PROJECT REPORT:GRANT CODE: GR/N38299/01

TUNABLE ELECTRICAL POWER TAKE OFF FOR WAVE ENERGY CONVERTERS

Dr. M.A. Mueller, Dr. J.R. Bumby and Prof. E. Spooner
(1) Background/Context and Objectives
Hydraulic systems are the more traditional form of power take off adopted by wave energy device developers because
they can operate at high pressure and drive conventional rotary induction machines. However the reliability and
performance at part load are issues that need to be addressed. Wave energy devices exhibit a frequency response, so that
the device requires some form of control to optimise the energy captured according to the frequency of the incoming
waves. Mechanical methods are the favoured form of control, but these can affect the design of the wave energy device
and ultimately the performance. The main objective of this project was to investigate an alternative form of power take
off to hydraulics by directly coupling the electrical generator to the wave energy device and investigating the possibility
of controlling the device characteristics directly using the electrical generator. With increasing interest in wave energy
and also tidal stream energy this project was timely in its investigation into an alternative and potentially robust
electrical power take-off system. Shortly after the start of this project, contact was made with Fred Gardner at
Teamworks Technololgy, and Dr. Henk Polinder at TU Delft, who were developing a new wave energy device: the
Archimedes Wave Swing (AWS). Dr. Polinder was involved in designing a permanent magnet synchronous linear
generator for the AWS. In the EPSRC project two different PM topologies were investigated, which gave both teams the
opportunity to compare approaches and thus provided some unexpected international collaboration.
(2) Key advances and supporting methodology
2.1 Main Achievements
Design, construction and testing of two prototype linear electrical generators: the vernier hybrid machine and the
air-cored permanent magnet tubular machine.
Development and verification of electrical design techniques for these linear machines.
Design and construction of a 3-phase ac/ac power converter to generator fixed frequency and voltage from
reciprocating generators.
Demonstration of fixed voltage and frequency power conversion from a reciprocating generator.
Demonstration of unity power factor operation for maximum power extraction from the linear vernier hybrid
machine.
Design and build of an electro-mechanical test rig to emulate a wave energy device.
Development of SIMULINK models to investigate amplitude and reactive force control for maximum power
extraction from wave energy devices using the electrical generator.
Demonstration of open loop amplitude control on the emulator test rig using the electrical generator for control.
A brief investigation into the mechanical integration of linear electrical generators into wave energy devices.
2.2 Electrical Machine Topologies Two machine topologies with very different electrical and mechanical
characteristics were investigated in order to assess their suitability for this application in terms of both electrical and
mechanical issues.
2.2(a) Linear Vernier Hybrid Permanent Magnet Machine (VHM): The VHM topology is a high force density
machine that can be constructed in a conventional manner using laminations, unlike the transverse flux machine (another
high force density machine topology). The general physical features of the topology are shown in Figure 1(a), in which
coils are wound on c-core limbs and permanent magnets (PMs) are stuck on the c-core faces (neighbouring magnets are
of opposite polarity). The translator is a simple toothed structure entirely made of iron laminations. When rotor teeth
are fully aligned with magnets, flux flows as shown by the dotted line in figure 1(a). As the rotor moves this flux decays
to zero in the unaligned position and then reverses polarity. In this way the coil sees a rapid change in flux over a short
distance. The electrical frequency of the flux pulsations is greater than the frequency of the translator, producing a
magnetic gearing effect. In a 3-phase machine there would be two other similar units, but displaced such that the flux
pulsations are 120 electrical degrees out of phase. Each phase is magnetically and electrically isolated from the other
and the machine can be built up in terms of modules, which provides a high degree of flexibility in the design and choice
of power ratings. A design technique using finite element analysis to fit polynomial expressions to the flux density in the
airgap for an envelope of anticipated geometrical dimensions was used to design a prototype machine rated at 3kW.
More detailed performance of the machine was predicted using the flux-linkage current position map generated using
2D finite element models. The final prototype is shown in figure 1(b) and an idea of the physical size can be obtained
with reference to the photo of the test rig in figure 7.

core back

slot region
translator
slot region
magnets
coils

flux path

(a)
(b)
Figure 1: (a) One phase module of the VHM and (b) The 3-phase prototype
Fig. 2(a) shows the static force measured with a coil excitation of 16A compared to the force predicted from the finite
element model, and Fig. 2(b) shows the measured peak shear stress. The VHM topology is capable of producing shear
stresses significantly greater than conventional machine topologies.
4000

120
Shear stress (N/m 2)

3000

2000
experimental
predicted

force (N)

1000

-1000

100
80
60
40

-2000

20

-3000

0
20

16

12

-4000
0

10

15
position (mm)

(a)

20

25

30

current (A)

(b)

Figure 2(a) Force Measurement and Calculation 2(b) Shear stress measurement
2.2(b) Air-cored Permanent Magnet Tubular Machine: In the VHM machine the attraction forces due to Maxwell
Stress were calculated to be 320 kN/m2. These forces are eliminated by removing iron from the stator circuit. Figure 3
(a) shows the general arrangement of an air-cored PM tubular machine in which axially magnetised PMs are sandwiched
between steel pieces used to focus the flux. Stator coils are supported around the PM translator, and in this case the coils
are supported within a yellow plastic tube in the prototype shown in figure 3(b).

(a)

(b)
(c)
Figure 3: (a) Tubular machine topology, (b) Dimensions of prototype and (c) Photo of prototype.

The peak shear stress for the prototype has been calculated to be equal to 28kN/m2, less than the VHM, but the Maxwell
stress has been eliminated. A radial Lorentz force does exist depending upon the relative positions of the flux and the
current flow, but this is orders of magnitude less than for iron-cored machines. Simple analytical design procedures have
been developed to design these machines and the techniques were verified using experimental results from the prototype
and 2D axisymmetric finite element models. Prototype dimensions are also given in Figure 3.The analytical technique is
essentially used to determine the flux density distribution produced by the PM translator in the air space surrounding it.
This field interacts with the current carrying coils and also links these coils inducing an emf. Figure 4 shows flux density
measurements and predictions using both finite element analysis and the analytical technique.

(a)
(b)
Figure 4: (a)Radial flux density measurements and predictions and (b) Comparison of finite element analysis and
analytical technique for the decay of radial flux density with height above translator
2.2(c) Physical Comparison of Machine Topologies: Machines were designed for a 100 kW rating at a velocity of
1m/s, which is the typical rating of say a heaving buoy type device. These designs are essentially scaled versions of the
prototypes, in which it is assumed that the airgap is 1mm. This leads to optimistic designs because it is unlikely that it
can be achieved for typical strokes of 2m peak to peak, but provides a comparison between the two in terms of physical
size and mass. Table 1 & 2 summarise the basic physical data for the 100 kW machines. Only the mass of active raw
materials required in the machine has been calculated, excluding any support structure. For the tubular machine plastic
tubing (assumed density = 3600kg/m3) was used to support the coils in the prototype. The tubular machine has a
significantly larger mass of both magnets and copper than the VHM, but much less steel due to the use of an air-cored
stator.
Table 1: Physical data for 100kW VHM
Magnet (kg)
Copper (kg)
Steel laminations (kg)
Total mass (kg)
Stator length (m)
Stator width (m)
Stator breadth (m)

67
780
5600
6447
1.72
1.2
0.4

Table 2: 100 kW air-cored tubular PM machine

Magnet (kg)
Copper (kg)
Steel (kg)
Stainless steel (kg)
Plastics (kg)
Total mass (kg)
Stator length (m)
Stator diameter (m)

1700
1100
1600
130
240
4770
1.4
0.58

2.3 Power Conversion A power converter is required to convert the variable voltage and frequency from the
reciprocating generator to fixed frequency and voltage suitable for grid connection and, in the case of the VHM, it must
be controlled to provide compensation for the high inductance inherent in the VHM. Figure 5 shows the general
arrangement for a 3-phase ac-to ac-converter designed and built specifically for the VHM. The input inverter connected
to the linear generator, formed by switches S1-6, extracts the power from the linear generator and stores it in the DC link
capacitor C. The inverter operates as an active rectifier in which the generator current is controlled to be in phase with
the induced emf ensuring maximum power generation. An estimate of the no-load induced emf was measured using
search coils. The reference current is scaled from the linear generator EMF using an analogue multiplier. This signal is
then compared to the actual current, the error signal being used in a PWM modulator to generate the correct PWM
signals to drive the switches in the input inverter. For a VHM with high inductance the magnitude of the dc-link will
determine the slew rate of the active rectifier PWM current and hence the maximum output power of the generator. The
output inverter, S7-12, transfers the energy in the DC link into the mains supply at constant frequency and voltage. It is
also controlled so that the voltage and current are in phase. In addition the output inverter is used to regulate the DC link
capacitor voltage because the mains voltage supply is permanent and predictable.

Vdc
S1

S3

S5

S7

S9

S11

S8

S10

S12

S2

S4

S6

linear electrical
generator

3-phase mains
grid voltage

Figure 5: General topology of the 3-phase ac/ac converter

The dc bus voltage also absorbs the energy fluctuations from the linear generator, which determines its energy storage
capability and hence the value of capacitance required. Figure 6(a) shows the final converter built for testing the
prototype. The maximum power extracted from the machine using the converter was 2.8kW, the machine being rated at
3kW. Results obtained using this converter, shown in figure 6(b), demonstrate the role of the active rectifier. Figure 6(c)
shows fixed frequency and voltage output from the output converter.
60
Voltage (V) &Curre
nt (A)

40
20
0
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1

-20

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

-40
-60
time (s)
Induced emf

Phase current

(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 6: (a) Finished converter, (b) Estimated induced emf (from search coil) in phase with yellow phase current,
(c) Voltage and current at the inverter output
A similar converter and control strategy would be used for the air-cored PM tubular machine, but the converter has not
been demonstrated on the prototype tubular machine developed. It should be noted that the converter rating for a VHM
will be greater than for the air-cored machine due to the low power factor: 0.1 in the VHM compared to 0.9 in the other.
2.3 Tuning Control of Wave Energy Converters. A wave energy converter can be approximately modeled as a massspring-damper system driven by the waves. Figure 7 shows the general layout and photo of a test rig built as part of an
MEng research project to emulate a wave device. An induction motor stepped down through a gearbox, situated behind
the test rig and perpendicular to it, drives a crank that drives the translator (or rotor) of the linear generator via the
springs and steel cables. The generator is supported on the central beam. Without the springs the translator amplitude is
0.2m, but with the springs larger amplitudes are achievable depending upon spring stiffness, mass and drive frequency.

Figure 7: General arrangement of the mass-spring damper test rig and photo of the completed rig without the generator.

(a)
(b)
Figure 8: (a) Displacement in an uncontrolled system and (b) Displacement in a controlled tracking system
Amplitude and reactive force control are the two methods investigated in the project for optimizing energy capture, but
rather than using mechanical control we have used the generator itself. For amplitude control an expression for the
amplitude of the armature current is derived in terms of the mechanical parameters in the system, such that the generator
produces a change in force to produce the desired amplitude. A simple force model of the VHM has been derived and
verified using experimental and finite element model results. Figures 8(a) & (b) show simulation results of uncontrolled
and controlled operation for 7 changes in drive frequency. An analogue PID controller was used. The power converter
was modified to investigate amplitude control using the linear VHM. Open loop test results are shown in figure 9(a) &
(b) at a frequency of 0.88Hz and 0.64Hz, in which the amplitude has been controlled to 0.1m. Note also that the current
and induced emf waveforms are in phase as required for maximum power generation from the VHM.

(a)

(b)

Figure 9: Amplitude control at (a) 0.88Hz and (b) 0.64Hz (Blue: displacement, 1.98cm/V; green: current; purple:
search coil induced emf, not to scale; light blue: torque. 150Nm/V)
In reactive control external forces are produced to compensate for the reactive forces present in the spring and inertia of
the system. A vector controller model of the electrical machine is considered in which the d-axis current is used to
control the real power flow and the q-axis current is used to control the reactive force required to compensate for the
reactive forces. Models have been developed in MATLAB and SIMULINK, and it has been shown that for the test rig a
maximum power of 540W can be generated using this method of control for angular frequencies ranging from 5.6-6.5
rad/s. A DSP is required to implement this method of control on the test rig, Although full power control has not been
demonstrated experimentally, results from simulation work has provided the foundation for further research into this
aspect of the project. Further details of the control work are to be published in two journal papers.
(3) Project Plan Review
3.1 Changes to original plan. Originally a 10kW prototype linear machine operating at 0.5 to 1m/s was going to be
built, but initial scaled designs showed that the machine would be physically too big for the space available. A 3kW
prototype was found to be more manageable in terms physical size that could be handled safely by technical staff. Figure
7 gives an indication of the size of the test rig for 3kW. Lowering the output power of the prototype saved money and
allowed us to build both the VHM and the air-cored PM tubular machine. A 10 kW machine is being built as part of
another project, which commenced in April 2003 funded by the New and Renewable Energy Centre (see 6.2).
3.2 Staffing Issues.
3.2.1 Research Assistants In the original proposal provision was made for a PhD student and 20 months RA time; the
latter coinciding with the end of a contract for an RA on anther project. However, the RA left before this project started
and a home PhD student could not be recruited. We decided to combine the studentship and the RA position to fund a 3
year RA post, which was agreed by the Treasurers Dept. at Durham. As a result Dr. Brooking was employed for 17

months to work on the power converter after completing a year on another project and Dr. Xiang was employed for 20
months to work on modelling aspects. Additional funding was found from other sources to fund Dr. Xiang for another 4
months on the project.
3.2.2 EPSRC PhD Quota Award. As well as the RAs an EPSRC quota award PhD student, Mr. Nick Baker, worked
on the development of linear electrical machines. Newage upgraded his studentship to a CASE award. He was awarded
his PhD in July 2003, and is continuing his work as a research assistant on a project funded by NaREC (see section
6.3).
3.2.3 Student Projects. Final year MEng student projects are linked where possible to research projects. In this case the
following projects contributed to the EPSRC project:
Gareth Ayre, Design of a Test Rig for a Wave Energy Converter, 2003
Nick Bradbeer, Use of Finite Element Analysis in the Design of a Wave Energy Converter, 2002
Richard Martin, A Configuration of Transverse Flux Machine for Wave Energy Conversion, 2002
Lawrence Huxley, Investigation into a New Configuration of a Vernier Hybrid Motor, 2001
William Austen, Test Rig for a Linear Generator, 2000
Richard Martin was awarded a prize by the IEE North Eastern Branch for a presentation of his project in March 2002.
(4) Research Impacts and Benefits to Society: Low speed linear electrical generator prototypes for wave energy
applications have been designed, built and demonstrated at typical velocities encountered in a marine device. Other
groups in Europe at Uppsala and TU Delft have designed machines, but have not built or tested them. In addition the
conversion of fluctuating power from a reciprocating generator into an output at fixed voltage and frequency has been
demonstrated using a 3-phase ac/ac converter, with the dc link capacitor providing energy storage. This project has
shown definitively that the electrical technology for direct drive electrical power take off in marine energy devices is
achievable, and has also highlighted the issues surrounding mechanical integration into marine devices. At present there
are a large number of different marine devices being developed and not one has yet been fully commissioned offshore.
The commercial exploitation of direct drive will only be achieved once developers have proved their own particular
concepts, but the research into direct drive should run in parallel so that in 5-6 years time the technology and expertise is
available for commercial exploitation. We believe that this project has laid the foundation for this parallel research
activity.
(5) Explanation of Expenditure: Overall the project has been completed on time and within budget, but with some reallocation of the individual accounts. Compared to the original budget there has been an overspend (almost 100%) on
academic staff costs due to the fact that 3 man years of RA were employed rather than the original 20 months because of
the problem in recruiting a PhD student. Technician resource was underspent by about 50% due to the fact that one
technician originally employed was taken on as permanent member of staff in the School of Engineering. He was
replaced by a trainee technician, whose salary was considerably lower. Initially it was agreed with the treasurers dept. at
Durham that a 3-year RA post could be funded from the 20month RA allocation and the studentship. In addition the the
underspend on the technician budget was used to compensate for the overspend in academic staff.
(6) Further Research and Dissemination Activities
6.1 Dissemination. The IGR tabulates the papers published and in preparation from the research conducted in this
project. A total of 9 journal papers are expected from the project, of which three have been published in the IEE, two
have been submitted to the IEE and IMechE and the others are very close to submission. There have also been 15
conference publications at international machines, power electronics, control and marine energy conferences. Both Dr.
Baker and Dr. Brooking have gained experience of presenting for the first time at international conferences. In August
2002 Dr. Henk Polinder from TU Delft visited Newcastle and Durham and this work led to a joint IEEE transactions
paper accepted for publication in 2004.
6.2 Further work. Within the project sinusoidal motion is assumed, whereas in the real sea the waves are
polychromatic. In collaboration with, and funded, by the New and Renewable Energy Centre a project started in April
2003 to design and build a test rig to investigate the performance of linear machines under more realistic motion
observed in the sea. As part of this work a 10kW air-cored permanent magnet tubular machine and associated power
converter is being designed and built. The project is an extension of the EPSRC project, and the aim is to make use of
this test rig for further research into other linear machine topologies, power conversion techniques for linear machines,
and mechanical integration issues such as bearings. An EU grant on direct drive systems is being prepared in
collaboration with Uppsala, TU Delft, Cork University, NaREC, Durham University, and Ramboll in Denmark for
submission in November to the Framework 6 programme. Now that Dr. Mueller has moved to Edinburgh University to
work more closely with the Wave Energy Group, he is jointly leading a platform grant application in Marine Energy
Systems, in which his work will be combined with Prof. Salters research into wave energy devices. In addition Dr.
Baker, whose PhD work contributed to the project has been appointed a lecturer at Lancaster University and intends to
continue working on direct drive systems. This EPSRC project has opened up a number of other research streams and
established the activity at other UK institutions.