Composite

racket

manufacture (1992

edition

only,

page

270):

A composite is a general term that has evolved to mean an article molded from plastic material
reinforced by strong fibers. The plastic material is known as the matrix or resin. There are several
types of reinforcing fiber used in the manufacture of composite rackets. Glass fiber, or fiberglass, is
inexpensive, heavy, relatively weak and rather flexible. Carbon fiber is more expensive, but lighter
and stronger and also stiffer - in the sporting world it is known as graphite but this is not strictly
accurate: true graphite comes in pencils and is used as a lubricant. Boron fiber is more expensive
than carbon, but even lighter and stronger. Other substances which have limited use are Kevlar,
which is used in making bullet-proof vests and of course in Kevlar racket strings in hybrid
compositions, and ceramics, of which many varieties exist, all of them expensive.
All of these fibers are very strong, but they are threadlike in form, and consequently have to be
bonded into a matrix in order to be used to make tennis rackets. Composites are much denser than
wood, and a system which molds a hollow racket had to be used in the manufacturing process. Two
different methods have been developed to accomplish this-- compression molding and injection
molding.
Compression
molding
The majority of composite tennis rackets are made by this system, which produces very high
quality rackets. The matrix (the plastic material) is almost always epoxy resin, which is
"thermosetting", that is, when heated it solidifies and cannot be remelted. The longer reinforcing
fibers are coated with epoxy and placed in the mold, which is then closed and heated. To make the
racket hollow, internal pressure is created by inflating an inner tube or using an expanding foam. In
the construction of the racket, normal percentages of materials are matrix [resin] 40 per cent and
fibers 60 per cent. A mixture of fibers is often used so that a racket may not be too expensive - a
common example would be matrix 40 per cent, carbon fiber 30 per cent, and glass fiber 30 per cent.
A racket in which all of the fibers are carbon is known as 100 per cent graphite, and, although this is
not strictly true (since the 40 per cent that is made up of matrix is not carbon fiber), it is generally
accepted for most trading purposes.
Injection
molding
The Dunlop Sports Company introduced their unique injection
molding system in the eary 1980s. The material used is
"thermoplastic": that is, it melts when heated and solidifies when
cooled. The matrix is nylon, and the short reinforcing fibers are
entirely
carbon
fiber.
To make the racket hollow, a core is produced from a metal
alloy with a low melting point. This has the shape of the finished
racket, but is slightly smaller in cross-section. It is fitted into the
mold, leaving a small space between the mold and the core.
The carbon fiber and nylon mixture is injected into the mold,
and fills this space, sheathing the core. The molding is removed
and then heated, causing the metal alloy to melt and run out, and
leaving
the
hollow
frame.
In construction, percentages are matrix 60 per cent,

reinforcing fiber 40 per cent. As with compression molding, a

racket made with 40 per cent carbon fiber and 60 per cent nylon
is referred to as being 100 per cent graphite.

An injection-molded composite racket

is removed from the mold
photo from the 1992 edition
Wooden racket manufacture (1982 edition only, page 270):
The modern wood racket is made from a variety of steamsoaked and kiln-dried timbers, which include beech, ash,
hickory, mahogany, maple, obeche, sycamore and hornbeam.
The basic strength of today's racket is still derived from ash, but
beech, too, now plays a major role. The throat area is mostly
sycamore or mahogany with obeche being used as a spacer in the
handle. Hickory can add strength and durability to the outside of
the frame, and sometimes walnut is used for its appearance as
well
as
its
strength.
The woods are made up into laminated multi-ply frames after
processing to a moisture content of 10 per cent to insure uniform
stress. Some timber trunks are peeled into veneers which are cut
along the grain to the width of three rackets after steaming. The
remaining wood is cut into planks and kiln-dried for making into
other parts of the racket. The woods are always positioned so
that the best use can be made of their different properties and so
that the grain always follows the curve of the frame to avoid
cross-grain weakness. Laminated frames greatly reduce warping
tendencies, a common feature of the old solid ash frame. The
center point of construction is a triangular section known as the
"throat". In some frames the throat is made up of two wedgeshaped pieces of mahogany, these being bonded with an ash
veneer which is centrally positioned. A thin wedge of obeche
often extends along the handle between the laminated plies to
provide width and reinforcement.
30 string holes are drilled in a racket at a time-- photo from the
1982 edition
The shoulders of the racket are also reinforced both on the curved inside and on the outside facing
surfaces. In both these instances the wood is bent to shape after steam soaking. Ash or beech are
machine
cut
to
form
a
crescent
shape
for
the
shoulders.
The blocks of soaked and shaped woods are then sawed into slices to the thickness required.
Sycamore and mahogany face pieces are used to build up the handle for strength and the various
components - apart from the handle and shoulder facing pieces - are glued with a synthetic resin glue
and then placed in their relative positions in clamping frames. Hydraulic pressure is then applied to

bend the wood strips into the traditional racket shape around a former. The whole assembly is passed
through an oven to set the glue. As the racket frames are of triple thickness they are then cut into
frames of equal depth on a specially designed automatic machine. Facing strips are then glued on to
the handle and shoulders of each racket frame, which is then subjected to a series of shaping and
sanding operations. Sixty-four stringing holes are drilled into the frame on a multi-spindle drilling
machine equipped with 30 special drill heads in two simple operations. Four holes have to be drilled
separately because the machine cannot accomodate their separate angles. Countersinking and
grooving operations are carried out manually to protect the strings from damage during play.
Painting, lacquering and applying transfers complete the manufacturing process.
The frame is strung with 18 main strings and 19 cross strings [these are actually just 2 pieces of
gut or nylon string] with a colored thread of waxed cotton at the head and throat known as trebling.
Although threaded by hand, the stringing is mechanically tensioned and held on a specially arranged
clamping stand to give uniform tension. After thorough checking, an end piece is fitted and a leather
grip wound on the handle...