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FAILURE MODES
As pointed out in the previous section the ultimate moment capacity is highly dependent on the amount of longitudinal force
and pressure loads and for cases with high external pressure also initial out-of-roundness. To clarify the approach used in the
development of the analytical equations and to give a better understanding of the obtained results, characteristics of the
ultimate strength for pipes subjected to single loads and combined loads are discussed below.
The cross sectional deformations just before failure of pipes subjected to single loads are shown in Figure 2.
Pure bending
Pure pressure
(1)
where D is the average pipe diameter, t the wall thickness and SMYS the Specified Minimum Yield Strength.
represents the average longitudinal cross sectional stress at failure as a function of the diameter
over wall thickness ratio. The average pipe diameter is conservatively used in here while SUPERB used the outer diameter.
Several formulations have been proposed for estimating the external collapse pressure, but in this paper, only Timoshenkos
and Haagsmas equations are described. Timoshenkos equation, which gives the pressure at beginning yield in the extreme
fibres, will in general represent a lower bound, while Haagsmas equation, using a fully plastic yielding condition, will represent
an upper bound for the collapse pressure. The collapse pressure of pipes is very dependent on geometrical imperfections and
here in special initial out-of-roundness. Both Timoshenkos and Haagsmas collapse equation account for initial out-ofroundness inside the range that is normally allowed in pipeline design.
Timoshenkos equation giving the pressure causing yield at the extreme pipe fibre:
f D
pc2 p p 1 1.5 0
pel pc p p pel 0
t
(2)
where:
pel
2 E t
(1 2 ) D
2 SMYS
pp
t
D
(3)
(4)
and:
pc
f0
= Average diameter
= Wall thickness
SMYS
= Youngs Module
= Poissons ratio
It should be noted that the pressure pc determined in accordance to Eq. (2) is lower than the actual collapse pressure of the
pipe and it becomes equal to the latter only in the case of a perfectly round pipe. Hence, by using pc calculated from Eq. (2) as
the ultimate value of pressure, the results will normally be on the safe side (Timoshenko and Gere, 1961).
Haagsmas equation giving the pressure at which fully plastic yielding over the wall thickness occurs can be expressed as:
(5)
and represent the theoretical upper bound for the collapse pressure. For low D/t, the collapse pressure will be closer to the
collapse pressure calculated by Haagsmas equation than that calculated by Timoshenkos equation (Haagsma and Schaap,
1981).
The use of Timoshenkos and Haagsmas equations relates specifically to pipes with initially linear elastic material properties
where the elastic collapse pressure can be derived from classical analysis. This would be appropriate for seamless pipes or for
pipes that have been subjected to an annealing process. However, for pipes fabricated using the UO, TRB or UOE method there
are significant non-linearitys in the material properties in the hoop direction, due to residual strains and the Bauschinger
effect. These effects may be accounted for by introducing a strength reduction factor to the plastic collapse pressure term given
by Eq. (4). In this study no attempt has been given to this reduction factor, but according to DNV 2000 the plastic collapse
pressure is to be reduced with 7% for UO and TRB pipes and with 15% for UOE pipes.