessary for writing.
Mind maps can be drawn on paper, on whiteboards or with computers. Software has the
advantage that you can easily move topics around to group them under similar themes. A
free, easy-to-use software is XMind from xmind.net. The University provides the excellent
MindJet software which has better export to Word features than Xmind.

The above shows a mind map (using XMind) for an assignment called IT Security in SMEs.
The map shows four sections within the assignment, and one of these sections has been
expanded to show its individual topics. These sub-points become, eventually, paragraphs.
The other sections (UK Legislation, Security standards, Cost of security failures) are shown as
closed nodes, allowing work on just one theme at a time. These themes are shown linked to
the central idea, but when creating a map you can also add free floating themes that are
initially unlinked. The place and hierarchy of ideas and topics can be readily changed.
Once you have grouped your topics, you can change the structure to represent the logical
order of the assignment you want to write. In XMind you can set the structure to be a tree
based on the central idea.
Here, the map has been re-structured as
a tree. Notes have also been added to
the points under Reasons for security
breaches, as shown by the small icons.
The note editor for each topic can be
used to create topic sentences (the first
sentence in any paragraph). The map
can be exported with these topic
sentences displayed. This, then, forms
the structure: you have moved from
your creative ideas to an order for your
text.
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Writing a PMA

What is a reliable source?

Information can come from a variety of sources. But you are expected to focus mainly on
reliable ones. If the star rating (see below) falls below 4 , you may still use the material
but justify your use of it, e.g. by quoting survey but recognising its commercial bias.
Articles in journals that have been peer reviewed i.e. the article was checked by other experts
before being accepted for publication. Lose a or even if the article is rather dated for the subject
matter, e.g. over 5 years for internet-related subjects or other fast-moving industries.
Books from academic publishers. These are usually written by experts, who are authorities in their
field. But check the date as publishing takes time so even recent books may give dated material.
Government sites or reports from leading authoritative internet sites (e.g. the sans.org site on
internet security). Some governments, however, may not give a complete or unbiased viewpoint.
Reputable encyclopaedias and dictionaries, such as Encyclopaedia Britannica. These are really just
reference books on-line and you should give the name of the expert writing the article you quote. Not all
reference sites are created equal: be careful.
Conference papers. The research may be right up- to-date, and so scores well for this reason, but
since it has not been peer reviewed you have no additional, independent check on its accuracy or soundness.
Specialist, high-quality magazines (off-line or on-line) such as The Economist or New Scientist. These
are not reliable, academic sources but are usually trustworthy because they work in an environment where
good research is essential. But do try to track down the references cited in the article and read the sources
behind the magazine article. Otherwise, refer to their content using The popular magazine ______ claims....

White papers or web sites produced by commercial or trade organisations. These may contain good
research material, but you may not know the commercial bias underlying their findings. For example, a
manufacturer of virus checking software can benefit from scary stories of poor IT security. So use the material,
but point out its commercial nature. Similarly, papers or web sites from pressure groups or campaign sites may
contain good research material, but you dont know their bias. For example, Green Peace have a view of
nuclear energy that others do not share and may present their viewpoint with insufficient balance.

On-line news or magazine articles from named authors. These could be reliable, but unless the
author is a respected name in that subject (usually as they have written many books in the area) they cant be
known to be reliable. So the rating depends on the author, their history and their commercial involvement.

On-line sites of quality newspapers, e.g. The Times or The Guardian. These may be reporting reliable
research such as opinion polls, but often the articles are anonymous and may be biased in order to make them
exciting. These sources can be reporting more reliable sources, e.g. The Times may report a comment in
Hansard, which are official government proceedings; in which case quote the true source and say cited in..

Informal talks with members of staff, including your supervisor. He/she may be an expert in their field
(or they may be talking outside of their expertise), but you may have heard incorrectly or taken an off-the-cuff
comment. Information from supervisors should be critically assessed, rather than simply accepted! Of course,
you may be able to trace your tutors comments back to the article or book they wrote on the very subject!
But that then becomes your source rather than the informal conversation. The content may be the same, but a
published source can be checked by your reader and has its own, established authority.

Wikipedia or other sites that can be edited by anyone, anonymously. The article may have been
edited by the world authority on the subject, but you dont know this! Wikipedia can be an excellent starting
point to gain understanding and initial references, but dont quote it in your dissertation!

Blogs, e-mails, on-line rants, other students. Learn all you can from others, but confirm what you
learn from other sources that are more reliable.

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Writing a PMA
Reflecting

You will only scrape a pass if your PMA simply repeats what you have read or heard in class.
If you want better marks, you should reflect on what you are reading. Reflect, not just
repeat should be your motto. This approach is what is known as being critical.
Critical thinking does not mean that you are dismissive of what you read, in the way you
may be critical of your friends views on politics! It means that you consider the relevance of
what you have read to the question or practical situation posed in your PMA. You may have
found a brilliant journal article, but realise it was addressing the situation in another country
(say the US rather than the UK), or it may be out of date, or not be from an academic
source. By being critical you are not rejecting the sources message, but explaining its
relevance to the particular issues or context that you have been asked to consider.
You may also find that different sources have differing views of the same subject. They may
not disagree (and if they do, your PMA should balance the strengths and weaknesses of
both views), but they may offer different perspectives. The important task of synthesis is to
compare and contrast these views. Again, you are not setting one author against another, as
though there is a battle for the truth. But you may be highlighting the omissions of one
author compared with another, or discussing how a newer article updates an old, or listing
in a summary table how authors have different words or phrases for the very same issues.
Should you record your own opinions? Yes. However, your opinions must be based on what
you have read and not on wild guesses. Think of it as a pyramid, where your own
conclusions are at the apex, but they rest on layers of researched evidence by others. So, for
example, you may think that IT security by owners of home computers is terrible. Say so,
but you can only write this after you have quoted the most recent figures from security
surveys, and (if possible) from a survey carried out in the country you are discussing and by
a reliable source rather than the biased views of a company selling anti-virus software.
These views your own opinions should be stated cautiously and you should use the third
person rather than I think that.... For example, on the issue of home computer security
you might conclude, after quoting a couple of surveys, This research indicates that
attention to IT security is poor. Furthermore, this problem appears to be worsening in the
UK rather than getting better as the use of the internet and downloaded software becomes
more common. Using gentle words such as indicates and appears is known as hedging;
academic writing is never arrogantly certain. Yet you should have a conclusion from what
you have read, and you should give it. Do not leave the research to speak for itself: say how
it is relevant to the questions you are facing in your assignment. In summary, do not just
write down what you have discovered, but always add an element of so what? that relates it
to your question and the situation the question addresses.

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Writing a PMA

Mind maps are excellent for grouping ideas. But two things more are required:
1. Reasons and evidence What you say in PMAs must be based upon evidence. You
will not have time to conduct your own practical research (but you will when you do
your dissertation) so you need to rely on good literature. I suggest that for every
node on your mind map you add a note that includes the reason(s) and evidence for
what you are saying. Almost every mind map node needs a because... to back it up.
2. Central message and flow As you move around your mind map clockwise, the main
branches of the map will become your written sections. But what links one topic to
its neighbour, and what links one branch of topics to the next? You are attempting to
answer a question, and so your material should be ordered to answer that question,
step by step. Each main branch in your mind map is a step towards the answer.
Try the following on a blank piece of paper:
1. Summarise your PMA question at the top of the page.
2. At the bottom, write your answer in only one or two sentences. Brevity is important
as you are trying to express your key belief, claim or message.
3. Divide the space in between into two with a vertical line.
4. In the left-hand column write the points you intend to make.
5. Between each point put one of the following words:
a. And/ Or the next point is another point that needs to be made, either
adding to the description or presenting an alternative viewpoint.
b. But the next point expresses a weakness or limitation in what has so far
been said; perhaps the evidence is weak or unconvincing in some way.
c. So the next point explores the importance or value of this information as a
step in answering the PMA question. If the step only provides a partial
answer, the So explains why the next section is required in your search for a
complete answer. This point becomes your section conclusion.
6. In the right-hand column note down your reasons and evidence for each statement
you have written on the left. This is your Because column.
If most of your statements are joined with Ands and Ors, then your work may be too
descriptive. If there are no Buts, you may not be tackling the limitations of your evidence. If
there are no Sos, then you are not drawing conclusions or evaluating how each piece of
information you collect is leading to your answer to the PMA question.
The message that you create at step 2 is very important. This will be your guide all the way
through your writing. This is your thesis. When eventually you come to write your
introduction, you may include this text to tell your reader clearly what you intend to show
or claim in your PMA. Alternatively, if your PMA is more exploratory, it becomes your
conclusion at the end. So, you either state your thesis/message and then justify your belief
that it is true, or set yourself an initial question and conclude with your thesis as the answer.
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Writing a PMA

10

Critical thinking
You will get marks for thinking and writing critically. Critical thinking is the step beyond
simply understanding what you have read (secondary data) and found in your own research
(primary data). It is a considered and justified evaluation of anothers work and of your own.
It is essential.
Being critical never means being negative about the authors you read ("This author is
stupid!"), nor does it necessarily mean that you disagree with what the author says. Your
focus is not on the author but on their ideas and arguments. Criticism is learning from a
source, yes, but also finding its strengths and weaknesses and evaluating its relevance for
your own argument. This is far more than repeating what it says: you are making a CASE.

C: comprehension explaining what a journal paper or source says

A: analysis
highlighting strengths and weaknesses of the papers points
S: synthesis
comparing/contrasting the paper with others to form a perspective
E: evaluation
explaining the importance of the paper for your own argument
The above is a shortened version of Blooms Taxonomy of Learning, but in a memorable
form. The mnemonic "CASE" is a good one as you use sources to form an argument, to make
your own case. If, for instance, you decide to delay work on your PMA to take the weekend
off, you make a reasoned case to justify your action: relaxation, you argue, will refresh your
mind, you need to be with your friends, and the ailing British economy needs your
shopping.... Similarly, your assignment is an argument that answers a question. The sources
you read are elements in the case you make. A useful mnemonic for some of the critical
questions you can ask of a source is:
Ageing
Academics
Abroad
Always
Assume
Alternative
Arguments
Advance
Answers

Analysis: How old is the source? Is it still relevant today?

Analysis: Is it from an academic source, one that is trustworthy?
Analysis: What is the country/culture/group? How does this differ to mine?
Analysis: Do the papers results or conclusions apply in all situations?
Analysis: Are the assumptions good, giving valid and reliable results?
Synthesis: Are there other views of the same topic to compare or contrast?
Evaluation: How strong, then, is this argument? Is it convincing?
Evaluation: If so, does it advance or contradict my research?
Evaluation: Does this answer my research question and my objectives?

In your writing, you should clearly state your views, produce evidence, and explain how this
evidence supports your argument. A key work is Toulmins 1958 Uses of Argument, and
Internet searches will lead you to further explanations and examples. Your critical thinking is
expressed in how you select and arrange your sources (the structure of your writing; your
pattern for organising your material), and in how you analyse and synthesise their contents.
Examples of the 9 As of critical thinking
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Writing a PMA
Ageing

11

Analysis: How old is the source? Is it still relevant today?

Even before the Internet era, human error in handling IT was common
(Floppie and Virus, 1993). Technology may change, but human error remains.

Academics

Analysis: Is it from an academic source, one that is trustworthy?

The company McAfee claims that 17% of home computers have no protection
from virus attacks (McAfee, 2012). However, as suppliers of anti-virus
products, these claims require confirmation before they can be considered.

Abroad

Analysis: What is the country/culture/group? How does this differ to mine?

The existence of security policies appears to correlate, negatively, with
security breaches (Graphit, 2006). This research, however, was conducted in
large companies and may not be directly relevant to small UK businesses.

Always

Analysis: Do the papers results or conclusions apply in all situations?

The study by Neverlie (2005) was conducted with only a small group (N = 25)
of students. The results, then, may not be representative SME employees.

Assume

Analysis: Are the assumptions good, giving valid and reliable results?
However, this survey recognised that the self-reporting nature of its sample
gave a bias towards responses from companies with access to professional IT
security services.

Alternative

Synthesis: Are there other views of the same topic to compare or contrast?
Similar research in the US indicates that the problem is due to a lack of
security training (Teacher, 2008). This contradicts the UK study cited above. A
possible reason for this discrepancy may be that ...

Arguments

Evaluation: How strong, then, is this argument? Is it convincing?

In conclusion, the literature reviewed in this report has demonstrated that
security has a human as well as a technological dimension.

Advance

Evaluation: If so, does it advance or contradict the point I want to make?

Human error is a common cause of IT breaches (Password, 2008 and Hackit,
2006). This supports the view that more attention should be focused on the
human dimension of IT security.

Answers

Evaluation: Does this answer my question and my argument?

This study is particular relevant as it discusses small businesses in the UK, where it
shows the significance of human error in IT security.

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Writing a PMA
Organising

Your mind map, whether it be in software or hand-drawn on a sheet of paper, is not in a

suitable form as a structure for writing. Ideas are scattered all over your map. They need to
be organised, so you need to do two things:
1. Group your ideas together into a pattern. This pattern is your own creation. There is
no right and wrong answer, only a grouping of ideas that you think best responds to
the assignment question. To take a personal example, you can sort your MP3 or
iTunes music collection alphabetically by the title of the songs or by names of the
artists, by the different genres of music, by history (so you can play all those great
70s numbers together), by popularity, by.... You decide what you want. What you
should not do in your PMA is expect your tutor to accept all your ideas in shuffle
mode, where each topic has no bearing to the one before or to the one after.
2.

Re-order the pattern you have created so that it works in a linear order that is,
your ideas are not only in categories, but the order of these categories makes sense
as well. Unsurprisingly, these notes start with advice on planning through to the final
checking. Returning to the music example, if you grouped your music by history,
then it is logical that 60s music would precede your 70s collection. The order is your
own creation, imposed on the material you have collected.

Some natural orders may emerge from the subject itself; for example, a discussion on the
Internet would consider Web 1.0 before Web 2.0, and an assignment on business processes
might consider problems arising along the length of the supply chain. Within any one
category, you may also want to create sub-categories. The result is a tree structure, much
like the file structure on a computer. You create top-level subjects (which will become your
assignment parts) and within these sub-groupings (which become your sections). Inside
each section will be topics, and each of these will eventually turn into a written paragraph.
Your decision on the structure is an important part of critical writing. The way you group
things together, and the order you present them, reflects the main points you are trying to
make. Imagine a friend from home is visiting you in the University. What places do you show
him or her first? And what would this tell your friend about your interests? A visit to all the
bars and cafes says something different to a tour of IMC and the library!
Although the pattern or structure you use is yours, there are some classic ways of organising
your material. See the tool on Writing frameworks. However, PMAs come in many
different flavours: some require one part of 5,000 words, others ask many (shorter)
questions. It is impossible, then, for me to give you a structure that fits all. If you can explain
(to yourself) why one section follows another, and why your PMA would not make sense if
you left that section out, then you probably have a structure that works.
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13

One rule, however, is important. In scientific writing you should focus on the ideas rather
than the authors of those ideas. Ideas are your building blocks, supported by references to
authors who discuss those ideas. This may be different to, say, a history course where
important beliefs are linked to particular authors and where beginning a sentence with the
authors name is sensible. In scientific writing you usually need to avoid paragraphs that
start, According to X.... Make your PMA and exploration of ideas, not a group photo of
professors.
This switch from authors to ideas is important. You may collect your material author-byauthor; you write your assignment by grouping those authors under themes and then
discussing the themes as supported by your sources. The diagrams below show this change.
On the left is a structure that gives the views of one author, followed by another, and then
another. On the right is a re-working of the same material into three themes, with each
theme supported by different authors.
Author by author

Starting a sentence with the authors name can sometimes be appropriate. He or she may
be the authority behind a whole way of thinking, so referring to the author captures this. For
example, DeLone and McLean have done extensive work on IT success, and people refer to
the D&M model. Secondly, you may want to draw attention to the weakness of the
authority, as in McAfee, a commercial anti-virus software producer, claims that..., which
highlights their potential commercial bias. You may also start with an authors name in
order to vary your style once you have already established the theme you want to discuss.
So I am not inventing an unchangeable rule here, just giving warning that paragraphs after
paragraphs that begin According to... are sure signs of writing not focused on the topic.

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14

Writing frameworks and how they add value

The selection of your material, the order in which you present it, the viewpoint you take, all
these form the framework that is unique to you. This is the outlook you impose on your
sources in order to create order out of the academic papers you have read. Patrick
Dunleavy, in his helpful Authoring a PhD (Palgrave/Macmillan, 2003), believes there are
three structures for ordering source material: descriptive, analytical and argumentative.

A descriptive approach merely records what you have discovered in the order in
which you encountered it. For example, as I walk into a room I could note down all
that I see as my eyes scan the contents from left to right.
An argumentative approach might explore differing opinions on the use of the room.
For example, as a teacher I might discuss the rooms usefulness for group work while
my students take a different perspective and want to upgrade the technology.
An analytical approach groups source material into categories. For example, instead
of simple listing the rooms contents, I could first discuss the design of the room
(large windows; wooden floor...), then its contents (tables and chairs; video
projector; computer...), and then its decor. The categories I choose are mine, for my
purposes.

A descriptive approach is seldom sufficient for an MSc as the framework comes from the
source itself rather than springing from my own creativity. For example, I might describe a
business by following its organisational tree or the adoption of a technology by its history,
year by year. The weakness is that this structure shows little of my own thinking.
There may be different viewpoints for me to highlight, weigh and then pronounce
judgement upon. If there are, they form a natural argumentative structure. I can and
must compare and contrast the different views. The temptation, which should be resisted,
is to work though the subject author by author: A says X, B says Y. Unless the authors
represent large schools of thought, it is always better to work though topic by topic,
illustrating each by citing authors. Re-order paragraphs that begin, According to... so that
you start with the topic.
The analytical approach is a common solution. Here I look for a way of categorising my
material, grouping it into themes that are of relevance to my research question. But mere
categorising is not enough: the categories should be related to the viewpoint I am trying to
establish. So, if I describe the furniture in a room according to certain categories, it is
because this will give an insight into the question I am addressing. If my question is, Is the
room suitable for teaching?, then discussing the layout of the tables and chairs, looking at
the available technology in order to assess its educational use, and so forth, is sensible.
What, then, are some of the frameworks I might impose on my material? The following
images and frameworks do not comprise a comprehensive list, but are examples.
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There are three possible focal points: components (what elements or parts are there in your
topic?), comparisons (how does my topic or approach compare with others?), causes (what
makes things happen in the subject Im discussing?). If you mix these focal points you get
some frameworks, and the diagram below illustrates these. The remainder of this tool
describes these frameworks, starting bottom right and moving clockwise.

Components. You can describe the elements or parts of any topic, and they may all be
equally important. If it is an industrial process (and so cause/effect comes into the
description) then you can talk through the steps in the process. Alternatively, moving
towards comparisons, you can not only describe the components of your topic but gradually
focus on the most important, perhaps moving from the general to the specific. For example,
on IT security I might start with an overall picture of IT security, but quickly focus on human
failures as this is (for me) the most important problem. One approach is to narrow down;
another is to highlight as you go the most important aspects. You can also use well-known
structures to group your material, such as SWOT or PESTLE.

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If my literature is extensive, I may be trying to detect patterns among many journal articles.
For example, in the many papers on e-commerce success, what are the common factors
that make people buy? The structure here is one of synthesis, and these sections usefully
include a table or mind map that groups common views (with citations) together. Dont be
afraid of drawing the pattern!
If I have a number of points to make, I can order them according to positive and negative or
advantages and disadvantages. These sections can be handled in two ways: do you list all
the advantages of one approach and then discuss the disadvantages in a later section? Or do
you work though each sub-topic, giving the advantages and disadvantages of each? Theres
no rule here, but the second approach of topic-by-topic interleaved with comparisons is
usually the easier to read.
I may compare two or more ideas or two or more authors, without making any judgement
on which is better. Comparisons find the similarities; contrasts look for the differences. I
may highlight their overlap; I may prefer one approach and conclude that one may be
preferable to another.
Then if I am mixing comparisons and causes (moving around the triangle), I may be trying to
discern have a number of factors or so-called critical success factors and my aim is to
evaluate (compare) which factors have the most impact. It may be good to express my
writing as a problem (or opportunity), propose a solution and then see if there are solutions
that fit.
A cause-effect section could trace the effects of a cause or analyse the effects to deduce the
underlying cause. Cause and effect looks at agency whereas comparison looks at
components.
However, you may not be able to speak of cause and effect, but only of the relationship
between two effects. Causes can be identified as necessary and sufficient, as remote and
proximate, or as influences acting on other causes. Remember that correlation is not the
same as cause.
These frameworks are useful as ways of organising your material. They relate to what you
are doing with your ideas, not the content of the idea itself. But you should make your
reader aware of what you are trying to do. The following are some example sentences:

This section compares business models for two companies....

E-commerce relies on the a number of critical success factors and this section explores...
From the above discussion, the similarities between X and Y are clear...
The advantages and disadvantages of this approach are shown in table 4...

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Drafting
Once you have your pattern sorted, you can start to write. But you are only writing a first
draft, so expect it to have many faults. If you try to construct perfectly formed sentences
right from the start, you may suffer writers block. Instead, write quickly, and allow
ungrammatical, over-lengthy and confusing sentences. No one else is going to read this!

You may notice a strange thing. As you write, you become clearer in what you want to say.
The pattern of your ideas becomes more pronounced; you may suddenly see that in all your
topics you really only have three (or whatever) ideas that are important. This is normal and
this is why I find writing a first draft so very, very helpful. I often go back and adjust my
structure in the light of what I discovered as I wrote. Writing is circular or, rather, spiral. You
are making progress, but you may well visit earlier steps in the process.
The structure of your mind map becomes the structure of your writing. As already
mentioned, in grouping your ideas you are deciding on the main sections in your
assignment. If your assignment has two questions, you will have two clear parts, each
divided into sections. Give your parts and sections straightforward but expressive headings,
and relate the parts to the PMA question(s). Headings are useful guides to the reader: so
Part 1 and Part 2 are not very helpful, whereas Part 1: Security through technology and Part
2: Security and issues of management guide the reader on their contents.
Learning to use an academic style is also important. This document is not in an academic
style. I address you as you; the text is peppered with Is; there are few citations of sources in
the text; I use contractions (i.e. words such as dont rather than do not). Learning to use
an academic style is a subject in itself, and I refer you to a book such as Stephen Baileys
Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students, Abingdon: Routledge. Again,
though, you do not have to get this right for your first draft. Put your ideas down, and then
go back over what you have written to remove all personal statements that use I or my.
The building blocks of writing are your paragraphs. Your overall assignment needs a
structure, and so does each paragraph. Your approach can vary from paragraph to
paragraph, but the usual format is to:
1. State in simple terms the topic the paragraph discusses (the topic sentence);
2. Explain the topic with reference to research as evidence and by using examples;
3. Wrap up with a target sentence that concludes the point you are making.
Look at the tool on Paragraphs, which uses a mnemonic to help you remember the parts.
STREET stands for Signpost, Topic, Research, Explanation, Example, Target.

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Paragraphs
Paragraphs are the building blocks of any writing. With them you can construct an
impressive and beautiful dissertation. However, like building blocks, they need to be
cemented together if your argument is to hold. Another image is that a document is like a
city and the paragraphs are its streets. Just as streets lead in a particular direction, so
paragraphs should lead the reader, too. Streets are grouped together in areas, which often
take on particular characteristics (e.g. a shopping district or housing suburb), and
paragraphs should be grouped into sections, each with their own theme.
A useful mnemonic for the structure of a paragraph is STREET.
Sign A paragraph should contain early signs for the direction of the argument. Does this
paragraph contrast with or conclude the one before? Does it extend the same point, or
illustrate it or move on to something new? Short words and phrases guide the reader: see
the separate tool on Signposts. Streets in a city join to each other, so at the end of a
paragraph and the beginning of the next there should be transition words or phrasing to link
the two. This may be the repetition of a word (or near equivalent) or the use of however,
similarly, and so on. One idea, expressed in one paragraph, should be tied to the next.
Topic The first sentence of a paragraph should state what the paragraph is about. You
should be able to read only the first sentence of every paragraph in an assignment or
dissertation and still have a good idea of its content. Topic sentences in scientific writing are
usually about the ideas rather than references to the authors expressing those ideas.
Research The points in academic arguments need to be backed up by research. Rather
than begin a paragraph with According to author X,...., it will be clearer to use a topic
sentence and then go on to detail the research that backs up your topic.
Explanation The topic will need further explanation. This may be a summary of the key
points of the research, a paraphrase of its argument, or an exploration of its relevance to
one of the dissertations objectives.
Example Topic sentences may be too abstract, and an example will often help the reader.
Target The paragraph should end with a sentence that wraps up the topic.
STREET is only a mnemonic for the elements of a paragraph and not a rule or a strict order.
So an example may well appear before the reference to the research. There may not even
be an example, or there could be many. But a paragraph will need a topic sentence, ideas
will need evidence through research sources, and the importance or relevance of this
research will need explanation. And, finally, you need to wrap up before moving on to your
next point. Listen to the main evening news on BBC TV. This, too, has a standard, repetitive
structure. Each item begins with a topic sentence, one or more explanatory statements and
then, As our correspondent reports.... Each item is clearly focused, one issue at a time.
Each new paragraph, however, should start a fresh idea. Never sum up a paragraph in the
topic sentence of the next. Glance briefly backwards, maybe, but walk down a new street.

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Writing a PMA
2.4 Reasons for security breaches
Small and medium enterprises (SMEs) increasingly
rely on their IT infrastructure, but they may have
limited understanding of all the security threats they
face. For some, IT security only means having a
firewall and updating their antivirus software.
Although the annual CSI Computer Crime and
Security Survey confirms that external threats such as
viruses, theft, fraud and hacking are still prevalent,
they also make clear that measures against such
threats must be coupled with security awareness
through staff training (CSI, 2010). Park et al (2008)
similarly believe that maintaining a companys
security requires a holistic approach that operates at
four levels: organizational level, workflow level,
information level, and technical level. It is not
sufficient to focus solely on technology and ignore
the people using it.
In fact, the importance of the human dimension to
security is confirmed through empirical research. An
analysis of IT security breaches found that they
occurred through deliberate attacks, through failures
of systems and software, and through human errors
(Whitman, 2004). This research particularly
highlighted the large numbers of security issues that
arose from employee mistakes. Although based on US
companies of varying sizes, it is reasonable to
conclude that this finding also applies to the UK:
employee errors present a threat equally important
alongside technical failures and deliberate hacking.
This recognition of human frailty may be particularly
significant for smaller companies. A recent survey
(InfoSecurity, 2010) by the organisers of a UK-based
security exhibition discovered that staff-related
incidents were in fact the most common security
breach. Employee misuse of web access and e-mail
were frequently mentioned. However, this survey
recognised that the self-reporting nature of its
sample gave a bias towards responses from
companies with access to professional IT security
services. This implies that for small companies the
security situation may be worse because they may
not be able to draw on such advice. Research among
non-IT managers in SMEs may reveal an even poorer
level of security awareness.

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Example paragraphs with commentary

The overall subject is security within UK SMEs, so these key
words run through the section. Sections should have short,
clear titles that are numbered. The sub-heading is in a larger
font, but as a sub-heading it is close to the text below.
A helpful Example follows the opening Topic sentence.
Every paragraph on this page begins with a topic sentence
that pushes the argument along:
- SMEs rely on IT but have limited understanding.
- The human dimension to security is confirmed by research.
- Human error is particularly significant in SMEs.
Research evidence for points made is always cited. Here,
multiple views are linked (synthesis) using similarly.
The final sentence moves from technology to people as this
is the way the argument is moving. This final sentence sums
up (Targets) the paragraphs point.
The next opening Topic sentence picks up on people in the
previous paragraph (via human) and implies continuity from
before with is confirmed. The In fact links indicates the flow.
Again, Research is cited to explore the topic.
The analysis of the research picks out the relevant point
required for the argument. However, its US base is noted as
the results may not be transferrable to UK SMEs.

The next Topic sentence is linked to the previous paragraph

with this and errors + frailty. The overall Subject of small
companies is mentioned in order to maintain the focus but
there is a narrowing of focus with particularly.
The Research contains many fascinating results, but the text
only refers to those relevant for the argument. Since the
report is not an academic journal, it is described as it could
have commercial bias.
There is an Example/Explanation of staff-related incidents
and analysis of the limitations of the survey.
The text Explains the implications (evaluation) for the
dissertations research question. The necessity for further
research within SMEs is suggested.

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Polishing

I have encouraged you to draft quickly and repetitively. With word processing software you
can easily revise and polish. Think of yourself as an artist sculpting a statue: you cut out the
rough shape, and then gradually chip, chisel and polish until you have your masterpiece.
In polishing, you not only improve your English expression, but you focus on guiding your
reader through your text. By this point, you know what the subject is all about and how your
text is structured. However, your tutor, coming fresh to your script, does not. You need,
therefore, to add in signposts to guide him or her along the way. Adding these signposts,
which are both visual and written, may seem laborious. But you know already what your
text says; your tutor does not. So once you have written your text, go back over it, asking
yourself how you can add signs that guide your reader. The reader needs to know if the next
point confirms or contradicts the one before, and so on. This signposting is an additional
step; most writers seldom bother to add signposts in their first draft.
Signposts are of two types.
1. The first type of signpost relates to your paragraphs. Revisit the tool on
Paragraphs and note how the S stands for signs. Signs are words or phrases at the
start of your paragraphs that link paragraphs together, indicating whether you are
going to say more on the same subject or you are starting a different point. For
example, the paragraph you are now reading begins, The first type.... So you know
you are in a list, and that you have only reached the first point. The next paragraph
begins, The second... Simple. But if the second point below were to begin with
However... you would know that this point is somehow different to the one
before, offering a contradiction or qualification to what you had just read. Signs
show your argument.
2. The second signposts are structural ones. Make sure you have an Introduction and
Conclusion see the tools on writing these. Your Introduction gives the reader a
reason to read your assignment (it answers the all-important question of why
bother?) and outlines how you will structure your answer. Your Conclusion
highlights the key points you have made and stresses their importance or relevance
to the question being asked. Rough guidelines give 10% of the word count to the
Introduction and the Conclusion. But these are guidelines only.
In sections you should describe your framework: This section compares..., This
section explores the problem of... and suggest a possible solution. This may be at
the start of the section or it may be better as a summary at the end: From this
discussion it appears that three key factors emerge.... You may also use very short
introductions in PMAs that ask multiple questions, rather than a PMA that requires a
single report of 5,000 words. For example, For the leadership of company X, two
styles of leadership have been selected, namely transformational and strategic. This
section / question discusses these two styles in order to explore their practical
application. So if your answer has parts, try to introduce your structure.
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3. Along with the Introduction and Conclusion for the assignment, and miniintroductions and miniconclusions for sections, work hard on your visual layout. Is
it clear which question you are addressing, or where each part begins and ends?
Use helpful headings. Open a text book you enjoy, not because of its content but
because it is so beautifully laid out. How does it encourage you to read it? It is
probably because the text is clearly printed, with obvious headings and sections. You
can see where you are. The text has space, with places where the eye can rest. Look
at the tool on Page layout and observe how books you like lay out their texts.
You will also probably note in a clear layout that the font size of headings and subheadings differ to indicate the importance of the heading. If the point size of your
text is 12pt, then a sub-sub-heading (if you have such a thing!) should be 2pts larger
(so 14pt) and a sub-head, or section heading, should be a further 2pts (so 16pt).
In summary, make sure you include:
a. An Introduction that shows the part of the PMA you are answering, explains the
question you are addressing and maps out how you answer it.
b. A Conclusion that summarises your key points and gives an answer.
c. If your sections discuss different theories or themes, add very short section
introductions and conclusions to map out the direction you are taking.
d. Link your sections to each other and perhaps to your Introductions map.
e. Use titles and section headings that sum up the content of that section.
The tool in Moodle on Signposts gives more details on both these types of signs. I also
suggest you look at well-written texts, such as the editorials in quality newspapers, and note
how one paragraph is linked to the next. There is a danger that you see writing as writing
content. No, writing is about both writing the content and guiding your reader to discover
and enjoy that content. A taxi driver not only knows a citys streets, but can drive you there.
I admit, though, that I do not find it easy to erect these paragraph signs as I am drafting my
text. For a start, I may well re-order my material a number of times! So signposting is a task I
do when polishing my work. As an extra, additional task to writing, I check that my headings
are helpful and I look at the links and transitions between each paragraph.
Finally, you need to check your spelling and grammar. (See, theres a paragraph transition
right there. The finally at the start of the paragraph tells you, dear tired reader, that you are
nearly through with this section.) Microsoft Word will add wavy green lines for phrases it
would love to change and red ones for spelling errors. Take note of these warnings, but do
not be bound by them. Word may want to suggest US spelling (change your in-built
dictionary setting if so) and the grammar checker may prefer you to use the active rather
than the passive voice, and this may not always be the right choice.

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Page layout
A good assignment layout not only makes the text more pleasurable to read, it also makes it
easier. If the headings clearly display a structure, and if the text is broken up into
manageable areas, your reader will be encouraged to read on.
Visual structure and headings
Use the heading styles in your word processing software. Use the Heading 1 style (or H1)
for the assignment title, and this should be bigger than your Heading 2 for section
headings. Headings should use short, but descriptive phrases such as IT Security in SMEs
rather than Section 2. Imagine your readers only seeing your section headings: would they
still have a good idea of your subject? Be clear which part of the PMA you are answering!
If you have sub-sections that flow over a page, consider repeating the topic of their
controlling section within these headings. So if a section talks about Key IT security
problems, then have Security problem 1: viruses, Security problem 2: fraud, and so on. This
will remind your readers that they are within a section on security problems.
The introduction for an assignment does not need a heading the text between the title
and the first section is assumed to be introductory. However, your conclusion will need a
Conclusion or Summary heading to distinguish it from the end of your last section.
Spacing
Follow with care the Universitys recommendations for line spacing, margins, headers and
footers. Do not just insert additional lines to separate sections, but set your H2 style so
there is a bigger gap above the section heading than below it: make it look as though the
section heading belongs to the section it controls. Do not be afraid of additional space
provided the space does not imply you have finished a section when you have not. There
are guidelines on word counts, but not on the number of pages.
Pacing
Try not to go more than three pages without a new section as it is very easy for readers to
forget where they are within a structure. Never, ever, have a page of solid text without a
paragraph break or some other device to create a visual rest. If the text looks dense, split it
up with a paragraph break, a bulleted list, a table or a figure anything to break the
monotony. Zoom out with your word processing software so you can see whole pages at a
time. Then ask yourself, are there places on every page where the visual pace changes?
Graphics
Sometimes your argument can best be summed up with a graphical device. When explaining
the perspectives of a range of authors, why not show this in a table or even a mind map?
Why not outline your key points with a diagram using the handy on-line app at LucidChart or
import a SmartArt graphic . A graphical portrayal of your argument can be very helpful.

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Introductions in PMAs
Introductions are essential in your writing. While to you as the author they may seem
repetitive (since you are familiar with your text), for a reader approaching your text for the
first time they will be vital signposts for the direction you are taking.
The simplest of introductions, which is better than nothing, is no more than, This report
discusses.... But this is merely a contents list, a map of topics, and may duplicate your table
of contents. An introduction should also say why your work addresses these topics. This why
adds an important therefore to create, This report therefore discusses....
A common format is to:
1. Show at the top of your page the question or part you are addressing.
2. Give the background to the problem and say why this is an important issue. It may
also be necessary to define key terms.
3. Give as text or bullet points the steps of your response or argument, e.g. The three
key issues to be considered are therefore....
The heart of all these options is to focus on why as well as what: why does this assignment
discuss the things that it does? It is motive and map. To use a tourism analogy, Londons
attraction is its history. Our tour therefore starts at the ancient Tower of London and.... The
move from motive to map is important: if you cant put a therefore into your introduction
(even if you choose not to use that word), then you may fail to get your readers attention.
You generate interest by stating the problem to be solved and by briefly exploring its
background; you give clarity of direction by outlining the topics you will discuss to explore it.
Along with motive and map, you should also have a clear one-sentence message. This is
your summary of your answer to the question. You may want to state it in your introduction
(where it is known as your thesis statement) or leave it until the final sentence of your
assignments conclusion. Placing it in your introduction is helpful if your assignment is an
argument for a particular viewpoint and you want your reader to be clear on the position
you want to defend from the very outset. Leaving it to the conclusion is preferred if it is your
considered outcome following a discussion of various options to solve a problem.
Introductions can also be given a lift by starting with a surprising statistic or thoughtprovoking quotation. You can quote this at the outset, or include it (centred and italicised)
above your introduction. Introductions do not need a heading Introduction as everything
below the assignment title until the first section is regarded as introductory text. This layout
not only makes it clear that the initial text is introductory, but allows your first content
section to be numbered with .1. So if the assignment X has three sections, you neatly have
X.1, X.2 and X.3. Introductions should be around 10% of the word count.
Introductions should not be long. Check with your module tutor for their preferences!
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Conclusions in PMAs
Just as an assignments introduction should be more than a map of its contents, so its
conclusion should offer more than a simple re-run of what has already been said. It can be
short and to the point, it can briefly recap the key points of the argument made. But it
should give the answers to the points raised, even though these answers may only be
tentative. As with Introductions, it should take up to 10% of the word count.
In general terms an introduction starts from a broad perspective and narrows down to the
details. So, in your assignments introduction, you explain the overall question before you
show how you intend to answer it. However, a conclusion goes the other way, from narrow
to broad. You start with the answers found and broaden out to look at their wider
implications. A conclusion can simply answer the issues... and stop. But they are more
satisfying if they begin to open up again by looking at how the answers are important for
the original issue or problem set.
An assignments conclusion needs to have a sub-heading Conclusion to separate it from
the last section of content. A conclusion should briefly, in two or three sentences, recap the
main points made in the assignment. You may then want to show how these answer, maybe
only partially, the question of the assignment. If introductions handle motive and map, then
conclusions address memories and meaning.
Along with memories and meaning, you should also have a clear one-sentence message.
This is your summary of your answer to the question. A satisfactory ending to a conclusion is
to use this message as a final sentence that

sums up the thrust of your case,

uses some of the words from the original assignment title to show its relevance to
the question set.

For example, if the assignment question was to Explain how you would use leadership
theories to provide the quality of leadership to make company X successful again, then your
final message sentence might be, By adopting transformation and strategic leadership
styles, the directors of company X will become more effective and so be able to direct the
company towards success in the future. Your final sentence should not be an exact replica
of the question, but should echo some of the words it uses. Your assignments question +
title and your conclusions final sentence then become the covers that encapsulate your
argument.

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Checking

You now have a polished text. But I hope you have also allowed a couple of hours for a final
check through. You need to perform a number of important tasks:
1. Check your planning list the list you made right at the outset that shows you the
key ideas from the question that you must address. Tick them off as they arise in
your assignment. Have you answered all that matters in the question, have you
included the right documents with your PMA, and have you divided your answer
according to the parts required? It is surprising to those who mark PMAs how many
students, when asked to answer a question in two parts, only provide one!
2. Check the marking system. You will see you that you do not receive high marks for
merely descriptive writing. So, which marking band are you hitting? Can you, even at
this late stage, add some reflective comments to show that you have evaluated what
you have read and assessed its relevance to the questions asked?
3. Check the WMG guidelines that tell you how PMAs should be laid out and what they
should contain. Have you made a separate list of references? Do you have a table of
contents? Have you labelled all your tables, figures and charts?
4. Check for plagiarism. Have you inadvertently left out a citation, thereby implying
that the idea is yours? Have you quoted an author, but forgotten the quote marks?
These are all vital tasks. Ensure you have sufficient time to check your work thoroughly.

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Transform a mess into a message

With a polished and well-checked text, this brings us to the end of our 7-step journey. There
were three steps before we even start writing: planning, mapping and reflecting. Then,
when we write, we focus on organising our ideas, drafting rather than trying to write the
finished piece, and then polishing our initial ideas into a masterpiece. But well make
mistakes, and so the final step is to check over what we have done.
Weve concentrated on the journey, but along the way there have been important principles
that have emerged. What are the most critical principles that can help you write a better
PMA? What is the Conclusion to this piece of writing?
I think there are three key principles in writing a PMA:
1. Answer the question asked rather than writing about what you know.
2. Guide the reader through your text as well as giving the reader content
3. Evaluate rather than simply describe.
By taking the first letter of each of these, you get A G and E. Now if you think your PMA is a
MESS, then adding AGE will turn it into a MESSAGE. And this is what good writing at MSc
level is all about: crafting a message of value rather than simply describing a topic.

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An example of writing: from description to evaluation

Imagine the assignment: Critically discuss the factors required for successful on-line shopping.
In researching different factors, trust emerges as very important. And perhaps here you may
have found a source which gives good descriptive information on trust in e-commerce. McKnight
et al. (1998) say there are 3 different aspects of trust. So, in my own words, my notes have:
Ability. This is the belief that the seller is able to provide the goods or services as purchased.
Integrity. This is the belief that the vendor is honest and the goods are of the stated quality.
Benevolence. This is the belief that the vendor has the purchasers interests in mind.
Lets summarise this article (with guiding text shown below in italics) and add explanations:
Trust is multi-dimensional. McKnight et al. (1998), for example, identify three elements.
Firstly, there needs to be a belief in the ability of the seller to provide the goods or services
as purchased. The buyer must believe that the seller actually has the goods displayed on the
web site and can supply them. Secondly, the buyer has to believe in the integrity of the
vendor, that the seller is honest, the payment will be honoured and the goods are of the stated
quality. Finally, there is benevolence. This is the belief that the vendor has the purchasers
interests in mind and not just his own. This relates to the perceived motives of the seller and
whether or not they show concern.
Lets now compare McKnights findings with other authors. This creates synthesis:
Gefen (2003) confirms these three dimensions, but also adds a fourth which he
calls predictability. This may be obtained through previous purchases derived
from trusting other buyers, through reviews on the site or in comments on social
media. On the other hand, Kim and Zhang (2014) have recently sought to simplify
the dimensions to only two: competence (from ability and reliability) and
goodwill (from integrity and benevolence). Competence relates to expectations of
service; goodwill to the motives of the vendor.
Perhaps theres is more to say on the subject, to bring in other authors, so we may need
another paragraph. But in changing our focus we start our new paragraph with However....
However, the intention to purchase is also determined by other factors and not solely by trust.
The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) has a long history in describing the factors
driving the use of technologies such as e-commerce. The two key factors that are said in
TAM to predict a persons intention to use a technology are the perceived usefulness of the
technology itself and its perceived ease of use (Davis, 1989). Later authors such as Venkatesh
(2008 & 2013) add a factor of social norms. The attitudes of our friends and the widespread
use of e-commerce will create an awareness that on-line shopping is safe. Clearly linked to
this is the availability of product reviews and social media comment (Chaffey, 2012, p.112).
For example, if others have rated a restaurant highly, we may well book. The TAM
perspective, therefore, must be viewed alongside trust models as equally important.
WMG 2014

Writing a PMA

28

OK, but what is our conclusion? How can we tie it all back to the assignment question? And
where to go next?
These two models, trust in the vendor and the quality of the technology, both play a part.
They are also interlinked: perceived ease of use can itself influence perceptions of trust as
the easier a site is to use the more trust it generates (Gefen, 2003). For success, a company
obviously has to have a product that people want and which it can deliver in a consistent
manner. It must commit itself to deal honestly with its customers and to regard them as
important. But the web site itself must be very easy to use and contain indications that the
company can be fully trusted. This may be with on-site facilities such as secure payment
pages and customer reviews, it may be via off-site policies such as a no-quibble returns
policy. The implementation of these two key factors encouraging trust and showing web
site competence are discussed in the next section.
But before we go on, how should we start our section? We need to relate the discussion firmly to
the assignment question, so we start with a short, clear topic sentence, maybe a definition of
what we are talking about and then outline how the section is structured. Here we follow the
general format of motive (importance) and map (outline). We also need a section heading.

2. Trust, technology and success in e-commerce

Trust in e-commerce is an essential element of any on-line transaction. The nature of on-line
shopping differs from that conducted physically between buyers and sellers. The goods
cannot be handled before purchase, they are only delivered after purchase and the usual social
cues between people that engender trust are not available on-line. Trust has been defined as
a willingness to rely on an exchange partner in whom one has confidence (Moorman et al.,
1993, p.56). Trust, however, is not a single concept: it is composed of more than one
dimension. This section considers the different components within trust and links these with
other models of web site success.

Lets now tie it all together to create a short section (with commentary in the margin).

2. Trust, technology and success in e-commerce

Trust in e-commerce is an essential element of any on-line transaction. The nature
of on-line shopping differs from that conducted physically between buyers and
sellers. The goods cannot be handled before purchase, they are only delivered
after purchase and the usual social cues between people that engender trust are not
available on-line. Trust has been defined as a willingness to rely on an exchange
partner in whom one has confidence (Moorman et al., 1993, p.56). Trust,
however, is not a single concept: it is composed of more than one dimension. This
section considers the different components within trust and links these with
other models of web site success.
WMG 2014

Relevant
heading in
larger font.
Section intro
that gives
the focus
and
assignment
relevance. It
also maps
the contents.

Writing a PMA
Trust is multi-dimensional. McKnight et al. (1998), for example, identify three
elements. Firstly, there needs to be a belief in the ability of the seller to provide
the goods or services as purchased. The buyer must believe that the seller actually
has the goods displayed on the web site and can supply them. Secondly, the buyer
has to believe in the integrity of the vendor, that the seller is honest, the payment
will be honoured and the goods are of the stated quality. Finally, there is
benevolence. This is the belief that the vendor has the purchasers interests in
mind and not just his own. This relates to the perceived motives of the seller and
whether or not they show concern. Gefen (2003) confirms these three dimensions,
but also adds a fourth which he calls predictability. This may be obtained through
previous purchases derived from trusting other buyers, through reviews on the site
or in comments on social media. On the other hand, Kim and Zhang (2014) have
recently sought to simplify the dimensions to only two: competence (from ability
and reliability) and goodwill (from integrity and benevolence). Competence
relates to expectations of service; goodwill to the motives of the vendor.
However, the intention to purchase is also determined by other factors and not
solely by trust. The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) has a long history in
describing the factors driving the use of technologies such as e-commerce. The
two key factors that are said in TAM to predict a persons intention to use a
technology are the perceived usefulness of the technology itself and its perceived
ease of use (Davis, 1989). Later authors such as Venkatesh (2008 & 2013) add a
factor of social norms. The attitudes of our friends and the widespread use of ecommerce will create an awareness that on-line shopping is safe. Clearly linked to
this is the availability of product reviews and social media comment (Chaffey,
2012, p.112). For example, if others have rated a restaurant highly, we may well
book. The TAM perspective, therefore, must be viewed alongside trust models as
equally important.
These two models, trust in the vendor and the quality of the technology, both play
a part. They are also interlinked: perceived ease of use can itself influence
perceptions of trust as the easier a site is to use the more trust it generates (Gefen,
2003). For success, a company obviously has to have a product that people want
and which it can deliver in a consistent manner. It must commit itself to deal
honestly with its customers and to regard them as important. But the web site
itself must be very easy to use and contain indications that the company can be
fully trusted. This may be with on-site facilities such as secure payment pages and
customer reviews, it may be via off-site policies such as a no-quibble returns
policy. The implementation of these two key factors encouraging trust and
showing web site competence are discussed in the next section.

WMG 2014

29

Content based
on evidence,
explanation and
examples.

Comparison of
authors to give
synthesis.

Further
material, with
the two
paragraphs
linked with
however. The
paragraph
ends with a
conclusion.

Synthesis that
brings the
different
aspects
together and
concludes.
Conclusion (2
key factors) +
a link to the
next section to
create flow.