BIOMOLECULES

CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are also known as Saccharides and are optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or
ketones.

Nomenclature of Carbohydrates
They are in general named as an aldose or a ketose depending upon the presence of an
aldehydic or ketonic group respectively
No of C.Atoms

General name

Aldose

Ketose

Triose

Aldotriose

Ketotriose

Tetrose

Aldotetrose

Ketotetrose

Pentose

Aldopentose

ketopentose

Hexose

Aldohexose

Ketohexose

Heptose

Aldoheptose

Ketoheptose

Glucose is an example of aldohexose and fructose is an example of ketohexose.

Classification of Carbohydrates
Depending upon the number of products that are obtained on hydrolysis, carbohydrates are
classified into three:1) Monosaccharides are those carbohydrates which do not undergo further hydrolysis.
E.g. Glucose, Fructose, etc.
2) Oligosaccharides are those carbohydrates which on hydrolysis yields 2-10
monosaccharides. If it yields two monosaccharides it is called as a disaccharide, if it
gives three it is called trisaccharide, four tetrasaccharide and so forth .The products of
hydrolysis of an oligosaccharide may be the same type of monosaccharide or different
types of monosaccharides.For e.g. Sucrose is a disaccharide which on hydrolysis gives
glucose and fructose(2 different products) whereas maltose is a disaccharide which on
hydrolysis gives 2 molecules of glucose( same products).
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3) Polysaccharides are those carbohydrates which yield more than ten monosaccharides
on hydrolysis e.g. Starch and cellulose.
Carbohydrates are also classified as sugars and non sugars. Sugars have crystalline
shape, are sweet to taste and soluble in water whereas non sugars are amorphous and
tasteless and insoluble in water. All mono and oligosaccharides are sugars whereas all
polysaccharides are non sugars.
Sugars are further classified into reducing and non reducing sugars depending on their
ability to reduce Tollens reagent, Fehlings solution etc. All monosaccarides irrespective
of whether they contain aldehydic or ketonic group are reducing sugars.Amongst
oligosaccharides the ones which have a free aldehydic group will be reducing.(e.g.
Maltose) whereas the ones which do not contain free aldehyde group will be non
reducing (e.g. Sucrose).

GLUCOSE
Glucose Preparation
C12 H22O11 + H2 O
Sucrose

C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Glucose

fructose

(Dextrose)

(Laevulose)

From Starch (commercial method)

Glucose is obtained by hydrolysis of starch by boiling it with dilute H2SO4 at 393 K under
pressure.
.
(C6H10O5)n + n H2O
Starch

n C6H12O6
glucose

Structure of Glucose
Glucose is an aldohexose also known as dextrose. It is the most abundant organic compound on
earth .Its structure is determined in the following manner.
1) The molecular formula of glucose was found to be C6H12O6
2) Glucose on heating with HI and red Phosphorous gives n Hexane as the final product
indicating that all the six carbon atoms of glucose are arranged in a straight chain.
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CHO-(CHOH) 4-CH 2OH

CH3-(CH 2)4-CH3.

3) Glucose reacts with one mole of HCN to form a cyanohydrin and reacts with one mole of
hydroxyl amine to form an oxime. This suggests the existence of a carbonyl group in
glucose.
CHO-(CHOH) 4-CH 2OH + HCN
CHO-(CHOH) 4-CH 2OH + NH2OH

CH(OH)(CN)- (CHOH) 4-CH 2OH

HO-N=CH-(CHOH) 4-CH 2OH

4) Glucose on reaction with mild oxidizing agent like bromine water is oxidized to gluconic
acid. This reaction suggests that the carboxyl group in glucose is an aldehydic group.
Since it is an aldehydic group it must always be a terminal end.
CHO-(CHOH) 4-CH 2OH

HOOC- (CHOH) 4-CH 2OH

5) Glucose when treated with acetic anhydride gives a pentacetate which confirms the
existence of five -OH groups in glucose. Since a stable organic compound cannot contain
more than one -OH attached to the same carbon atom and since there is already a
terminal aldehydic group it is clear that each of the -OH groups would be attached
separately to each of the remaining five carbon atoms.
CHO-(CHOH) 4-CH 2OH

CHO-(CHOCOCH 3) 4-CH 2OCOCH 3

6) Since all the carbon and oxygen have been accounted for, it is clear that the remaining
valencies of each carbon atom are satisfied by hydrogen. Thus we end up with four
chiral carbon atoms each of which has a secondary alcoholic group. The last carbon
atom on the other hand will not be chiral and will be having a primary alcoholic group.
The presence of a primary alcoholic group is further confirmed by the fact that both
glucose and gluconic acid on oxidation with strong oxidising agents like conc. HNO3is
converted into a six carbon atom dicarboxylic acid called as saccharic acid.
CHO-(CHOH) 4-CH 2OH

HOOC-(CHOH) 4-COOH.

Fischer did experiments in order to determine the configurations of different groups and
proposed the structure of D glucose as:-

D & L Notations
D & L notation is used to specify the configuration around the chiral carbon atom. It is generally
used for carbohydrates and amino acids. In the case of a carbohydrate the normal arrangement
is in the following fashion, an aldehyde or ketonic group at the top several carbons with H & OH
attached to them and the last carbon will be CH2 OH.(1 alcoholic group).In order to determine
D & L configuration we look at the chiral carbon atom which is directly attached to CH2 OH .In
this chiral carbon atom if -OH is on the right it is D configuration and if -OH is on the left it is L
configuration.

For amino acids, -CHO is replaced by -COOH, -CH 2OH is replaced by -R and -OH by -NH2.In such
case we look at that chiral carbon atom which is directly attached to the alkyl group. In this
carbon if -NH2 is on the right it is D configuration and if -NH2 is on the left it is L configuration.
Majority of the carbohydrates have D configuration whereas amongst the twenty -amino
acids all except one have L configuration.
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Cyclic Structure of Glucose.

The straight chain structure of glucose cant explain many of the observed properties of glucose
like:1.Despite having aldehydic group glucose does not give a positive test with Schiffs reagent, and
with Bradys reagent (2,4- DNP) and it does not form a product with sodium bisulphite.
2.Glucose does not react with ammonia and pentacetate of glucose does not react with
hydroxyl amine indicating the absence of free aldehydic group.
3.D- Glucose is found to exist in two crystalline forms. One form called as -D- glucose (melting
point -419 K ) is obtained by crystallization from conc. Solution at 30 C.The second form called
as - D- glucose (m.p 423K ) is obtained from hot and conc. aqueous solution at 371 K(98 C).
In order to explain the above phenomenon, it is postulated that glucose forms a six membered
ring structure with cyclisation happening at carbon nos 1 & 5.The two chain structures of
glucose exists in equilibrium with the open structure. The two forms of glucose differ in their
structure at the first carbon atom called as the anomeric carbon atom. (Anomeric carbon is the
carbon of the aldehydic group which undergoes cyclisation) .Since -D- Glucose and - DGlucose differ from each other only in their configuration around the anomeric carbon atom,
they are called as anomers of each other.( In - D- Glucose at the anomeric carbon atom, -OH
is on the right & in -D- Glucose it is on the left).Glucose can exist as a five membered ring
structure called as the furanose form or as a six membered ring structure called as the
pyranose form. Naturally occurring glucose always exists in the pyranose form.

Cyclic structures are conveniently represented by using Haworth projection formulaes. In

Haworth projection formula, the ring is first drawn. The front portion is shaded in order to show
that it is projected towards the viewer.(Numbering should be done in such a way that the cyclic
structure corresponds to the straight chain structure in terms of the carbon atoms that are
linked by oxygen.)The groups are then arranged at the top or bottom. Whatever is on the right
in Fisher projection formula will be placed below in Haworth projection formula and those on
the left in Fischer projection formula will be placed above. (Note CH2 OH comes on the top as
it is towards the observer and -OH is directed away).

Structure of Fructose
Fructose is a ketose and exists in furanose form. It is known as D-(-) fructose because it is laevo
rotatory.
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Disaccharides
Glycosidic linkage
A glycosidic linkage is chemically an ether linkage which holds two monosaccharide units .

Sucrose
It on hydrolysis gives glucose and fructose. Sucrose is dextro rotatory but the mixture of
glucose and fructose (invert sugar) is laevo rotatory.This is because the dextro rotation of
glucose is less as compared to the laevorotation of fructose. Since hydrolysis of sucrose is
accompanied by inversion of sign of optical activity, the process is called as inversion of cane
sugar. Structurally, sucrose is composed of
glucose and
fructose linked by -glycosidic
linkage between C1 of D- glucose and C2 of
-D fructose. Since C1 of glucose is involved in
glycosidic linkage, there is no free aldehydic group in sucrose and hence it is a non reducing
sugar.
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Maltose
On hydrolysis gives two molecules of -D- glucose and the glycosidic linkage is between C1 of
one unit or C4 of another unit.( C1 C4 linkage).Since the unit which utilizes C4 has a free
aldehydic group, maltose will be a reducing sugar.

Lactose
On hydrolysis gives - D- glucose and -D- galactose .Structurally the -glucosidic linkage is
between C1 of D- galactose and C4 of - D- glucose. Since the glucose unit which utilizes C4
has a free aldehydic group ,lactose will be a reducing sugar.

Polysaccharides

Starch
Starch on hydrolysis gives n molecules of - D- glucose units Starch consists of two
components- Amylose and Amylopectin. Amylose is soluble in water, gives blue coloration with
iodine solution and constitutes of 15-20% of starch. It has a straight chain structure consisting
of 200- 1000 -D-glucose units linked together by C1 C4 glycosidic linkages.Amylopectin is
insoluble in water, does not give blue colour with Iodine and has a branced chain structure.The
straight chain consists of C1 C4 glycosidic linkage whereas branching happens by C 1 C6
glycosidic linkage.

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Cellulose
Cellulose on hydrolysis gives n molecules of - D- glucose units. Structurally it consists of n
molecules of - D- glucose units linked together by C1 C4 - glycosidic linkage.

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Glycogen
Carbohydrates are stored in animal body as glycogen. It is also known as animal starch because
its structure is similar to amylopectin though glycogen is highly branched. It is present in liver,
muscles and brain and is also found in yeast and fungi. When body needs glucose enzymes
break glycogen down to glucose.

Proteins
Proteins on hydrolysis yield polypeptides which on further hydrolysis yields amino acids. Thus
amino acids are the basic building blocks of a protein. Amino acids are classified as essential or
non- essential amino acids. Non- essential acids are synthesized inside the body whereas
essential amino acids are obtained from diet. Amino acids are also classified as neutral ,acidic
and basic depending on the relative no. of -NH2 and -COOH groups. If no of -NH2 & -COOH
groups are equal it is neutral, If no of -NH2 is higher it is basic and if no of -COOH is higher it is
acidic. Amino acids exist as internal salts called as Zwitter ions because of the presence of acidic
-COOH and basic -NH2.
In acidic medium, an amino acid moves towards the negatively charged cathode and in basic
medium it moves to the positively charged anode. At a particular pH amino acid moves neither
to the anode nor to the cathode. This pH at which the amino acid doesnt move to either of the
electrodes is called as the isoelectric point of an amino acid and at this pH it has the minimum
solubility. This property is utilized for separating different amino acids.
The amino acids are linked up together through an amide linkage called as the peptide linkage.
By convention, when a polypeptide chain is written the nitrogen terminal is kept on the left and
the carbon terminal on the right. If two amino acids are joined together it is a dipeptide, if three
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have joined a tripeptide is formed and so on. If many amino acids are joined together it is called
a polypeptide.

There is no clear boundary between a polypeptide and a protein. In general when the
molecular mass crosses 10,000 it is considered as a protein. Proteins have either a fibrous or a
globular shape. In fibrous protein, the polypeptides are stacked parallel to each other and then
they are held by hydrogen and disulphide bonds. Fibrous proteins are generally insoluble in
water. Example: Keratin (hair), Myosin (muscles).Globular proteins are obtained when chains of
polypeptides coil around the axis to give a spherical shape. They are generally soluble in
water.e.g.insulin and albumin.

Structure of protein
The structure of protein can be studied at four levels each with increasing complexity. Primary
structure of protein refers to the sequential arrangement of amino acids to form a polypeptide.
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Each polypeptide is unique because it has a particular arrangement. For e.g. AAG is different
from AGA.Any change in the primary structure of the protein creates a different protein
Secondary structure refers to the shape in which a poly peptide chain exists. Two structures
have been postulated for secondary structure of proteins.

1. - Helix structure
The single most important stabilizing force of different polypeptide chains is hydrogen bonding
between hydrogen attached to nitrogen and the carboxyl oxygen. Thus, that structure would be
the most stable where the maximum number of hydrogen bonds can be formed. This can be
achieved if the polypeptides have a right handed -Helix structure. In this structure the
hydrogen attached to nitrogen of one turn forms the bond with the carboxyl oxygen to the next
turn and thus all -NH and -CO groups will be involved in hydrogen bonding.

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2.-pleated structure
In this structure the polypeptide chains first undergoes maximum extension or stretching and
then sits side by side. The arrangement of polypeptide chains when they lie side by side may be
parallel or antiparallel. Intermolecular hydrgogen bonds are then formed between the -NH of
one chain and the C=O of another chain.

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Tertiary structure of protein.

The characteristic shape of the protein (fibrous or globular) is obtained at the tertiary level.
The main forces which stabilize secondary or tertiary structures of proteins are hydrogen
bonds, disulphide bonds, Vanderwals forces and electrostatic force of attraction.

Quaternary structures
Some of the proteins are composed of two or more polypeptide chains referred to as sub-units.
The spatial arrangements of these with respect to each other is known as the quaternary
structure.

Denaturation of proteins
A protein with a characteristic shape, sequence of amino acids and which performs a particular
biological activity is called as a native protein. In certain cases, due to the effect of external
factors like temperature, pressure, pH etc, the protein might lose its higher structures and
thereby its ability to perform the biological activity.(Since the 1 structure is intact, the protein
is not lost.)Such a protein which has lost its higher structures and hence its biological activity
but retains its primary structure is called as a denatured protein. Denaturation could be
reversible or irreversible. If it is reversible we can get back the original protein by removing the
external factors which caused denaturation. Reversible denaturation is called as renaturation.
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Enzymes
All Enzymes are globular proteins and are bio catalysts. They are highly specific for a particular
reaction and for a particular substrate. They are named either after the compound or class of
compounds upon which they work or they are named after the reaction which they
catalyse.The names of all enzymes ends with ase .e.g.Maltose catalyses the change of maltose
to glucose (enzyme is named after the substrate).Oxidoreductase enzymes bring about the
oxidation of one substrate and the reduction of another (named after the process they
catalyze).
Vitamins
Vitamins are organic compounds required in the diet in small amounts to perform specific
biological functions for normal maintenance and optium growth and health of the organisms.
They are classified into two;
Fat soluble vitamins (A, B, E, K) and water soluble vitamins (B &C group). Water soluble vitamins
are excreted in urine and hence cannot be stored in the body except vitamin B 12 (cobalamine
complex of cobalt).Vitamin H is neither soluble in oil nor in water. Fat soluble vitamins are
stored in liver and adipose tissues and can accumulate in the body.Therefore; excess intake of
these vitamins may cause hypervitaminoses.

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Nucleic Acids
Nucleus of a living cell is responsible for transmission of inherent characteristics also called as
heredity. Chromosomes which are present in the nucleus of the cell are responsible for this.
Chromosomes are made up of proteins and another type of bimolecule called as nucleic acid.
Nucleic acids are also called as polynucleotides since they are long chain polymers of
nucleotides. Nucleic acids are mainly of two types:-

DNA & RNA

A nucleic acid on hydrolysis yields three main products
1.Pentose sugar
2.Two types of nitrogenous bases
3.Phosphoric acid -H3PO4
The two types of nitrogenous bases are in general called as the purine bases and pyrimidine
bases. Each nucleic acid will contain two purine bases and two pyrimidine bases i.e. a nucleic
acid on hydrolysis ultimately gives four bases.
DNA

RNA

- D Deoxyribose sugar

- D -Ribose sugar

(They differ at the 2 C as DNA contains one O less)

DNA contains
purine bases
Pyrimidine bases

DNA is double stranded

RNA contains
A,G
C, T

purine bases
pyrimidine bases

A,G
C,U

RNA is single stranded

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Structurally a nucleic acid consists of several nucleotides which are formed from nucleosides
(by convention the carbon atoms of base is numbered as 1,2,3 whereas that of the sugar is
numbered as 1,2,3.).
A nucleoside is formed by the combination of base with sugar at the 1 position of the sugar.

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Nucleotides are phosphate esters obtained by the linkage of phosphoric acid at the 5 position
of the sugar of a nucleoside.

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Nucleotides are joined together by phosphodiester linkage between 5 & 3 carbon atoms of the
pentose sugar to form nucleic acid.

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Structure of DNA

It consists of two right handed helix coiled around an axis .The strands are held together by
hydrogen bonds between pairs of bases. The two strands are complementary to each other
because the hydrogen bonds are formed between specific pairs of bases. The bases are
arranged in the grooves perpendicular to the axis. Base pairing takes place in such a fashion
that one purine base pairs with one pyrimidine base. In DNA, adenine pairs with thymine
through a double hydrogen bond whereas cytosine and guanine are held together by a triple
hydrogen bond .Thus C- G pair is always more stable than A- T pair.
RNA molecules are of 3 types and they perform different functions. They are named as
1)Messenger RNA (m- RNA) .2)Ribosomal RNA ( r- RNA).3)Transfer RNA ( t RNA).
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