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Z)
Ans Total number of variables in the expression is 3, hence number of input
combinations in the truth table is 8 which will be arranged in the same manner as
explained in the above example .
X
Y.Z
(Y.Z)
X+(Y.Z)
A.B.C
A.D
A.B.C + A.D
a,b,c,,0,1 B
a+0=a
No matter what the value of a, the output will always be the same: when a=1, the
output will also be 1; when a=0, the output will also be 0.
P1(b) 1 is the multiplicative identity
a.1 =a
No matter what the value of a, the output will always be the same: when a=1, the
output will also be 1; when a=0, the output will also be 0.
Postulate 2:
Inverse law : The Boolean algebra is complete in the sense that for every element for
every element a B there exist an element a B such that
P2(a)
P2(b)
:
:
a + a =1
a .a = 0
Postulate 3:
Commutative Law : It applies equally to addition and multiplication. Tthe commutative
property tells us we can reverse the order of variables that are either added together or
multiplied together without changing the truth of the expression:
The operations AND and OR are commutative:
P3(a) :
P3(b) :
ab=ba
a+b=b+a
Postulate 4:
Distributive law : This property illustrate, how to expand a Boolean expression formed
by the product of a sum, and in reverse shows us how terms may be factored out of
Boolean sums-of-products:
P4(a) :
P4(b) :
a (b+c) = ab + ac
a + (bc) = (a+b) (a+c)
Postulate 5:
Principal of Substitution: This property says the logical operators obey the principal of
substitution i.e. for all a,b,c B if a=b then b cn be substituted for a for vice versa:
P5(a) :
P5(b) :
Postulate 6
Theorem 1
a +c=b+c
a . c = b. c
Idempotent Law : Boolean algebra is idempotent. A term ANDed with itself or ORed
with itself is equal to that term
T1(a) :
T1(b) :
Theorem 2
a+ a =a
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
Associative Law : This property also ,again applying equally well to addition and
multiplication. This property tells us we can associate groups of added or multiplied
variables together with parentheses without altering the truth of the equations.
The operations AND and OR are Associative:
T2(a) :
T2(b) :
(a b) c = a (b c)
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
Dominance Law : Boolean algebra allows the dominance of 0 and 1 such that
T3(a):
T3(b) :
a+ 1 =1
a.0 = 0
Theorem 4
Absorption Law :
T4(a) :
T4(b) :
Theorem 5
a+a b = a
a.(a + b) = a
Involution Law :
T5
(a) = a
Demorgans Law : In set theory, de Morgan's laws relate the three basic set operations
to each other; the union, the intersection, and the complement. De Morgan's laws are
named after the Indian-born British mathematician and logician Augustus De Morgan.
According to this law :
The complement of a sum equals to the product of the complements.
T6(a) :
(a+ b) = a . b
T6(b) :
(a . b) = a+b
Duality Principal: This Principal states that every algebraic expression deducible from
the postulates of Boolean algebra remains valid if the operators and identity elements
are interchanged .You must have noted that Every Boolean law has two expressions, (a)
and (b). This is known as duality Principal . Dual of the Boolean expression is obtained
by :
Y
0
1
0
1
X'
1
1
0
0
Y'
1
0
1
0
X+Y
0
1
1
1
(X+Y)'
1
0
0
0
X'.Y'
1
0
0
0
=a.0 + a.0
=0 + 0 =0
hence proved
(ii)
Let us prove the second part of the theorem
(a.b) = a+b
This theorem says that complement of (a.b) is a+b i.e. we need to show that (a+b) is
complement of a.b , hence as discussed above if we will prove (a.b) .(a+b)=0 then our
purpose is solved
(a.b) .(a+b)=0
=a.b.a + a.b.b
=a.a.b + a.b.b
=a.0 + a.0
=0+0=0
(distributive property)
(commutative property)
(a.a=0 Inverse law)
(a.0=0 dominance law)
hence proved
Find the dual of the following expressions:
1. (x . 1 )(0 + x') = 0
2. (x + y)(y + z) = x.z + y
Ans
The dual of the statement (x . 1 )(0 + x') = 0 is given by
(x + 0)+(1 . x') = 1
(ii) The dual of the statement
(x + y)(y + z) = x.z + y is
x.y + y.z = (x + z).y
the row number . It is a sum term of all the entries in the truth table, the variables
which are one for the row are complemented
Write the canonical expression for this truth table using Minterms.
Ans Write the min term for the input combinations ,which are showing one in the
output.
X
Min
term
XYZ
XYZ
XYZ
XYZ
XYZ
Y= AB + BC + ABC
C is
missin
g
A is
missin
g
No variable is
missing
ABC
ABC
ABC
ABC
ABC
STEP-III
Similarly truth table can be generated from the Canonical POS form i.e. by using max
terms A maxterm is the sum (logical OR) of all input variables, primed or unprimed.
For example, consider the following logic function G of three variables:
G = (A+B+C) (A'+B+C) (A+B'+C).
step - 1)
0
0
0
k-map
two variable:
Three variable
Remember : Note that order of numbering follows the order 00,01,11,10 for the
simple reason that only one digit change from one complemented form to
uncomplemented form and vice versa.
Four variable K-Map
The diagram below illustrates the correspondence between the Karnaugh map and the
truth table for the general case of a two variable problem.
Truth table
Karnaugh map
Let us construct the karnaugh map for the given truth table
STEP-1: For reducing the expression firstly , identify groups of adjacent 1s. For
this ,search for octet (group of eight) first and mark them , then for squares and lastly
go for pairs then look for redundant group ,then rolling octect ,rolling quad and
rolling pair and
Note: in case there is a single 1 is left in the k-map then write the expression for that
also
Example solve the k-map
Read the karnaugh map by reducing the redundant terms,
D is changing from 0 to
1 . hence D is
eliminated from this
term.
Final term for this group is
ABC
For this pair of 1s the value of
C is changing from 0 to 1 .
hence C is eliminated from
this term.
B is changing from 1 to 0 in
the group hence B is
eliminated from this term.
D is changing from 1 to 0 in
the group ,. hence D is
eliminated from this term.
Final term for this group is AC
Solved questions:
1. Find the complement of the following expression.
X= (A'+C) * (B+D')
= [(A'+C) * (B+D')]'
= (A'+C)' + (B+D')' [by De Morgans theorem]
= ((A')'*C') + (B'+(D')') [by De Morgans
theorem]
= AC' + B'D
2. Prove the law A + AB = A + B using truth table
Ans
b)
(A + B). ( + B)
(A)
0
1
1
0
0
1
F(P,Q,R,S)=(0,3,5,6,7,11,12,15)
Ans
RS
RS
RS
RS
PQ
1
PQ
4
PQ
PQ
single 1s
1
7
1
12
1
6
1
13
14
15
1
8
11
10
Quad(m3+m7+m15+m11) reduces to RS
Pair(m5+m7) reduces to PQS
Pair (m7+m6) reduces to PQR
Single 1 m0=PQRS
Single 1 m12=PQRS
Hence the final expressions is
F=RS + PQS + PQR + PQRS + PQRS
QUICK WRAP UP
A logical expression is the expression which can result in either true or false
A logical statement which is always true is called as Tautology
A logical statement which is always false is known as Fallacy
Any Boolean functions can be represented as truth tables.
Truth tables provide us with a means to express the characteristics of Boolean
functions as well as logic circuits.
Any Boolean function can be represented in a truth table, where the number of rows is 2n,
symbol The symbol "." represents the logical AND operation; e.g., A.B .
Value of A.B is true is both the input is true
Boolean algebra deals with only binary values which is either 0 or 1 .The "Laws" of Boolean
algebra are described here .
X.Y = Y X
(XY)Z = X(YZ) = XYZ
X + (YZ) = (X + Y)(X + Z)
(X.Y) = X' + Y' .
Simplification theorems
XY + XY' = X (uniting)
X + XY = X (absorption)
(X + Y')Y = XY (adsorption)
(X + Y)(X + Y') = X
X(X + Y) = X
XY' + Y = X + Y
Canonical forms are the standard forms for a Boolean expression . For a given truth table
we can write its corresponding boolean expression using this form
For any given boolean function there exists a unique canonical form
The sum of products is a Boolean expression containing AND terms, called product
terms, of one or more literals each. The sum denotes ORing of these terms.
Ex. F1 = y + xy + xyz
A product of sums is a Boolean expression containing OR terms, called sum terms. Each
term may have any number of literals. The product denotes the ANDing of these terms.
Ex. F2 = x(y + z)(x + y + z + w)
The function F1 = xyz + xyz + xyz is in canonical form. It can be written as F1 = m1 +
Karnaugh Map is the very popular technique used for the simplification of the Boolean
various computers .It is also extremely useful in the field of electrical engineering. In
particular, by taking the variables to represent values of on and off (or 0 and 1),
It is also used in database searching to retrieve the required query results by combining
values.