Psychology Revision (1-3)

CHAPTER 1: RESEARCH METHODS

Psychology - systematic study of the mind and behaviour
Research - 7 steps:
Step
1

Identify the research problem (topic of interest)

Constructing the research hypothesis

Designing the method

Collecting the data

Analysing the data

Interpreting the data

Reporting the research findings

Experiment: test a cause-effect relationship with controlled variable

Independent variable (IV):
Controlled by the experimenter
Dependent variable (DV):
measured
Effects of a changed IV
UNWANTED - Extraneous variable (EV):
Variables NOT IV but could cause changes to the DV
Identify the EV
Remove as many as possible
Controlled variables
o Potential effects have been removed from the experiment (experimental design)

UNCONTROLLABLE Confounding variable (CV):

Not IV but has had a systematic effect on the value of the DV
If there is a confounding variable, no valid conclusions can be drawn from the research.
Mixed up with the IV
Hypothesis: SPECIFIC!
Testable prediction of the relationship between two+ events or characteristics
Population
IV
Prediction

4. DV
Operational hypothesis:
Research hypothesis that states how the variables studied will be observed, manipulated and measured
Population
Prediction
3. IV manipulation
4. DV measurement
Control group - for comparison reasons

Research Methods - Identifying extraneous and potential confounding variables

Type

Definition

Individual
participant
differences

-Differences in personal characteristics

-Each can affect how a participant may respond in an
experiment

Examples & text reference

Gender
Age
Religion
Motivation
Past experience
ethnicity

Doctor gives a pill that does

nothing to a patient, but
they experience changes
anyway

- occurs when there is a change in a participant's response due

to the researcher's (experimenter's) expectations, biases or
actions, rather than to the effect of the IV.
Experimenter expectancy - The experimenter provides
cues about the expected responses
o Self-fulfilling prophecy - when the researcher
obtains results that they expect due to the cues
they provide rather than due to the IV
e.g. facial expressions
Mannerisms
Tone of voice
Experimenter bias - unintentional biases in collecting and
analysing data
Participant expectations

Students whose teachers

thought they were fast
learners performed better
than students whose
teachers thought they were
slow learners.

-occurs when there is a change in the responses of the

Placebo effect participants due to their belief that they have been given
something.
Placebo: Substance

Experimenter
effects

Order effects

-When the performance (DV) is influenced by the specific

order in which the conditions, treatments or tasks are
presented. Performing one task affects the performance of the
next
Practice effect - the influence on performance (DV) that arises
from practising the task.
Perform better the second time
Boredom or fatigue effect - due to the repetitive nature of the
same task.
Perform worse the second time

Carry-over effect - particular treatment or task has on

performance in a subsequent treatment/task.

Nonstandardised
instructions
and
procedures

- when the procedures are not uniform, or the same, for all
participants.

Procedures
Selection of participants
Instructions for different
groups
Interaction with
participants
Use of materials
Use of rooms or other
settings
Observation and
measurement of
variables
Data-recording
techniques

Sampling
Population: larger group from which a sample is drawn
Sample: a group that is a subset of a population
Convenience sampling
o Selecting readily available participants
Random sampling
o Randomly selected
o Ensures every member of the population of research interest has an equal chance of being selected
Stratified sampling
o Dividing the population into distinct subgroups - selecting sample from each stratum, as they occur in
the target population.
e.g. Income, age, sex, religion, cultural background, residential area, IQ score

Random-stratified sampling
o Randomly sampling from each strata

Allocation

Experimental and control groups

o participants are either allocated to either control or experimental groups

Random allocation
o each participant has an equal chance of being selected from any of the groups used.
e.g. coin flipping or drawing names out of a hat

Counterbalancing - used to minimise order effects such as practice and carry-over.

Systematically changing the order of treatment or tasks for participants in a balanced way to counter the
unwanted effects on performances of any one order.
Single and double blind procedures
Single-blind - participants do not know which group they are allocated to
Double-blind - neither participant nor experimenter know which participants have been allocated
Placebos
The control group is given a placebo, to eliminate a potentially confounding variable in the experimental
group
Standardised instructions and procedures
Minimise any differences among participants

Experimental Designs
Independent Groups Design:
Each participant randomly allocated to control or experimental
o Coin toss
Advantages

Disadvantages

No order effects to control for

Less control for participant differences

Participant attrition is less common (pulling out of the exp)

Large number of participants required

Quick and easy to administer

Repeated-measures design
Same participants are used in both experimental and control conditions
o e.g. loud music on studying
Group listens to loud music, then listens to soft music
Advantages

Disadvantages

Eliminates potential confounding variables from

participant differences

Demand characteristics - guess the purpose of the

experiment

Small number of participants

Participant attrition (turn up for the first condition, but

not for second
Order effects.
Boredom/practice effect

Order effects can be removed by counterbalancing

Half complete the control condition first --> experimental
Other half, vice versa
Random selection should be used to determine which participants perform the tasks in which order
Matched-participants design
Match participants - similar characteristics - reduce individual differences
o Can influence the DV

Randomly allocated to one of the two groups

Variable used to match must be relevant to the experiment
o e.g. sex, age, IQ
Identical twins are best for matching, but not always available

Advantages

Disadvantages

Helps to eliminate participant differences on the

variable chosen
i.e. variable is constant across the conditions

Participant variable should be matched, and how?

Less participant attrition

Time consuming (expensive) to recruit and match

participants
Pre-testing
Participant attrition from one participant means the loss of
the whole pair

Chapter 2: States of Consciousness

Consciousness - the awareness of objects and events in the external world and of our own existence and mental
processes at any given moment.
Sense of self
Perceptions of our environment
Personal

Subjective understanding of both your unique internal world and the external environment

Selective

You can choose to attend to certain things and ignore others

Continuous

Consciousness is never 'empty'

Changing

New information is continuously coming into awareness

States of Consciousness
(Qualities that distinguish NWC from ASC):
Level of awareness
Content of consciousness
Use of controlled & automatic processes
Perceptual experience
o How you make sense of the world
Cognitive abilities
Emotional awareness
Self-control
Time

Normal Waking Consciousness (NWC): awake and

aware of our thoughts, memories, feelings and the
sensations we are experiencing from the outside world
Selective attention: selectively attending to certain
stimuli while ignoring other stimuli.
At any moment, the focus is only on a limited
range of all that we are capable of experiencing

Divided attention: ability to distribute attention and undertake two or more activities simultaneously
Cocktail phenomenon
Content limitation:
Restricted/limited
Control what enters consciousness
Controlled (unfamiliar)
Information processing - conscious/alert awareness - mental effort focused on achieving a particular goal
Serial
activity is difficult or unfamiliar
o e.g. learning to drive
Automatic (familiar)
little conscious awareness/mental effort, minimal attention - does not interfere with the performance of
other activities
Parallel - we can handle two or more activities at the same time
Stroop effect

Altered State of Consciousness (ASC): a distinctly different level of mental awareness to that normal
waking consciousness, in that major changes occur in the qualities, or characteristics of an individual's thoughts,
feelings and perceptions
Naturally occurring - sleep, daydreaming and dreaming
Daydreaming (external to internal)
o Shift attention from external to internal, feelings, imagined scenarios
Occurs naturally
When stationary, routine/boring activities
Freud - fantasies
Purposefully induced - meditation, hypnosis, alcohol, medication or illegal drugs.
Alcohol
Psychoactive drug/depressant

Concentration
Amount of alcohol consumed
Amount of food in stomach
Weight
Gender
Emotional state
Physical wellbeing etc.

Shortened attention span

Impaired thinking
Impaired memory
Slower reaction times
Impaired perception of time
Less self-control
Reduced self-awareness
Difficulties with voluntary muscular control and fine movements

Characteristics of ASC
4 characteristics which can distinguish whether a person is in ASC:
Distortion of perception and cognition:

Senses more receptive or dulled

Thinking more illogical/lacking in sequence

Time orientation:
Distorted
Changes in Emotional Awareness
Turmoil; uncharacteristic responses
maintain self-control

Change in Self Control:

Physical or otherwise

MEASURING LEVELS OF ALERTNESS

Electroencephalograph (EEG)
Corresponding Mental State
Alpha

Very relaxed or meditating

High frequency and slightly larger amplitude

Beta

Awake and alert

They have low amplitude and high frequency

Theta

Lightly asleepMedium frequency and combination of amplitude waves

Delta

Deeply asleep
Lowest frequency and highest amplitude

Heart rate
ECG - electrocardiogram - measures electrical activity of the heart muscle.
o Increases or decreases dependent on state of consciousness

Body temperature
Core body temperature varies over a 24-hour period day.
Depends on physical activity during NWC
o Must be strenuous
Can change with ASCs
o e.g. physical health problem
o Disease
o Illegal drug such as ecstasy
o DROPS 1 DEGREE DURING SLEEP

Galvanic skin response (GSR)

Emotional experiences/alertness
Physiological response - change in resistance of the skin's surface to the passage of an electrical current.
Electrodes are attached to the hairless areas of the hand
o e.g. if sweat is secreted (when aroused or stressed)
Resistance against electrical conductivity decreases
ASCs - change in emotional response
Therefore can be detected by GSR
Measures of physiological responses can provide useful information,
BUT CANNOT BE THE ONLY INDICATOR of a state of consciousness.
Physiological responses in conjunction with other observations and data-collection techniques to obtain more
accurate data.
Because in psychology - mental processes - difficult to measure things
Many things cannot be measured - can only be inferred, or physiological result --> displayed effect

Therefore a psychological construct is a concept that is 'constructed' to describe a particular psychological

activity, or pattern of activity, that is believed to occur or exist but cannot be directly observed or measured
(Grivas p115).
Information provided by the individual
o e.g. self-reports
Behaviour that is demonstrated
o e.g. experimental research
Physiological changes that can be measured
o e.g. brain recording and scanning techniques

Chapter 3 Sleep
Sleep: a regularly and naturally occurring ASC and is characterised by a loss of conscious
awareness
Sleep labs or sleep study units
Polysomnography - monitoring and recording of physiological responses a sleeping individual.
Important physiological information on changes that occur as we fall asleep and during sleep
Electrical activity of the brain, eye movements and muscle tension
Self-reports used with other measures
PHYSIOLOGICAL

Method

Function

Description

What it
measures in
relation to
sleep

EEG (brain
waves)

Detect/amplify/record
electrical activity generated
by the brain whilst
sleeping/dreaming

Identifies the different electrical patterns

generated by the brain

Brain activity
(patterns)
Stages
of sleep

EOG (eye
Eye movements/electrical
movement) activity in muscles that
control movement of eyes

Electrodes attached around the eye

EMG
(muscle
tension)

Attach electrodes to the skin above monitored Identifies

muscles
changes in
activity
(movement)
and muscle
tone (tension)
May
relax
(deep
sleep)
Spasm
(light
sleep)

Electrical activity of muscles

Video
Physiological responses
monitori during sleep
ng

Selfreports

Problems/answers/rating
scales etc.

e.g. posture/position
Tossing and turning
Awakening from nightmare
Sleepwalking
Examined together with others

Sleep diary
Time
o
o
o
o
o

Trying to fall asleep

Sleep onset occurred
Number/time/length of
awakenings
Waking up
Getting up after wakening

NREM - non-rapid-eye movement sleep

REM - rapid-eye movement sleep
Aka 5th stage of sleep

Continuous cycles
o NREM 70-80 mins
o 4 stages
Different brain wave pattern
Complete sleep cycle 80-120 mins
o 4-5 times during 8 hours of sleep

STAGE PROGRESSION
Awake --> stage 1 --> stage 2 --> stage 3 --> stage 4 | --> stage 3 --> stage 2 --> stage 1 (REM)
Repeat

Change of eye
movements
over time
(REM sleep)

Sleep stages
Stage

Duration

Awake

Wave

Physiological

Description etc.

Beta

Relaxed/hypnogogi 1-2 minutes

c

Alert
High frequency/low
amplitude

Alpha

High frequency/high
amplitude

Slow rolling eye

movements

Flashes of
light/colour
Dreamlike images
Floating/weightless
ness

Stage 1

5-10 minutes

Alpha/theta

THETA:
irregular/mixture of
high and low
amplitude

Lower level of
bodily arousal
Heart
rate/respiration
/body
temperature/m
uscle tension
DECREASE

Hypnic jerk

Stage 2
Truly asleep

10-20 minutes

Theta with SLEEP SPINDLES

and K-COMPLEXES
Sleep spindles
o Burst of high
frequency
brain activity
o ONLY OCCURS
IN STAGE 2
K-complexes

o Response to
arousing
stimuli

Body

movements
lessen
Breathing more
regular
Blood
pressure/tempe
rature fall
Heart rate
slower

Truly asleep

Stage 3

10 minutes

Theta/delta (20 - 50%,

Heart

Sleepwalking/sleep

Moderately deep
sleep

SWS slow wave sleep)

DELTA: low
frequency/high
amplitude

Stage 4
Very deep sleep

20 minutes,
gradually
shortens

Delta (more than 50%)

REM
20-30%
Paradoxic
al sleep

At first, Beta-like waves:

a few
Relatively
minute
high
s - up
frequency
to an
/low
hour
amplitude

Body is paralysed

Occasional twitching in
fingers
Lowest muscle tone
Heart rate
faster/irregular
Blood pressure rises
Breathing
quicker/irregular

rate/blood
pressure/body
temperature
drop
Breathing
steady
Difficult to
arouse (sleep
inertia)
Muscles
completely
relaxed
DREAM
Light/deep

talking

Night terrors
No stage 3 or 4 later
cycles

Time spent in each stage of NREM or REM sleep is variable

Birth to old -> time spent sleeping generally decreases
REM decreases infancy to adolescence
o Then relatively stable until senility
YOUNG ADULT VS. ELEDERLY SLEEP PATTERN
Newborn
16 hours
50% REM sleep
Adolescence
9 hours
20% REM sleep
Late adulthood
6-7 hours

33% REM sleep

60+
Lighter/increased awakenings
Mostly stage 2 shallow sleep
90 yrs
Stage 3&4 rarely experienced

Sleep-wake cycle shift during adolescence

More than 9 hours

Biologically driven
Each day the body goes through a cycle (circadian rhythm or cycle)
o Hormones produced to control bodily functions
Melatonin - sleepiness
o Linked to light cues
DURING ADOLESCENCE
o Hormone induced shift of body clock forward 1-2 hours

SLEEP WAKE CYCLE SHIFT

Later sleeping
Sleep debt
Sleep owed, needs to be made up
Nightly sleep debt of 90 minutes Mon-Fri = 7.5 hours debt
Weekends - sleep in
Results in going to bed later
o Shifts sleep period further forward
Monday is hell.

Psychological (Cognitive)
Partial

Lapse in attention

Inability to concentrate
Slower reaction times
Think
illogically/irrationally
Difficulty making
decisions/solving

problems that require

Emotional
Loss of
interest/enjoyment
in previously
enjoyed activities
Low level of
motivation
Irritability

Behavioural
(actions)

Physiological

Fatigue
Lack of energy
Impaired motor skills
Headaches

creative thinking
Total

Hallucinations
Delusions
Anxiety disorders

Depression
paranoia

Anxiety
disorders
Hypertension
Sleep
disorders

Collapse of immune system

Unable to regulate body
temperature
Sleepiness
Fatigue
Hand tremors
Drooping eyelids
Difficulty focusing eyes
Lack of energy/strength
Slurred speech
Increased sensitivity to pain
Heart and respiratory
system are slower
Body temperature drops
Impaired production of
hormones
Heart disease
Diabetes
Obesity
Cancer
Acceleration of aging

PURPOSE OF SLEEP:
Two main theories:
Restoration - including REM rebound make up for lost REM
Survival: inactive during the day most risky/dangerous

SLEEP RECOVERY PATTERNS

-

Catch up to repay sleep debt

o Lots the first day, less each successive day until normal
REM rebound make up for lost REM
Microsleeps partial/total sleep deprivation.
o short period of drowsiness or sleeping occurs when person is apparently awake
EEG pattern like early stages of NREM sleep
No memory of what happens during microsleep