JRE SCHOOL OF Engineering

PRE-UNIVERSITY TEST NOVEMBER 14

Subject Name Power Station Practice
Roll No. of Student
Date
24th Nov 2014
For EE V Sem only

Subject Code
Max Marks
Max Duration
Time

EEE-042
100
3 Hour
10:00 am-01:00 pm

NOTE: ATTEMPT ALL QUESTIONS

Que 1. Attempt any FOUR questions.

(5 marks * 4 Questions = 20 Marks)

(a) Draw general layout of thermal power plant. Explain the working of each component in detail.
Solution:

Coal and Ash Handling Plant

The coal is transported to the power station by road or rail and is stored in the coal storage plant.
Storage of coal is primarily a matter of protection against coal strikes, failure of transportation
system and general coal shortages.
From the coal storage plant, coal is delivered to the coal handling plant where it is pulverised (i.e.,
crushed into small pieces) in order to increase its surface exposure, thus promoting rapid
combustion without using large quantity of excess air.
The pulverised coal is fed to the boiler by belt conveyors.
The coal is burnt in the boiler and the ash produced after the complete combustion of coal is
removed to the ash handling plant and then delivered to the ash storage plant for disposal.
The removal of the ash from the boiler furnace is necessary for proper burning of coal.
Steam Generating Plant
Boiler: The heat of combustion of coal in the boiler is utilized to convert water into steam at high
temperature and pressure. The flue gases from the boiler make their journey through superheater,
economizer, air pre-heater and are finally exhausted to atmosphere through the chimney.

Superheater: The steam produced in the boiler is wet and is passed through a superheater where
it is dried and superheated (i.e., steam temperature increased above that of boiling point of water)
by the flue gases on their way to chimney. Superheating provides two principal benefits.
Firstly, the overall efficiency is increased.
Secondly, too much condensation in the last stages of turbine (which would cause blade
corrosion) is avoided. The superheated steam from the superheater is fed to steam turbine
through the main valve.
Economiser: An economiser is essentially a feed water heater and derives heat from the flue gases
for this purpose. The feed water is fed to the economiser before supplying to the boiler. The
economiser extracts a part of heat of flue gases to increase the feed water temperature.
Air preheater: An air preheater increases the temperature of the air supplied for coal burning by
deriving heat from flue gases. Air is drawn from the atmosphere by a forced draught fan and is
passed through air preheater before supplying to the boiler furnace.
The air preheater extracts heat from flue gases and increases the temperature of air used for coal
combustion. The principal benefits of preheating the air are : increased thermal efficiency and
increased steam capacity per square metre of boiler surface.
Steam Turbine
The dry and superheated steam from the superheater is fed to the steam turbine through main
valve.
The heat energy of steam when passing over the blades of turbine is converted into mechanical
energy.
After giving heat energy to the turbine, the steam is exhausted to the condenser which condenses
the exhausted steam by means of cold water circulation.
Alternator
The steam turbine is coupled to an alternator. The alternator converts mechanical energy of
turbine into electrical energy.
The electrical output from the alternator is delivered to the bus bars through transformer, circuit
breakers and isolators.
Feed Water
The condensate from the condenser is used as feed water to the boiler. Some water may be lost in
the cycle which is suitably made up from external source.
The feed water on its way to the boiler is heated by water heaters and economiser. This helps in
raising the overall efficiency of the plant.
Cooling Arrangements
In order to improve the efficiency of the plant, the steam exhausted from the turbine is condensed
by means of a condenser.
Water is drawn from a natural source of supply such as a river, canal or lake and is circulated
through the condenser.
The circulating water takes up the heat of the exhausted steam and itself becomes hot.
This hot water coming out from the condenser is discharged at a suitable location down the river.
In case the availability of water from the source of supply is not assured throughout the year,
cooling towers are used.
During the scarcity of water in the river, hot water from the condenser is passed on to the cooling
towers where it is cooled.
The cold water from the cooling tower is reused in the condenser.

(b) Explain the classification of hydro power plant.

Solution: Classification on the basis of
Quantity of water available
Run-off river plants without pond
These plants does not store water;
The plant uses water as it comes.
The plant can use water as and when available.
Since these plants depend for their generating capacity primarily on the rate of flow of water,
during rainy season high flow rate may mean some quantity of water to go as waste while during
low run-off periods, due to low flow rates, the generating capacity will be low.

Run-off river plants with pond

In these plants pond permits storage of water during off peak periods and use of this water during
peak periods.
Depending on the size of pond provided it may be possible to cope with hour to hour fluctuations.
This type of plant can be used on parts of the load curve as required, and is more useful than a
plant with out storage or pond.
This type of plant is comparatively more reliable and its generating capacity is less dependent on
available rate of flow of water.
Reservoir Plants

A reservoir plant is that which has a reservoir of such size as to permit carrying over storage from
wet season to the next dry season.
Water is stored behind the dam and is available to the plant with control as required.
Such a plant has better capacity and can be used efficiently through out the year.
Its firm capacity can be increased and can be used either as a base load plant or as a peak load
plant as required.
It can also be used on any portion of the load curve as required.
Majority of the hydroelectric plants are of this type.
Availability of water head
Low-Head (less than 30 meters) Hydro electric plants :
"Low head" hydro-electric plants are power plants which generally utilize heads of only a few
meters or less.
Power plants of this type may utilize a low dam or no dam and simply use the "run of the river".
Run of the river generating stations cannot store water, thus their electric output varies with
seasonal flows of water in a river.
A large volume of water must pass through a low head hydro plant's turbines in order to produce a
useful amount of power.
Hydro-electric facilities with a capacity of less than about 25 MW (1 MW = 1,000,000 Watts) are
generally referred to as "small hydro", although hydro-electric technology is basically the same
regardless of generating capacity.
Medium-head (30 meters - 300 meters) hydro electric plants
These plants consist of a large dam in a mountainous area which creates a huge reservoir.
Larger volume of water is required in this type of power plant. The reservoir capacity will be large.
Dams are also used for flood control, irrigation, recreation, and often are the main source of
potable water for many communities.
In these power plant water is carried from the reservoir to the penstock through the forebay.
There is no need of surge tank as forebay itself acts as a surge tank.
Francis, Kaplan and Propeller turbines are commonly used for the medium head plants.
High-head hydro electric plants
"High head" power plants are the most common and generally utilize a dam to store water at an
increased elevation.
The use of a dam to impound water also provides the capability of storing water during rainy
periods and releasing it during dry periods.
This results in the consistent and reliable production of electricity, able to meet demand. Heads for
this type of power plant may be greater than 1000 m.
Most large hydro-electric facilities are of the high head variety.
High head plants with storage are very valuable to electric utilities because they can be quickly
adjusted to meet the electrical demand on a distribution system.
Nature of Load
Base load plants
A base load power plant is one that provides a steady flow of power regardless of total power
demand by the grid.
These plants run at all times through the year except in the case of repairs or scheduled
maintenance.
Base load power plants do not change production to match power consumption demands since it is
always cheaper to run them rather than running high cost combined cycle plants or combustion
turbines.

Typically these plants are large enough to provide a majority of the power used by a grid, making
them slow to fire up and cool down.
Thus, they are more effective when used continuously to cover the power base load required by the
grid.
Each base load power plant on a grid is allotted a specific amount of the base load power demand
to handle. The base load power is determined by the load duration curve of the system.
Peak load plants
Power plants for electricity generation which, due to their operational and economic properties, are
used to cover the peak load. Gas turbines and storage and pumped storage power plants are used
as peak load power plants.
The efficiency of such plants is around 60 -70%.
(c) Write a short note on hydro electric potential in India.
Solution:
Electricity produced from the water is called the hydropower or hydro-electric power. The falling water
turns the water wheel or the turbine and electricity is generated. It is the most convenient and versatile
form of energy. It plays a key role in agriculture and industrial development and nation's growth and
productivity can be analyzed through the quantity of its energy consumption.
Since first five year plan, India is given much emphasis on generation of hydro-electric power from major
hydro and mini hydel projects. These hydel projects also help in irrigation and fish culture. Hence they are
called multipurpose projects. Some of the important power projects are given below.
The Major Hydro Electricity Projects in India:
Sivsamundra project of the river Cauvery in Karnataka was the first major hydro-electric project in Asia. It
was constructed in 1902. Then many major hydropower projects came into being. During first five year
plan, much emphasis was given on generation of hydroelectricity and construction of a number of major
river valley projects. Some of the important major hydropower projects are discussed below.
1. Bhakra Nangal project:
The Bhakra Nangal project, on the river the Sutlej, with its four power stations at Nan gal, Bhakra,
Ganguwal and Kotla is an important hydro power project. It has an installed capacity of 1.2 million KW. It
supplies electricity to Punjab, Haryana and Delhi.
2. The Damodar valley project:
The Damodar valley project, with its three hydel power stations at Tilaiya, Matron and Panchet is built on
the river the " Damodar. It has an installed capacity of 104 mw (megawaits) electricity. It supplies power to
Bihar and West Bengal.
3. The Hirakud dam project:
The major hydroelectricity power project in Orissa is the Hirakud Dam Project on the river the Mahanadi.
Its capacity of generating power is 270.2 MW. The Rourkela Steel Plant mainly gets power supply from it.
4. The Riband project:
It is essentially a hydroelectric project. It has an installed capacity of 300 MW. On the boarders of Uttar
Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh water is stored in form of a large lake and power is generated.
5. The Chambal valley project:
On the river the Chambal, two power houses are constructed, one at Gandhi Sagar Dam in Madhya
Pradesh and the other one at Kota in Rajasthan. The total installed capacity from both the power houses
is 180 MW.
6. The Koyana hydro electric project:
It is one of the largest projects in Maharashtra. The water of the Koyana, a tributory of the Krishna is
utilized for power generation. The total capacity installed is 540 MW. It supplies electricity mainly to
Bombay-Poona industrial belt.
7. The Tungabhadra project:
This is a joint collaboration of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. The power house is built on the river the
Tungabhadra.
These are few hydroelectric projects. Apart from these, there are other projects like the Gandak
hydroelectric project on the river the Gandak, and Parambikulam Aliyar on the river the Periyar. Some
hydroelectric projects are there that are either completed or are on the verge of completion.
Dulhasti, Uri and Salal (stage-II) (all in Jammu and Kashmir) hydroelectric projects, Chamera Stage-I
(Himachal Pradesh) and Tanakpur hydro-electric project (UP) are important among them.

(d) Compare the different types of turbines.

Solution:

(e) Explain the site selection criterion of thermal power plant.

Solution:
Site Selection Criterion for thermal power plant:
Supply of fuel
Availability of water
Transportation facilities
Cost and type of land
Nearness to load centres
Distance from populated area
Geology and soil type:
Earthquake and geological faults
Rivers and floodways
(f) What is the need of air preheater and superheater in thermal power plants?
Solution:
Superheater: The steam produced in the boiler is wet and is passed through a superheater where it is
dried and superheated (i.e., steam temperature increased above that of boiling point of water) by the flue
gases on their way to chimney. Superheating provides two principal benefits.
Firstly, the overall efficiency is increased.
Secondly, too much condensation in the last stages of turbine (which would cause blade
corrosion) is avoided. The superheated steam from the superheater is fed to steam turbine
through the main valve.
Air preheater: An air preheater increases the temperature of the air supplied for coal burning by deriving
heat from flue gases. Air is drawn from the atmosphere by a forced draught fan and is passed through air
preheater before supplying to the boiler furnace.
Que 2. Attempt any TWO questions.
(10 marks * 2 Questions = 20 Marks)
(a) Explain the classification of nuclear reactors. What are the site selection criterions for nuclear
power plant?
Solution:
Nuclear Reactors are classified by several methods; a brief outline of these classification methods is
provided.
Classification by type of nuclear reaction
Nuclear fission.
All commercial power reactors are based on nuclear fission. They generally use uranium and its
product plutonium as nuclear fuel, though a thorium fuel cycle is also possible. Fission reactors can be
divided roughly into two classes, depending on the energy of the neutrons that sustain the fission chain
reaction:
Thermal reactors (the most common type of nuclear reactor) use slowed or thermal neutrons to keep up
the fission of their fuel. These contain neutron moderator materials that slow neutrons until their neutron
temperature is thermalized, that is, until their kinetic energy approaches the average kinetic energy of the
surrounding particles.
Fast neutron reactors use fast neutrons to cause fission in their fuel. They do not have a neutron
moderator, and use less-moderating coolants. Maintaining a chain reaction requires the fuel to be more

highly enriched in fissile material (about 20% or more) due to the relatively lower probability of fission
versus capture by U-238. Fast reactors have the potential to produce less transuranic waste because
all actinides are fissionable with fast neutrons, but they are more difficult to build and more expensive to
operate. Overall, fast reactors are less common than thermal reactors in most applications.
Nuclear fusion.
Fusion power is an experimental technology, generally with hydrogen as fuel. While not suitable for power
production, Farnsworth-Hirsch fusors are used to produce neutron radiation.
Classification by moderator material Used by thermal reactors:
Graphite-moderated reactors
Water moderated reactors
Heavy-water reactors
Light-water-moderated reactors (LWRs).
Light-element-moderated reactors. These reactors are moderated by lithium or beryllium.
Molten salt reactors (MSRs) are moderated by a light elements such as lithium or beryllium, which
are constituents of the coolant/fuel matrix salts LiF and BeF2.
Liquid metal cooled reactors, such as one whose coolant is a mixture of Lead and Bismuth, may
use BeO as a moderator.
Organically moderated reactors (OMR) use biphenyl and terphenyl as moderator and coolant.
Classification by coolant
In thermal nuclear reactors (LWRs in specific), the coolant acts as a moderator that must slow
down the neutrons before they can be efficiently absorbed by the fuel.
Water cooled reactor. There are 104 operating reactors in the United States. Of these, 69 are
pressurized water reactors (PWR), and 35 are boiling water reactors (BWR).[21]
Pressurized water reactor (PWR) Pressurized water reactors constitute the large majority of all
Western nuclear power plants.
Pressurised heavy water reactors are a subset of pressurized water reactors, sharing the use of a
pressurized, isolated heat transport loop, but using heavy water as coolant and moderator for the
greater neutron economies it offers.
BWRs are characterized by boiling water around the fuel rods in the lower portion of a primary
reactor pressure vessel. A boiling water reactor uses 235U, enriched as uranium dioxide, as its
fuel. The fuel is assembled into rods housed in a steel vessel that is submerged in water. The
nuclear fission causes the water to boil, generating steam.
Pool-type reactor
Liquid metal cooled reactor. Since water is a moderator, it cannot be used as a coolant in a fast
reactor. Liquid metal coolants have included sodium, NaK, lead, lead-bismuth eutectic, and in
early reactors, mercury.
Sodium-cooled fast reactor
Lead-cooled fast reactor
Gas cooled reactors are cooled by a circulating inert gas,
Molten salt reactors (MSRs) are cooled by circulating a molten salt, typically a eutectic mixture of
fluoride salts, such as FLiBe. In a typical MSR, the coolant is also used as a matrix in which the
fissile material is dissolved.
Classification by generation
Generation I reactor (early prototypes, research reactors, non-commercial power producing
reactors)
Generation II reactor (most current nuclear power plants 19651996)
Generation III reactor (evolutionary improvements of existing designs 1996-now)
Generation IV reactor (technologies still under development unknown start date, possibly 2030)
The "Gen IV"-term was dubbed by the United States Department of Energy (DOE) for developing
new plant types in 2000.
Classification by phase of fuel
Solid fueled
Fluid fueled
Aqueous homogeneous reactor
Molten salt reactor
Gas fueled (theoretical)
Classification by use

 Electricity
Nuclear marine propulsion
Various proposed forms of rocket propulsion
Desalination
Heat for domestic and industrial heating
Hydrogen production for use in a hydrogen economy
Production reactors for transmutation of elements
Production of materials for nuclear weapons such as weapons-grade plutonium
Research reactor: Typically reactors used for research and training, materials testing, or the
production of radioisotopes for medicine and industry.
Site Selection Criterion:
Availability of water. As sufficient water is required for cooling purposes, therefore, the plant site should
be located where ample quantity of water is available, e.g., across a river or by sea-side.
Disposal of waste. The waste produced by fission in a nuclear power station is generally radioactive which
must be disposed off properly to avoid health hazards. The waste should either be buried in a deep trench
or disposed off in sea quite away from the sea shore. Therefore, the site selected for such a plant should
have adequate arrangement for the disposal of radioactive waste.
Distance from populated areas. The site selected for a nuclear power station should be quite away from
the populated areas as there is a danger of presence of radioactivity in the atmosphere near the plant.
However, as a precautionary measure, a dome is used in the plant which does not allow the radioactivity to
spread by wind or underground waterways.
Transportation facilities. The site selected for a nuclear power station should have adequate facilities in
order to transport the heavy equipment during erection and to facilitate the movement of the workers
employed in the plant.
(b) Explain role of regeneration, inter-cooling and reheating in gas turbine power plant. Compare
open cycle and closed cycle Gas turbine power plant.
Solution:
Regeneration means transfer of energy from exhaust gases to the compressed air flowing between the
compressor and the combustion chamber. Thus amount of heat loss through the exhaust gases is
reduced.
Intercoooling means removal of heat from compressed air between the stages of compression. This
necessitates the use of compressors with two stages viz. low pressure and high pressure. Intercooling
reduces the internal consumption of power by the plant. Usually water cooled surface coolers are used.
Reheating is the increase of temperature of partially expanded gas by burning more fuel in it. This
process necessitates a compounding of the turbine. It is especially good for improving the efficiency of the
palnts having high pressure ratio and moderate maximum cycle temperature.
Comparison of Open Cycle and Closed Cycle Gas Turbine Power Plant:

(c) Draw the general layout of diesel electric power plant and also explain the function of each
component.
Solution:

Diesel engine:
This is the main component of a diesel power plant. The engines are classified as two stroke engine and
four stroke engines. Engines are generally directly coupled to the generator for developing power. In diesel
engines, air admitted into the cylinder is compressed. At the end of compression stroke, fuel is injected.
The fuel is burned and the burning gases expand and do work on the piston. The shaft of the engine is
directly coupled to the generator. After the combustion, the burned gases are exhausted to the
atmosphere.
Air filter and supercharger
The air filter is used to remove the dust from the air which is taken by the engine. Air filters may be of dry
type, which is made up of felt, wool or cloth. In oil bath type of filters, the air is swept over a bath of oil so
that dust particles get coated. The function of the supercharger is to increase the pressure of the air
supplied to the engine and thereby the power of the engine is increased.
Engine starting system
Diesel engine used in diesel power plants is not self starting. Engine starting system includes air
compressor and starting air tank. This is used to start the engine in cold conditions by supplying the air.
Fuel system
It includes the storage tank, fuel pump, fuel transfer pump, strainers and heaters. Pump draws diesel
from the storage tank and supplies it to the small day tank through the filter. Day tank supplies the daily
fuel need for the engine. The day tank is usually placed high so that diesel flows to engine under gravity.
Diesel is again filtered before being injected into the engine by the fuel injection pump. The fuel injection
system performs the following functions.
Filter the fuel
Meter the correct quantity of the fuel to be injected
Time the injection process
Regulate the fuel supply
Secure fine atomization of fuel oil
Distribute the atomized fuel properly in the combustion; chamber.
The fuel is supplied to the engine according to the load on the plant.
Lubrication system
It includes oil pumps, oil tanks, coolers and pipes. It is used to reduce the friction of moving parts and
reduce wear and tear of the engine parts such as cylinder walls and piston. Lubrication oil which gets
heated due to the friction of the moving parts is cooled before recirculation.
In the lubrication system the oil is pumped from the lubricating oil tank through the oil cooler where the
oil is cooled by the cold water entering the engine. The hot oil after cooling the moving parts return to the
lubricating oil tank.
Cooling system
The temperature of the burning fuel inside the engine cylinder is in the order of 1500 0 C to 20000 C. In
order to lower this temperature, water is circulated around the engine. The water envelopes (water jacket)
the engine, the heat from the cylinder, piston, combustion chamber etc, is carried by the circulating water.
The hot water leaving the jacket is passed through the heat exchanger. The heat from the heat exchanger
is carried away by the raw water circulated through the heat exchanger and is cooled in the cooling tower.
Governing system
It is used to regulate the speed of the engine. This is done by varying the fuel supply according to the
engine load.
Exhaust system
The exhaust gases coming out of the engine is very noisy. In order to reduce the noise a silencer (muffler)
is used.
Que 3. Attempt any TWO questions.

(10 marks * 2 Questions = 20 Marks)

(a) The equipment in a power station costs Rs 15,60,000 and has a salvage value of Rs 60,000 at
the end of 25 years. Determine the depreciated value of the equipment at the end of 20 years
on the following methods :
(i) Straight line method ;
(ii) Diminishing value method ;
(iii) Sinking fund method at 5% compound interest annually.
Solution: Initial cost of equipment, P = Rs 15,60,000
Salvage value of equipment,S = Rs 60,000
Useful life, n = 25 years

(b) What are the causes and effects of poor power factor? Discuss any one method to improve
power factor.
Solution:
Causes of Low Power Factor:
The main cause of low Power Factor is Inductive Load. As in pure inductive circuit, Current lags 90 from
Voltage, this large difference of phase angle between current and voltage causes zero power factor.
Basically, all those circuit having Capacitance and inductance (except resonance circuit (or Tune Circuit)
where inductive reactance = capacitive reactance (XL = Xc), so the circuit becomes a resistive circuit), power
factor would be exist over there because Capacitance and inductance causes in difference of phase angle ()
between current and voltage.
Following are the causes of low Power factor:
1. Single phase and three phase induction Motors (Usually, Induction motor works at poor power
factor i.e. at:
Full load, Pf = 0.8 -0.9
Small load, Pf = 0.2 -0.3
No Load, Pf may come to Zero (0).
2. Varying Load in Power System (As we know that load on power system is varying. During low load
period, supply voltage is increased which increase the magnetizing current which cause the decreased
power factor)

3. Industrial heating furnaces

4. Electrical discharge lamps (High intensity discharge lighting) Arc lamps (operate a very low power
factor)
5. Transformers
6. Harmonic Currents
Effect of Poor Power Factor:
(i) Large kVA rating of equipment. The electrical machinery (e.g., alternators, transformers, switchgear) is
always rated in *kVA.
Now, kVA = kW/cos
It is clear that kVA rating of the equipment is inversely proportional to power factor. The smaller the power
factor, the larger is the kVA rating. Therefore, at low power factor, the kVA rating of the equipment has to
be made more, making the equipment larger and expensive.
(ii) Greater conductor size. To transmit or distribute a fixed amount of power at constant voltage, the
conductor will have to carry more current at low power factor. This necessitates large conductor size.
(iii) Large copper losses. The large current at low power factor causes more I 2R losses in all the elements
of the supply system. This results in poor efficiency.
(iv) Poor voltage regulation. The large current at low lagging power factor causes greater voltage drops in
alternators, transformers, transmission lines and distributors. This results in the decreased voltage
available at the supply end, thus impairing the performance of utilisation devices. In order to keep the
receiving end voltage within permissible limits, extra equipment (i.e., voltage regulators) is required.
(v) Reduced handling capacity of system. The lagging power factor reduces the handling capacity of all
the elements of the system. It is because the reactive component of current prevents the full utilisation of
installed capacity.
Methods for improvement of Power Factor:
Capacitors: Improving power factor means reducing the phase difference between voltage and current.
Since majority of loads are of inductive nature, they require some amount of reactive power for them to
function. This reactive power is provided by the capacitor or bank of capacitors installed parallel to the
load. They act as a source of local reactive power and thus less reactive power flows through the line.
Basically they reduces the phase difference between the voltage and current.
Synchronous condenser: They are 3 phase synchronous motor with no load attached to its shaft.
The synchronous motor has the characteristics of operating under any power factor leading, lagging or
unity depending upon the excitation. For inductive loads, synchronous condenser is connected towards
load side and is overexcited. This makes it behave like a capacitor. It draws the lagging current from the
supply or supplies the reactive power.
Phase advancer: This is an ac exciter mainly used to improve pf of induction motor. They are mounted
on shaft of the motor and is connected in the rotor circuit of the motor. It improves the power factor by
providing the exciting ampere turns to produce required flux at slip frequency. Further if ampere turns are
increased, it can be made to operate at leading power factor.
(c) What do you mean by tariff? Write different form of tariffs and objectives of tariff.
Solution:
A tariff must have the following desirable characteristics:
(i) Proper return: The tariff should be such that it ensures the proper return from each consumer. In other
words, the total receipts from the consumers must be equal to the cost of producing and supplying
electrical energy plus reasonable profit. This will enable the electric supply company to ensure continuous
and reliable service to the consumers.
(ii) Fairness: The tariff must be fair so that different types of consumers are satisfied with the rate of
charge of electrical energy. Thus a big consumer should be charged at a lower rate than a small consumer.

It is because increased energy consumption spreads the fixed charges over a greater number of units, thus
reducing the overall cost of producing electrical energy.
Similarly, a consumer whose load conditions do not deviate much from the ideal (i.e., nonvariable) should
be charged at a lower*rate than the one whose load conditions change appreciably from the ideal.
(iii) Simplicity: The tariff should be simple so that an ordinary consumer can easily understand it. A
complicated tariff may cause an opposition from the public which is generally distrustful of supply
companies.
(iv) Reasonable profit: The profit element in the tariff should be reasonable. An electric supply company is
a public utility company and generally enjoys the benefits of monopoly. Therefore, the investment is
relatively safe due to non-competition in the market. This calls for the profit to be restricted to 8% or so per
annum.
(v) Attractive: The tariff should be attractive so that a large number of consumers are encouraged to use
electrical energy. Efforts should be made to fix the tariff in such a way so that consumers can pay easily.
Que 4. Attempt any TWO questions.

(10 marks * 2 Questions = 20 Marks)

(a) Let us consider a generating station that contains a total number of three generating units.

The fuel costs of these units are given by:

The generation limits of the units are:

The total load that these units supply varies between 90 MW and 1250 MW. Assuming that all
the three units are operational all the time, calculate the economic operating settings as the
load changes.
Solution:
The incremental costs of these units are

At the minimum load the incremental cost of the units are

Since units 1 and 3 have higher incremental cost, they must therefore operate at 30 MW each. The
incremental cost during this time will be due to unit-2 and will be equal to 26 Rs./MWh. With the
generation of units 1 and 3 remaining constant, the generation of unit-2 is increased till its incremental
cost is equal to that of unit-1, i.e., 34 Rs./MWh. This is achieved when P2 is equal to 41.4286 MW, at a
total power of 101.4286 MW.
An increase in the total load beyond 101.4286 MW is shared between units 1 and 2, till their incremental
costs are equal to that of unit-3, i.e., 43.5 Rs./MWh. This point is reached when P1= 41.875 MW and P2=
55 MW. The total load that can be supplied at that point is equal to 126.875. From this point onwards the
load is shared between the three units in such a way that the incremental costs of all the units are same.

For example for a total load of 200 MW

Solving the above three equations we get P1= 66.37 MW, P2 = 80 MW and P3= 50.63 MW and an
incremental cost (l) of 63.1 Rs./MWh. In a similar way the economic dispatch for various other load
settings are computed. The load distribution and the incremental costs are listed in Table 5.1 for various
total power conditions.
At a total load of 906.6964, unit-3 reaches its maximum load of 250 MW. From this point onwards then,
the generation of this unit is kept fixed and the economic dispatch problem involves the other two units.
For example for a total load of 1000 MW, we get the following two equations

Solving which we get P1= 346.67 MW and P2= 403.33 MW and an incremental cost of 287.33 Rs./MWh.
Furthermore, unit-2 reaches its peak output at a total load of 1181.25. Therefore any further increase in
the total load must be supplied by unit-1 and the incremental cost will only be borne by this unit.
Load Distribution Table

(b) Derive exact transmission loss formula. Consider two generating plant with same fuel cost and
generation limits. These are given by

For a particular time of a year, the total load in a day varies as shown in Fig. below Also an
additional cost of Rs. 5,000 is incurred by switching of a unit during the off peak hours and
switching it back on during the during the peak hours. We have to determine whether it is
economical to have both units operational all the time.

Solution:
DERIVATION OF TRANSMISSION LOSS FORMULA
An accurate method of obtaining general loss coefficients has been presented by Kron. The method is
elaborate and a simpler approach is possible by making the following assumptions:
(i) All load currents have same phase angle with respect to a common reference
(ii) The ratio X / R is the same for all the network branches.
Consider the simple case of two generating plants connected to an arbitrary number of loads through a
transmission network as shown in Fig a

NK1 and NK2 are called current distribution factors and their values depend on the impedances of
the lines and the network connection. They are independent of ID. When both generators are supplying the
load, then by principle of superposition
IK = NK1 IG1 + NK2 IG2
where IG1, IG2 are the currents supplied by plants 1 and 2 respectively, to meet the demand ID.
Because of the assumptions made, IK1 and ID have same phase angle, as do IK2 and ID. Therefore, the
current distribution factors are real rather than complex. Let

Since both the units have identical fuel costs, we can switch of any one of the two units during the off
peak hour. Therefore the cost of running one unit from midnight to 9 in the morning while delivering 200
MW is

Adding the cost of Rs. 5,000 for decommissioning and commissioning the other unit after nine hours, the
total cost becomes Rs. 167,225. On the other hand, if both the units operate all through the off peak
hours sharing power equally, then we get a total cost of

which is significantly less that the cost of running one unit alone.
(c) Explain the performance curves of thermal power plant.
Solution:
PERFORMANCE CURVES
INPUT-OUTPUT CURVE
This is the fundamental curve for a thermal plant and is a plot of the input in British thermal
units (Btu) per hour versus the power output of the plant in MW as shown in Fig.

HEAT RATE CURVE

The heat rate is the ratio of fuel input in Btu to energy output in KWh. It is the slope of the input-output
curve at any point. The reciprocal of heat rate is called fuelefficiency. The heat rate curve is a plot of
heat rate versus output in MW. A typical plot is shown in Fig

INCREMENTAL FUEL RATE CURVE

The incremental fuel rate is equal to a small change in input divided by the corresponding
change in output.
Incremental fuel rate =Output/Input
The unit is again Btu / KWh. A plot of incremental fuel rate versus the output is shown in Fig

Incremental cost curve

The incremental cost is the product of incremental fuel rate and fuel cost (Rs / Btu or $ /Btu). The unit
of the incremental fuel cost is Rs / MWh or $ /MWh.

Que 5. Attempt any TWO questions.

(10 marks * 2 Questions = 20 Marks)

(a) Draw and explain the block diagram of solar thermal power plant in detail.
Solution:
The working of solar thermal power plant discussed below Solar collector are employed for collecting solar energy, which is used to heat a fluid.
This heat energy is finally transferred to boiler which converted it into steam. This steam is utilized
to run a steam turbine.
Turbine is coupled to an electric generator, which generate electric power.
Steam is condensed in condenser and feed water returns to the boiler for re-use.

Figure: Block Diagram of Solar Thermal Power Plant

(b) What is Geothermal Gradient? Discuss geothermal energy conversion and what are the
difficulties in extraction of geothermal energy?
Solution:
The geothermal gradient is the rate at which the Earth's temperature increases with depth, indicating heat
flowing from the Earth's warm interior to its cooler surface.

There are also other problems that prevent us from taking full advantage of this form of energy. Even
though there are geothermal resources throughout the world, our current technology is not sufficient or
economical enough to warrant its widespread use. Funding for energy extraction that involves the
penetration of magma is not available because we do not yet know how to prevent a high-temperature,
high-pressure blowout. When heat pumps are considered, which tap local sources of heat and can help to
reduce a family's electricity bill by about $1 per day, the system is not economically viable. It "may have a
payback period in excess of 5 years," which will increase with decreased electricity rates "unless
equipment and installation costs drop dramatically." In addition, Earth energy is not "intense" enough to
produce power for the electrical distribution grid; it is only sufficient to reduce the draw from the grid.
There are definite obstacles to be overcome before geothermal energy can be easily and economically
harnessed for everyday, worldwide use.

(c) Explain the OTEC and Tidal power plant in detail.

Solution
OTEC:
Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) uses the temperature difference between cooler deep and
warmer shallow or surface ocean waters to run a heat engine and produce useful work, usually in the
form of electricity. OTEC is a base load electricity generation system, i.e. 24hrs/day all year long. However,
the temperature differential is small and this impacts the economic feasibility of ocean thermal energy for
electricity generation.
Among ocean energy sources, OTEC is one of the continuously available renewable energy resources that
could contribute to base-load power supply. The resource potential for OTEC is considered to be much
larger than for other ocean energy forms. Up to 88,000 TWh/yr of power could be generated from OTEC
without affecting the oceans thermal structure.
Systems may be either closed-cycle or open-cycle. Closed-cycle engines use working fluids that are
typically thought of as refrigerants such as ammonia or R-134a. These fluids have low boiling points, and
are therefore suitable for powering the systems generator to generate electricity. The most commonly used
heat cycle for OTEC to date is the Rankine cycle using a low-pressure turbine. Open-cycle engines use
vapour from the seawater itself as the working fluid.
OTEC can also supply quantities of cold water as a by-product. This can be used for air conditioning and
refrigeration and the nutrient-rich deep ocean water can feed biological technologies. Another by-product
is fresh water distilled from the sea.
OTEC theory was first developed in the 1880s and the first bench size demonstration model was
constructed in 1926. Currently the world's only operating OTEC plant is in Japan, overseen by Saga
University.

Figure: OTEC and its applications

Tidal Power:
Tidal power, also called tidal energy, is a form of hydropower that converts the energy of tides into useful
forms of power, mainly electricity. Although not yet widely used, tidal power has potential for
future electricity generation. Tides are more predictable than wind energy and solar power. Among sources
of renewable energy, tidal power has traditionally suffered from relatively high cost and limited availability
of sites with sufficiently high tidal ranges or flow velocities, thus constricting its total availability. However,
many recent technological developments and improvements, both in design (e.g. dynamic tidal power, tidal
lagoons) and turbine technology (e.g. new axial turbines, cross flow turbines), indicate that the total
availability of tidal power may be much higher than previously assumed, and that economic and
environmental costs may be brought down to competitive levels.

Historically, tide mills have been used both in Europe and on the Atlantic coast of North America. The
incoming water was contained in large storage ponds, and as the tide went out, it turned waterwheels that
used the mechanical power it produced to mill grain. The earliest occurrences date from the Middle Ages,
or even from Roman times. It was only in the 19th century that the process of using falling water and
spinning turbines to create electricity was introduced in the U.S. and Europe.
The world's first large-scale tidal power plant is the Rance Tidal Power Station in France, which became
operational in 1966.

During high tide, when the level of water in the sea is high, sea-water flows into the reservoir of the
barrage and turns the turbines. The turbines then turn the generator shaft to produce electricity.

During low tide, the sea-water stored in the barrage reservoir is allowed to flow out into the sea. This
flowing water also turns the turbines and generates electricity. Thus, as the sea-water flows in and out of
the tidal barrage during high and low tides, the turbines rotate continuously to generate electricity.

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