Contents

Preface
1

Overview of communication systems

1.1
1.2

2
2
3
4
7

1.3

1.4

1.5

xi

Introduction
Non-electrical telecommunication
1.2.1 Verbal non-electrical telecommunication
1.2.2 Visual non-electrical telecommunication
Modern telecommunication
1.3.1 Developments in binary codes for data
transmission
1.3.2 Historical systems and developments in
modern telecommunication
Communication system elements
1.4.1 Information source
1.4.2 Information sink
1.4.3 Transmitter
1.4.4 Receiver
1.4.5 Transmission medium
Classification of modern communication systems
1.5.1 Simplex or duplex?
1.5.2 Analogue or digital?
1.5.3 Baseband or modulated?

7
12
16
17
20
26
28
29
46
46
47
53

Telecommunication signals

74

2.1
2.2

74

Introduction
Forms and classification of telecommunication
signals
2.2.1 Subjective classification
2.2.2 Objective classification

75
77
83

vi

Contents

2.3

2.4

2.5
2.6

2.7
2.8
2.9

Sinusoidal signals
2.3.1 Qualitative introduction
2.3.2 Parameters of a sinusoidal signal
2.3.3 Addition of sinusoids
2.3.4 Multiplication of sinusoids
Frequency content of signals
2.4.1 Fourier theorem
2.4.2 Types of spectrum
2.4.3 Fourier transform examples
2.4.4 Bandwidth and frequency response
2.4.5 Inverse relationship between time and
frequency
Power content of signals
Logarithmic measures of signal and power
2.6.1 Logarithmic units for system gain
2.6.2 Logarithmic units for voltage and power
2.6.3 Logarithmic unit for noise power
Calibration of a signal transmission path
Transmission through linear systems
Signal distortion
2.9.1 Distortionless transmission
2.9.2 Attenuation and delay distortions
2.9.3 Non-linear distortions

88
88
90
95
97
100
100
107
111
113
116
118
123
125
126
127
128
130
134
134
136
138

Amplitude modulation

149

3.1
3.2

149
150
151
152
154

3.3

3.4

3.5

3.6

Introduction
AM signals time domain description
3.2.1 AM waveform
3.2.2 Sketching AM waveforms
3.2.3 Modulation factor
Spectrum and power of amplitude-modulated
signals
3.3.1 Sinusoidal modulating signal
3.3.2 Arbitrary message signal
3.3.3 Power
AM modulators
3.4.1 Generation of AM signals
3.4.2 AM transmitters
AM demodulators
3.5.1 Diode demodulator
3.5.2 Coherent demodulator
3.5.3 AM receivers
Merits, demerits and applications of AM

158
158
162
165
168
168
172
174
174
179
181
185

Contents

3.7

vii

Variants of AM
3.7.1 DSB
3.7.2 SSB
3.7.3 ISB
3.7.4 VSB

186
186
196
204
207

Angle modulation

217

4.1
4.2

218
218
221
224
227
234
234
236
241
242
252
264
264
267
268
273
273
276
279
279
283
283
285
286
287
288
288
289
289

4.3

4.4

4.5

4.6

4.7

4.8

Introduction
Basic concepts of FM and PM
4.2.1 Frequency modulation concepts
4.2.2 Phase modulation concepts
4.2.3 Relationship between FM and PM
FM and PM waveforms
4.3.1 Sketching simple waveforms
4.3.2 General waveform
Spectrum and power of FM and PM
4.4.1 Narrowband FM and PM
4.4.2 Wideband FM and PM
FM and PM modulators
4.5.1 Narrowband modulators
4.5.2 Indirect wideband modulators
4.5.3 Direct wideband modulators
FM and PM demodulators
4.6.1 Direct demodulator
4.6.2 Indirect demodulator
4.6.3 Phase demodulator
4.6.4 Frequency discriminators
FM transmitter and receiver
4.7.1 Transmitter
4.7.2 SNR and bandwidth trade-off
4.7.3 Pre-emphasis and de-emphasis
4.7.4 Receiver
Overview of FM and PM features
4.8.1 Merits
4.8.2 Demerits
4.8.3 Applications

Sampling

294

5.1
5.2
5.3

294
295
296
297
298
300

Introduction
Sampling theorem
Proof of sampling theorem
5.3.1 Low-pass signals
5.3.2 Bandpass signals
5.3.3 Sampling at Nyquist rate

viii

Contents

5.4
5.5
5.6

Aliasing
Anti-alias filter
Non-instantaneous sampling
5.6.1 Natural sampling
5.6.2 Flat-top sampling
5.6.3 Aperture effect

301
307
310
310
313
317

Digital baseband transmission

323

6.1
6.2

323
324
325
333
356

6.3

6.4

6.5

6.6

6.7

Introduction
Quantisation and encoding
6.2.1 Uniform quantisation
6.2.2 Non-uniform quantisation
Differential PCM (DPCM)
6.3.1 Adaptive differential pulse code modulation
(ADPCM)
6.3.2 Delta modulation
Low bit rate speech coding
6.4.1 Waveform coders
6.4.2 Vocoders
6.4.3 Hybrid coders
Line codes
6.5.1 NRZ codes
6.5.2 RZ codes
6.5.3 Biphase codes
6.5.4 RLL codes
6.5.5 Block codes
Pulse shaping
6.6.1 Ideal filtering
6.6.2 Raised cosine filtering
6.6.3 Information capacity theorem
Digital baseband receiver
6.7.1 Adaptive equalisation
6.7.2 Matched filter
6.7.3 Root raised cosine filter
6.7.4 Clock extraction
6.7.5 Eye diagrams
6.7.6 Matched filter worked examples

359
359
365
368
369
371
372
373
374
375
375
377
381
381
383
387
389
389
390
392
393
394
395

Digital modulated transmission

407

7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4

408
411
421
423

Introduction
Signal space
Digital transmission model
Noise effects

Contents

7.5

ix

Symbol and bit error rates

7.5.1 Special cases
7.5.2 Arbitrary binary transmission
7.6 Binary modulation
7.6.1 ASK
7.6.2 PSK
7.6.3 FSK
7.6.4 Minimum transmission bandwidth
7.7 Coherent binary detection
7.7.1 ASK detector
7.7.2 PSK detector
7.7.3 FSK detector
7.8 Non-coherent binary detection
7.8.1 Non-coherent ASK detector
7.8.2 Non-coherent FSK detector
7.8.3 DPSK
7.9 M-ary transmission
7.9.1 Bandwidth efficiency
7.9.2 M-ary ASK
7.9.3 M-ary PSK
7.9.4 M-ary FSK
7.9.5 M-ary QAM
7.10 Design considerations
7.11 BER derivation for M-ary QAM

425
428
432
437
437
439
441
444
445
446
447
448
451
454
456
457
460
460
462
468
474
477
482
485

Multiplexing strategies

495

8.1
8.2

495
500
500
503
505
515
517
518
518
521
531
539
547
548
550
553
558

8.3

8.4

Introduction
Frequency division multiplexing
8.2.1 General concepts
8.2.2 Demerits of flat-level FDM
8.2.3 FDM hierarchies
8.2.4 Wavelength division multiplexing
8.2.5 The future of FDM
Time division multiplexing
8.3.1 General concepts
8.3.2 Plesiochronous digital hierarchy
8.3.3. Synchronous digital hierarchy
8.3.4 ATM
Code division multiplexing
8.4.1 Types of spread spectrum modulation
8.4.2 CDM transmitter
8.4.3 CDM receiver
8.4.4 Crucial features of CDM

Contents

Noise in communication systems

569

9.1
9.2

569
571
571
572
573
575
575
575
576
579
579
579
579
582
584
587
588
590
593
594
594
596
597
600
604
606
607
608
609
610
611
614

9.3

9.4
9.5
9.6

9.7

9.8

9.9

Introduction
Signal attenuation
9.2.1 Metallic lines
9.2.2 Optical fibre
9.2.3 Radio
Physical sources of random noise
9.3.1 Thermal or Johnson noise
9.3.2 Quantisation noise
9.3.3 Radio or sky noise
9.3.4 Shot noise
9.3.5 Partition noise
9.3.6 Quantum noise
9.3.7 Flicker or 1/f noise
Gaussian noise
White noise
Narrowband noise
9.6.1 Noise equivalent bandwidth
9.6.2 Canonical representation
9.6.3 Envelope representation
System noise calculations
9.7.1 Available noise power
9.7.2 Equivalent noise temperature
9.7.3 Noise figure of a single system
9.7.4 Noise figure of cascaded systems
9.7.5 Overall system noise temperature
9.7.6 Signal-to-noise ratio
Noise effects in analogue communication systems
9.8.1 DSB
9.8.2 SSB
9.8.3 AM
9.8.4 FM
Noise effects in digital communication systems

Appendices
A
B
C

Index

Trigonometric identities
Transmission of ASCII-coded data
Further reading and tables

620
622
624

633

Preface

A new approach to teaching communication engineering

Communication Engineering Principles is aimed at undergraduate courses in
communication engineering, and may be used successfully as supplementary reading for MSc students or for short courses in telecommunications
for practising engineers. Although many current textbooks purport to do
this effectively, the innovative approach adopted in Communication Engineering Principles has been shown in my experience to be preferred by all
students when first encountering the subject.

Minimal mathematics
The essential approach taken is to impart a thorough grounding in the
fundamental concepts and design issues involved in communication engineering using minimal mathematics. Most of the existing textbooks on
communication engineering take a mathematical systems approach that
requires the student to jump over a mathematical high-hurdle before being
able to enjoy what is a thoroughly exciting subject and a highly rewarding
career. Such a needlessly mathematical approach may deter potentially
successful engineers or cloud their insight into the underlying engineering
concepts. At the other end of the scale are those textbooks that are unsuitable to the intended readership of Communication Engineering Principles
because they are written to educate non-technical and non-mathematical
readers on the terminology and basic concepts of communication
engineering.

Engineering first, mathematics second

The presentation throughout the book emphasises the underlying engineering considerations. Mathematics is used only to the extent and at a
level that is absolutely necessary. A good demonstration of this philosophy
is the novel derivation of the matched filter in Chapter 6. Furthermore,

xii

Preface

lucid graphs and diagrams are employed to facilitate understanding and

assimilation. The reader is coached in solving a wide range of practical
problems, all of which have a direct bearing on current applications in
communication engineering.

A thorough grounding in the principles

After studying the material presented in Communication Engineering Principles or completing a course based on the book, the reader will have a thorough understanding of the principles of telecommunications, and a sound
knowledge of the interplay of various systems parameters and the trade-offs
involved in the design of communications systems. The reader will also be
very well equipped and sufficiently motivated to deal with more specialised
telecommunications topics and applications.

Lecturer support
Lecturer support is available in the form of a Solutions Manual, available
from the publisher. In addition, all the figures from the book are available
as PowerPoint slides, accessible from the Publishers Web site.

Chapter by chapter overview

Chapter 1 gives a comprehensive and non-mathematical overview of communication systems. The treatment erects crucial pegs on which to hang further
knowledge and is sufficiently detailed to serve as the material for a short
course that presents a survey of modern telecommunications. The presentation includes non-electrical telecommunications, key developments in modern
telecommunications, elements and classifications of a communication
system, signal processing in communication systems, and an introduction to
digital communications.
Chapter 2 provides a carefully gauged and step-by-step discussion of telecommunication signals and how they are manipulated in telecommunication systems. The sinusoidal signal is introduced as the basic building block
of all types of signal waveforms and an indicator of system characteristics.
This allows us to deal with important concepts such as signal spectrum,
system transfer function and signal transmission and distortions. Logarithmic
measures and calibration of signal transmission paths are also discussed.
Chapter 3 is a comprehensive treatment of amplitude modulation and all
its variants, which include vestigial sideband, independent sideband, single
sideband and double sideband. The presentation emphasises key principles
and design considerations, and includes modulation and demodulation
circuits, the AM transmitter, the superheterodyne receiver and various
applications.
Chapter 4 on angle modulation brings a fresh approach to the teaching of
frequency and phase modulations. Emphasis is placed on a thorough understanding of the fundamental concepts, the relationships between the two

Preface l

xiii

modulation techniques, the design considerations, and circuits for modulation and demodulation.
Chapter 5 presents a lucid and comprehensive discussion of sampling and
lays an important foundation for the introduction of digital transmission
techniques. Topics treated include the sampling of low pass and bandpass
signals, anti-alias filter design, natural and flat-top sampling, and aperture
distortion.
Chapter 6 covers digital baseband transmission, and includes a wide range
of techniques for the digital representation of analogue signals, line coding,
pulse shaping to combat intersymbol interference, digital baseband receiver
operations and the matched filter. In particular, the chapter features a
detailed discussion of A-law and -law pulse code modulation (PCM) and a
review of low bit rate speech coding techniques.
Chapter 7 on digital modulated transmission continues the discussion of
digital communication with a detailed treatment of the major digital
modulation techniques. An important feature is the use of a simple geometrical approach to obtain the bit error rate (BER) of an arbitrary binary transmission system, which is then extended to various M-ary transmissions.
Crucial information is provided to guide the systems designer on the choice
of modulation technique, bit rate, transmission bandwidth, signal power and bit
error rate.
Chapter 8 deals with multiplexing strategies for multi-user communication
systems and includes up-to-date information on various international telecommunications standards. Topics discussed in detail include frequency
division multiplexing (FDM), time division multiplexing (TDM), the plesiochronous and synchronous digital hierarchies, SONET, ATM and code division
multiplexing (CDM).
Chapter 9 is the final chapter of the book and covers the evaluation of the
impact of noise in digital and analogue communication systems, with
several illustrative examples from satellite communications. The chapter also
includes a discussion of signal attenuation in various transmission media
and a lucid treatment of white and narrowband random noise.

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Dr John Brush (University of Dundee), Mr Henry
Green (Manchester Metropolitan University) and Dr Noel Evans (University of Ulster) for painstakingly reviewing the entire book and making
many constructive suggestions for improvement. Their positive comments
were an important source of inspiration. I wish to express my gratitude to
my editor Christopher Glennie for his professional support throughout the
writing of the book, and to Jacqueline Harbor for her enthusiastic editorial
work and encouragement during the crucial early stages of the project.
I would also like to thank my wife Buchi for her unflinching and selfless
support. She patiently engaged in countless discussions of different renderings of some sections of the book and made useful suggestions from her
literary arsenal. My thanks also go to our children, Ifiok (12), Andikan (11),
Yama (11), Iniekem (9) and Sara (6) for their keen interest in seeing the

xiv

Preface

completion of this story. They uncomplainingly accepted the ubiquitous

presence of a laptop computer even at some of their sporting and school
events.
Finally, I am grateful to God for the privilege to make this contribution to
the education, training, career and reading pleasure of many.
Ifiok Otung
July 2000

About the author

Ifiok Otung holds BSc (first class honours) and MSc degrees in Electronic
and Electrical Engineering from the University of Ife, and a PhD degree
from the University of Surrey. A chartered engineer and member of the IEE,
Dr Otung has been involved in telecommunications teaching and research
since 1986 at Universities in Nigeria, England and Wales. He is currently
with the University of Glamorgan.

Digital Baseband Transmission l

Eb
N0

389

2h 1
h 0
h

= Lim
B

= 2h ln 2

h =0

= ln 2 = 0.69315

In the above, the second line is obtained by taking the derivatives (with
respect to h) of the numerator and denominator of the expression
under the limit operator. This limiting value of Eb/N0 is referred to as
the Shannon limit.
4.

6.7

Finally, we must point out that the theorem merely tells us that it is
possible to have error-free transmission at the channel capacity, but
does not show us how to design such a system. In practice, all digital
transmission systems both modulated and baseband fall short of
achieving the specified maximum data rate for a given bandwidth and
S/N. The theorem is nevertheless a useful yardstick against which the
performance of practical systems can be measured.

Digital baseband receiver

We have established that at the decision point in the receiver the pulse
must have a raised cosine spectrum in order to avoid ISI. Let us now trace
the path of a pulse through a digital baseband system and comment on the
required filtering characteristics (or transfer function) of the components
of this system, as shown in Fig. 6.30.

Transmitter

Channel
Ht(f )

Data in

Line
coder

d(t)

Transmit
filter

Hc(f )
Transmission
line

Receiver
He(f )

Hr (f )

Equaliser

Receive
filter

P(f )
To decision
circuit

Pulse generator
Noise and
distortion

Figure 6.30

Filtering operations in digital baseband system.

6.7.1 Adaptive equalisation

The transmission medium or channel distorts the transmitted pulses in a
manner fully described by the channel transfer function Hc(f). In nearly
every case, this channel effect is undesirable and, as discussed in Section
2.9.2, a filter known as an equaliser is needed at the receiver to remove the
channel distortion. That is, we must have
Hc (f )He (f ) = 1 (normalised)

(6.75)

390 l

Digital Baseband Transmission

where He(f) is the transfer function of the equaliser. Note that Eq. (6.75)
specifically excludes propagation delay t, which can be accounted for by
inserting the factor exp(j2pft) in the RHS.
In most cases, as in the PSTN, the channel characteristic and hence Hc(f)
is time-varying in a non-deterministic way. The equalisation then has to be
adaptive, with He(f) constantly and automatically adjusting itself to satisfy
Eq. (6.75). One way of achieving this is by using a tapped-delay-line filter.
See Fig. 6.15. In this case, however, the tap gains are constantly adjusted to
minimise the mean square error between expected and received pulse
shapes averaged over a number of sampling instants. This can be done with
the help of a training sequence of bits transmitted prior to the information
bits. The optimum values computed for the tap gains are then maintained
for the duration of the call on the assumption that the channel does not
change significantly during this (short) period.

6.7.2 Matched filter

Let us now consider the effect of noise in order to correctly specify the
transfer function Hr(f) of the receiver filter. Note in Fig. 6.30 that the
channel also introduces noise and this includes noise from the front end of
the receiver. We will assume that this noise is additive white Gaussian noise
(AWGN). The noise is described as additive because it is present in the same
amount regardless of signal value. It is white because it contains all
frequency components at the same amplitude (i.e. it has a uniform amplitude spectrum, or equivalently, a uniform power spectral density), just as
white light contains equal amounts of all colours. Finally, it is described as
Gaussian because it has a normal (i.e. Gaussian) probability density
function.
The receive filter must be designed to minimise the effect of noise. This is
accomplished by maximising the ratio between receiver output signal
power and noise power (SNR) at the decision instant Ts. We can obtain the
transfer function Hr(f) of a receive filter that gives such optimum performance by making three increasingly specific observations.
1.

The bandwidth of the receiver must be just enough to pass the

incoming pulse. If it is too wide, noise power is unnecessarily added,
and if it is too narrow then some pulse energy is cut out. Denoting the
pulse as g(t) and its spectrum as G(f), we see that G(f) and Hr(f) must
span exactly the same frequency band. How should their shapes
compare?

2.

The gain response |Hr(f)| of the filter should not necessarily be flat
within its passband. Rather, it should be such that the filter attenuates
the white noise significantly at those frequencies where G(f) is small
since these frequencies contribute little to the pulse energy. And the
filter should boost those frequencies at which G(f) is large in order to
maximise the output pulse energy. We see then that the filter should be
tailored to the incoming pulse, with a gain response that is small where
G(f) is small and large where G(f) is large. The perfect way of doing this

Digital Baseband Transmission l

G(f)

Hr (f )

Figure 6.31

391

P(f ) = Hr(f )G(f )

Filter action.

is by making the (normalised) gain response of the filter identical with

the amplitude spectrum of the pulse. That is,
| Hr (f ) | = | G(f ) |

3.

(6.76)

We complete the filter specification by considering phase requirements. The instantaneous signal power at the decision instant t = Ts
(equal to the pulse duration) will be maximum if all frequency components in the pulse have been delayed by the same amount. This means
that the only complex term in the spectrum of the filter output P(f)
must be the factor exp(j2pfTs), since this ensures the same delay Ts for
all frequencies. See our discussion of distortionless transmission in
Section 2.9.1 if in doubt. Therefore, in view of Fig. 6.31, we may write
P(f ) = G(f )Hr (f ) R(f )exp(j2p fTs )

where R(f) is a real function of frequency. Making R(f) the subject of

this equation yields,
R(f ) = [G(f )exp(j2p fTs )]Hr (f )

The left-hand side (LHS) of this equation is real, and so must be the
RHS, which is the product of two complex functions one of them in
square brackets. Since the product of two complex functions is real if
and only if the two functions are related as complex conjugates, it
follows that
Hr (f ) = G (f )exp(j2p fTs )

(6.77)

The asterisk denotes complex conjugation, which is performed by

replacing j with j wherever it occurs in G(f). A filter that satisfies Eq.
(6.77) is called a matched filter, since it has been matched to the pulse
signal.
It is informative to consider the impulse response hr(t) of this filter. Recall
that hr(t) is the inverse Fourier transform of the transfer function Hr(f).
Since complex conjugation of the Fourier transform of a real signal corresponds to time reversal in the time domain, and the exponential term
corresponds to a delay of Ts, it follows that
hr (t ) = g (Ts t )

(6.78)

That is, the impulse response of the matched filter is a time-reversed and
delayed version of the pulse g(t).
This is a good point to study Section 6.7.6 where we employ several
worked examples to introduce important concepts, including the convolution integral, the irrelevance of pulse shapes to a matched filter and the
correlation receiver. Wherever possible, the simplicity of a graphical

392 l

Digital Baseband Transmission

approach is employed in these worked examples. You are encouraged to

work through them with care. Doing this will pay future dividends.

6.7.3 Root raised cosine filter

Consider again the baseband system in Fig. 6.30 and assume for simplicity
that the line coder generates impulses, which are shaped by a transmit filter
to give the transmitted pulses. This approximation is entirely adequate for
narrow-width rectangular pulses. Note then that the Fourier transform of a
normalised positive output pulse from the line coder is F[d(t)] = 1. The
frequency response of the transmit filter is given by its transfer function
Ht(f). It follows in Fig. 6.30 that the spectrum P(f) of the pulse at the output
of the receive filter is given by
P(f ) = F[d (t )]H t (f )Hc (f )He (f )Hr (f )
= H t ( f )H r ( f )

(6.79)

where Hr(f) is the transfer function of the receive filter and we require P(f) to
be a raised cosine spectrum. Equation (6.79) is an important result, which
shows that to minimise ISI the transmit and receive filters must be designed
so that the product of their transfer functions is a raised cosine spectrum.
To satisfy this requirement as well as that of matched filtering for optimum
performance in the presence of white noise, we must have
| H t (f ) | = | Hr (f ) | = raised cosine spectrum
| f | f1
1,

| f | -f1
1
=
1 + cos p
, f1 f f2
f2 - f1
2
0
f > f2

(6.80)

where f1 and f2 are given as before by Eq. (6.67). Note that a scale factor
1 / Rs has been ignored in the transfer function. This means that using a
pair of root raised cosine filters, one located at the transmitter and the other
at the receiver, allows us to eliminate ISI and at the same time obtain
optimum performance in the presence of white noise. This is a notable
achievement!
One final observation that must be made concerns the effect of the
equaliser on our specification of the receive filter. In general, channel
attenuation increases with frequency. The equaliser must therefore have a
gain that increases with frequency in keeping with Eq. (6.75). The result is
that the noise reaching the receive filter, having passed through the
equaliser, is no longer white but coloured with an amplitude spectrum
that increases with frequency. Under this condition, SNR can be maximised
by arranging for the receiver to attenuate the higher frequencies in order to
reduce noise. This also unavoidably attenuates the desired pulse energy at
these frequencies. So we compensate for this by designing the transmit
filter to proportionately boost the high-frequency components of the
pulse. RZ codes serve the same aim by reducing the pulse widths by a factor

Digital Baseband Transmission l

393

of two, which boosts the high-frequency components in keeping with the

inverse relationship between time and frequency (Section 2.4.5). In this
way, Eq. (6.79) holds and we still have a raised cosine spectrum P(f) at the
decision point, implying zero ISI. There is also optimum performance in
the presence of noise. However, the gain responses of the transmit and
receive filters are no longer identical root raised cosine, as specified in Eq.
(6.80).

6.7.4 Clock extraction

Decision instants at the receiver must be accurately spaced at intervals of
the transmitted symbol period Ts. This allows the matched filter output to
be sampled at the optimum instants, for negligible ISI and maximum (S/
N)0. Small short-term deviations from the optimum timing instants are
known as timing jitter. If this is unchecked, especially in long-distance high
data rate systems with many intermediate repeaters, it may accumulate
sufficiently so that the timing error exceeds half the symbol period, causing
the decision instant to be set at the wrong symbol interval, entirely missing
out one or more intervals. This problem is known as symbol slip. It causes
subsequent symbols to be in error until there is a realignment.
Clock or timing extraction is a process that seeks to derive from the
incoming symbol stream a sinusoidal signal of the correct phase and of a
frequency equal to the symbol rate (Rs = 1/Ts). This sinusoid may then be
passed through a comparator a zero-crossing detector to give a square
wave clock signal of period Ts. The incoming symbol stream is then
decoded by arranging for the matched filter output to be sampled at every
rising (or falling) edge of the clock signal.
The need for the transmitted symbol stream to contain frequent voltage
transitions (e.g. between V volts for binary coding) was emphasised in our
discussion of line coding. When this is the case, the symbol stream may
contain a significant component at the sampling frequency fs (= Rs), which
can be directly filtered out using a narrow bandpass filter tuned to fs.
However, some symbol patterns may only contain a fraction or multiple of
the desired frequency component. Therefore, in general, the incoming
symbol stream is passed through a suitable non-linear device, such as a
square-law device or a full-wave rectifier. From our discussion of non-linear
distortion (Section 2.9.3), it is clear that the output of such a device will
contain the desired frequency component fs, which may then be filtered
out. Figure 6.32 shows one possible arrangement for clock extraction. A
phase-locked loop (PLL), discussed in Sections 3.5.2 and 4.6.2, may be used
in place of the narrowband filter to improve the phase match between the
clock signal used at the transmitter and that extracted at the receiver.
Narrowband

Received
symbol stream

Non-linear
device
fs/2 etc.

Figure 6.32

fs etc.

Clock extraction.

BPF or PLL
fs

Clock
Threshold signal
comparator T
fs only
s

394 l

Digital Baseband Transmission

6.7.5 Eye diagrams

An indication of the likelihood of decision error at the receiver due to the
corruption of the incoming symbol stream by undesirable noise and
filtering can be readily displayed using eye diagrams. Figure 6.33(a) shows a
corrupted bipolar NRZ symbol stream, with adjacent symbol elements identified by different line patterns. If all the incoming symbol elements are
superimposed in one symbol interval, the result is the plot shown in Fig.
6.33(b), which is called an eye diagram because it resembles the human eye.
The eye diagram of an actual transmission can easily be displayed on an
oscilloscope. The symbols in successive intervals will be automatically
superimposed on the screen when the oscilloscope is triggered using the
receivers clock signal. Useful performance information provided by the eye
diagram include:
1.

The width of the eye opening gives the timing error that can be tolerated in the sampling instants at the receiver. The best sampling instant
is at the centre of the eye opening.

2.

The slope of the opening gives an indication of the sensitivity of the

baseband system to timing error.

3.

The height of the eye opening gives the noise margin of the system.

It is therefore obvious that the larger the eye opening the lower will be the
symbol error rate of the system. Figure 6.34 demonstrates the impact of
noise and timing error on the eye diagram of a binary system that uses
raised cosine-filtered pulses. A narrowing of the eye opening by these
effects clearly indicates an increased probability of error. The eye diagram is
indeed a very useful diagnostic tool for checking for the presence of timing
error, noise and pulse distortion in a digital baseband system.

(a)
t

(b)

Bit stream

Threshold level

Best decision instant

Figure 6.33
diagram.

(a) Incoming distorted NRZ waveform; (b) corresponding eye

Digital Baseband Transmission l

Perfect

Timing error only

Noise only

Noise and timing error

Figure 6.34

395

Effects of noise and timing error on eye diagram.

6.7.6 Matched filter worked examples

WORKED EXAMPLE

6.7
Time-reversal and delay

Sketch the impulse response of a matched filter for receiving the pulse g(t)
shown in Fig. 6.35(a), where the pulse duration Ts = 5 s.
The required impulse response is given by Eq. (6.78) and can be obtained
in two steps. First, the pulse g(t) is time-reversed to give g(t). Then, g(t)
is delayed by Ts to give g(Ts t), which is the required impulse response.
The waveforms g(t) and g(Ts t) are sketched in Figs. 6.35(b) and (c). It is
important to understand how these two waveforms are obtained.
Observe that the waveform of g(t) may be obtained simply by flipping

396 l

Digital Baseband Transmission

1.0
(a)
0.5

t (s)
0

g(t)
1.0
(b)
0.5

t (s)
5

g(Ts t)
1.0

Ts = 5 s

(c)
0.5

t (s)
5

Figure 6.35

Worked example 6.7.

g(t) horizontally about t = 0, and that the waveform g(Ts t) results from
delaying g(t) by a time Ts. In this case, since g(t) starts at the time t =
5 s, it follows that g(Ts t) must start at a time Ts (= 5 s) later, which
is therefore the time t = 0.
Table 6.10 provides verification of the above procedures. Noting that
g(ti) is the value of the pulse g(t) at t = ti, it follows by definition of g(t) in
Fig. 6.35(a) that g(10) = 0, g(5) = 0, g(1) = 1, g(4) = 0.5, g(10) = 0 and so
on, where t is in s. Table 6.10 gives values of the waveforms g(t), g(t)
and g(Ts t) at various values of t. For example, at t = 4, g(t) = g(4) = 0.5 (by
definition); g(t) = g(4) = 0 (by definition); and g(Ts t) = g(5-4) = g(1) = 1
(by definition). Plotting the entries of this table leads to Fig. 6.35, with
column 3 plotted against column 1 to give Fig. 6.35(b) and column 4
plotted against column 1 to give Fig. 6.35(c).

Digital Baseband Transmission l

Table 6.10

WORKED EXAMPLE

397

Worked example 6.7. Entries plotted in Fig. 6.35. Note that Ts = 5 ms.

t (ms)

g(t)

g(t)

hr(t) = g(Ts t)

10

= g(10) = 0

= g(5 10) = g(15) = 0

= g(5) = 0

= g(5 5) = g(10) = 0

= g(4) = 0.5

= g(5 4) = g(9) = 0

= g(3) = 1

= g(5 3) = g(8) = 0

= g(2) = 1

= g(5 2) = g(7) = 0

= g(1) = 1

= g(5 1) = g(6) = 0

= g(0) = 0

= g(5 0) = g(5) = 0

= g(1) = 0

= g(5 1) = g(4) = 0.5

= g(2) = 0

= g(5 2) = g(3) = 1

= g(3) = 0

= g(5 3) = g(2) = 1

0.5

= g(4) = 0

= g(5 4) = g(1) = 1

= g(5) = 0

= g(5 5) = g(0) = 0

10

= g(10) = 0

= g(5 10) = g(5) = 0

6.8
Convolution integral

Determine the output pulse g0(t) that is obtained at the receiver when the
transmitted pulse g(t) in the previous Example (Fig. 6.35a) is detected using
a matched filter.
We know (from Section 2.8 and Fig. 6.31) that a filter of transfer function
H(f) and corresponding impulse response h(t) processes an input signal
g(t) with spectrum G(f) to give an output signal g0(t) whose spectrum is given by
Go (f ) = G(f )H (f )

To obtain the time domain relationship, we take the inverse Fourier

transform of this equation, noting that the frequency domain multiplication (on the RHS) becomes a convolution operation denoted using
the star operator () in the time domain. Thus,
g 0 (t ) = g (t ) hh(t )
=

g (t )h(t t )dt

(6.81)

Eq. (6.81) defines the convolution integral, which states that g0(t) is given
at each time instant t by the total area under the function g(t)h(t t),

398 l

Digital Baseband Transmission

which is the product of the input waveform and a time-reversed and

delayed (by t) version of the impulse response. It is worth noting that an
equivalent definition may be written as follows:
g 0 (t ) = h(t ) hg (t )
=

h(t ) g (t t )dt

We will however follow Eq. (6.81) in this discussion. For convenience,

the input pulse g(t) and the impulse response h(t) of the matched filter
(obtained in the previous example) are sketched again in Figs. 6.36(a)
and (b). When both g(t) and h(t) are of finite duration as in this case, then
it is easier, and indeed very illuminating, to evaluate the convolution
integral graphically as follows.
1.

Obtain the waveform h(t t) using the procedure described in the

previous Example. In Fig. 6.36(c), a few examples of h(t t) are
shown for t = 2, 0, 2, 5, 7 and 10 s.

2.

Multiply together the waveforms h(t t) and g(t) to obtain the

integrand g(t)h(t t) in Eq. (6.81). Note that this integrand is identically zero for those values of t that lead to a h(t t), which does not
overlap g(t). It can be seen in Fig. 6.36 that this happens for t 0, and
t 10, which means that the output pulse g0(t) is zero in this region
of time. Example curves of g(t)h(t t) are shown in Fig. 6.36(d), for t =
2, 5 and 7 s.

3.

The value of the output pulse g0(t) at a time t is the area under the
curve of g(t)h(t t). For example, it can be seen in Fig. 6.36(d) that
the area under the curve of g(t)h(7 t) is 1.5, which means that g0(t)
= 1.5 at t = 7 s.

4.

Repeat the above steps for a sufficient number of different values of t

to obtain the output g0(t) sketched in Fig. 6.37.

Note that the matched filter has distorted the transmitted pulse g(t) in
such a way that the maximum value of the output pulse g0(t) occurs at
the decision instant t = Ts. It can be seen in Fig. 6.36(c) that h(Ts t) =
g(t). Since the pulse g(t) is a real signal, it follows from Eq. (6.81) that,
g 0 (Ts ) =
=

g (t )h(Ts t )dt =

| g (t ) |2 dt

g (t ) g (t )dt

(6.82)

E Energy of signal g (t )

Thus g0(Ts) is the energy of the transmitted pulse g(t), assuming of course
that the gain of the matched filter is normalised to unity and the effect of
the transmission channel has been equalised according to Eq. (6.75). The
matched filter in this example can be approximated using an integrate-

Digital Baseband Transmission l

399

g(t)
1.0
(a)
0.5

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

t (ms)

h(t)
1.0
(b)
0.5

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

t (ms)

(c)
h(-2 -t)

h(-t)

h(2-t)

h(5-t)

1.0

h(10-t)

h(7-t)

0.5

-5

-7

-4

-3

-2

-1

t (ms) 7

g(t)h(t-t)
1.0

(d)

g(t)h(5-t)
g(t)h(7-t)
0.5
g(t)h(2-t)
-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

t (ms)

Figure 6.36 Worked example 6.8. (a) Input pulse; (b) impulse response of matched
filter; (c) time-reversed and delayed versions of h(t); (d) Curves of g(t)h(t t), for t = 2, 5
and 7 s.

and-dump filter, which consists of an integrator followed by a sampleand-hold (S/H) circuit. The input pulse is integrated over its duration Ts,
and the output is sampled and the integrator reset at the end of each integration period. This technique yields an exact matched filter realisation
if the transmitted pulse is rectangular.

400 l

Digital Baseband Transmission

Decision instant
3

go(t)

2.5

1.5

0.5

t (ms)
1

10

Ts

Figure 6.37

WORKED EXAMPLE

Worked example 6.8: Output go(t) of matched filter.

6.9
Irrelevance of pulse shapes

Show that the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N)o at the output of a matched filter
depends only on the ratio between input pulse energy E and noise power
density, and not on the particular shape of the pulse.
It is clear from the last worked example, and more specifically Eq. (6.82),
that the signal at the output of a matched filter has a maximum value E at
the decision instant t = Ts, where E is the transmitted pulse energy.
Therefore, the instantaneous output signal power at the decision instant
is
Ps = [ g 0 (Ts )]2 = E2

(6.83)

Let the amplitude of the uniform (double-sided) spectrum of white noise

w(t) at the input of the matched filter be N 0 / 2, where N0 is a constant.
The filter processes this noise to give a coloured noise c(t) at its output,
with a spectrum
| C(f ) | = | W (f ) | | H (f ) |
= N0/2 | G(f ) |

(6.84)

Digital Baseband Transmission l

401

where G(f) is the spectrum of the transmitted pulse, and we have used the
matched filter transfer function given by Eq. (6.77). The square of |C(f)|
gives the output noise power spectral density, and hence the average
output noise power as
Pn =

| C(f ) |2 df =

N0
2

| G(f ) |2 df

N
= 0E
2

(6.85)

where we took the last step by applying Rayleighs energy theorem

E=

| G(f ) |2 df

(6.86)

Thus,
(S/N )o =
=

Ps
E2
=
Pn ( N0/2)E
2E
N0

(6.87)

Eq. (6.87) is the desired result. Note that N0/2 is the power spectral
density of the input (white) noise. It is interesting that the shape or
waveform of the transmitted pulse g(t) does not feature in the achievable
signal-to-noise ratio. All that matters is the pulse energy, which may be
increased to improve (S/N)o by increasing the amplitude and/or duration
of the pulse. The latter option however would reduce the symbol rate. In
summary then, provided a matched filter is used at the receiver, all pulses of
the same energy are equally detected in the presence of white noise irrespective of the pulse shapes. We must therefore emphasise that pulse
shaping (studied in Section 6.6) is required for ISI minimisation and has
no bearing whatsoever on the impact of white noise.

WORKED EXAMPLE

6.10
Correlation receiver

Show that the matched filter may be implemented as a correlation receiver.

Fig. 6.38 shows a correlation receiver and a matched filter for detecting a
known pulse g(t). The correlation receiver consists of a multiplier
followed by an integrator, which integrates the product of the known
pulse g(t) and the received pulse g (t ) over the duration Ts of the known
pulse. The received pulse is a noise-corrupted version of g(t). The output
of the correlation receiver follows from the block diagram:

402 l

Digital Baseband Transmission

(a)
Correlation receiver
Received
pulse

(b)
Matched
filter
Received
pulse
h(t)
= g(Ts t) g (t)
go(Ts)
g (t )
o
sample at
t = Ts

Ts

g (t )

go(Ts)

g(t)
(known pulse)

Coherent demodulator
Modulated
signal

LPF

(c)

Message
signal

Carrier

Figure 6.38 Worked example 6.9: Equivalence between (a) correlation receiver,
(b) matched filter and (c) coherent demodulator.
Ts

g 0 (Ts ) =

g (t ) g (t )dt

(6.88)

Thus, in the absence of noise, the output of the correlation receiver is

exactly equal to the energy of the transmitted pulse. Now consider the
output of the matched receiver,

g 0 (t ) =
=

g (t )h(t t )dt

Ts

(6.89)

g (t ) g (Ts t + t )dt

where we have used our knowledge that the pulse has a finite duration
Ts, and also substituted the expression for the impulse response of the
matched filter h(t) = g(Ts t), which, when t is replaced by t t on both
sides of the expression, leads to the above result. Sampling g0(t) in Eq.
(6.89) at t = Ts gives
g 0 (Ts ) =
=

Ts

g (t ) g (Ts Ts + t )dt

g (t ) g (t )dt

0
Ts
0

which is identical to Eq. (6.88). Thus the correlation receiver and the
matched filter give identical results, provided of course that the matched
filter output is sampled at t = Ts.

Digital Baseband Transmission l

403

We will see in the next chapter that a digital modulated system may
transmit orthogonal bandpass symbols to represent groups of 0s and 1s.
Therefore, a matched filter may be implemented in such a system as a
bank of correlators. Each correlator is fed with one of the symbols. When
the received symbol is applied to all the correlators, the largest output is
obtained at the correlator corresponding to the transmitted symbol.
Note that real symbols or waveforms g1(t), g2(t), g3(t), ..., gN(t), each of
duration Ts, are said to be orthogonal with respect to each other if
Ts

0,
g i (t ) g j (t )dt =
Ei ,

i j
i=j

(6.90)

where Ei, the energy of gi(t), is non-zero and positive.

It is worth noting that when two symbols (also referred to as energy
signals) g1(t) and g2(t) are orthogonal, then their energies add independently. That is, the energy E of the sum signal g(t) = g1(t) + g2(t) is given by
the sum of the energies E1 and E2 of g1(t) and g2(t), respectively. This is
the case since, from Eq. (6.90),
E=
=
=

Ts

g 2 (t )dt

0
Ts

[ g1(t ) + g 2 (t )]2 dt

0
Ts

g12 (t )dt +

Ts

(6.91)
Ts

g 22 (t )dt + 2 g1(t ) g 2 (t )dt

0

= E1 + E2 + 0

If in Eq. (6.90), Ei = 1, for i = 1, 2, 3, ..., N, then the waveforms g1(t), g2(t),

g3(t), ..., gN(t) are said to be orthonormal.
A little thought will show that the correlation receiver is not an
entirely new concept. An integrator is just a special low-pass filter with
a gain response that decreases linearly with frequency. The correlation
receiver is therefore a special case of the coherent demodulator, which was
discussed at length in Chapter 3 (e.g. see Fig. 3.20(a)) and is repeated in
block diagram form in Fig. 6.38(c) for comparison.

SUMMARY
This now completes our study of digital baseband transmission. We have
acquired a thorough grounding in the principles of uniform and nonuniform quantisation and encoding of analogue signals for digital transmission, and a basic understanding of low bit rate speech coding. We also
studied how such digitised signals, and indeed all types of digital data, are

Index

1% bandwidth 25961
16-QAM 47881
average energy per symbol
BER 4812
detector 4801
modulator 4801
2B1Q line code 64
3-dB bandwidth 113
566 VCO 2723

479

AAL see ATM adaptation layer

AC 266
acoustic signal 3, 4, 1718, 201,
756
acquisition 558
adaptive delta modulation (ADM) 364
adaptive differential pulse code
modulation (ADPCM) 359
adaptive equalisation 38990, 515
adaptive prediction 359
adaptive predictive coding (APC)
3712
adaptive quantisation 359
ADC see analogue to digital conversion
additive white Gaussian noise see
AWGN
administrative unit 534, 537
ADPCM see Adaptive differential pulse
code modulation
ADSL 32
advanced mobile phone system see
AMPS
AFC 269
A-law PCM
characteristic curve of 3378,
33941
companding gain of 341, 3545
companding advantage of 3545
practical implementation of 34251
speech quality of 3656

SQNR of 3515
versus -law 355
alias frequency 301, 3045, 306
aliasing
distortion 3016
filter design 3079
steps to minimise 306
alignment channel 524
alternate mark inversion see AMI
AM see amplitude modulation
AMI 62, 373, 3756
amplification 13, 17, 54, 181
amplifier 140, 1724, 1845
see also operational amplifier
amplitude and phase keying 69,
4778, 489
amplitude modulation 149216
demodulators 174
features and applications of 185,
212
modulation factor 1546, 166, 168
modulation sensitivity 150
modulators 168
noise effects 61011
power 1657
receivers 181
spectrum 15865
transmitters 172
variants 186
waveforms 1514
see also ASK
amplitude response 114, 133, 136
amplitude shift keying see ASK
AMPS 498
analogue communication system
baseband 5360
compared to digital 513
modulated 67, 149293
noise effects 60714
analogue signal 4850, 83

634 l

Index

analogue to digital conversion 27, 51,

601, 3234
angle 901, 226
angle modulation
basic concepts of 21834
waveforms of 23441
angular frequency 91
antenna, basic principle 28, 40, 767
antenna gain 5734
antenna height 42
antenna noise 576- 579, 5801, 6047
antenna size 66
anti-alias filter 61, 3079
antipodal 417, 435, 472
aperiodic signal see non-periodic signal
aperture effect 315, 31719
APK see amplitude and phase keying
Armstrong, Edwin 14
Armstrong wideband frequency
modulator 267
ARPANET 15
ARQ 47
ASCII 1011, 18, 51, 82, 520, 622
ASK
binary generation 4379
coherent binary detection 4467,
introduction and waveforms 689,
40811
non-coherent binary detection
4516
M-ary generation and detection
4625
see also BER; bandwidth
asymmetric digital subscriber line see
ADSL
asynchronous data transmission 10, 622
asynchronous transfer mode (ATM)
53, 53947
cell header 5456
features 539, 5467
layered architecture 5413
network components 5445
atmosphere
gaseous absorption 575
vertical structure 41
atmospheric noise 5778
attenuation
in coaxial cables 34, 5712
distortion
compensation 137
definition 136
in optical fibre 378, 5723
in radio 42, 5735
in wire pairs 301, 5712
audio
input device 17
output device 20
wideband 80, 358, 369
autocorrelation function 558, 585,
586

automatic frequency control see AFC

automatic gain control (AGC) 176,
514
automatic protection switching 535
automatic repeat request see ARQ
available noise power 5946
avalanche photodiode 77
AWGN
and bit error rate 4238
and characterisation 5847
effects on
AM 61011
digital communication systems
61415
DSB 6089
FM 2837, 61114
SSB 60910
and matched filter 3901
see also noise types
Baird, John Logie 13
balanced discriminator 283
balanced modulator 188
balancing pulse 3767
bandlimited channel 61, 3879
bandlimited signals 59, 11317, 295
bandlimited white noise 5878
canonical representation 5903
envelope representation 5934
bandpass communication channel 67
bandpass filter 116
bandpass signal 11317, 298
bandstop filter 116
bandwidth
of AM signal 163
of binary digital modulated signals
445
defined 11314, 588
efficiency 388, 460
of FM signals 260
of M-ary signals 461
noise trade-off 476, 613
barcode reader 19
Bardeen, John 13
base station 43, 499, 5603
baseband communication system
analogue 535
discrete 5560
digital 605
baseband signal 113, 163, 297
baseline wander 63
basis function 41217
baud 9, 380
Baudot code 89
Baudot, Emile 8
BBC see British Broadcasting
Corporation
Bell
Alexander Graham 12
laboratories 12, 14, 15

Index

FDM system 505, 508, 513

modem 515
BER
of arbitrary binary transmission
432
of binary ASK, FSK and PSK 432,
433
definition 424
of M-ary ASK 467, 468, 473
of M-ary FSK 476, 477
of M-ary PSK 472, 473
of M-ary QAM 481, 482, 485
trade-offs 476, 4845
Bessel function
graph and discussion 2546
table 2578
binary amplitude shift keying see ASK
binary block code 378, 380
binary coded decimal 1112
binary codes development 712
binary coherent detection 445
binary frequency shift keying see FSK
binary modulation 68, 437
binary non-coherent detection 451
binary phase shift keying see PSK
binary signal 50, 83
binary symmetric channel 426, 434
binary transmission system, arbitrary
4326
biphase code 373, 375
bipolar baseband system 4279, 614
bipolar junction transistor see
transistor
bipolar non-return-to-zero see NRZ
code
bipolar with n Zeros Substituted see
BnZS code
B-ISDN 529, 540, 546
terminal equipment 544
bit 9, 64
bit duration 409, 436, 437, 550
bit energy see energy
bit error rate see BER
bit interleaved frame 519
bit interleaved parity 535
bit rate 61, 69, 387, 483, 614
bit robbing 520, 529
bit stuffing 526, 532
bit-interleaving 519, 525
BJT see Transistor
block code 377
BNRZ see NRZ code
BnZS code 3757
bonfires 4
bound 475
BPSK see PSK
B-pulse see balancing pulse
Brattain, Walter 13
brickwall filter 116, 300, 381
brightness temperature 576

British Broadcasting Corporation

15
Broadband ISDN see B-ISDN
burst bit rate 548
Butterworth filter 308
byte 518
byte-interleaving 522, 525

635

13,

canonical form of narrowband noise

5903
capacitance sensitivity 270
capacitor, charging/discharging 177
capture
effect 289
range 278
ratio 288
carrier suppression 188
carrier
amplitude 67
demodulation 28
frequency 67, 218
frequency extraction 1801, 4534
modulation 28
to noise ratio 614
phase 67, 218
phase synchronisation 1924, 196,
206
Carsons bandwidth 25960
cascade connection
defined 600
noise figure 6001
cathode ray tube 22
CATV 35
CCD 83
CCIR 207
see also ITU
CCTV 54
CDMA see code division multiplexing
cell 499, 53940
cell delay variation 540, 546
cell delineation 542
cell header 540, 545
cell loss priority 546
cell rate decoupling 542
cell relay switching 539
cellular telephony 15, 372, 4978,
550, 557
CELP 368, 372
central limit theorem 582
central office 31
CEPT PCM-30 (E1) system 5224
CEPT PDH hierarchy 5247
CEQ 544, 545
channel bandwidth see bandwidth
channel coding 27
channel frequency response 11316,
1302
channel impairments 571
channel impulse response 1302
channel model 422, 608, 611

636 l

Index

channel noise see Noise types

channel transfer function 11316,
1302
channel translating equipment see CTE
channel types 29
charge coupled device see CCD
chip 13
chip duration 550, 555, 558, 564, 565
chrominance signal 18, 81, 194
circuits
balanced modulator 188
balanced discriminator 283
CCTV 54
de-emphasis 286
diode demodulator 175
integrator 265
operational amplifier 169
pre-emphasis 286
telegraph 7
telephone 30
circular QAM constellation 478
clipping distortion 139
clock
content 63
extraction 28, 64, 393
recovery 393
closed circuit television see CCTV
closed loop power control 562
CMI 62, 373, 376, 37880, 417
coaxial cable 14, 33, 510
co-channel interference 499
code division multiplexing (CDM)
basic introduction 497, 499
benefits 547
PN codes 560
power control 560
processing gain 563
receiver 553
synchronisation 558
transmitter 550
types 548
code efficiency 64, 378, 483
code excited linear prediction see CELP
code radix 64
codebook 372
codec 349, 365, 518
coded mark inversion see CMI
codeword 3789
coding gain 489
coherent binary amplitude shift keying
see ASK
coherent binary frequency shift keying
see FSK
coherent binary phase shift keying see
PSK
coherent demodulation 179, 192,
203, 210, 402
coherent detection 445
coherent M-ary amplitude shift keying
see ASK

coherent M-ary frequency shift keying

see FSK
coherent M-ary phase shift keying see
PSK
coherent M-ary quadrature amplitude
modulation see QAM
coherent minimum shift keying see
MSK
coherent quadriphase shift keying
(QPSK) see QPSK
colour display 23
colour printing 24
coloured noise 5878
common signalling 521, 529
communication channel see channel
communication system
block diagram 16
design issues 1412, 3312, 3612,
4825, 61415
types 70
commutator 59
compact disc 15, 17, 26
companding 333.
see also A-law PCM; -law PCM
companding advantage 342
companding gain 341
complementary error function
defined 426
graph 427
compressor characteristic 3347
computable code 11
conjugate structure algebraic code
excited linear prediction (CSACELP) 368, 372
connection oriented (CO) service 543
connectionless (CL) service 543
consonant sound 78
constant bit rate (CBR) service 543
constants 631
constellation diagram 410, 415, 469,
470, 478
continuous phase frequency shift
keying 442
continuous spectrum 11011
continuously variable slope delta
modulation (CVSDM) 364
convergence sub-layer 542, 543
conversion time 313
convolution 112, 31415, 397400,
446
correlated pulses 452
correlation coefficient
defined 432
of specific systems
binary transmission symbols
434,435
FSK symbols 4434
M-ary ASK symbols 465
M-ary PSK symbols 4712
M-ary QAM symbols 486

Index

correlation receiver 4013, 4223

correlator 403, 4224
cosine rule 96
cosmic background noise 576
Costas loop 193
coupling 35, 573
CPFSK see continuous phase frequency
shift keying
CRC 524, 529, 543
cross-correlation 55960
crosstalk 30, 35, 38, 59, 503, 570
CRT see cathode ray tube
crystal-controlled oscillator 173, 204,
264, 267
CSA-CELP see conjugate structure
algebraic code excited linear
prediction
CTE 508, 514
customer equipment see CEQ
CVSDM see continuously variable slope
delta modulation
cycle 91
cyclic redundancy check see CRC
DAC see digital to analogue conversion
data communication channel 535
data communication see Data
transmission
data compaction 27
data compression 52, 62, 82
data encryption 27, 51
data input devices 18
data-in-voice (DIV) 518
data-over-voice (DOV) 518
data terminal equipment 18, 35, 82
data transmission 7, 32, 489, 32
DC 62, 100, 108
decibel 125
decision threshold 447, 448
decommutator 59
de-emphasis 285, 286, 614
de Forest, Lee 13
delay
packetisation 541
processing 3667, 560
propagation 4, 6, 43, 106, 1348,
198, 572
switching 540
delay distortion see phase distortion
delay line differentiator 2801
delay line predictor 3578
delta modulation (DM) 35965
design parameters 361
merits and demerits 362
prediction filter 361
quantisation error 359
waveform 363
delta sigma modulation (DSM) 364
demodulators
AM 174, 180

637

DSB 192
FM 274, 276
ISB 206
PM 279
SSB 203
VSB 210, 211
see also Receivers
de-multiplexers
analogue TDM 59
FDM 195, 502
optical (WDM) 51617
design considerations 1412, 3312,
3612, 4825, 61415
detectors
ASK 446, 454, 464
DPSK 458
FSK 448, 456, 474
PSK 447, 470
QAM 480
deviation ratio 223
see also modulation index
dibit 64
differential NRZ code 374
differential phase shift keying see DPSK
differential pulse code modulation see
DPCM
differentiator 22930, 279
digital baseband receiver 645,
389404
digital communication system
baseband 605, 323406
compared to analogue 513
design considerations 4825
modulated 679, 40794
noise effects 61415
digital modulation techniques,
comparison 4845
digital signal 50, 83
digital signal processing see DSP
digital subscriber line see DSL
digital to analogue conversion (DAC)
29, 51
digital translator 334, 348
digital transmission model 4213
digital versatile disc see DVD
diode demodulator
circuit and operation 174
conditions 177
diode detector see Diode demodulator
diode ring modulator 188
dipole antenna 574
Dirac delta function 11112, 313, 630
direct sequence spread spectrum
processing gain 550
receiver 554
transmitter 551
discrete baseband communication
system 5560
dispersion 36, 59, 137, 572
display devices

638 l

Index

CRT 22
flat panel 23
printers 24
distortionless transmission 134
distortions
aliasing 301, 306
aperture effect 315, 317
attenuation 136
delay 136
harmonic 140
intermodulation 140
non-linear 138
overload 363
phase 136, 203, 477
quantisation 53
double sideband suppressed carrier
amplitude modulation (DSB)
18696
applications 194, 212
demodulation 192
effects
of noise 6089
of phase error 192
modulation 186
phase synchronisation 193
spectrum 186
waveform 187
double sided spectrum 107
downlink 578
DPCM 61, 35665
DPSK
BER 460
detection 458
generation 458
introduction 457
M-ary 473
droop 63
DSB see double sideband suppressed
carrier amplitude modulation
DSL 31
DSP 13, 367
DTE see data terminal equipment
duplex
full 468
half 468
duty cycle 85
DVD 26
dynamic range 51, 327, 333
Earth
radiated noise 577
radius 42
station, for satellite communications
43, 606
EBCDIC 11
effective isotropically radiated power
(EIRP) 5734
efficiency
antenna 617
bandwidth 388, 460

code 64
data transmission 521, 622, 623
electroluminescent display see plasmapanel display
electromagnetic spectrum 39
electromagnetic waves 4, 13, 28,
3840, 767, 570
encryption 27, 51
energy
of bit 388, 432, 436, 614
of pulse 400
Rayleighs theorem 401
of signal 398
of sinusoidal symbol 410
envelope detector 4545
see also diode demodulator
envelope distortion 156, 198
envelope form of narrowband noise
5934
equaliser 115, 137
equivalent noise temperature
of overall receiver station 6046
of single system 5967
error burst 546
error correction 47, 52, 489
error function see complementary error
function
Euclidean space 413
exclusive-OR gate 5503.
see also XNOR gate
extended binary coded decimal
interchange code see EBCDIC
extraterrestrial noise 576
eye diagram 3945
facsimile (fax) 823
Farnsworth, Philo 13
fast fading 137
FAW see frame alignment word
FDM signals
group 5058
hypergroup 50911
jumbogroup 51314
mastergroup 51214
pilot tones 514
supergroup 5058
supermastergroup 51214
FDM see frequency division
multiplexing
FEC see forward error correction
fibre see optical fibre
field effect transistor (FET) see
transistor
figure of merit 607
filters
anti-alias 61, 3079
defined (BPF, BSF, HPF, LPF)
11516
ideal (brickwall) 116, 300, 381
matched 390

Index

raised cosine 383

root raised cosine 392
flags 4
flat-level FDM 5034
flat-top sampling 31319, 31517
Fleming, John 13
flicker noise 579
flip-flop 5503
FM see frequency modulation
FM stereo transmission 1946
FM transmitter 283
forward error correction 47, 489
Fourier
series 100, 108
synthesis 101
theorem 100
transform 111
examples 11112
table 630
frame alignment word
bunched 520, 5234, 526, 535
distributed 520, 528, 529
frame format
asynchronous transmission 622
CEPT PDH 523, 526
HDLC 623
North American DS1 528
SDH 533
SONET 537
frame header
ATM 5456
HDLC 623
SDH 533, 5346
frame organisation 519
frequency deviation 222
frequency discriminator 274, 279
balanced discriminator 283
delay line differentiator 280
RC differentiator 281
frequency division multiplexing (FDM)
flat-level FDM 5035
FM stereo transmission 1956
future prospects 51718
general concepts and conditions
497, 5003
hierarchical FDM 50515
standards
Bell 51314
European 505, 51213
UK 505, 50911
see also FDM signals
frequency hopping spread spectrum
54950
frequency modulation 21793
applications 289
bandwidth 259
comparisons
with AM 244, 250, 288
with PM 227, 230, 240, 244, 252,
263

639

demodulators 273
merits and demerits 288
modulators 264
narrowband 242
noise performance 2837, 61114
phase effects 230, 246, 284
power 256
wideband 252
waveforms 234
see also FSK
frequency multiplication 268
frequency response
of human ear 21
of system 113, 116, 131
of tuned circuit 282
frequency reuse 499
frequency sensitivity 221
frequency shift keying see FSK
frequency swing 222
frequency translation of 99, 183, 268
frequency variations in PM 227
FSK
binary
BER 432
coherent detection 448
frequency spacing 442
generation 441
introduction 689, 40811
non-coherent detection 456
spectrum 442
M-ary
BER 475
generation and detection 474
noise-bandwidth trade-off 476
see also bandwidth
full cosine roll-off characteristic 385
full duplex see duplex
functions 11112, 630
fundamental frequency 84
future of FDM 51718
gain response see amplitude response
galactic noise 576
gaseous absorption 575
Gaussian distribution 425, 582
Gaussian noise 5824
see also AWGN
generic flow control 542, 545
geometric representation 411
geostationary 43
Gibbs phenomenon 102
glottis 77
gold sequence 560
granular noise 363, 364
Gray code converter 4623, 47980
Gray coding 421, 432, 4634
ground wave 42
group delay 136
group signal see FDM signals

640 l

Index

group translating equipment (GTE)

508, 514
guard band 5023
half duplex see duplex
harmonic
distortion 140
frequency 85
Hartley modulator 202
HDB3 62, 3767
Heaviside, Oliver 30
heliography 5
heterosphere 41
high density bipolar with 3 zero
maximum see HDB3
high-level AM transmitter 173
highpass filter 16
Hilbert transform 202
Hockham G. A. 14
homosphere 41
hybrid coders 3712
hybrid modulation 477
hybrid multiplexing 517
hybrid spread spectrum 550
hypergroup signal see FDM signals
ideal filter see brickwall filter
ideal Nyquist channel 383
idle cell 539
image interference 184
IMP see inter-modulation product
improved multiband excited vocoder
(IMBE) 370
impulse function 11112, 297, 630
impulse response 131, 132
independent sideband amplitude
modulation (ISB) 2047
demodulator 206
merits and demerits 206
modulator 205
spectrum 205
information capacity 388
information sink 20
information source 17
instantaneous frequency 221
instantaneous phase 224
instantaneous sampling 296306,
31517
integrate-and-dump filter 3989
Integrated Services Digital Network
(ISDN) 33, 529
integrator 233, 2656
Intel Corporation 13
interference
acoustic 3
co-channel 499
image 184
intentional 547
inter-symbol see ISI
types 570

intermediate frequency (IF) amplifier

183
intermodulation product 140
International Telecommunication
Union see ITU
Internet 15, 32, 47
inter-symbol interference see ISI
inverse Fourier transform 11011
ionosphere 41
ionospheric scatter 44
ISDN see Integrated Services Digital
Network
ISI 63, 64, 38193, 401, 572
isotrope 573
ITU
organisation 44
recommended standards
coaxial cable 33
FDM 508, 515, 518, 566
modems 489
speech coding 61, 80, 337, 358,
359, 368, 369, 372
TDM, ATM 542, 543
TDM, plesiochronous 522
TDM, synchronous 531, 538
jamming signal 547
jitter 393, 530
jumbogroup signal see FDM signals
justification 526
Kao, K. C.

14

LAN see local area network

laser diode 35, 36, 77
lattice modulator 188
LC oscillator modulator 270
LCD see liquid crystal display
LED 23, 28, 35, 77
LEO see low earth orbit
light emitting diode see LED
limiter 274
line code
classes 373
desirable characteristics 62
line decoding 64
line of sight (LOS) 42
line spectrum 109
linear ADC see linear PCM
linearly-varied gain modulator 168
linear PCM 32433
linear predictive vocoder (LPC) 3701
linear time-invariant system 130
link budget 615
liquid crystal display 24
local access network 14, 31
local area network 31, 47
lock range 278
Lodge, Oliver 12
log PCM 33355

Index

logarithm 123
loudspeaker 20
low bit rate speech coding 36572
classes
hybrid coders 3712
vocoders 36971
waveform coders 3689
computational complexity 367
processing delay 367
quality 365
robustness to transmission errors
367
table of standards
trade-offs 366
transparency 366
low earth orbit 43
low-level AM transmitter 172
lowpass filter 116
lowpass signal see baseband signal.
LPC see linear predictive vocoder
LSB see sideband
LSF see side frequency
LTI see linear time-invariant system
luminance signal 81, 207
magnetic
disks 25
readers 19
tape 25
MAN see metropolitan area network
Manchester code 373, 375, 378, 379
Marconi, Guglielmo 12
mark (binary 1) 89, 374
M-ary modulation see multilevel
modulation
masking effect 3, 21
mastergroup signal see FDM signals
mastergroup translating equipment see
MTE
matched filter
derivation 3902
worked examples 395404
MATLAB code 2378
maximum length sequence 553
maximum likelihood rule 424
maximum power transfer 595
Maxwell, James 13
mean opinion score see MOS
mean square quantisation error 327,
360
mean square value 119
medium earth orbit (MEO) 43
MELP see mixed excitation linear
prediction vocoder
mesosphere 41
metropolitan area network 35, 37
microphones
carbon 18
condenser 18
dynamic 17

641

electret 18
electromagnetic 17
piezoelectric 17
variable-resistance 18
midrise quantisation 325
midstep quantisation 325
minimum shift keying see MSK
mixed excitation linear prediction
vocoder (MELP) 371
mobile communication 43
modem 32, 489, 515, 518
modulation depth 154
modulation factor 1546, 166, 168
modulation index 154, 223
modulation sensitivity 150
modulation
defined 65
roles 657
types 679
modulators
AM 168, 170, 171
ASK 438, 463
DPSK 458
DSB 186
FM 265, 267, 268, 270, 272
FSK 441, 474
ISB 205
narrowband PM 265
PSK 440, 470
QAM 480
SSB 200, 201
VSB 208
see also transmitter
monomode step index fibre 36
Morse code 7
Morse, Samuel 7
MOS 3656
MSK 444
MSQE see Mean square quantisation
error
MTE 512, 514
-law PCM
characteristic curve 33841
companding advantage 3545
companding gain 341, 3545
practical implementation 3447
speech quality 3656
SQNR 3515
versus A-law 355
muldex
add/drop 536, 539
E1 hierarchy 525
J1 hierarchy 529
NA PDH hierarchy 528
primary 522
SDH 532
multiframe 520, 523
multiframe alignment word 5234
multilevel modulation
bandwidth efficiency 460

642 l

Index

design considerations 482

M-ary ASK 462
M-ary DPSK 473
M-ary FSK 474
M-ary PSK 468
M-ary QAM 477
multimode graded index fibre 37
multimode step index fibre 35
multipath propagation
in optical fibre 36, 37
in radio 136, 562, 574
multiplexer
analogue TDM 59
ATM 544
FDM 195, 501
optical (WDM) 51617
PDH TDM 522
statistical TDM 539
multiplexing
role 496
types 497
multipulse excited linear predictive
coding (MPE-LPC) 372
music 80
narrowband frequency modulation
(NBFM)
amplitude spectrum 2445
amplitude variations 2502
derivation 2424
modulator 265
phase spectrum 2467
phasor approach 24750
waveforms 2456
narrowband noise 58794
noise equivalent bandwidth 58890
canonical representation 5903
envelope representation 5934
narrowband phase modulation (NBPM)
amplitude spectrum 2445
amplitude variations 2502
derivation 2424
modulator 265
phase spectrum 2467
phasor approach 24750
waveforms 2456
natural sampling 31013, 31517
Neper 126
noisebandwidth trade-off 2856,
4767, 613
noise calculations in systems 594607
noise equivalent bandwidth 58890
noise figure
in cascaded system 6004
in single system 597600
noise immunity 51
noise source, standard 597
noise types 57582
see also AWGN
noise weighting 127

non-linear PCM see Log PCM

non-periodic signal 83, 110
non-return-to-zero see NRZ code
non-uniform PCM see Log PCM
non-uniform quantisation 333
see also quantisation
normalised bandwidth 260
North, D. O. 14
Noyce, Robert 13
NRZ code 373347
null bandwidth 113
Nyquist
channel 383
interval 295
rate 295, 300
octet 518
onoff keying see OOK
onoff signalling see NRZ code
OOK 69, 408
see also ASK
opamp see operational amplifier
open loop power control 5612
operational amplifier 16870, 2656
optical carrier 537
optical character reader 19
optical discs 26
optical fibre
advantages 37
attenuation 5723
disadvantages 38
types 35
orthogonal 403, 416, 432
orthonormal 403
see also basis function
out-of-word signalling 520, 523
overhead bits 341, 523, 5326, 623
overload distortion 356, 359, 363
overmodulation 1556
packetisation delay 541
PAM see pulse amplitude modulation
partition noise 579
path loss in mobile communication
574
path overhead 535
PCM see pulse code modulation
PDH see plesiochronous digital
hierarchy
PDM see pulse duration modulation
percent modulation 154, 222
periodic signal 83, 100
phase demodulator 279
phase deviation 225
phase difference 92
phase discrimination 201
phase discriminator 276
phase distortion
compensation for 137
definition of 136

Index

phase error 192, 203, 2845, 452, 454

phase locked loop (PLL) 181, 276
demodulation process of 277
features of 278
states of 278
phase modulation 21793
basic concepts of 218
comparisons with
AM 244, 250, 288
FM 227, 230, 240, 244, 252, 263
demodulators 273
frequency variations in 227
modulators 264
narrowband 242
power 256
wideband 252
waveforms of 234
see also PSK
phase modulation factor 226
phase response 115, 133, 136
phase sensitivity 224
phase shift demodulator 281
phase shift keying see PSK
phase synchronisation 193
phase variations in FM 230
phasors 96, 99, 248, 251, 284
photodetector 77
photon 579, 617
piecewise companding 3427
pilot carrier 196, 206, 212, 514
PIN diode 77
plasma-panel display 24
plesiochronous digital hierarchy
multiplexing mountain 531
problems of 530
standards
CEPT (E1) system 5227
Japanese (J1) system 529
North American (T1) system
5279
PLL see phase locked loop
PN sequence 547, 5503,
pointer
administrative unit 533, 534, 535,
538
tributary unit 536, 537, 538
post-modulation filter 504
POTS 32
power efficiency 388, 485
power
in AM signal 165
control in CDMA 560
definitions of 118
in FM signal 256
logarithmic measures of 126
spectral density 401, 586, 613
PPM see pulse position modulation
preamble see training sequence
predictor, tapped-delay-line filter 258
pre-emphasis 283, 286, 614

643

primary muldex see muldex

printers 24
probability density function
Gaussian 425, 582
Rayleigh 594
uniform 329, 594
probability of symbol error 424.
see also symbol error rate, BER
processing delay 3667, 560
processing gain
of AM receiver 61011
of DSB receiver 6089
of FM receiver 61113
of spread spectrum receiver 5635
of SSB receiver 60910
product modulator 188, 192
propagation delay 4, 6, 43, 106,
1348, 198, 572
pseudo-noise sequence see PN sequence
PSK
binary generation of 439
coherent binary detection of 447
introduction and waveforms 689,
40811
M-ary signal 468
QPSK generation and detection 469
see also bandwidth; DPSK; BER,
psophometer 127
pulse amplitude modulation
features of 58
system block diagram of 57
waveform of 56
pulse code modulation
basic discussion 602
detailed discussion 32365
linear 324
log 333
differential 356
pulse duration modulation
features of 58
system block diagram of 57
waveform of 56
pulse position modulation
features of 58
system block diagram of 57
waveform of 56
pulse width modulation see Pulse
duration modulation
Pythagoras rule 100, 413, 429
QAM
analogue 194, 215
M-ary
16-QAM 47881
BER 481, 485
constellations 478
QPSK
BER 42933
coherent detector 470
modulator 470

644 l

Index

quadrature amplitude modulation see

QAM
quadrature channels 480, 4856
quadrature component 100, 250,
5923, 609
quadrature null effect 193
quadri-phase shift keying see QPSK
quality factor 148, 504
quantisation
and aliasing error 307
classes of 325
design considerations 331
distortion 53
noise 326, 575
non-uniform
A-law see A-law PCM
compressor characteristic 334
-law see -law PCM
schemes 334
uniform
demerits 332
implementation 325
quantiser step size 326
quantum noise 579
quasi-periodic signal 84
quaternary code 64
radar 46
radian 91
radiation loss 572
radiation resistance 66, 577
radio
attenuation 573
frequency allocation 44
frequency band 45
noise 576
propagation modes 40
spectrum 39
transmission medium 38
raised cosine filter 3837
raised cosine spectrum 384
rated system deviation 222
Rayleigh
distribution 594
energy theorem 401
scattering 573, 616
RC differentiator 281
receiver
analogue TDM 59
delta sigma modulation 365
digital baseband 645, 38995
digital transmission model 422
delta modulation 360,363
DPCM 357
FM stereo 1956
PAM 567
processing functions of 289
spread spectrum 548, 549, 554
superheterodyne AM 1825
superheterodyne FM 288

tuned radio frequency (TRF) 1812

WDM 516
see also demodulator
reconstruction filter
compensated 319
uncompensated 56, 295, 301
rectangular pulse 112, 409, 631
Reeves, Alec 14
refraction 37, 42
regular pulse excitation (RPE) 372
return-to-zero see RZ code
RLL see run length limited code
roll-off factor 385
root raised cosine filter 3923
run length limited code 3757
running digital sum (RDS) 378
RZ code 373, 3745
sample and hold circuit 313
sampling methods
instantaneous 296306, 31517
natural 31013, 31517
flat-top 31319, 31517
sampling theorem 55, 295
applied to low pass signal 2978
applied to band pass signal 2989
satellite communication 43
satellite communication Earth station
6056
scanner 18, 19, 75
screened twisted pair 31
SDH see synchronous digital hierarchy
SDM see space division multiplexing.
SDSL see single-line digital subscriber
line
section overhead 5345
selective fading 198, 216, 288, 547
semaphore 5
sensors 19
Shannon limit 389, 4834
Shannons information capacity
theorem 3879
shape factor 148
Shockley, William 13
shot noise 579
SI units 632
side frequency, lower and upper 160,
245
sideband, lower and upper 1623
sideband power 165
sigma delta modulation see Delta sigma
modulation
signal space 411
see also constellation diagram
signal to noise ratio 285, 571, 6067
see also AWGN
signal to quantisation noise ratio
of A-law PCM 3515
of delta modulation 35961
of log PCM 3347

Index

of -law PCM 3515

of uniform PCM 32830
signalling 83, 5201, 524, 5289
signalling channel 5234
signum function 630
simplex 468
sinc function 103, 3813, 631
sine rule 96
single sideband suppressed carrier
amplitude modulation (SSB)
196204
applications 204, 212
demodulation 203
effects
of noise 60910
of phase error 203
merits 197
modulation
by filtering (frequency
discrimination) 200
by phase discrimination 201
spectrum 197
single-line digital subscriber line 32
single-sided spectrum 107
sinusoidal message (modulating) signal
158, 186, 201, 229, 232, 241, 252,
266, 611
sinusoidal signals
addition of 95
generation of 88
multiplication of 97
parameters of 90
waveform sketching of 93
sinusoidal symbol 689, 409, 412
skin effect 571
sky wave 42
slope factor 504
slope overload see overload distortion
smoke 4
SNR see signal-to-noise ratio
SONET 537, 539
sound pressure level 20
sound signal see acoustic signal
space (binary 0) 89, 374
space division multiplexing 4979
spectrum
of AM 163
of ASK 438
of bandlimited white noise 591
of DSB 187
electromagnetic 39
of FDM signals
general 501
group 507
supergroup 507
of FM and PM
narrowband 245
wideband 253
of FM stereo signal 195
of FSK 441

of
of
of
of

645

ISB 205
PSK 440
raised cosine filter 383
sampled signals
bandpass 299
lowpass 298, 312, 316
of speech signal 79
of SSB 197
types of 102, 107
of VSB 208
speech signal
characteristics of 78
coding of 333, 365
production of 77
speech synthesis model 370
SPL see sound pressure level
splicing 35, 573
spread spectrum modulation 28, 547
spreading loss 574
Sputnik I 14
SQNR see signal to quantisation noise
ratio
square law demodulator 215
square law modulator 171
square law noise-bandwidth trade-off
285, 331, 613
square QAM constellation 478
SSB transmitter 201
SSB see single sideband suppressed
carrier amplitude modulation
star QAM constellation 478
STE 509, 512, 514
step size see quantiser step size
stereo 194
storage devices 25
STP see screened twisted pair
stratopause 41
stratosphere 41
Strowger, Almond 12
superframe 5289
supergroup signal see FDM signals
supergroup translating equipment see
STE
superheterodyne (superhet) receiver
182, 288
supermastergroup signal see FDM
signals
superposition principle 131
switching delay 540
switching impulse train 296, 298
switching modulator 170
symbol error rate 425, 432, 475
symbol rate 69, 382, 387
symbol slip 393
synchronisation
of bit 393, 519
of carrier phase 193
of frame 520
synchronous demodulation see
coherent demodulation

646 l

Index

synchronous digital hierarchy

bit rates 5312
frame assembly 5367
frame structure 5326
synchronous optical network see
SONET
synchronous transport module (STM)
531, 532, 538
synchronous transport system (STS)
537
system response 131
tapped-delay-line filter 258
TDM see time division multiplexing
telecommunication
developments in
binary codes 7
components 13
services 15
signal processing 13
transmission media 14
electrical 2
international union see ITU
non-electrical 2
signals 74
system design 141, 482
verbal 3
visual 4
telegraphy 78, 45, 51
television
CCTV 545
development 13, 14
modulation 194, 20711
signal components 812
transmission in FDM system 515
Telstar I 14
ternary code 64, 375, 378, 380
theorems
central limit 582
Fourier 100
information capacity 388
maximum power transfer 595
Pythagoras 100
Rayleighs energy 401
sampling 55, 295
thermal noise 575, 582, 595, 597
thermionic emission 22
thermosphere 41
threshold effect 611, 613
timbre 80
time bandwidth product 117
time constant 177
time division multiplexing
analogue
features 59
system block diagram 59
waveform 60
analogy 498
digital 518
time hopping spread spectrum 5489

time reversal 3957

timing content 63, 374, 379
TMUX see transmultiplexer
trade-off
between bandwidth and power 485
between bandwidth and SNR 285,
476, 613
in low bit rate speech coding 366
training sequence 390, 454
transatlantic
coaxial cable 14
optical fibre 14
transducers 75
transfer characteristic 139
transfer function see channel transfer
function
transistor 13, 16972, 2702
transistor reactance modulator 472
transition modem 518
transmission medium 29
transmitter
AM 1724
analogue TDM 59
delta sigma modulation 365
digital baseband 62, 372, 389
digital transmission model 422
delta modulation 360,363
DPCM 357
FM 283
FM stereo 195
PAM 57
processing functions 26
spread spectrum 548, 549, 551
SSB 201
WDM 516
see also modulator
transmultiplexer 518
TRF see tuned RF receiver
triangular pulse 11213, 631
tributary unit 537, 538
trigonometric identities 6201
tropopause 41
troposphere 41
tropospheric scatter 44
tuned RF receiver 181
tweeter 20
twisted wire pair see wire pair
uncoded data 374
uniform quantisation 32533
union bound 475
unipolar baseband system 4279, 614
unipolar non-return-to-zero see NRZ
code
unit impulse function see impulse
function
unit step function 630
UNRZ see NRZ code
unscreened twisted pair 31
uplink 579

Index

USB see sideband

USF see side frequency
UTP see unscreened twisted pair
varactor diode modulator 272
variable bit rate (VBR) service 543
variable capacitance diode 271
variable reactance transistor 272
VCO see voltage controlled oscillator
VDSL 32
velum 78
verbal non-electrical
telecommunication 34
vestigial sideband amplitude
modulation (VSB)
demodulation
coherent 210
envelope 211
modulation 208
spectrum 208
video
camera 54
input device 18
modulation 207, 515
signal 81
violation pulse 3767
virtual channel 544
virtual container 533
virtual path 544
visual non-electrical
telecommunication 47
vocal cords 77
vocal tract coder (vocoder) 369
vocoders 36971
voltage controlled oscillator 181, 272
vowel sound 78

647

V-pulse see violation pulse

VSB filter 209
VSB see vestigial sideband amplitude
modulation
walkie-talkie 47
waveform coders 3689
waveform sketching
AM 152
FM and PM 234, 236, 240
wavelength 40, 92
wavelength division multiplexing
(WDM) 51517
WebTV 15
white noise 5848.
see also AWGN
wideband audio 80, 358, 369
wideband frequency modulation 252
wideband frequency modulator
direct 268
indirect 267
wideband phase modulation 252
wire pair
applications of 30
attenuation of 31, 571
limiting factors of 30
wireless communication 13, 28, 47
see also radio
wireless local loop (WLL) 14
woofer 20
word-interleaving 519
XDSL 313
XNOR gate 4589
zero-level reference point (ZRP)

129