l

neel
.,)SCENARIO

Section: Steel Terminology

on exit form the galvanising bath it is

passed through another furnace in which
the iron and zinc are caused to alloy (812% iron) mOre strongly than can be
achieved purely by dipping. This product
is used in the automotive industry where
good corrosion resistance is combined
with much improved weldability
compared with a pure zinc coating.
Gamma iron The form of iron that exists
between 910C and 1392C, in which the
iron atoms are arranged in a face centred
cubic (fcc) crystalline pattern, i.e. an
atom at each comer of a cube, and a
further atom in the centre of each face.
Gas carburising A method of casehardening a steel in which carbon, from a

A Glossary of Steel Terminology

Equiaxed crystals Grains (crystals) that
have approximately ((qual dimensions in
each of three orthogonal directions. (i.e.
at right angles to one another).
Equilibrium
diagram
A plot of
temperature against alloy composition
showing the limits of composition and
temperature ranges within which the
venous constituent phases of the alloy
exist under equilibrium conditions.
Etching The treating of a prepared
polished metal surface with a chemical
solution, or by other means, so that
structural details of the metal surface are
revealed. This may be a macro structure,
or more commonly requires examination
under an optical microscope.
Extrusion The production of a length of
uniform cross-section of metal from
billet or ingot stock by forcing the metal
to flow through a die, in direct extrusion,
or to flow through or around the ram (die)
in backward extrusion. In both cases, the
finished section will have a smaller crosssectional area than the starting material
and therefore will be longer.
Fatigue The effect on a metal of repeated
cycles of stress. Ifthese changes in stress
are of sufficient magnitude and number
the metal can fracture at a stress level
considerably below that of its tensile
strength.
Fatigue limit The maximum value of the
applied alternating stress that the
material can withstand without failure
ever occurnng.
Fatigue testing A mechanical test
method for determining the range of
alternating (fluctuating) stresses and the
number of cycles a material can
withstand before failure. The stresses can
be tensional, compression or torsional, or
a combination.
Ferrite A solid solution of one or more
elements in alpha or delta iron.
Ferro alloys An alloy of iron containing
sufficient of one or more other elements
such as Si, Mn, Cr, Ti, V etc, making them
of use as additions to molten steel, or cast
iron, to meet an ordered specification.
Flame hardeni~g A process in which a
high temperature flame is applied to the
surface of a hardenable steel to convert it
to austenite. The surface is then quenched

22

to harden it.
Forming The p'rocess of changing the
shape of sheet metal by the application of
load, i.e. in presswork or metal spinning.
Fracture face The irregular surface
produced when a piece of metal is
broken. Freecutting steels Steels in
which specific additions, the most
common being Sand Pb, have been'made
in order to improve their machinability.
Galvanic action CorrosIon induced by
the action of an electric current caused to
flow when two m~tals of dissimilar
composition are connected electrically
by an electrolyte. The metal higher in the
galvanic series will act as cathodt:, while
the other will act as anode and will

thereforecorrode.

'

Galvanising Galvanising is the process

in which corrosion protection is provided
to a steel product by coating it in zinc.
This can be achieved either through a hot
dip process, or electrolytically. In the
former, a cold reduced product passes
through a series of heat treatments in
which it is annealed and the surface is
cleaned prior to the strip' being passed
continuously into a bath of molten zinc at
c.440C. The coating mass is controlled
as a result ofthe strip then passed through
a set of air (or nitrogen) knives which
force
surplus zinc back into the bath. The
action of these knives is controlled by a
meter that is set according to the coating
mass actually required. The alternative
method
of coating
is to do it
electrolytically; in this case the feedstock
is an annealed and temper rolled cold
reduced product.
Generally speaking, the coating masses
so applied are much lighter than by hot
dipping. It should be remembered that in
addition to the continuous processes
described above, for some applications
post galvanising, i.e. hot dip galvanising
alter forming or fabrication,
is
appropriate. If steels are to be postgalvanised as part of the manufacturing
process this should be stated at the time of
ordering.
Galvanneal
A variation
of the
continuous hot dip galvanising process.
Following the solidification of the strip

gaseous atmosphere,

is diffused into the

surface of the steel while it is at high

temperature in the austenitic condition.
Gauge length A length on the parallelsided central portion of a tensile test
specimen that is used as the basis for
determining
the strain and total
elongation of the specimen.
Gauge plate In the trade this is also
known as 'ground flat stock'. It is a tool
steel usually containing 0.9% C, 1.2%
Mn, 0.5% Cr. It is supplied, in the
annealed condition, in short lengths, of
rectangular cross-section strip with faces
ground flat to close tolerances. It is used
in the manufacture of gauges, dies,
templates etc.
Grain size control A term used to
describe methods for controlling the
grain size of steel duringits manufacture.
Grain size measurement
The measurement of the grain size of a
metal
by observation
of a
metallographically
prepared sample
under a microscope. There are several
methods available for quantifying the
observations.
Graphitising The partial, or complete
conversion of the combined carbon that is
in the form of iron carbide, Fe3C
(cementite) uncombined carbon (graphite)
and ferrite. This reaction can take place in
steel or in cast iron. In the latter it often
occurs at solidification rather, than when
the cast iron is in solid form.
Grey iron A common form of cast iron
so-called because the fracture surface of
the iron has a grey appearance due to the
graphite
flakes
present
in the
microstructure.

!VOLUME 22

. Mll .

MAY 2013

neel

ection .:Steel Terminology

rinding The removal of material from a obtain desired properties. Heating for the
)rk-piece surface using a grinding purpose of hot working is excluded from
this definition.
leel or abrasive belt.
rinding cracks The formation of High speed tool steel Steel which is
allow surface cracks on a ground work~ alloyed inn such a way that it can be used
ece. Normally caused by the generation a s a cutting tool material to machine
excessive heat when an incorrect other metals at high speeds, and still
inding procedure has been used. Most retain its cutting ability, even though the
tool tip is at a low red heat. The various
mmonly seen on hardened steel.
ritAn angular steel abrasive used in the grades of this steel all contain 0.6% or
more of carbon, a combined content of
ast cleaning process.
ard metal facing The coating of a 7%, or more, of the elements tungsten,
etal surface with hard metal alloy molybdenum and vanadium, 3-6% of
Iwders in order to increase the wear chromium and in those required to
operate at the .highest temperatures
sistance ofthe surface.
additions of 4-13% of cobalt.
ardenability A term applied to steels to
:scribe the relative ease with which High yield strength steel
artensite can be formed in the steel. The Other terms used to describe this type of
wer the cooling rate at which a fully steel are High Strength Low Alloy
artensitic microstructure can be formed (HSLA) steel or Microalloyed steel. It is a
the steel when it is cooled from steel that with a combination of small
Lstenitic condition the higher is the amounts of niobium (Nb), vanadium (V)
Hdenability.
Hardenability
is or titanium (Ti), or a controlled
Immonly assessed by the Jominy end combination, and a controlled hot rolling
practice has yield strength greater than
lench test.
ardening Increasing the hardness of that obtainable in a mild steel, (i.e.
greater than 275 Mpa).
etals by mechanical,
thermoechanical, thermal or thermo-chemical Hooke's law A law that states that when a
material is behaving elastically, the strain
eatments.
ardness A measure of the resistance of in the material is directly proportional to
,
metal to indentation by a loaded the stress producing it.
denter. The common tests used to Hot quenching An imprecise term for
:termine hardness are the Vickers, describing the cooling of a material by
rinell or Rockwell tests.
quenching it into a medium, the
temperature
of which is above that of
eat In steel making this is often used to
ambient.
:scribe the steel prod~ced from a single
Hot work The ptastic deformation of a
elting operation.
eat resisting steel These are steels metal by processes such as rolling,
:quired to operate at very high forging, or extrusion, carried out at a
mperatures and therefore they may temperature and strain rate such that
:quire one or more of the following substantial strain hardening does not
occur but instead the metal continues to
1aracteristics:
creep resistance,
:sistance to oxidation, or other forms of yield relatively easily because the metal
lseous attack, and freedom from is recrystallising continuously.
.icrostructural changes that would lead Hydrogen (H) A gas which, when
I their embrittlement. Because service
present in steel, can cause embrittlement,
mditions can vary greatly a wide range hair-line cracking, or even complete
f steel compositions came under the fracture, especially of high strength
ltegory of heat resisting with C-Mn, or steels. Is an option as a controlled
IWalloy steels of the CR Mo-V type atmosphere medium for annealing, e.g.
~ing used to 500-525C and austenitic Ebher annealing, and also in high
ainless grades, containing for example temperature annealing of grain oriented
5% Cr, 20% Ni, being used at higher electrical steels.
:mperatures.
Impact test A test using, for example, an
leat treatment Heating and cooling a Izod or a Charpy notched specimen to
)lid metal or alloy in such a way as to determine the relative toughness of the
~

OLUME 22

Mll

MAY 2013

.,)SCENARIO

metal by measuring the energy absorbed

when the test specimen is fractured by a
weighted pendulum.
Inclusions Particles, usually compounds,
such as oxides, sulphides or silicates, but
that could also be of any substance that is
foreign to and essentially insoluble in the
steel matrix, e.g. particles oflead.
Inclusion
count A quantitative
assessment of the inclusion population of
a metallic alloy. It is carried out
microscopically on a prepared sample of
the alloy and may include one or more of
the following assessments: the number of
inclusion particles present, their size,
their shape, their type and their
distribution.
Induction hardening A process for
surface hardening steel in which the
surface of the steel is heated to an
austenitic condition, by eddy currents
from an inductor coil carrying a highfrequency alternating current, and then
quenched
immediately
to form
martensite. Changing the frequency ofthe
inductor coil current can modify the depth
of hardening achieved. To obtain sufficient
hardness the steels hardened in this
manner usua11ycontain at least 0.3%C.
Ingot A term used to describe a block of
solid steel resulting from the batch
casting of liquid steel into a stationary
mould made usually of cast iron.
Ingot mould The container into which
molten steel is poured to produce an
ingot. Usually it would be made of cast
iron but for the production of very large
forging ingots it would be made of sand.
Intercrystalline corrosion
Corrosive attack occurring preferentially
in the grain boundary regions of an alloy. It
is also known as intergranular corrosion.
Interrupted quenching A term used to
describe a quenching procedure in which
steel, instead of being quenched into a
liquid at ambient temperature,
is
quenched into a liquid, usually molten
salt, at some elevated temperature. When
the steel has been held for sufficient time
at this temperature
to achieve
temperature uniformity, and/or has
achieved the required microstructural
transformation, it is further quenched to
room temperature.
Iron When used, in the scientific or
chemical sense this word refers to the
23

...

neel
.)SCENARIO

chemical element Fe or to pure iron. It is

the principal element present in steels and
cast irons.
Izod impact test An Izod impact test is
similar to a Charpy test in that the
notched specimen is of the same
dimensions as a Charpy test piece and the
energy absorbed when the specimen is
fractured by a falling pendulum is used to
assess the toughness of the steel sample.
In the Izod test the specimen is struck by
the pendulum when it is held vertically in
a vice, whereas in the Charpy test the
specimen is struck when in a horizontal
position.
Jominy test A test used to assess the
hardenability of a steel. A standard
Jominy specimen is 25mm in diameter
and 100mm long with a flanged end. The
specimen is heated to an austenitic
condition and then end-quenched using a
standardised water jet. When cool, a flat,
OAmm deep, is ground along the length
of the bar and hardness measurements
made along the flat. The hardness results
are then plotted against distance from the
quenched end to give a Jominy
hardenability curve for the steel.
Joule A joule (1) is a unit of energy,
including wqrk and quantity of heat. It is
the work done when the point of
application of a force of 1 Newton (N) is
displaced through a distance of 1 metre
(m) in the direction ofthe force.
J Prep (Single/Double) Preparation for
welding.
Kerf Width of material lost by oxy
propane cutting flame.
Killed
steel Made by complete
deoxidation of the molten steel before it
is cast so that no gas evolution occurs
during solidification. Normally this is
achieved through additions of aluminium
and/or silicon Lap. The presence of an
area of 'double skin' on the surface of a
wrought steel product, e.g. on a section of
rolled bar. The most common cause of
this type of defect is from excess material
being squeezed out into the roll collar
during a roll pass so forming a fin on
either side of the product. On turning the
steel for the next pass the fins are then
rolled back into the steel surface so
producing laps.
Laser cutting and welding
Laser cutting is a process in which a laser

24

Section:

beam is used to Gut e.g. blanks from a

sheet of metal. Because of the intense and
highly localised nature of a laser beam, a
high degree of precision can be achieved.
Provided the material being cut is of
adequate quality, the risk of distortion is
greatly reduced. The cut is much cleaner
than one produced by any other means.
Laser welding is the reverse of cutting; in
this case the intense heat ora laser beam
is being used to execute a precision weld
of high quality.
L-D Process A process of making steel in
which oxygen is blown from a watercooled lance onto a bath, consisting
mainly of blast furnace iron, in a large
refractory lined tillable vessel. The
process is named after the two towns in
Austria, Linz and Donawitz, from where
it originates but is now more commonly
known as Basic Oxygen Steel making
(BOS) or the Basic Oxygen Process
(BOP).
Leaded steels Steels to which lead, in
amounts between 0.15-0.35%, has been
added, usually in conjunction with
sulphur, to improve the machinability of
the product.
Limit of proportionality
The maximum level of stress which a
metal can withstand and still obey
Hooke's Law, i.e. it is the point on the
stress-strain which any increase in stress
will cause a deviation from linearity. .In
practice, this means a permanent set.
Limiting ruling section The maximum
diameter bar size for which a stated set of
mechanical properties can be obtained
for a particular steel composition after a
given quench and temper heat treatment.
Liquid carburising A treatment in which
carbon is diffused into the surface of
steel, in order to harden it, through
immersion of the state in a bath of molten
sodium cyanide-based salt.
Machinability A term used to describe the
ease with which a metal can be machined
McQuaid-Ehn grain size test
A method for determining the re-formed
parent austenite grain size of steels
primarily intended for case-hardening, so
is mainly used on carbon and alloy steels
containing up to approximately 0.25%
carbon. In the test, samples of the steel
are carburised under standard conditions
and the austenite grain size is revealed by

Steel Terminology

the network of cementite that forms on

their boundaries during slow cooling.
Macrostructure The structure of metals
as seen when viewed with the naked eye
or at low magnification.
Magnetic crack detection
Also known as magnetic particle
inspection. This is a non-destructive
method of detecting surface and subsurface discontinuities, (cracks, porosity
etc.), in ferromagnetic materials. Finely
divided magnetic particles, applied to the
magnetised material, are attracted to, and
outline the pattern of any magnetic
leakage fields and so reveal the presence
of the discontinuity that created the
leakage.
Malleability The characteristic of metals
which permits them to be deformed
plastically by compressive forces without
fracture
Manganese (Mn) A most useful additive
to steels. Mild deoxidiser. Combines with
sulphur and so decreases the chance of
the steel suffering from hot shortness.
Improves the toughness of ferrite-pearlite
steels. Improves hardenability.
Hadfield's manganese steel, which is
characterised by its great resistance to
wear, contains around 13% Mn. It is used
in some grades of austenitic stainless
steel to replace the more expensive
nickel, as it is an austenite stabiliser.
Maraging steels Maraging steels are a
family of high nickel steels i.e. typically
not less than 18% that are characterised
by extreme high strength and toughness.
Nickel is one of a group of possible
additions to steel that encourages the
formation of austenite, as opposed to
carbides. Because of this, under the
correct conditions high strength can be
conferred by the transformation of
austenite into martensitic type structures.
The merit of maraging steels is that this
change brought about as a result of a
simple heat treatment, a consequence of
which is that the problems of distortion
normally
associated
with high
temperature heat treatments are avoided.
A typical heat treatment might involve
heating to 820DCfollowed by air cooling
(which avoids the distortion which would
be associated with a faster rate cooling).
The process is completed by ageing at a
temperature in the range 450-510De

VOLUME22

Mll

MAY2013

IL~

-neel

Section: Steel Terminology

Martempering A heat transformation
procedure in which an austenitised steel
is quenched to a temperature just above
MS, the martensite start temperature, at
a rate fast enough to avoid the formation
offerrite, pearlite or bainite. The steel is
then held at this temperature for long
enough to achieve
temperature
uniformity without transformation and
then cooled to room temperature. The
process is employed to minimise the
chance of quench cracking or distortion
occurnng.
Martensite
A microstructural form
found in steel when it has been cooled
from its austenitic state to room
temperature at a greater than the critical
cooling rate of the steel. It is a
metastable solid solution with a bodycentred tetragonal structure and its
hardness depends primarily upon the
carbon content ofthe steel.
Mass effect A term used to emphasise
the effect of section size on the rate at
which a steel can be cooled through its
austenitic transformation, and hence the
effect
of section
size on the
microstructure
and mechanical
properties that can be produced in a steel
of a particular chemistry when cooled in
this manner.
Maximum stress When used in relation
to the tensile testing of a metal the value
of the maximum stress is obtained by
dividing the maximum load to which the
test piece is subject to by the original
cross-sectional area of the specimens
gauge length.
Melting point The temperature at which
a solid begins to melt.
Micron A unit of length. It is 1 X 1006
(O.OOlmm).
Microstructure The internal structure
of a material revealed when a sample is
polished, etched and viewed under a
mIcroscope.
Mild steels A description generally taken
to mean non-alloy steel with a maximum
carbon content of about 0.25%.
Mill margin Material allowed between
mill supplied size & final cut size to
allow cutting operations.
Modulus of elasticity The ratio of the
applied stress to the resultant strain,
produced by the stress, occurring when
the metal is behaving in an elastic
VOLUME 22

Mll

MAY ~O13

">SCENARIO

manner.If the stress

occurs from tensile penetrant, magnetic particles, eddy

loading conditions
the ratio, the currents etc. to determine the quality of
modulus elasticity, is known as Young's a material without permanently altering
modulus (E) and it is a measure of the the completeness or properties of the
stiffness of the metal.
material being tested.
Molybdenum (Mo) A strong carbide Non-Magnetic steels Steels that have a
forming element in steel. Produces a stable, fully austenitic microstructure.
pronounced secondary hardening effect Normalising Heating up a steel to just
and so is present in hot working tool above its upper critical temperature in
order to transform it to austenite,
steels and is used as a partial
replacement for tungsten in certain followed
by cooling
to room
grades of highspeed steel. Greatly temperature at such a rate that a refined
improves hardenability (of the elements equilibrium microstructure is produced.
commonly added for this purpose only Often this means cooling in still air.
vanadium has a stronger effect), and Notched bar test A test in which the test
reduces temper embrittlement, so is specimen has a notch of a standard
often used in quenched and tempered geometry machined in it in order to
engineering steels. Used in conjunction produce a local stress concentration at the
with Cr and V in creep resistant steels. notch root when the specimen is tested.
Up to 5% can be present in maraging (See Charpy and Izod Impact tests)
steels. Added to stainless steels to Notching The cutting out of any of a
promote resistance to pitting and variety of possible shapes from the edge
crevice corrosion attack.
of a section, plate, blank or part.
Nesting Where parts are grouped
Oil hardening steel A steel for which
together on a plate to achieve best fit and the liquid used for quenching is oil
hence minimise yield loss.
rather than any other medium.
Nickel (Ni) Widely used as an alloying Oiling The coating of steel with oil as a
element in steels. Up to 5.0% can be temporary rust preventative.
present in general engineering and in Open hearth
furnace A melting
case hardening
steels. Improves
furnace with a shallow hearth, on which
strength and toughness and increases the charge is placed beneath a low roof.
hardenability.
Larger amounts are Heating of the charge is both by direct
present in austenitic stainless and in heat flame and by radiation from the furnace
resisting steels. Also used in Invar, a roof and sidewalls. This type of furnace
controlled thermal expansion alloy, and is no longer used in Western Europe as a
in permanent magnet alloys.
steel making unit as the Basic Oxygen
Niobium (Nb) Known as columbium in and the Electric Arc Furnace Steel
the USA. A strong carbide forming making processes have now replaced it,
element in steel. Present in amounts up for economic and quality reasons.
to 0.1% in high strength low alloy Orange peel effect The name given to
(micro alloyed) structural steel and used the appearance of the surface roughening
that can occur when a metal with an
in stabilised grades of austenitic
stainless steel. Can also be used as a unusually coarse grain size is plastically
stabilising element in ultra low carbon deformed.
(ULC) steels.
Ore A naturally occurring mineral that
Nitriding A thermochemical treatment can be mined and treated for the
in which nitrogen is diffused into the extraction of any of its components,
steel.
metallic or otherwise, on a commercial
The treatment is usually carried out at a basis.
temperature around 500C, in either a Over heating Heating a metal to such a
gas or salt bath atmosphere, or with the high temperature, or for such a long time
that its properties are degraded. When the
use of a plasma.
original properties of the metal cannot be
Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)
restored
by thermal, mechanical or
Also known as non-destructive
thermo-mechanical
treatment
the
inspection. Any technique that uses
overheating is often termed 'burning'.
radiography,
ultra-sonics,
dye-

To be continued in next issue......

25