.

1 Ethnolinguistic research has gained substantial popularity over the last two
decades. A leading metaphor for the focus of these research efforts is that of the
linguistic picture of the world. As large-scale comparative projects on linguistic
pictures of the world are taking shape, it might be worth reflecting on what this
conceptualisation of ethnolinguistics excludes. The visual metaphor of pictures
implies that speakers can step out of the world and view (and name) it from outside.
Two problematic consequences of this metaphor are discussed. Firstly, the
detachment of language from the world of activities of which it is part leads to the
adoption of a cognitivist model of linguistic meaning as a separate stream of
communication. Such a model is inconsistent with the experienced transparency of
language in everyday life. Secondly, the detachment of language from life supports
the use of timeless methods, the study of words outside of their situation (if not out
of their context) of use. Adopting these metaphors and methods, we might miss
large parts of the significance of language for everyday life the object of
ethnoscience.
2. What is a leading metaphor for the focus of ethnolinguistic research efforts?
that of the linguistic picture of the world. As large-scale comparative projects on
linguistic pictures of the world are taking shape, it might be worth reflecting on
what this conceptualisation of ethnolinguistics excludes. The visual metaphor of
pictures implies that speakers can step out of the world and view (and name) it from
outside. Two problematic consequences of this metaphor are discussed. Firstly, the
detachment of language from the world of activities of which it is part leads to the
adoption of a cognitivist model of linguistic meaning as a separate stream of
communication. Such a model is inconsistent with the experienced transparency of
language in everyday life. Secondly, the detachment of language from life supports
the use of timeless methods, the study of words outside of their situation (if not out
of their context) of use. Adopting these metaphors and methods, we might miss
large parts of the significance of language for everyday life the object of
ethnoscience.
3.What does the visual metaphor of pictures imply?
A visual metaphor is an image used in the place of or in conjunction with another to
suggest an analogy between the images or make a statement with them. In Western
culture, metaphors are generally thought of as being verbal. In other cultures where
the tradition is oral rather than written, metaphors may be primarily visual and are
interpreted in a different way. Even in Western culture, it is beginning to be
understood that metaphors can be extended from the verbal into the visual realm.
Both verbal and visual metaphors are a way of organizing knowledge and
understanding and can be used to express ideas. A metaphor is usually defined as
a figure of speech in which a word or phrase expressing one kind of idea is used in
place of another to express an idea or analogy. For example, Love is an ocean. By
definition, metaphor excludes visual content by referring only to words and phrases.
The concept of metaphor can, however, can be used with visual terms. For example,
avisual metaphor composed of a clock enclosed within the dollar sign can express
visually the verbal metaphor time is money.
4. What is linguistic worldview?

5. What is linguistic worldview? The very notion of the linguistic worldview rose to
prominence in the early 20th century, when Benjamin Lee Whorf suggested, that
language affects our perception of the world.
The notion of the linguistic worldview is regarded as one of the methods of
conceptualization of the reality. An attempt is made to comprehend the peculiarity
of the linguistic worldview as a means of representing the reality in a certain verbal
and associative scope. Achievements of different directions of researching various
linguistic worldviews are systematizedin the article and an integrated description of
the linguistic worldview is proposed.The following phenomenological peculiarities
of this notion have been specially singled out: the status and variety of
interpretations of the notion, the object of research and the structure, features and
functions of the linguistic worldview, the correlation of the individual and the
collective, the universal and the unique in it, its dynamic and static aspects,
peculiarities of variation and typology of linguistic worldviews.
6. Who does linguistic worldview unite in a given social environment?
Few of us are aware of our own cultural biases because cultural imprinting is begun
at a very early age. And while some of a culture's knowledge, rules, beliefs, values,
phobias, and anxieties are taught explicitly, most of the information is absorbed
subconsciously.\The challenge for multinational communication has never been
greater. Worldwide business organizations have discovered that intercultural
communication is a subject of importancenot just because of increased
globalization, but also because their domestic workforce is growing more and more
diverse, ethnically and culturally.\We are all individuals, and no two people
belonging to the same culture are guaranteed to respond in exactly the same way.
However, generalizations are valid to the extent that they provide clues on what you
will most likely encounter when dealing with members of a particular culture.
7. What does linguistic worldview create?
According to the Russian linguist Stepanov, concepts are just phrases, fragments of
conversation , but they are subtle phrases that force our minds createsuch content, as
if it has been familiar to us for a long time . Concept can be understood as a bunch
of culture in the consciousness of people; it is something in the form of which
culture enters the mental world. And, moreover, people throughthe concept enter
culture and affect it. Concepts are not only contemplated, they are experienced.
They are the subject of emotions, likes and dislikes, and sometimes collisions. The
concept is also a discrete unit of the collective consciousness, which is stored in the
national memory of native speakers in verbally determinate form. As a cognitive
unit of meaning, a concept is an abstract idea or a mental symbol sometimes defined
as a unit of knowledge, built from other units which act as a concepts
characteristic. A concept is typically associated with a corresponding representation
in a language such as a single meaning of a term
8. What does linguistic worldview influence?
Linguo-cultural concept as a subject of study of linguo-culture appears
(lingvokulturologija) to the researchers as a cultural, mental and linguistic
education. According to the Stepanovs definition, linguo-cultural concept is a
mental unit, aimed at a comprehensive study of language, consciousness and

culture. The linguo-cultural concept differs from other units in its mental nature.
Mentality is perceived as a guided collection of images and perceptions. Bloom
defines mentality as the perception of the world in the categories and forms of the
native language that connects the intellectual and spiritual qualities of national
character in its typical manifestatio. Many scholars agree that the mentality is easier
to describe than to define. Mentality of deeper thinking, standards of behaviour
represents the internal willingness of a person to act in a certain way.
9. What is the worldview is in the sense of Apresyan?
The worldview is naive in the sense of Apresyan, i.e. constructed by a human
being, relative to human measure, anthropometric, but also adapted to social
needs and ethnocentric mentality , For example - in the colloquial, naive view of
humans and their world, the sun still rises and sets (five centuries after
Copernicus!), stars twinkle, the road goes from one place to another, water
is healthy or not, plants are good and useful (corn, herbs) or not (weeds), things
are cold, heavy or tall in relation to an average person, etc. Te worldview is based
on sensory stimuli, concrete and practical: it suffices for the purpose of everyday
communication. It is at the disposal of the speaker as his or
her cultural endowment: as all linguistic constructs, it may be subjected
to individual modulation.
10. What has the most obvious, unquestionable basis for investigating linguistic
worldview so far been?
The most obvious, unquestionable basis for investigating linguistic worldview has
so far been the lexis, conceived of as a classifier of social experience. The lexis
provides access to the conceptual sphere of a given culture, the realm of
conceptions and images crucial for that culture. Sapir emphasised that vocabulary
is a very sensitive index of the culture of a people (Sapir, 1957: 34, 36). In this
context, the first and fundamental question is the very range of lexis (words and
concepts); lexis as an inventory of culture, living and dynamic, continually
enriched with new items, a kind of seismograph registering changes in the society,
civilization and culture.
11. What does the lexis provide?
In linguistics, a lexis (from the Greek: "word") is the total word-stock
or lexicon having items of lexical, rather than grammatical, meaning. In short,
the lexicon is:

Formulaic: it relies on partially fixed expressions and highly probable word

combinations
Idiomatic: it follows conventions and patterns for usage
Metaphoric: concepts such as time and money, business and sex, systems and
water all share a large portion of the same vocabulary
Grammatical: it uses rules based on sampling of the Lexicon

Register-specific: it uses the same word differently and/or less frequently in

different contexts

A major area of study, psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics, involves the question

of how words are retrieved from the mental lexicon in online language processing
and production. For example, the cohort model seeks to describe lexical retrieval in
terms of segment-by-segment activation of competing lexical entries.[1][2]
The study of corpus linguistics provides us with many insights into the real nature of
language, as shown above. In essence, the lexicon seems to be built on the premise
that language use is best approached as an assembly process, whereby the brain
links together ready-made chunks. Intuitively this makes sense: it is a natural shortcut to alleviate the burden of having to "re-invent the wheel" every time we speak.
Additionally, using well-known expressions conveys loads of information rapidly,
as the listener does not need to break down an utterance into its constituent parts.
In Words and Rules, Steven Pinker shows this process at work with regular and
irregular verbs: we collect the former, which provide us with rules we can apply to
unknown words (for example, the "-ed" ending for past tense verbs allows us to
decline the neologism "to google" into "googled"). Other patterns, the irregular
verbs, we store separately as unique items to be memorized.
The shift in ELT from grammar to lexis mirrors a similar change in the attitude of
linguists. In the past linguists were preoccupied with the grammar of language;
however the advances in corpus linguistics have pushed lexis to the forefront. The
term 'lexis', which was traditionally used by linguists, is a common word these days
and frequently used even in textbooks.
whereas lexis is a somewhat wider concept and consists of collocations, chunks and
formulaic expressions. It also includes certain patterns that were traditionally
associated with the grammar of a language, e.g. If I were you, I havent seen you
for ages etc.
Recognising certain grammar structures as lexical items means that they can be
introduced much earlier, without structural analysis or elaboration. Indeed, since the
concept of notions and functions made its way into language teaching, particularly
as Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) gained prominence, some structures
associated with grammar started to be taught lexically (or functionally). Id like to is
not taught as 'the conditional' but as a chunk expressing desire. Similarly many other
'traditional' grammar items can be introduced lexically relatively early on

12. What did Sapir emphasize?

Linguistic patterns, he suggested, revealed creative operations of the mind, despite
the largely unconscious nature of grammatical rules. That creativity was also to be
seen in poetry and in language change, explainable in part as a psychological
reconfiguring of linguistic patterns. Because Sapir always emphasized the ways
linguistic forms are meaningful to their users, his work in SEMANTICS tended not
to fall under a separate rubric (but see Sapir 1944). His discussions of the ways
meanings are distributed, how they might be associated with a configuration of
formal relations in MORPHOLOGY and SYNTAX, and how these configurations
differ across languages, included statements later identified with the "Sapir-Whorf
hypothesis" of LINGUISTIC RELATIVITY and determinism. The "hypothesis" that
a particular language's structure influences its speakers' perception and cognition
owes more to Sapir's student Benjamin Lee Whorf than to Sapir himself. Still, Sapir
did maintain that a language's grammatical categories provide speakers with
configurations of meaning that seem, to the speakers, to be located in the world
rather than in language. He also argued that language influences what ideas are
socially expressible, because communication depends on the available language and
how it organizes meanings.
13. What is the horse in traditional village culture
The traditional village poor the servants cowboys handymen and sharecroppers of
the rancheros have a culture that especially glorifies ranchero culture. This is class
in which a mans greatest pride was the quality of his horse it is the class that has
produced all those songs about horses and the dexterity of cowboys. the traditional
village poor are clients of the ranchero subsidized priests they are voters in the
ranchero subsidized priests they are voters in the ranchero rigged elections. they
organize cockfights and horse races always made on a smaller scale than those of
the real rancheros .when they run into money they buy the outward signs of
ranchero progress a pickup truck pointed boots a good hat a good horse
The village based class that finds least common ground with the rancheros is often
the professional and commercial where the ideal of leisure and prosperity can rely
be wedded in the same fashion where an ideology of personal valor and knowledge
of the countryside is substituted to some degree by an identification with urban
Mexico and its ideal is cultural distinction through literacy competence politeness
and other values perpetrated by the national educational system
14. What are cultural equivalents of the horse?
the word horse in various languages has its value as an animal but also has
different names in Russian '' '' and as the
English horse mare horse stallion foal and in our culture is considered to value the
horses as a symbol of strength and here in our culture there are many equivalents of
this word like and so
on also there are a lot of proverbial sayings as "Mnse klk, zhese is, shse
ymyz"The horse is perceived in certain typical collections: with a saddle, reins and
bridle (a saddle-horse), with a cart and plough (a draught-horse) or with a man who
rides it (a cavalryman, a soldier). With regard to its strength the horse is similar to
the bull, lion and bear; the sun is also compared to the horse.

15. What is important in defining words?

What is a definition? In all cases, a definition is any group of words or symbols
designed to explain the meaning of some other word or symbol. Words have
meanings. This is the basis of language and shouldnt surprise anyone. Yet people
often use one word.To finally conclude this, words have objective meanings.here
important thing are the knowledge. helth and a big and rich vocabulary.
16. What does the super ordinate categorizing element determine?
Many studies have shown that subjects are faster at categorizing objects into "basic"
concepts than into more general superordinate concepts. However, all of these
studies have used a categorization task in which single, isolated objects are
identified. There is good reason to believe that superordinate concepts are typically
used to refer to collections of objects rather than to individual objects. For example,
people more often use the term furniture to refer to a number of pieces of furniture
rather than to name a single piece. This suggests that superordinate concepts include
information about multiple objects and their common relations, particularly the
typical scenes in which such objects appear. Four experiments examined this
possibility by investigating whether the basic concept advantage will decrease or
reverse itself when subjects are asked to categorize an object as part of a scene. The
results showed that the basic-superordinate difference did decrease when subjects
categorized objects in scenes. Furthermore, when an object was placed in an
inappropriate scene, there was more interference for superordinate identifications.
The results suggest qualitative differences in the representations of superordinate
and basic concepts.
17. What is an important aspect of linguistic worldview?
Linguistic worldview is a language-entrenched interpretation of reality,which can be
expressed in the form of judgments about the world, people, things or events. It is an
interpretation, not a refection; it is a portrait without claims to fidelity, not a
photograph of real objects. The interpretation is a result of subjective perception and
conceptualization of reality performed by the speakers of a given language; thus, it
is clearly subjective and anthropocentric but also intersubjective (social). It unites
people in a given social environment,
creates a community of thoughts, feelings and values. It influences the perception
and understanding of the social situation by a member of the
community. An important aspect of linguistic worldview is the so called inner
form of a word also mentioned by Jan Rozwadowski .Especially in the case of
languages with rich word formation, e.g. the Slavic branch, asking questions about
the mechanism of creating names and about their onomasiological foundations,
allows for accessing the linguistic means of interpretation of a given object or
phenomenon.
18. How the conceptualisations of natural phenomena can be revealed? The major
metaphor themes discerned include the depiction of the natural phenomenon as an
ANIMATE BEING, a MONSTER and a
WARRIOR. By demonizing nature, such a representation reinforces Western
nature-culture

dualism, puts the blame for the catastrophe on the natural phenomenon and hides
social and
historical factors contributing to the disaster. The portrayal of the natural
phenomenon as an ANIMATE BEING is realized by a number of lexical and
syntactical means. The natural phenomenon takes the role of an actor in the articles,
to which material processes are ascribed. The function of the patient in such clauses
is
performed by people, objects and places. This recurring transitivity pattern ascribes
the responsibility for the destructive actions to the natural phenomenon, and
suggests that it acts with force and volition. It portrays the
tsunami and the hurricane as being in control of the actions and implies that they act
on purpose, which consequently helps to establish the natural phenomena as
animate.
19.What characters can a domain name contain?
A domain name can only contain the letters A-Z, the digits 0-9 and hyphen (-), in
addition to one punctuation (.) used for grouping the domains in hierarchies, e.g.
under .no or .com. Some top level domains allow international characters such as ,
and , though these are encoded in a special way making the encoded domain
name containing A-Z, 0-9 and hyphens.
A domain name must contain between 2 and 63 characters before the punctuation.
Additional rules apply for the different top level domains. In order to find out if a
certain domain name is legal, try and search at domainnameshop.com. An error
message will be displayed if it cannot be registered.
A domain name is not case sensitive, making Domainnameshop.Com the same as
domainnameshop.com. However, most people use lowercase letters. Also note that
the prefix "www." is not usually a part of the domain name applied for. For a
website named www.example.com, the domain name is solely example.com.
www.example.com is only one of many possible sub domains under example.com.
20. What the phraseological picture of the world is usually based on?
The phraseological picture of the world has certain peculiar characteristics and is
usually based on historical, often fossilized knowledge, which can only be accessed
through etymological investigations.
Closer to contemporary linguistic feeling, more informative for the contemporary
interpretation of the world are living collocations.
For example, much can be learned about the colloquial conceptualization of the
category TEKST (English text) from the collocability of the word tekst with other
words. Te analysis of collocations (Niebrzegowska-Bartmiska, 2007: 2331) allows
one to reconstruct the colloquial picture, whose features are grouped into facets,
pertaining to:
[AUTHOR]
[STYLE]
[GENRE], [SUBJECT MATTER]
[STRUCTURE]
[CHARACTERISTICS]
[ACTION IN RELATION TO IT]

[ADDRESSEE]
[TIME]
[PLACE]
tekst poety/polityka a poets/politicians text; tekst urzdowy/poetycki/naukowy
an ofcial/poetic/scholarly text; tekst dramatu/pieni a plays text/song lyrics;
tekst podzielony na rozdziay i akapity a text divided into chapters and paragraphs;
tekst rozwleky/krtki a verbose/short text; redagowa/korygowa/streszcza tekst
edit/correct/summarise a text; rozumie/przyswoi/objani tekst
understand/explain a text; teksty niezrozumiae dla niewtajemniczonych texts
inaccessible to the uninitiated; mwi otwartym tekstem speak openly, lit. in an
open text; tekst z okazji imienin a text for someones birthday; tekst w gazecie/na
murze a text in a newspaper/on the wall.
In Polish, texts are conceptualised metaphorically in a number of ways: as a result of
the work of:
a crafsman, such as a weaver (snu opowie/wtek/ni opowiadania, lit. spin a
story/motif/the thread of a story),
a cook (a text may be pikantny spicy, smakowity delicious, niestrawny
unpalatable),
a builder (plan/szkic tekstu a plan/sketch of a text; pitra tekstu several storeys of
a text; budowa/kleci tekst to build/botch up a text);
a farmer or gardener (tekst dojrzewa a text ripens; pomys kiekuje an idea
sprouts; tekst jest owocem pracy a text is the fruit of ones work);
an artist or a musician (rama tekstu the frame of a text; drugi plan tekstu the
background of a text; autor maluje co w jakich barwach the author paints
something in such and such colours; autor porusza czu strun the author pulls a
sensitive string).
21. What are closer to contemporary linguistic feeling, more informative for the
contemporary interpretation of the world?
Researchers of linguistic worldview are especially interested in phraseological units,
although many of the latter are idiomatic combinations with opaque motivations
(e.g. wiesza psy na kim abuse someone, lit. hang dogs on someone). Their
conventionality can be seen in cross-linguistic comparisons.
For example, referring to someones speedy escape Poles say wzi nogi za pas, lit.
take ones legs behind ones belt, Germans say die Beine in die Hand nehmen, lit.
take legs in the hand, the English say to take to ones heels, the French say prendre
ses jambes a son cou, lit. take the legs on the neck, and Slovaks say vziat nohy
naplecia, lit. take the legs on the back - and it is difficult to draw any far-reaching
conclusions from those data.
The phraseological picture of the world has certain peculiar characteristics and is
usually based on historical, often fossilized knowledge, which can only be accessed
through etymological investigations.

22. What does the analysis of collocations allow?

Collocations are semi-preconstructed phrases which allow language users to
express their ideas with maximum clarity and economy. Not only that, there is
strong correlation between frequency in a corpus and typicality, which means that
the use of common collocations contributes to the naturalness of a text.
You can look at collocation from a purely statistical point of view, using a large
corpus to find the most common combinations of words. But frequency alone
doesnt tell the whole story. The most frequent two-word unit in English is of the,
while fairly predictable adverb / adjective combinations (very good, more likely,
most important, and so on) are also, in statistical terms, very significant. However,
just as important as frequency is the semantic function of collocations. Users need to
be able to answer questions like: how do I express the idea of doing this noun?
(in other words, which verb should I use with nouns like crime, benchmark,
proposal, or research?); or how can I add the idea of very to this adjective (to
create combinations like highly improbable, unbearably hot, or bitterly
disappointed).
23, What is a concept?
A concept is an abstraction or generalization from experience or the result of a
transformation of existing concepts. The concept reifies all of its actual or potential
instances whether these are things in the real world or other ideas. Concepts are
treated in many if not most disciplines both explicitly, such as in psychology,
philosophy, etc., and implicitly, such as in mathematics, physics, etc.
When the mind makes a generalization such as the concept of tree, it extracts
similarities from numerous examples; the simplification enables higher-level
thinking.
In metaphysics, and especially ontology, a concept is a fundamental category of
existence. In contemporary philosophy, there are at least three prevailing ways to
understand what a concept is:
Concepts as mental representations, where concepts are entities that exist in the
brain,
Concepts as abilities, where concepts are abilities peculiar to cognitive agents, and
Concepts as abstract objects, where objects are the constituents of propositions that
mediate between thought, language, and referents.
24 How is a concept defined?
A concept (abstract term: conception) is a cognitive unit of meaningan abstract
idea or a mental symbol sometimes defined as a "unit of knowledge," built from
other units which act as a concept's characteristics. A concept is typically associated
with a corresponding representation in a language or symbology such as a single
meaning of a term.
There are prevailing theories in contemporary philosophy which attempt to explain
the nature of concepts. The representational theory of mind proposes that concepts
are mental representations, while the semantic theory of concepts (originating with

Frege's distinction between concept and object) holds that they are abstract
objects.Ideas are taken to be concepts, although abstract concepts do not necessarily
appear to the mind as images as some ideas do. Many philosophers consider
concepts to be a fundamental ontological category of being.
For other uses, see Concept (disambiguation).
A concept is an abstraction or generalization from experience or the result of a
transformation of existing concepts. The concept reifies all of its actual or potential
instances whether these are things in the real world or other ideas. Concepts are
treated in many if not most disciplines both explicitly, such as in psychology,
philosophy, etc., and implicitly, such as inmathematics, physics, etc.
In metaphysics, and especially ontology, a concept is a fundamental category of
existence. In contemporary philosophy, there are at least three prevailing ways to
understand what a concept is:Concepts as mental representations, where concepts
are entities that exist in the brain,
Concepts as abilities, where concepts are abilities peculiar to cognitive agents, and
Concepts as abstract objects, where objects are the constituents of propositions that
mediate between thought, language, and referents.
25. Where the meaning of concept is explored
The term "concept" is traced back to 155460 (Latin conceptum - "something
conceived"), but what is today termed "the classical theory of concepts" is the
theory of Aristotle on the definition of terms.
The meaning of "concept" is explored in mainstream information science, cognitive
science, metaphysics, and philosophy of mind. In computer and information science
contexts, especially, the term 'concept' is often used in unclear or inconsistent ways.
A concept (substantive term: conception) is a cognitive unit of meaningan
abstract idea or a mentalsymbolsometimes defined,as a "unit of knowledge," built
from other units which act, as a concept's characteristics. Aconcep is typically
associated with a corresponding representation in a language or
symbology;however, someconcepts do not have a linguistic representation, which
can make them more difficult to understand depending on aperson's native language
such as a single meaning of a term.
There are prevailing theories in contemporary philosophy which attempt to explain
the nature of concepts. Therepresentational theory of mind proposes that concepts
are mental representations, while the semantic theory ofconcepts (originating with
Frege's distinction between concept and object) holds that they are abstract
objects.Ideas are taken to be concepts, although abstract concepts do not necessarily
appear to the mind as images, whilesome ideas appear to.Many philosophers
consider concepts to be a fundamental ontological category of being.
The term "concept" is traced back to 155460 (Latin conceptum - "something
conceived"),but what istoday termed "the classical theory of concepts" is the theory
of Aristotle on the definition of terms. Themeaning of "concept" is explored in
mainstream information science, cognitive science, metaphysics, andphilosophy of
mind. In computer and information science contexts, especially, the term 'concept' is
often used inunclear or inconsistent ways.

26. Whose is the term concept traced back to?

The term "concept" is traced back to 155460 (Latin conceptum - "something
conceived"),but what is today termed "the classical theory of concepts" is the theory
of Aristotle on the definition of terms.
The study of the concept in modern linguistics is associated with a number
of the most diverse points of view. As the purpose of this article is to reveal and
analyze meaningful and cultural content of
semantic representatives of the concept "happiness", presented in the biblical
discourse, we shall
start with scientific approaches to the notion of concept.
The concept is a multivariate idealized forming" , but there is no consensus as to
the
number of semantic parameters according to which the study can be conducted: it
includes
conceptual and imaginative, value, behavioral, etymological and cultural
"dimensions". In
general the concept can be represented as a set of associations, links among the
objects and
phenomena, based on a personal, subjective experience, and the experience of
lingvocultural
community as a whole.
27. How was concept introduced?
Identify the notion Concept. According to the Russian linguist Stepanov, concepts
are just phrases, fragments of conversation <...>, but they are subtle phrases that
force our minds createsuch content, as if it has been familiar to us for a long time
(2007, 248). Concept can be understood as a bunch of culture in the consciousness
of people; it is something in the form of which culture enters the mental world. And,
moreover, people through the concept enter culture and affect it. Concepts are not
only contemplated, they are experienced. They are the subject of emotions, likes and
dislikes, and sometimes collisions. The concept is also a discrete unit of the
collective consciousness, which is stored in the national memory of native speakers
in verbally determinate form. As a cognitive unit of meaning, a concept is an
abstract idea or a mental symbol sometimes defined as a unit of knowledge, built
from other units which act as a concepts characteristic. A concept is typically
associated with a corresponding representation in a language such as a single
meaning of a term Notional component of the concept is stored in the verbal form.
A figurative component is non-verbal and and can be described or interpreted at
most.
Concepts includes such semiotic categories as image, the notion and meaning in the
reduced form, as a kind of hyperonym (generic term) and characterized as
heterogeneous and multi-featured. The concept acquired the discursive meaning
representation from the notion, from the image it appropriated metaphor and
emotiveness, and from the meaning it acquired the inclusion of the name (concept).
Concept has a certain structure that is not rigid; it is a necessary condition for the
existence of the concept and its entry into the conceptual realm. Concept includes all

the mental characteristics of a phenomenon and provides an understanding of

reality. Ordered collection of concepts in the mind of a person forms his/her
conceptual realm. Language is one of the means to access to the peoples mind, their
conceptual realm, the content and structure of concepts as units of thinking.
28. Where has the concept entered?
The technique of concept mapping was developed by Joseph D. Novak[7] and his
research team at Cornell University in the 1970s as a means of representing the
emerging science knowledge of students. It has subsequently been used as a tool to
increase meaningful learning in the sciences and other subjects as well as to
represent the expert knowledge of individuals and teams in education, government
and business. Concept maps have their origin in the learning movement
called constructivism. In particular, constructivists hold that learners actively
construct knowledge.
Novak's work is based on the cognitive theories of David Ausubel(assimilation
theory), who stressed the importance of prior knowledge in being able to learn new
concepts: "The most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner
already knows. Ascertain this and teach accordingly."[ Novak taught students as
young as six years old to make concept maps to represent their response to focus
questions such as "What is water?" "What causes the seasons?" In his book
Learning How to Learn, Novak states that a "meaningful learning involves the
assimilation of new concepts and propositions into existing cognitive structures."
Various attempts have been made to conceptualize the process of creating concept
maps. Ray McAleese, in a series of articles, has suggested that mapping is a process
of off-loading. In this 1998 paper, McAleese draws on the work of Sowa and a
paper by Sweller & Chandler. In essence, McAleese suggests that the process of
making knowledge explicit, using nodes and relationships, allows the individual to
become aware of what they know and as a result to be able to modify what they
know. Maria Birbili applies that same idea to helping young children learn to think
about what they know. The concept of the Knowledge Arena is suggestive of a
virtual space where learners may explore what they know and what they do not
know.
29) Linguo-cultural concept as a subject of study of linguo-culture appears to the
researchers as a cultural, mental and linguistic education. The linguo- cultural
concept differs from other units in its mental nature. Mentality is perceived as a
guided collection of images and perceptions. Linguo-cultural concept differs from
other mental units by the presence of the value component. Value is always in the
centre of the concept. A linguo-concept consists of distinguish evaluative, figurative
and conceptual components. Notional component of the concept is stored in the
verbal form. A figurative component isnon-verbal and can be described or
interpreted at most. Concept includes such semiotics categories as the image, the
notion and meaning in the reduced form, as a kind of hyperonym (generic ter m)
and is characterized as heterogeneous and multi-featured. The concept acquired the
discursive meaning representation from the notion, from the image it appropriated
metaphor and emotiveness, and from the meaning it acquired the inclusion of the

name (concept).
30) The notional component of the concept is
stored in the mind in verbal form and can be just described or interpreted. Concept
good is one of the basic concepts in any culture. It takes an important place in the
works of High Fantasy, namely, in the C.S. Lewiss novel The Chronicles of
Narnia. The interpretation of the concept good involves: light, bright, clear,
green, white, merry, laugh. The most striking stylistic means used in the novel:
epithet, comparison and similes, metaphor, personification, and intensification.
31) figurative component is non-verbal and can be described or interpreted at most.
Figurative language is a part of speech. Examples of figurative language are Similes
Metaphors Personification Hyperbole Idioms Alliteration and something
32) Concept includes such semiotics categories as the image, the notion and
meaning in the reduced form, as a kind of hyperonym (generic term) and is
characterized as heterogeneous and multi-featured. The concept acquired the
discursive meaning representation from the notion, from the image it appropriated
metaphor and emotiveness, and from the meaning it acquired the inclusion of the
name (concept).
33) According to Stepanov concept has a layered structure, its strata are the result
of the cultural life of different epoch. The special structure of the concept includes
the main feature, an additional (passive, historical) features plus the inner form. The
inner form, the etymological criterion is regarded as a foundation on which all the
other layers of meaning are built ( 2007).
The informational content of the concept consists of a minimum amount of
cognitive features that determine the most important and distinguishing features of
an object or phenomenon. The interpretative field includes cognitive features,
which interpret the informational content of the concept. A distinctive feature of the
interpretive field is the presence of cognitive symptoms conflicting with one
another. The structure of a concept can be described only when its content is defined
and described, that is, the cognitive features of the concept are revealed.
A linguo-concept consists of distinguish evaluative, figurative and conceptual
components. Notional component of the concept is stored in the verbal form. A
figurative component is non-verbal and can be described or interpreted at most.
34. How does linguo-cultural concept as a subject of study of linguo-culture appear
to the researchers ?
Linguo-cultural concept as a subject of study of linguo-culture appears
(lingvokulturologija) to the researchers as a cultural, mental and linguistic
education. According to the Stepanovs definition, linguo-cultural concept is a
mental unit, aimed at a comprehensive study of language, consciousness and
culture. The linguo-cultural concept differs from other units in its mental nature.
Mentality is perceived as a guided collection of images and perceptions. Bloom
defines mentality as the perception of the world in the categories and forms of the
native language that connects the intellectual and spiritual qualities of national
character in its typical manifestatio. Many scholars agree that the mentality is easier

to describe than to define. Mentality of deeper thinking, standards of behaviour

represents the internal willingness of a person to act in a certain way. Linguocultural concept differs from other mental units by the presence of the value
35. What is linguo-cultural concept aimed at?
Linguo-cultural concept aimed at aimed at developing by student of a system of
concepts; and on such a pragmatic component as a professional status of a student.
Thus, language becomes a sort of cognitive process, and competence is a capacity to
generate acts of consciousness.And also,it aimed at a comprehensive study of
language, consciousness and culture.
36. How is mentality perceived?
Mentality is perceived as a guided collection of images and perceptions. H. Bloom
defines mentality as the perception of the world in the categories and forms of the
native language that connects the intellectual, and spiritual qualities of national
character in its typical manifestations(Bloom 2000). Many scholars agree that the
mentality is easier to describe than to 6 define. Mentality of deeper thinking,
standards of behaviour represents the internal willingness of a person to act in a
certain way. Linguo-cultural concept differs from other mental units by the presence
of the value component. Value is always in the centre of the concept
37. What does a linguconcept consist of?
A linguo-concept consists of distinguish evaluative, figurative and conceptual
components. Notional component of the concept is stored in the verbal form. A
figurative component is non-verbal and can be described or interpreted at most.
Concept includes such semiotics categories as the image, the notion and meaning in
the reduced form, as a kind of hyperonym (generic term) and is characterized as
heterogeneous and multi-featured. The concept acquired the discursive meaning
representation from the notion, from the image it appropriated metaphor
andemotiveness, and from the meaning it acquired the inclusion of the name
(concept). Concepts as interpreters of meaning constantly are refined and modified.
Being a part of the system, they are influenced by the other concepts and are
modified. The very possibility of interpretation suggests that many of the concepts
are subject to change, as the world around us is constantly changing giving us the
opportunity to learn something new.
38. What is notional component of the concept stored?
Notional component of the concept is stored in the verbal form. For example we can
take article about The notional components of the concept LOVE in the Russian
and English languages. The article analyses the concept LOVE as represented in
the Russian and English languages. The notional component of the concepts
LYUBOV and LOVE is considered as part of the notional structure of concept
which is educed by the analysis of the meanings of the nuclear concept nominations.
The author outlines the constituent differences in the set of the cognitive features of
the researched structure, pinpointing their place in the conceptual hierarchy.
39. What is a figurative component?

- Figurative language is not intended to be interpreted in a literal sense. Appealing to

the imagination, figurative language provides new ways of looking at the world. It
always makes use of a comparison between different things. Figurative language
compares two things that are different in enough ways so that their similarities,
when pointed out, are interesting, unique and/or surprising.
40. What is the concept good associated with?
- Further on these theoretical underpinnings will be illustrated by the analysis of the
concept good with the reference to The Chronicles of Narnia.
The concept Good is one of the basic concepts of any culture and has a great
axiological (=philosophical study) value. Every language has a word good, which
has a meaning possessing the right quality and moral excellence (Britannica
2008).
Good is a broad concept but it typically is associated with life, continuity,
happiness, prosperity and truth. The dichotomy of good and evel are inseparable. It
is
difficult to describe the concept of good without the opposition of bad or evel. Thus
resting on this dichotomy and depending on the context, good (and evil) may
represent judgments, norms, claims of absolute value related to human nature or to
various standards.

41. What are the dichotomy of good and evil?

What are the dichotomy of good and evil? - In religion, ethics, and philosophy,
"good and evil" is a common dichotomy. In cultures with Manichaean and
Abrahamic religious influence, evil is usually perceived as the dualistic antagonistic
opposite of good, in which good should prevail and evil should be defeated.[1] In
cultures with Buddhist spiritual influence, both good and evil are perceived as part
of an antagonistic duality that itself must be overcome through achieving nyat
meaning emptiness in the sense of recognition of good and evil being two opposing
principles but not a reality, emptying the duality of them, and achieving a oneness
42. What is good may represent?
Good is a broad concept but it typically is associated with life, continuity,
happiness, prosperity and truth. The dichotomy of good and evel are inseparable. It
is
difficult to describe the concept of good without the opposition of bad or evel. Thus
resting on this dichotomy and depending on the context, good (and evil) may
represent judgments, norms, claims of absolute value related to human nature or to
various standards. As a philosophical concept good might represent a hope that
natural love can be
continuous, expansive, and all-inclusive. Theories of moral goodness are interested
in

various sorts of things that are good, and in the abstract meaning of the word
good.
In other contexts, the good is whatever produces the best consequences upon the
people lives, and their states of well being (Britannica 2008).
43. What are components of good
the concept has three main components: conceptual,
significant and figurative. Next the figurative component of the concept good
based
on the novel The Chronicles of Narnia will be discussed. The analysis of the novel
allowed singling out a large number of stylistic tools used in
the novel for the explication of figurative component of the concept good. The
most
striking stylistic means used in the novel more often than others, namely the epithet,
simile, metaphor, intensification and personification will serve as means of the
analysis of the figurative component of the concept good. A very important
stylistic device used in the novel is the epithet. Many researchers
consider the epithet as the primary means of the approval of individualism, and as
the
subjective estimating relation to the described phenomenon (Simpson 2004).
Another figurative means are comparison and simile. According to Simpson,
comparison is a collation of two objects or phenomena having a mutual feature
aiming
at explaining one of them by means of another
44. What is the concept of good apart from God?
According to a writer, editor and a film maker Jobie Weetaluktuk, the Genesis gives
a
description of the concept good. Adam and Eve knew God and because of that
knowledge, they knew what is good. In a monotheistic (one God, religious)
contexts,
the concept of God is derived as an infinite projection of love and goodness in
peoples lives. What is good and what is evil is determined for all humanity by God.
The concept of good apart from God is an illusion. God is the absolute concept of
good. People cannot categorize Gods deeds into good and bad, but
unambiguously, what God does is good. Thus God is the initial and absolute concept
of good. The good is light, love, life, heaven and positiveness (Weetaluktuk 2010).
Goodness is not something over and above what can be found in each good thing; it
never exists apart from good things, it is merely a quality that can be found in each.
45. What might Good represent?
Good is a broad concept but it typically is associated with life, continuity,
happiness, prosperity and truth. The dichotomy of good and evel are inseparable. It
is
difficult to describe the concept of good without the opposition of bad or evel. Thus
resting on this dichotomy and depending on the context, good (and evil) may
represent judgments, norms, claims of absolute value related to human nature or to

various standards. As a philosophical concept good might represent a hope that

natural love can be
continuous, expansive, and all-inclusive. Theories of moral goodness are interested
in
various sorts of things that are good, and in the abstract meaning of the word
good.
In other contexts, the good is whatever produces the best consequences upon the
people lives, and their states of well being (Britannica 2008).
46. What is phraseology?
In linguistics, phraseology is the study of set or fixed expressions, such as idioms,
phrasal verbs, and other types of multi-word lexical units (often collectively referred
to as phrasemes), in which the component parts of the expression take on a meaning
more specific than or otherwise not predictable from the sum of their meanings
when used independently. For example, Dutch auction is composed of the words
Dutch of or pertaining to the Netherlands and auction a public sale in which
goods are sold to the highest bidder, but its meaning is not a sale in the
Netherlands where goods are sold to the highest bidder. Instead, the phrase has a
conventionalized meaning referring to any auction where, instead of rising, the
prices fall.
Phraseology (from Greek phrasis, "way of speaking" and - -logia,
"study of") is a scholarly approach to language which developed in the twentieth
century.[1] It took its start when Charles Bally's[2] notion of locutions
phraseologiques entered Russian lexicology and lexicography in the 1930s and
1940s and was subsequently developed in the former Soviet Union and other
Eastern European countries. From the late 1960s on it established itself in (East)
German linguistics but was also sporadically approached in English linguistics. The
earliest English adaptations of phraseology are by Weinreich (1969)[3] within the
approach of transformational grammar, Arnold (1973),[4] and Lipka (1992
[1974]).[5] In Great Britain as well as other Western European countries,
phraseology has steadily been developed over the last twenty years. The activities of
the European Society of Phraseology (EUROPHRAS) and the European Association
for Lexicography (EURALEX) with their regular conventions and publications
attest to the prolific European interest in phraseology. Bibliographies of recent
studies on English and general phraseology are included in Welte (1990)[6] and
specially collected in Cowie & Howarth (1996)[7] whose bibliography is
reproduced and continued on the internet and provides a rich source of the most
recent publications in the field.
The basic units of analysis in phraseology are often referred to as phrasemes or
phraseological units. Phraseological units are (according to Prof. Kunin
A.V.)[citation needed] stable word-groups with partially or fully transferred
meanings ("to kick the bucket", Greek gift, drink till all's blue, drunk as a
fiddler (drunk as a lord, as a boiled owl), as mad as a hatter (as a march hare)).
According to Rosemarie Glser, a phraseological unit is a lexicalized, reproducible
bilexemic or polylexemic word group in common use, which has relative syntactic

and semantic stability, may be idiomatized, may carry connotations, and may have
an emphatic or intensifying function in a text.[8]
47. Who makes the following points about phraseme?
Evaluative meanings are conveyed not only by individual words, but also by
longer phrases and syntactic structures Repeated instances of a collocation
across a corpus provide objective, empirical evidence for evaluative meanings.
Evaluative meanings are conveyed not only by individual words, but also by longer
phrases and syntactic structures Repeated instances of a collocation across a
corpus provide objective, empirical evidence for evaluative meanings.
Repeated patterns show that evaluative meanings are not merely personal and
idiosyncratic, but widely shared in a discourse community.
Evaluative and attitudinal meanings are often thought to be due to
conversational inferences; however, many pragmatic meanings are
conventionally associated with lexico-syntactic structures.
The over-emphasis on conversational inferences is probably due to a reliance
on invented data, which have been stripped of markers of speaker attitude.
I believe that these are all valid and constructive points. Unfortunately, on the
heels of these good points come two further ones which in my view are
neither valid nor constructive:
Semantics is inevitably circular, since some words are used to define the
meanings of other words, and it is not yet clear what metalanguage should be
used to describe evaluations.
If descriptions of evaluative meanings and cultural stereotypes can be made
reasonably precise, it seems plausible that this will tell us about the important
meanings expressed in a discourse community, but speculations here are at an
early stage.
48. What way meanings could not be analysed in, if semantics were
inevitably circular?
If semantics were inevitably circular meanings could not be analysed in an
illuminating way and the study of meaning would be doomed to failure. In the
past, many linguists have thought that it is indeed doomed to failure and that it is
best for linguists to stay away from it.
This is not Stubbs stance. On the contrary, the opening sentence of this book
reads: the topic of this book is words and phrases: how they are used, what they
mean, and what evidence and methods can be used to study their meanings .
This is certainly a much more positive attitude to semantics that that expressed,

for example, in John Sinclairs book Corpus, Concordance, Collocation, where

one reads, for example, statements like the following:
Working with lexicographers made it clear that there are no objective
criteria available for the analysis of meaning More recently, the whole
idea of deiscrete units of meaning is called into question. At the moment,
the mood is somewhat negative.
There is a broad general tendency for frequent words, or frequent senses
of words, to have less of a clear and independent meanigs that lless
frequent words or senses. These m,eanings of frequent words are difficult
to identify and explain; and with the very frequent words, we are reduces
to talking about uses rather than meanings.

49. Who says that it is not yet clear what metalanguage should be used to
describe evaluations.
Stubbs says that it is not yet clear what metalanguage should be used to describe
evaluations. As I have tried to show in this paper, and as colleagues and I have
tried to demonstrate in many other publications, evaluative meanings, like any
other meanings, can be analysed very effectively in the Natural Semantic
Metalanguage, based on empirically established universal human concepts such
as, for example, GOOD and BAD.

50. What is already available in NSM semantics?

Stubbs suggests that speculations about the important evaluative meanings
expressed in words and phrases are at an early stage. Although NSM
researchers have tried to identify such meanings for years, and have published
scores of books and articles with that aim in mind, we do, of course, have a long
way to go. But the hundreds of specific semantic analyses presented in this body
of NSM work are not speculations; and while no doubt far from perfect, they are
certainly being tested on empirical material.
The availability of corpora has opened new perspectives for linguistics and has
stimulated interest in the study of words and phrases, a study which was totally
marginalized during the Chomskyan era. But the wonderful data available now
through the corpora will not by themselves generate their own semantic analysis.
Nor will such semantic analysis be generated by abstract semantic theories such
as, for example, those associated with the term formal semantics. A practical

and effective methodology for studying yhe meaning of both words and pharese
is already available in NSM semantics. Using this methodology, hundreds of
meanings have already been described not perfectly, to be sure, but
systematically, empirically, and dare I say it, reasonably well.

51. What is a metaphor?

Metaphor - is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase that ordinarily
designates one thing is used to designate another, thus making an implicit
comparison, as in a sea of troubles or All the world's a stage (Shakespeare).
One thing conceived as representing another; a symbol: Hollywood has always
been an irresistible, prefabricated metaphor for the crass, the materialistic, the
shallow, and the craven (Neal Gabler).
A metaphor is a uniquely effective and memorable form of language. The
definition is simply the use of words to apply a symbol or thought to a subject
which would not ordinarily be paired. Metaphors allow a word or phrase within a
sentence to symbolize something else. For instance, the phrase "food for thought"
does not imply that you must eat to think, but that an idea or concept could be
used to energize other thoughts on the matter. There are 15 types of metaphors,
each harboring its own linguistic treasure. Types of Metaphors:

What is an Absolute Metaphor?

With an absolute metaphor, there is no relation between the subject and the
metaphoric word itself. For instance, some people say, "Oh, no! I am toast." Of
course, the person does not mean that they have been transformed into hot, dry
bread. Rather this is a metaphor for the feeling of being in trouble. Other types of
metaphors, non-absolute metaphors, have at least some relation between the subject
and the metaphoric vehicle.
What is an Active Metaphor?
An active metaphor is a type of metaphor often used in poetry and speeches to incite
thought. While active metaphors may sometimes be mistaken for absolute
metaphors, there is still some relation between the subject and descriptive words.
Shakespeare, for example, has a famous active metaphor in "Romeo and Juliet,"
"Let me compare thee to a summer's day." While the metaphor may not appear
directly connected at first, you can see how this phrase is used to compliment a

woman on her warmth and beauty, thereby making the metaphor connected and
non-absolute.
What is a Complex Metaphor?
This type of metaphor takes a simple metaphor and adds to the complexity of it.
Complex metaphors are often used in riddles, because when they are overly
complex, it is easy to become confused as to what the intended meaning might be.
For example, "He felt the steam rising" is used as a metaphor for growing angry. In
this case, "steam" symbolizes the feeling of anger and "rising" represents how that
feeling of anger grows. Another example is "throwing light on the situation," where
"light" is used to symbolize understanding and "throwing" represents the application
of said understanding to the situation at hand.
What is a Compound Metaphor?
A compound metaphor is a type of metaphor that often uses adverbs and adjectives
to entice the reader or listener. Also known as the loose metaphor, a compound
metaphor uses descriptive words in succession. For instance, "The closet was a dark,
gaping hole in which the mountain of his shoes had gathered" utilizes a compound
metaphor to describe a closet.
What are Dead, Dormant, and Dying Metaphors?
A dead metaphor is a type of metaphor that is so outdated that the meaning has been
lost in time. There are many words in the English language that are now considered
dead metaphors. On such word is "fabulous," which once meant that whatever
subject the word described must be worthy of a story or fable. Now it is used
similarly to the word "great." A dormant metaphor is one in which the subject and
descriptive word or words are not made clear in relations, such as the phrase, "She
seemed rattled." This leads to the questions of "By what? Or whom?" A dying
metaphor is one that is being used so much that it is becoming cliche. The original
meanings of dying metaphors are in jeopardy of being lost. One example is the
phrase, "Setting sail into a new career."
What is an Extended Metaphor?
This type of metaphor takes a single subject and uses multiple metaphors to describe
it. Extended metaphors are often used in powerful scenes or lines that are meant to
be memorable. "This bed is my raft, and I am adrift in the sea of dreams," is one
example of an extended metaphor. There is little confusion, but much
embellishment.

What is an Implicit Metaphor?

An implicit metaphor does not identify the subject directly, but is used more in the
sense that the subject will be understood by the description. An example of this type
of metaphor would be, "Ready to hit the sack!" The implicit metaphor is similar to
the dead and dying metaphors, but still lies within the range of common knowledge
as far as descriptive subject matter goes.
What is a Mixed Metaphor?
This type of metaphor is not consistent with itself within the sentence. The
statement, "A rolling stone gathers no bird in the hand," is a mixed metaphor in that
it takes two metaphors to describe a concept, but leaves room for clarification.
Mixed metaphors are often frowned upon in use, since they are not poetic, nor are
they very thought provoking.
What is a Pataphor?
A pataphor is a type of metaphor that takes the metaphoric qualities to the edge of
clarity. It is an extreme metaphor and is often used to express excitement. One
example of a pataphor is, "He galloped into the kitchen, snorted at the food on the
table, turned his tail, and ran." The pataphor here describes a boy with the actions of
a horse. If the metaphoric values are taken too far, though, it can be confusing as to
whether the subject is actually a boy or an animal.
What is a Simple Metaphor?
This is a type of metaphor that has a single subject and direct correlation with the
metaphoric description. The simple metaphor is rarely confusing and is used to
convey simple ideas. One example of a simple metaphor is, "I'll sleep on it." There
is no embellishment to this metaphor; the simple metaphor is straightforward.
What is a Root Metaphor?
This is one type of metaphor that may be difficult to identify. The root metaphor is
"rooted" into the language. These metaphors are mostly noted by foreigners to the
region or language. For example, "Life is a journey," is a root metaphor is often
overlooked by English natives. It is, however, still a metaphor.
What is a Submerged and Synechdochic Metaphor?
The submerged metaphor is one in which the metaphoric vehicle is deep in meaning
or requires a deeper understanding of the metaphoric meaning. One example of a
submerged metaphor is, "He legged it," which really means he ran whatever

distance there was. A synechdochic metaphor, on the other hand, is where the
singular metaphoric vehicle is used to describe a whole entity or concept. For
example, "Nice wheels!" is a compliment to someone's car. These two types of
metaphors are similar in application, but different in approach.
Metaphors are used in some of the most renowned poetry, fiction, and speeches. The
anatomy of metaphor differs to accommodate the feelings, emotions, concepts, or
events that can be described to their fullest with the use of symbolism. The 15 types
of metaphors can be found everywhere from classic literature to everyday slang.
Understanding how these metaphors work can help you write or speak your way
through either mundane or important events in an eloquent and intriguing manner.
52. Who are the authors of the book 'Metaphors we live by'?
George Lakoff and Mark Johnsen (2003) Metaphors we live by. London: The
university of Chicago press.
53. When the book 'Metaphors we live by' was published?
Originally published: Chicago 2003.
54. What did LAKOFF and JOHNSON suggest?
Lakoff and Johnson (1980) suggest a different question to pose about any metaphor:
"What does this metaphor illuminate and what does it obscure about relationships?"
George Lakoff and Mark Johnson suggest that these basic metaphors not only affect
the way we communicate ideas, but actually structure our perceptions and
understandings from the beginning. Bringing together the perspectives of linguistics
and philosophy, Lakoff and Johnson offer an intriguing and surprising guide to
some of the most common metaphors and what they can tell us about the human
mind. And for this new edition, they supply an afterword both extending their
arguments and offering a fascinating overview of the current state of thinking on the
subject of the metaphor.
55. What do metaphors represent?
Metaphor is for most people a device of the poetic imagination and the rhetorical
flourisha matter of extraordinary rather than ordinary language. Moreover,
metaphor is typieully viewed as characteristic of language alone, a matter of words
rather than thought or action. For this reason, most people think they can get along
perfectly well without metaphor. We have found, on the contrary, that metaphor is
pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action
56. What do metaphors reflect?
Metaphors, as elements of language and thought, provided a rich source of
information about how people make sense of their lives, aligned well with our
clinical inquiry approach, and generated rich data and methods for analysis.
According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980), metaphors are not just descriptors of
reality; they reflect cognitive frameworks within which actors make sense of their
own actions and those of others. Metaphors provide a rich source of information
about how people interpret their world and reveal the distinctions that shape thought
and behavior in organizational life.

57.How many metaphor source domains were reliably identified?

The metaphor source domains used to talk about the self seem to be very limited.
Only 22 metaphor source domains were reliably identified to describe a large corpus
of 4,000 metaphorical expressions, with the most frequent eight metaphor source
domains already describing 68% of all metaphorical expressions used. The
metaphors identified most likely represent the shared cultural understanding of the
self. On the other hand, significant differences in frequency could be found within
these 22 metaphor source domains, depending on gender, professional education
and preferred life styles of the subjects interviewed..
58. Why were metaphor source domains reliably identified?
The Source Domain is the key to the Guiding Metaphor (those introducted by a
mediator as an intervention).
Once the Source Domain is triggered, more detail or other aspects (entailments),
patterns, relationships, logic, inferences, etc., are noticed which are part of the
Source Domain, depicted in the diagram as the colored shapes.
The Source Domain is opened by introducing a Metaphor. Because the Metaphor is
"apt" to the degree that it has corresponding elements and relationships. Once this
better-known, physically experienced, vivid or practiced Source Domain is opened.
59. What do the metaphors represent?
Metaphors represent general cognitive abilities of analogical reasoning, which can
be understood in the terms of schema theory and the theory of mental models in
cognitive psychology. Yet at the same time, metaphors are context-sensitive and
reflect social and cultural processes of understanding and self-definition. As studies
about the self-concept have shown (MOSER 1998), metaphorical expressions used
in narrative interviews to describe oneself can be differentiated on different levels.
metaphors represent tentative mental models, by which people create meanings and
communicate those meanings to others, they offer "raw material" to the social
scientists wishing to study
60. What did Lakoff and Johnson argue about?
In Metaphors We Live By by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson ague about how
we use metaphor on a day-to-day basis. A metaphor is a figure of speech that
describes a subject by asserting that it is in some point of comparison. It is not
something that we think about often, but metaphors are part of our everyday
lives.Lakoff and Johnson explained, our culture has significant influence on how we
use metaphors; where we as Americans see arguing in terms of war, they want to get
the high ground. Other cultures view arguing as a dance, methodical, precise and
meant to entertain one another. Metaphors are a part of everyday life. We are often
unaware how much we really use them. For example, Time is money (11). Time
is very important and precious in our culture. Time is like money, we dont want
every bit of it to go to waste because we want it to last a little longer. Lakoff and
Johnson go on to argue that the "human thought processes are largely metaphorical"
(8), which is a valid statement for the reason that they have analyzed phases that are
utilized daily. In our thriving business world, the word time is a valuable asset, a
limited resource, and is needed to be productive in our surroundings. In the topic
Argument is War the authors speak of arguments in terms of battles. I find these

metaphors interesting because they make our experiences or literature vivid and
exciting. Being that there is no physical battle, there is a verbal battle involved in the
conversation, and an argument is thereby structured. An example mentioned in the
article was, He attacked every weak point in my argument (Johnson, 1980). This
metaphor is used to describe that this opponent found faults or holes in his argument
and was left in the more passive position of defending his argument...
61. Embodiment naive denition: "possessing and acing through a physical
manifestation in the world" elaborate denition: "Embodied phenomena are those
that by their very nature occur in real time and real space"
Embodiment for something to be embodied, it must be perceptible by the body, or
related to something that the mind has understood through bodily experience.
Embodiment the shift of a concept from the abstract to the concrete
Philosophy of embodiment: In essence embodiment as an idea binds two worlds of
substance and spirit, a duality long perceived through notables like Descartes. The
core idea looks to nd the biological substrate not as a vessel, but as the being itself.
The mind and spirit are not a sublimation of the biology, but are a method of its
workings. Thus body and mind are fused into a single being - the only distinction
between matter and person being the way of observing the being.
Embodiment is also noticing the tendency to want to pull away from uncomfortable
experience (and usually that means the uncomfortable sensations that we associate
with experiences) and choosing to move toward them with a combination of
curiosity and love. This practice alone will change lives.
62. What is anger accompanied by according to physiological studies?
According to physiological studies, anger is accompanied by several physiological
reactions, such as increase in skin temperature, in respiration rate, blood pressure,
and heart rate (Ekman et al. 1983). These are universal physiological reactions that
derive from the human body and explain why we find the same generic-level
conceptual metaphor in languages and cultures that are independent from each other
(Kvecses 2002/2010). At the same time, we can observe that the different
languages and cultures do not attend to the same physiological reactions associated
with anger. While in English and Hungarian a rise in body temperature and increase
in blood pressure receive equal attention, in Chinese the presence of PRESSURE
seems to be much more focal (Yu 1998). Moreover, as Rosaldos (1980) work tells
us, the main physiological characteristic of anger among the Ilongot of New Guinea
is an undifferentiated and generalized state of physiological arousal. In other words,
it seems that different languages and cultures base their anger-concepts on different
components and levels of embodiment, thereby creating partly universal, partly
culture-specific concepts.
63. How many simultaneous pressure does metaphorical conceptualization in
natural situations occur?
Metaphorical conceptualization in natural situations occurs under two simultaneous
pressures: the pressure of embodiment and the pressure of context.
64. What simultaneous pressure do you know?

We argue that the pressure of embodiment, the pressure of context and the pressure
of being relevant working parallel to motivate metaphor production and
interpretation. The three pressures can be given different levels of explanation. The
pressure of being relevant is the personal level explanation, and the pressure of
embodiment and the pressure of context are the sub-personal level explanation,
respectively.
65. What is determined by local culture?
Context is determined by local culture. This dual pressure essentially amounts to our
effort to be coherent both with the body and culture coherent both with universal
embodiment and the culture-specificity of local culture in the course of metaphorical
conceptualization. We can achieve this in some cases, but in others it is either
embodiment or cultural specificity that plays the more important role. Context may
be characterized by physical, social, cultural, discourse, etc. aspects, and it consists
of such factors as the setting, topic, audience, and medium, which can all influence
metaphorical conceptualization. For example, Boers (1999) showed that physical
context may systematically shape the way we think metaphorically. Boers studied
the ECONOMY IS HEALTH metaphor in a ten-year period, and found that the use
of this metaphor is systematically more frequent in the winter than in the summer.
ECONOMY IS HEALTH is a potentially universal metaphor whose use varies
according to the physical context of metaphorical conceptualization.
66. What is the most obvious dimension along which metaphors vary?
The most obvious dimension along which metaphors vary is the cross-cultural
dimension. Variation in this dimension can be found in several distinct forms. One
of them is what we call congruence. This is obtained between a generic-level
metaphor and several specific-level ones. Another is the case where a culture uses a
set of different source domains for a particular target domain, or conversely, where
a culture uses a particular source domain for conceptualising a set of different
target domains. Yet another situation involves cases where the set of conceptual
metaphors for a particular target domain is roughly the same between two
languages/cultures, but one language/culture shows a clear preference for some of
the conceptual metaphors that are employed. Finally, there may be some
conceptual metaphors that appear to be unique to a given language/culture.
I will demonstrate congruence and alternative metaphorical conceptualization by
some examples. Congruent metaphors. There is some evidence that THE ANGRY
PERSON IS A PRESSURIZED CONTAINER metaphor may be near-universal (see
Kvecses 2000a). What is especially important about this conceptual metaphor is
that it functions at an extremely general level. The metaphor does not specify many
things that could be specified. For example, it does not say what kind of container is
used, how the pressure arises, whether the container is heated or not, what kind of
substance fills the container (liquid, substance, or objects), what consequences the
explosion has, and so on. The metaphor constitutes a generic schema that gets filled
out by each culture that has the metaphor. When it is filled out, it receives unique
cultural content at a specific level. In other words, a generic-level conceptual
metaphor is instantiated in culture-specific ways at a specific level. This is one kind
of crosscultural variation.

Alternative metaphors. There can be differences in the range of conceptual

metaphors (or, more precisely, the range of source domains) that languages and
cultures have available for the conceptualization of particular target domains. This is
what commonly happens in the case of emotion concepts as targets. Chinese shares
with English all the basic metaphorical source domains for happiness: UP, LIGHT,
FLUID IN A CONTAINER. A metaphor that Chinese has, but English does not, is
HAPPINESS IS FLOWERS IN THE HEART. According to Ning Yu (1995, 1998),
the application of this metaphor reflects the more introverted character of
Chinese. He sees this conceptual metaphor as a contrast to the (American) English
metaphor BEING HAPPY IS BEING OFF THE GROUND, which does not exist in
Chinese at all and which reflects the relatively extroverted character of speakers
of (especially American) English.
67. What has the use of 'authentic texts' been?
The authenticity of the texts - the texts of the agreement shall be made in the
languages of the parties to the Treaty, with multilingual texts should its logical
content to match. This must be specified that in the event of any conflict, the text of
a particular language.
In international law the term authentic text used in those cases where the text of the
Treaty was drafted, agreed and adopted the same language, but for convenience the
text of this agreement is contained in two or more languages. In this case, as a
General rule, the text of the agreement in each of the languages is equally genuine
and equal force, that is equally authentic (authentic text is set in two or more
languages). In this case, the agreement may be directly specified text in any
language (or languages) will be the predominant force in the event of a dispute in
the interpretation of this document.
68. What have many scholars in language education questioned?
In reality, effective questioning does not always happen, even among teachers with
considerable experience in teaching. Nunan and Lamb's (1996) research on
questioning in language education reveals that over the years, teachers still pose
questions in much the same way as always, with most of the questions low-level,
despite improvement in teaching materials, curricula, and methods of teaching (see
also Ornstein, 1995). Findings from Ghazali's (1998) study on questioning in
Malaysia indicate that most teachers have problems utilizing the whole range of
questions (low- and high-level thinking, convergent, divergent, and literal and
inferential questions) available to them. Low-level thinking questions invoke lower
cognitive processing such as memorizing facts and concrete information, and are
useful for students who have no pre-requisite knowledge and who need to
experience simple questions before moving on to complex and more abstract
thinking (Ornstein, 1995). Literal and convergent questions are also low-level.
Literal questions have obvious intent and answers can be lifted directly from the text
(Cruickshank, Bainer, & Metcalf, 1995; Muijs & Reynolds, 2001). Convergent
questions deal with facts, and also with logic and complex data, abstract ideas,

analogies, and complex relationships (Ornstein, 1995; Moore, 1995). An example is

"Who wrote the novel The Pearl?" In contrast, high-level thinking questions go
beyond memory and factual information, and involve analysis, synthesis, cause and
effect relationships, or problem solving about complex situations (Ornstein, 1995;
Arends, 1997). Divergent and inferential questions are high-level. While inferential
questions go beyond basic meaning and require learners to apply their prior
knowledge in trying to decipher their intent (Frazee & Rudnitski, 1995), divergent
questions deal with opinions, hypotheses, and evaluations; are open-ended;
encourage broad responses; and have a variety of appropriate answers (Ornstein,
1995; Moore, 1995; Kauchak & Eggen, 1998). "How does John Steinbeck use his
characters to discuss the village community in The Pearl?" is a divergent question
and "What does this paragraph tell us about the doctor's life?" is an inferential
question.
69. What is the concept of authenticity?
Authenticity is a technical term used in psychology as well as existentialist
philosophy and aesthetics. In existentialism, authenticity is the degree to which one
is true to one's own personality, spirit, or character, despite external pressures; the
conscious self is seen as coming to terms with being in a material world and with
encountering external forces, pressures and influences which are very different
from, and other than, itself. A lack of authenticity is considered in existentialism to
be bad faith.
70. What does Widdowson (1979) make?
Widdowson is Emeritus Professor of Education, University of London, and has also
been Professor of Applied Linguistics at the University of Essex and Professor of
English Linguistics at the University of Vienna. He is the Applied Linguistics
adviser to Oxford University Press and series adviser of Oxford Bookworms
Collection.
Widdowson made Teaching language as Communication. He is perhaps best
known for his contribution to communicative language teaching.
71. What does authenticity refer to?
Authenticity refers to the truthfulness of origins, attributions, commitments,
sincerity, devotion, and intentions. Widdowson (1983) made some modifications to
the concept of authenticity and divided it into two different aspects genuine and
authentic. According to Widdowson a text is con-sidered genuine if it represents
the typical language used in real life situations, on the other hand, the term
authentic, refers to the appropriatenessof the response from the listener or reader.
In other words, genuineness was related to text; authenticity was related to task.
72. What have foreign language teachers to design in order to achieve cultural
authenticity?
73. Who is the author of this statement?

Lack of knowledge of socio pragmatic aspects of communication (social and

cultural norms associated with interaction) can constitute a barrier to successful
communication in a second language.
.Lack of knowledge of socio pragmatic aspects of communication (social and
cultural norms associated with interaction) can constitute a barrier to successful
communication in a second language (Eslami-Rasekh, 2005)...

74. Who says:

Socio pragmatic norms are not acquired through simple immersion, and that some
form of explicit instruction is helpful.
Research shows that socio pragmatic norms are not acquired through simple
immersion, and that some form of explicit instruction is helpful (Kasper & Roever,
2004).
75.Pragmatics is concerned with how people use language within a context, in reallife situations. While semantics is concerned with words, phrases and sentences, the
unit of analysis in pragmatics is an utterance made in a concrete communicative
context. Pragmatics is concerned with how factors such as time, place and the social
relationship between speaker and hearer affect the ways in which language is used
to perform different functions.
23:49:15
pragmatics is concerned with characterizing the behavior of language users (as
performance), one of the main challenges in bringing the two disciplines together
will be to investigate the possible links between typically human, rational
knowledge and purposeful, for the larger part culturally acquired behavior.
76.What do determine rules of interaction include?
is an exchange of information between two or more people. It is also an area of
study. Related skills are learned and can be improved. During interpersonal
communication there is message sending and message receiving. This can be
conducted using both direct and indirect methods. Successful interpersonal
communication is when the message senders and the message receivers understand
the message.
Linguistic is primarily the study of language that is divided into three broad aspects
including the form of language, the meaning of language, and the context or
function of language. The first aspect, form is based on the words and sounds of
language and uses the words to make sentences that make sense. The second aspect,
meaning, focuses on the meaning and significance of the words and sentences that
human beings have put together. The third aspect, function, or context is based on

recognizing the meaning of the words and sentences being said and using them to
understand why a person is communicating.
77. What does kinesics include?
Kinesics is the interpretation of body motion communication such as facial
expressions and gestures that is, nonverbal behavior related to movement of any
part of the body or the body as a whole. The equivalent popular culture term is body
language, a term Ray Birdwhistell -- considered the founder of this area of study never used, and did not consider appropriate (on the grounds that what can be
conveyed with the body does not meet the linguist's definition of language). Even
so, many people use this term.
Kinesics was first used (in 1952) by Ray Birdwhistell, an anthropologist who
wished to study how people communicate through posture, gesture, stance, and
movement. His ideas over several decades were synthesized and resulted in the
book, Kinesics and Context. Interest in kinesics specifically and nonverbal behavior
generally was popularized during the late 1960s and early 1970s, through such
popular mass market (definitely not academic) publications as How to Read a
Person Like a Book. Part of Birdwhistell's work involved filming people in social
situations and analyzing them to show elements of communication not clearly seen
otherwise. One of the most important of his projects was The Natural History of an
Interview, a long-term interdisciplinary collaboration including Gregory Bateson,
Frieda Fromm-Reichmann, Norman A. McQuown, Henry W. Brosin, and
others.Drawing heavily on descriptive linguistics, Birdwhistell argued that all
movements of the body have meaning (i.e. are not accidental), and that non-verbal
behavior has a grammar that can be analyzed in similar terms to spoken language.
Thus, a "kineme" is "similar to a phoneme because it consists of a group of
movements which are not identical, but which may be used interchangeably without
affecting social meaning".
78.Who says: An understanding of pragmatics is important, not only for people
who settle in a country where the dominant language and culture is not their own
but, by implication, for those who interpret for them.
It said Eslami -Rasekh,2005: Kasper & Roever,2004
79. Who says: For advanced learners, pragmatic infelicities can be less acceptable
to native speakers than grammatical errors.
According Bardovi-Harlig & Drnyei, 1998, For advanced learners, pragmatic
infelicities can be less acceptable to native speakers than grammatical errors.
80. Why is for trainee interpreters, who are advanced learners, knowledge of the
norms vital?
For trainee interpreters, who are advanced learners, knowledge of these norms is
vital because their ability to interpret or convey intended pragmatic meaning is
essential, and mistakes can lead to serious miscommunication.
81. What are after fully authentic spoken texts the next most authentic?

There are a variety of types of authentic sample spoken texts for teaching
pragmatics can be mentioned. These vary in degree of authenticity which, in
general, depends on the extent to which the exchange in the spoken text is naturally
occurring and whether it is scripted or not. There is a continuum from fully
authentic spoken texts to non authentic spoken texts which are scripted and written
primarily with English language teaching in mind, often with a grammar or topic
focus. After fully authentic spoken texts the next most authentic are semi-authentic
unscripted texts. These are made by recording an unscripted role-play between
expert or native speakers and contain many of the features of fully authentic
exchanges. Next in the continuum is semi-authentic scripted. Here the exchange is
modelled on fully authentic exchanges and contains many of the features of these,
but is scripted. The non authentic text has very few of the features of authentic
exchanges and is also scripted.
82. What difficulties do teachers see in teaching and developing materials based on
the use of authentic texts?
The main concern was that materials are suited to the needs of the curriculum and
learners, and the perception is that existing authentic materials may not meet these
criteria. The most frequently mentioned concern was a perception that fully
authentic texts were too difficult or inaccessible in terms of complexity for lower
levels: Because people dont make sense when they speak, they speak gobble-degook, and so on. Another difficulty is the lack of texts that focus on the particular
content of the course and/or needs of learners, a lack of language features normally
taught in the course, and so on.
83. What was the most frequently mentioned concern?
The most frequently mentioned concern was a perception that fully authentic texts
were too difficult or inaccessible in terms of complexity for lower levels:
Because people dont make sense when they speak, they speak gobble-de-gook, and
so on.
Here is the list of the authentic texts and they can be:
texts of casual conversation (N=9) and transactional exchanges (N=13).
texts of academic presentation and discussion and five mentioned texts of
employment focussed situations.
texts with New Zealand speakers.
texts illustrating norms of politeness (N= 7 8) and conversation (N=8).
texts illustrating norms in transactional exchanges (N= 5).
84. What another difficulty do teachers see in teaching and developing materials
based on the use of authentic texts?
The main concern was that materials are suited to the needs of the curriculum and
learners, and the perception is that existing authentic materials may not meet these
criteria. The most frequently mentioned concern was a perception that fully
authentic texts were too difficult or inaccessible in terms of complexity for lower
levels: Because people dont make sense when they speak, they speak gobble-degook, and so on. Another difficulty is the lack of texts that focus on the particular
content of the course and/or needs of learners, a lack of language features normally
taught in the course, and so on.

85. What was the main concern about existing authentic materials?
The main concern was that materials are suited to the needs of the curriculum and
learners, and the perception is that existing authentic materials may not meet these
criteria. The most frequently mentioned concern was a perception that fully
authentic texts were too difficult or inaccessible in terms of complexity for lower
levels:
Because people dont make sense when they speak, they speak gobble-de-gook, and
so on.
Another difficulty is the lack of texts that focus on the particular content of the
course and/or needs of learners, a lack of language features normally taught in the
course, and so on.
86. Which is not the authentic text?
There are a variety of types of authentic sample spoken texts for teaching
pragmatics can be mentioned. These vary in degree of authenticity which, in
general, depends on the extent to which the exchange in the spoken text is naturally
occurring and whether it is scripted or not. There is a continuum from fully
authentic spoken texts to non authentic spoken texts which are scripted and written
primarily with English language teaching in mind, often with a grammar or topic
focus. The non authentic text has very few of the features of authentic exchanges
and is also scripted.
87. What was the main item teachers reported focusing on in instruction?
The main item teachers reported focusing on in instruction was speech acts.
By far the main item teachers reported focusing on in instruction was speech acts.
Most teachers appeared to focus on at least one of a set of speech acts that across the
group included the following: giving invitations and opinions (including agreeing
and disagreeing), making requests, appointments and introductions, greetings and
thanking. The teachers also mentioned teaching responding to speech acts and
demonstrating to learners the need to extend rather than give minimal responses to
speech acts. It was apparent that the different teachers and classes focused on
different speech acts, and no one speech act seemed to be more important than
others across teachers and classes.
88. What did most teachers appear to focus on?
Most teachers appeared to focus on at least one of a set of speech acts that across the
group included the following: giving invitations and opinions (including agreeing
and disagreeing), making requests, appointments and introductions, greetings and
thanking. The teachers also mentioned teaching responding to speech acts and
demonstrating to learners the need to extend rather than give minimal responses to
speech acts. It was apparent that the different teachers and classes focused on
different speech acts, and no one speech act seemed to be more important than
others across teachers and classes. The second main item teachers reported focusing
on was politeness. Politeness appeared to mean different things to different
teachers and some of the words that the teachers used in association with the terms
polite or politeness were acting appropriately, acceptable topics (to talk about), how
you come across and politeness strategies. Other aspects of pragmatics that one or

two teachers reported focusing on were teaching softeners, turn taking, awareness of
kinesics (body language and gesture) and intonation.

89. What did one of a set of speech acts include?

One of a set of speech acts that across the group included the following: giving
invitations and opinions (including agreeing and disagreeing), making requests,
appointments and introductions, greetings and thanking.
90. What did the teachers also mention to speech acts?
The teachers also mentioned teaching responding to speech acts and demonstrating
to learners the need to extend rather than give minimal responses to speech acts. It
was apparent that the different teachers and classes focused on different speech acts,
and no one speech act seemed to be more important than others across teachers and
classes.
91. What did the teachers demonstrate to speech acts?
The teachers demonstrated to learners the need to extend rather than give minimal
responses to speech acts.
92. What was apparent about speech act?
It was apparent that the different teachers and classes focused on different speech
acts, and no one speech act seemed to be more important than others across teachers
and classes.
93. What was the second main item teacher reported focusing?
The second main item teachers reported focusing on was politeness. Politeness is the
manner of speaking. There are positive and negative politeness. Positive politeness
includes offering friendship, using compliments, and informal language use: treating
others as friends and allies, not imposing on them, and never threaten their face.
Negative politeness deals with deference, apologizing, indirectness, and formality in
language use: adopting a variety of strategies so as to avoid any threats to the face
others.
94. Why did politeness appear?
Politeness appeared to mean different things to different teachers and some of the
words that the teachers used in association with the terms polite or politeness were
acting appropriately, acceptable topics (to talk about), how you come across and
politeness strategies.
95. What were other aspects of pragmatics that one or two teachers reported
focusing on?
Other aspects of pragmatics that one or two teachers reported focusing on were
teaching softeners, turn taking, awareness of kinesics (body language and gesture)
and intonation.
The term "kinesics" was first used (in 1952) by Ray Birdwhistell. It is the study of
body movements.

Gesture: - It is the motion of the body to express the speech.

Body movements: - is used to understand what people are communicating with their
gestures and posture.
96. Who says It is possible to get very short extracts from authentic samples to
teach key pragmatic features such as key responses in adjacency pairs,
backchannelling giving feedback in conversation.
I was reported by Englefield, 2008, other routine politeness formula by Tateyama,
2001, and key expressions used in speech act
97. Who says that other routine politeness formula and key expressions used in
speech acts such as polite requests and refusals. (Tateyama, 2001),
The rejection of the use of authentic texts for lower level classes to teach sociocultural norms is understandable but there are documented ways round teachers
concerns. It is possible to get very short extracts from authentic samples to teach key
pragmatic features such as key responses in adjacency pairs, backchanneling giving
feedback in conversation (as reported by Englefield, 2008) other routine politeness
formula (Tateyama, 2001), and key expressions used in speech acts such as polite
requests and refusals. It is also possible to simplify authentic texts,re-scriptand rerecord them, retaining the features that learners can readily notice and acquire.This
approach has been used successfully in the Listening to Australia/ New Zealand
series (Butterworth, 2000)and it might be possible to mentor and support teachers to
do this.There are plans to do this with one of the teachers involved in the second
stage of the project
98. What is also possible to do with authentic texts?
The use of 'authentic texts' has been one of the most important criteria
acknowledged by writers of textbooks for foreign language teaching. Some claim
that the concept of authenticity is an 'illusion' for classroom teaching. On the basis
of the review, it looks at authenticity from a perspective that takes intercultural
communicative competence as a point of departure. In this connection, it addresses
four fundamental issues of authenticity for textbook writing in countries where
English is taught as a foreign or second language, namely mutual representations,
intention and interpretation, diachrony and synchrony and principles of contrivance.
The importance of using authentic texts: Because reading is a meaning-making
activity, its important to engage learners with texts that are meaningful to them.
This does not mean that they always need to be about familiar content, but that the
texts are interesting and worth reading. Learners need to be able to connect to the
text in some way, and have a purpose for reading it. Selecting texts to use for
instructional and practice purposes is a particular challenge at this level. Unlike
learners working at Step 2 and above on the learning progressions, learners at this
level will not be able to use most everyday texts, such as newspapers, or specialist
texts such as workbooks or manuals to learn and practise their skills.
99. Who simplified authentic texts?
Widdowson (1983) proposed the idea of using simple in contrast to simplified
materials for beginners and authentic ones for intermediate and advanced learners.
He deems simplified teaching sources as inadequate due to the fact that they are

doctored to match L2 learners level of proficiency; hence, losing the real-life

characteristics of the original text.
100. Who says There is an emphasis on the teaching of reading, listening and
writing skills when oral skills and knowledge of socio-cultural norms are equally
important for more proficient speakers in employment and academic settings.
The researchers showed that all teachers currently teaching spoken language (ie all
but three respondents) mentioned teaching at least one type of socio-cultural norm,
although the language used was often vague.
The teaching of spoken English norms at higher levels seems to be largely lacking.
There is an emphasis on the teaching of reading, listening and writing skills when
oral skills and knowledge of socio-cultural norms are equally important for more
proficient speakers in employment and academic settings (Eslami-Rasekh, 2005).
101.Which is not a scientific paradigm in linguistics:
paradigm is a distinct concept or thought pattern. Scientific paradigm is the basic
meaning of the term paradigm as "a typical example or pattern of something; a
pattern or model". Traditionally, there are three scientific paradigms in linguistics:
comparative-historical, system-structural, and finally, anthropocentric or
anthropological.
Anthropological paradigm in linguistics studying the relationship and interaction of
language and culture is currently experiencing a period of prosperity. There are a
number of reasons. First, it is the rapid globalization of the world's problems, the
need to know in advance the situations that can cause intercultural
misunderstanding, the importance of identifying accurately those cultural values
which form the basis of communication. Second, it is an objective integrative
tendency for the humanities and social sciences, the need to interpret linguistic
results with the help of related disciplines (psychology, sociology, anthropology,
cultural studies, political science, etc.). Third, it is the applied aspect of linguistics,
understanding of language as a means of concentrated reflection of collective
experience encoded in the meanings of words, idioms, clichs, etc., and its
importance for foreign language learning.
102.The discipline that studies similarities and differences in lingua-cultures of
various peoples is called Lingua-culture Studies.
Comprehensive and generally accepted definition of the Lingua-Culture Studies was
given by V. Vorobyov: LCS is a complex synthesizing discipline that studies the
relationship and interaction of language and culture. S. Kosharnaya elaborates this
understanding of Lingua-Culture Studies, defining LCS as a scientific discipline that
studies the process of understanding and reflection of the material and spiritual
culture in the national language. According to Alefrienko, LCS is a scientific
discipline that studies (a) the methods and means of culture representation in the
target language, (b) the presentation of the national mentality in a language, and (c)
patterns of expression of cultural categories in the semantics of linguistic units.

103.The discipline that studies similarities and differences in lingua-cultures of

various peoples is called Lingua-Culture Studies (LCS).
Comprehensive and generally accepted definition of the Lingua-Culture Studies was
given by V. Vorobyov: LCS is a complex synthesizing discipline that studies the
relationship and interaction of language and culture. S. Kosharnaya elaborates this
understanding of Lingua-Culture Studies, defining LCS as a scientific discipline that
studies the process of understanding and reflection of the material and spiritual
culture in the national language. According to Alefrienko, LCS is a scientific
discipline that studies (a) the methods and means of culture representation in the
target language, (b) the presentation of the national mentality in a language, and (c)
patterns of expression of cultural categories in the semantics of linguistic units.
104. Sociolinguistics is descriptive study of the effect of any and all aspects of
society including: cultural norms, expectations and context on the way
language is usedand the effects of language use on society.
105.The term heteroglossia describes the coexistence of distinct varieties within a
single "language" . In this way the term translates the Russian
[raznorechie] , which was introduced by the Russian linguist Mikhail Bakhtin in his
1934 paper [Slovo v romane], published in English as "Discourse
in the Novel."
106.ethnocentrism is a basic attitude expressing the belief that ones own ethnic
group or ones own culture is superior to other ethnic groups or cultures, and that
ones cultural standards can be applied in a universal manner.
107.Which statement does not illustrate the Linguistic relativity principle
The linguistic relativity principle, or the SapirWhorf hypothesis,[1] is the idea
that differences in the way languages encode cultural and cognitive categories affect
the way people think, so that speakers of different languages will tend to think and
behave differently depending on the language they use. The hypothesis is generally
understood as having two different versions: (i) the strong version that language
determines thought and that linguistic categories limit and determine cognitive
categories and (ii) the weak version that linguistic categories and usage influence
thought and certain kinds of non-linguistic behavior.
This usage has been criticized as a misnomer, since Sapir and Whorf did not in fact
formulate a hypothesis for empirical research, and because it is unclear to what
extent Sapir actually subscribed to the idea of language influencing thought.
Currently, researchers prefer to use Whorf's own terminology, by referring to the
principle of linguistic relativity. This formulation implicitly acknowledges that
Sapir and Whorf were not the first or only scholars to have theorized about relations
between language and thought and that other strands of thinking about the issue also
exist.

108. A language that is at risk of falling out of use as its speakers die out or shift to
speaking another languages is called endangered language .
109/A language that is no longer spoken by anyone as a native language is called An
extinct language is a language that no longer has any speakers,[1] or that is no
longer in current use. Extinct languages are sometimes contrasted with dead
languages, which are still known and used in special contexts in written form, but
not as ordinary spoken languages for everyday communication. However, language
extinction and language death are often equated.
Normally the transition from a spoken to an extinct language occurs when a
language undergoes language death while being directly replaced by a different one.
For example, some Native American languages were replaced by English, French,
Portuguese, Spanish, or Dutch as a result of colonization.
In contrast to an extinct language, which no longer has any speakers, a dead
language may remain in use for scientific, legal, or ecclesiastical functions. Old
Church Slavonic, Classical Armenian, Avestan, Coptic, Biblical Hebrew, New
Testament Greek, Ge'ez, Ardhamagadhi, Pali, Sanskrit and Latin are among the
many dead languages used as sacred languages. Courses and active teaching still
exist for these, as well as Egyptian Hieroglyphs and Maya script.
Sometimes a language that has changed so much that linguists describe it as a
different language (or different stage) is called "extinct", as in the case of Old
English, a forerunner of Modern English. But in such cases, the language never
ceased to be used by speakers, and as linguists' subdivisions in the process of
language change are fairly arbitrary, such forerunner languages are not properly
speaking extinct.
110. The term heteroglossia describes the coexistence of distinct varieties within a
single "language" (in Greek: hetero- "different" and glssa "tongue, language"). In
this way the term translates the Russian [raznorechie] (literally
"different-speech-ness"), which was introduced by the Russian linguist Mikhail
Bakhtin in his 1934 paper [Slovo v romane], published in English
as "Discourse in the Novel."
Bakhtin argues that the power of the novel originates in the coexistence of, and
conflict between, different types of speech: the speech of characters, the speech of
narrators, and even the speech of the author. He defines heteroglossia as "another's
speech in another's language, serving to express authorial intentions but in a
refracted way." Bakhtin identifies the direct narrative of the author, rather than
dialogue between characters, as the primary location of this conflict.
A language that currently has living native speakers is called a modern language.
Ethnologue records 7,358 living languages known.
111.What are the reasons for language death?

What causes this? How does one become the last speaker of a language, as Boa Sr
was before her death in 2010? How do languages come to be spoken only by elders
and not children? There are a number of bad answers to these questions. One is
globalization, a nebulous term used disparagingly to refer to either global economic
specialization and the division of labor, or the adoption of similar cultural practices
across the globe.
The problem with globalization in the latter sense is that it is the result, not a cause,
of language decline. Another bad answer, encompassed in the former definition of
globalization, is trade and capitalism. Trade does not kill languages any more than it
kills any other type of cultural practice, like painting or music. Trade enhances the
exchange of cultural practices and fosters their proliferation; it does not generally
diminish them. Historically, regional trade has fostered the creation of many new
lingua francas, and the result tends to be a stable, healthy bilingualism between the
local language and the regional trade language. It is only when the state adopts a
trade language as official and, in a fit of linguistic nationalism, foists it upon its
citizens, that trade languages become "killer languages."
Most importantly, what both of the above answers overlook is that speaking a global
language or a language of trade does not necessitate the abandonment of one's
mother tongue. The average person on this planet speaks three or four languages.
Must youth in Japan abandon Japanese in order to partake in global English
commerce? Must a business executive in Germany stop speaking German to her
kids in order to be successful at her English-speaking office? Why bother giving up
one language for another when you can just speak both?
112. How does a language influence the construction of the shared view of reality
held by speakers of that common language?
he principle of linguistic relativity holds that the structure of a language affects the
ways in which its respective speakers conceptualize their world, i.e. their world
view, or otherwise influences their cognitive processes. Popularly known as the
SapirWhorf hypothesis, or Whorfianism, the principle is often defined to include
two versions. The strong version says that language determines thought, and that
linguistic categories limit and determine cognitive categories, whereas the weak
version says only that linguistic categories and usage influence thought and certain
kinds of non-linguistic behavior.
The term "SapirWhorf hypothesis" is a misnomer, because Edward Sapir and
Benjamin Lee Whorf never co-authored anything, and never stated their ideas in
terms of a hypothesis. The distinction between a weak and a strong version of this
hypothesis is also a later invention; Sapir and Whorf never set up such a dichotomy,
although often in their writings their views of this relativity principle are phrased in
stronger or weaker terms.[1][2]

The idea was first clearly expressed by 19th-century thinkers, such as Wilhelm von
Humboldt, who saw language as the expression of the spirit of a nation. Members of
the early 20th-century school of American anthropology headed by Franz Boas and
Edward Sapir also embraced forms of the idea to one extent or another, but Sapir in
particular wrote more often against than in favor of anything like linguistic
determinism. Sapir's student, Benjamin Lee Whorf, came to be seen as the primary
proponent as a result of his published observations of how he perceived linguistic
differences to have consequences in human cognition and behavior. Harry Hoijer,
one of Sapir's students, introduced the term "SapirWhorf hypothesis",[3] even
though the two scholars never formally advanced any such hypothesis.[4] A strong
version of relativist theory was developed from the late 1920s by the German
linguist Leo Weisgerber. Whorf's principle of linguistic relativity was reformulated
as a testable hypothesis by Roger Brown and Eric Lenneberg who conducted
experiments designed to find out whether color perception varies between speakers
of languages that classified colors differently. As the study of the universal nature of
human language and cognition came into focus in the 1960s the idea of linguistic
relativity fell out of favor among linguists. A 1969 study by Brent Berlin and Paul
Kay demonstrated the existence of universal semantic constraints in the field of
color terminology which were widely seen to discredit the existence of linguistic
relativity in this domain, although this conclusion has been disputed by relativist
researchers.
113. Culture is the total way of life of a people including the patterns of belief,
customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life
of the human community.
As culture is so inclusive, it permeates virtually every aspect of human life and
influences predominantly peoples behavior, including linguistic behavior.Language
is the carrier of culture. Any kind of language reflects its corresponding culture.
Over the years, the relationship between language and culture has not been
given sufficient attention in English teaching. In teaching practice, it seems
that as long as the abilities of listening, speaking, reading and writing are
trained, thelearners can master the pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar rules
and communicate in English influently. In fact, because it is difficult for us to
understand the cultural background of the language and the differences between
Chinese and western culture, the phenomenon of ambiguity, misunderstanding
and pragmatic failures appears frequently. For example, the expression How
much can you earn in a month represents the interest of foreigners, which violates
the privacy of others and will offend the otherside. The Chinese people take
humility as a virtue. When foreigners praise the talent of a Chinese, the Chinese
people usually answer you are overpraising me, (I'm flattered.) which often makes
the speakers feel that you are doubting his judgment. It has repeatedly been
found that learners who lack sufficient knowledge about the target culture can

hardly become active and appropriate language users in their target language.
For these reasons, the information concerning cultural differences has rightly been
introduced into language classrooms of different kinds for enhancing learners
cultural consciousness and improving their performance in cross-cultural contexts of
communication.
114.Sapir-Whorf hypothesis claims that
In linguistics, the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis states
that there are certain thoughts of an individual in
one language that cannot be understood by those
who live in another language.
The hypothesis states that the way people think is
strongly affected by their native languages.
It is a controversial theory championed by linguist
Edward Sapir and his student Benjamin Whorf.
Linguistic relativity:
Structural differences between languages are paralleled
by nonlinguistic cognitive differences
(the structure of the language itself effects cognition)
The number and the type of the basic colour words of a
language determine how a subject sees the rain bow
Linguistic determinism = extreme "Weltanschauung"
version of the hypothesis:
The structure of a language can strongly influence or determine
someones World View
A World View describes a (hopefully) consistent and integral
sense of existence and provides a theoretical framework for
generating, sustaining and applying knowledge
The Inuit can think more intelligently about snow because their
language contains more sophisticated and subtle words
distinguishing various forms of it, etc.
Arbitrariness
The semantic systems of different languages vary
without constraint.
This hypothesis must be tacitly assumed, because
otherwise the claim that Linguistic Relativity
makes is rather undramatic.
For each decomposition of the spectrum of the rain bow
a natural system of colour words is possible
115.A real group of people who share something about the way in which they use
language is called
Speech Community. A speech community is a group of people who share a set of
norms and expectations regarding the use of language.[1]
Exactly how to define speech community is debated in the literature. Definitions of
speech community tend to involve varying degrees of emphasis on the following:

Shared community membership

Shared linguistic communication
Early definitions have tended to see speech communities as bounded and localized
groups of people who live together and come to share the same linguistic norms
because they belong to the same local community. It has also been assumed that
within a community a homogeneous set of norms should exist. These assumptions
have been challenged by later scholarship that have demonstrated that individuals
generally participate in various speech communities simultaneously and at different
times in their lives each of which has a different norms that they tend to share only
partially, communities may be de-localized and unbounded rather than local, and
they often comprise different sub-communities with differing speech norms. With
the recognition of the fact that speakers actively use language to construct and
manipulate social identities by signalling membership in particular speech
communities, the idea of the bounded speech community with homogeneous speech
norms has become largely abandoned for a model based on the speech community
as a fluid community of practice.
A speech community comes to share a specific set of norms for language use
through living and interacting together, and speech communities may therefore
emerge among all groups that interact frequently and share certain norms and
ideologies. Such groups can be villages, countries, political or professional
communities, communities with shared interests, hobbies, or lifestyles, or even just
groups of friends. Speech communities may share both particular sets of vocabulary
and grammatical conventions, as well as speech styles and genres, and also norms
for how and when to speak in particular ways.
116. is the written description of the social organization, social activities,
symbolic and material resources, and interpretive practices characteristic of a
particular group of people.
Ethnography. Ethnography (from Greek ethnos "folk, people, nation"
and grapho "I write") is the systematic study of people and cultures. It is
designed to explore cultural phenomena where the researcher observes society from
the point of view of the subject of the study. An ethnography is a means to represent
graphically and in writing the culture of a group. The word can thus be said to have
a "double meaning," which partly depends on whether it is used as a count noun or
uncountably.[1] The resulting field study or a case report reflects the knowledge and
the system of meanings in the lives of a cultural group.[2][3][4]
Ethnography, as the presentation of empirical data on human societies and cultures,
was pioneered in the biological, social, and cultural branches of anthropology, but it
has also become popular in the social sciences in general
sociology,[5] communication studies, historywherever people study ethnic
groups, formations, compositions, resettlements, social welfare characteristics,
materiality, spirituality, and a people's ethnogenesis.[6] The typical ethnography is
a holistic study[7][8] and so includes a brief history, and an analysis of the terrain,
the climate, and the habitat. In all cases it should be reflexive, make a substantial
contribution toward the understanding of the social life of humans, have an aesthetic

impact on the reader, and express a credible reality. An ethnography records all
observed behavior and describes all symbol-meaning relations, using concepts that
avoid causal explanations.
117.The anthropocentric paradigm in linguistics focuses on
on relationships between language, culture, and thought; and this view
of language that unites language, culture, and culture-specific ways of
conceptualization has proven itself useful in many linguistic spheres, including
language contact studies.
118.Traditionally, there are three scientific _________in linguistics: comparativehistorical, system-structural, and anthropocentric.
PARADIGMS
119.Ethnolinguistics sometimes is called cultural linguistics
120. Which is not a component of spiritual culture?
Spiritual culture reflects, expresses and incorporates the values of human society
and humankind with their needs, wishes, interests, hopes, beliefs and persuasions.
This is the world of emotions, sensations, aspirations, views, wills, impulses and
actions found in the internal world of man. It is realized through the context of the
interaction between society and nature, but man is the subject of these common
national values. Man is the highest value and his life, goodness, interests, harmony,
happiness are the goals of society. Through all this one overcomes estrangement
from other peoples and from society, and thereby improves both oneself and ones
relations.Spiritual culture, therefore, is the most successful and purposeful
expression of man and society, and the most important factor for social progress. It
provides the principles for philosophy, law, science, morality, politics, art, religion,
different forms of activity and social relations in all aspects and at all levels; it
reproduces and realizes national and common values.At the same time, the division
of culture between the material and the spiritual is really between correlatives
because the different forms of social relations and levels of communication which
express the internal spiritual world could not exist without such technology, industry
and agriculture. These are regarded as material culture, not only by tradition, but
because they incarnate rationality, morality and humanism.This is important for the
relation of spiritual culture and social progress, especially as the modern
development of technology relates to the spiritual improvement of man and the
progress of society.At the present time the life of humankind depends upon nature
as the objective bases of culture and society. The basic manifestation of social
progress must be the activity of man and society according to the objective laws of
nature and society, law and moral-ethical norms, rules and so on, which is to say
that it is also cultural activity. This makes the content of industrial culture of wider
and deeper importance because the subject of industry has to form itself as a subject
of culture, that is to say, as an active, creative and responsible person.Unfortunately,
this understanding of the subject of industrial activity in theory and practice is seen
as opposed to the universalization of the industrial system of values, and the

insertion of technocratic mentality and relationships into the world. On the contrary,
automatization, computerization and the information industry suppose not just
intellectually creative subjects, but morality, humanity and responsibility.
Spiritual culture includes world outlook, ideology, methodology, knowledge,
awareness of the person and of society, value orientations and social action. The
interconnection and interaction between spiritual culture and social progress is
central to directing the development of the historical process. We cannot understand
the goals of the development of society without spiritual culture.
The direction of the development of culture must be founded on:
- recognition of the human person as the essence of culture;
- understanding the problems of culture as those of society: the character of
relationships between people, and dependence of everyones life and fate upon the
character of these relations;
- careful attention to culture in the past and at present not only of the state, but of the
society and people who, in order to create their history and their future, must know
their historical and cultural past;
- consideration of spiritual-cultural values as one of the most important conditions
for the formation and development of the creative abilities and humane relations
between people;
- care for the blossoming of culture and society;
- consideration of the activity of organizing and establishing culture: the systems of
education and information based upon the deepest understanding of social progress
as a long socio-cultural revolution;
- development of the creative work of the mass formation of interests and abilities
for creative work based on traditions and human values;
- finding possibilities and resources for resolving difficulties and problems of
cultural development, and overcoming negative tendencies and promoting those
which are positive;
- remembering that the main aim of culture is to promote the humanization of social
relations for the future of our civilization.
121. is a simplified and often misleading representation of an ethnic group,
composed of what are thought to be typical characteristics of members of a given
ethnic group. Ethnic stereotypes
An ethnic stereotype, national stereotype, or national character is a system of
beliefs about typical characteristics of members of a given ethnic group or
nationality, their status, society and cultural norms. National stereotypes may be
either about their own ethnicity/nationality or about others. Stereotypes about their
own nation may aid in maintaining the national identity.[1]
Various anti-national phobias and prejudices operate with ethnic stereotypes.
Ethnic stereotypes are commonly portrayed in ethnic jokes, most of which usually
considered to be offensive in various degrees. Richard M. Steers and Luciara
Nardon in their book about global economy use the "You have two cows" joke to
illustrate the concept of cultural differences. They write that jokes of this kind:[2]

Russian company: You have two cows. You drink some vodka and count them
again. You have five cows. The Russian Mafiashows up and takes however many
cows you have.
Californian company: You have a million cows. Most of them are illegals.
are considered funny because they are realistic caricatures of various cultures, and
the pervasiveness of such jokes stems from the significant cultural differences.
Steers and Nardon also state that others believe that cultural stereotype in jokes of
this kind must be viewed with caution.
122 is the attitudes, opinions, beliefs or theories that we all have about
language Language Ideology
Language ideology (also referred to as linguistic ideology) is a concept used
primarily within the fields of anthropology,sociolinguistics, and cross-cultural
studies to characterize any set of beliefs or feelings about languages as used in their
social worlds. When recognized and explored, language ideologies expose
connections between the beliefs speakers have about language and the larger social
and cultural systems they are a part of, illustrating how these beliefs are informed by
and rooted in such systems. By doing so, language ideologies link the implicit as
well as explicit assumptions people have about a language or language in general to
their social experience and political as well as economic interests.
Several scholars have noted difficulty in attempting to delimit the scope, meaning,
and applications of language ideology. Linguistic anthropologist Paul Kroskrity
describes language ideology as a cluster concept, consisting of a number of
converging dimensions with several partially overlapping but analytically
distinguishable layers of significance, and cites that in the existing scholarship on
language ideology there is no particular unity . . . no core literature, and a range of
definitions.[1] One of the broadest definitions is offered by Alan Rumsey, who
describes language ideologies as shared bodies of commonsense notions about the
nature of language in the world.[2] This definition is seen by Kroskrity as
unsatisfactory, however, because it fails to problematize language ideological
variation and therefore promotes an overly homogeneous view of language
ideologies within a cultural group.[1] Emphasizing the role of speakers awareness
in influencing language structure, Michael Silverstein defines linguistic ideologies
as sets of beliefs about language articulated by users as a rationalization or
justification of perceived language structure and use.[3] Definitions that place
greater emphasis on sociocultural factors include Shirley Heaths characterization of
language ideologies as self-evident ideas and objectives a group holds concerning
roles of language in the social experiences of members as they contribute to the
expression of the group[4] and Judith Irvines definition of the concept as
the cultural system of ideas about social and linguistic relationships, together with
their loading of moral and political interests.
123. Which notion does not belong to kinship conceptosphere?
An ethnic group or ethnicity is a socially-defined category of people who identify
with each other based on common ancestral, social, cultural or national

experience.[1][2] Membership of an ethnic group tends to be defined by a

shared cultural heritage, ancestry, myth of
origins, history, homeland, language (dialect), or even ideology, and manifests itself
through symbolic systems such
as religion, mythologyand ritual, cuisine, dressing style, physical appearance, etc.
The largest ethnic groups in modern times comprise hundreds of millions of
individuals (Han Chinese being the largest), while the smallest are limited to a few
dozen individuals (numerous indigenous peoples worldwide). Larger ethnic groups
may be subdivided into smaller sub-groups known variously as tribes or clans,
which over time may become separate ethnic groups themselves due
to endogamy and/orphysical isolation from the parent group. Conversely, formerly
separate ethnicities can merge to form a pan-ethnicity, and may eventuallymerge
into one single ethnicity. Whether through division or amalgamation, the formation
of a separate ethnic identity is referred to asethnogenesis.
Depending on which source of group identity is emphasized to define membership,
the following types of ethnic groups can be identified:
ethno-racial group[citation needed] emphasizing shared physical appearance based on
genetic origins
ethno-religious group emphasizing shared affiliation with a particular religion (or
denomination, or sect)
ethno-linguistic group emphasizing shared language (or dialect, or even use
of script)
ethno-national group[citation needed] emphasizing a shared polity (cf. national
identity)
ethno-regional group[citation needed] emphasizing distinct local sense of belonging
stemming from geographic isolation
In many cases, such as the sense of Jewish peoplehood, more than one aspect
determines membership.
Ethnic groups derived from the same historical founder population often continue to
speak related languages and share a similargene pool. By way of language
shift, acculturation, adoption, and religious conversion, it is possible for some
individuals or groups toleave one ethnic group and enter another (except for ethnic
groups emphasizing racial purity as a key membership criterion).
Ethnicity is often used synonymously with ambiguous terms such
as nation or people.
124. Allocate the realia in the sentence An emblem of Italian cuisine, spaghetti
is frequently served with tomato sauce, which may contain various herbs, olive
oil, meat, or vegetables.
Realias are real objects that exist in a given environment. According to the
dictionary definitions, realia is a culture-specific word or phrase which is often
difficult, if not impossible to translate into target language (Latin realis - actual,
true, and material). Such words and set phrases that name these objects are called
realias in linguistics and in theory of translation.

125.Allocate the realia in the sentence Architecturally, the igloo is unique in that it
is a house that can be raised out of independent blocks leaning on each other and
polished to fit without an additional supporting structure during construction.
126. Allocate the realia in the sentence In 1941, Miss Phyllis Thompson became
the first woman licensed to drive a double-decker in England.
A double-decker bus is a bus that has two storeys or decks. Double-decker buses are
used for mass transit in the United Kingdom, an iconic example being the red
London bus. English cultuture
127. Allocate the realia in the sentence In the United States, the relationship
between the sheriff and other police departments varies widely from state to state,
and indeed in some states from county to county.
In the United States, the relationship between the sheriff and other police
departments varies widely from state to state, and indeed in some states from county
to county.
The word "sheriff" is a contraction of the term "shire reeve". The term, from the Old
English scrgerefa, designated a royal official responsible for keeping the peace (a
"reeve") throughout a shire or county or parish on behalf of the king.[1] The term
was preserved in England notwithstanding the Norman Conquest. From the AngloSaxon kingdoms, the term spread to several other regions, at an early point
to Scotland, latterly to Ireland and to the United States.
Sheriffs in other countries
Sheriffs exist in various countries:
Sheriffs are administrative legal officials similar to bailiffs in the Republic of
Ireland, Australia, and Canada (with expanded duties in certain provinces).
Sheriffs are judges in Scotland.
Sheriff is a ceremonial position in England, Wales and India.
In the United States of America, the scope of a sheriff varies across states and
counties/parishes. The sheriff is most often a county or parish official, and serves as
the arm of the county or parish court; but some cities, such as those in
the Commonwealth of Virginia, also have a sheriff's office that serves as the arm of
the city court and jail. The sheriff performs court duties. These may include such
functions as administering the county or parish or city jail, providing courtroom
security and prisoner transportation, serving warrants and serving process. In urban
areas, a sheriff may be restricted to those duties. Many other sheriffs and their
deputies may serve as the principal policeforce.
In British English, the political or legal office of a sheriff is called a shrievalty.
128. Allocate the realia in the sentence Besbarmak is usually eaten with a boiled
pasta sheet and a meat broth called shorpa, and is traditionally served in Kazakh
bowls called kese. . Its realia . Kazakh tradition
129.Allocate the realia in the sentence In a jack-o'-lantern, the top is cut off, and
the inside flesh then scooped out; an image, usually a monstrous face, is carved out,
and the lid replaced
In a jack-o'-lantern, the top is cut off, and the inside flesh then scooped out; an
image, usually a monstrous face, is carved out, and the lid replaced. A jack-o'lantern is typically a carved pumpkin. It is associated chiefly with the holiday of

Halloween and was named after the phenomenon of strange light flickering over
peat bogs, called ignis fatuus or jack-o'-lantern. In a jack-o'-lantern, typically the top
is cut off, and the inside flesh then scooped out; an image, usually a monstrous face,
is carved onto the outside surface, and the lid replaced. It is typically seen during
Halloween.
Throughout Ireland and Britain, there is a long tradition of carving lanterns from
vegetables, particularly the turnip, mangelwurzel, and swede or rutabaga. The turnip
has traditionally been used in Ireland and Scotland at Halloween, but immigrants to
North America used the larger native pumpkin, which are both readily available and
much larger making them easier to carve than turnips.
An old Irish folk tale tells of Stingy Jack, a lazy yet shrewd farmer who uses a cross
to trap the Devil. One story says that Jack tricked the Devil into climbing an apple
tree, and once he was up there Jack quickly placed crosses around the trunk or
carved a cross into the bark, so that the Devil couldn't get down. Jack only lets the
Devil go when he agrees never to take his soul. After a while Jack died, as all living
things do. Of course, his life had been too sinful for Jack to go to heaven; however,
the Devil had promised not to take his soul, and so he was barred from hell as well.
Jack now had nowhere to go. He asked how he would see where to go, as he had no
light, and the Devil mockingly tossed him an ember that would never burn out from
the flames of hell. Jack carved out one of his turnips (which was his favourite food),
put the ember inside it, and began endlessly wandering the Earth for a resting place.
He became known as "Jack of the Lantern", or Jack-o'-Lantern.
130. Allocate the realia in the sentence The production of matryoshkas is done by
highly skilled craftsmen who pass down their skills generation to generation.
Its realia. Russian tradition.Decline in production since the 1990s matryoshka dolls
have been facing a downward spiral in production. The production of matryoshkas
is done by highly skilled craftsmen who pass down their skills generation to
generation. As factories shut down there is a fear that there will be no one left to
learn the skills, so the knowledge could be lost.
131,The principle of linguistic relativity is popularly known as
The principle of linguistic relativity holds that the structure of a language affects the
ways in which its respective speakers conceptualize their world, i.e. their world
view, or otherwise influences their cognitive processes. Popularly known as
the SapirWhorf hypothesis, or Whorfianism, the principle is often defined to
include two versions. Thestrong version says that language determines thought, and
that linguistic categories limit and determine cognitive categories, whereas
the weak version says only that linguistic categories and usage influence thought
and certain kinds of non-linguistic behavior.
The term "SapirWhorf hypothesis" is a misnomer, because Edward
Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf never co-authored anything, and never stated their
ideas in terms of a hypothesis. The distinction between a weak and a strong version
of this hypothesis is also a later invention; Sapir and Whorf never set up such a
dichotomy, although often in their writings their views of this relativity principle are
phrased in stronger or weaker terms.[1][2]

The idea was first clearly expressed by 19th-century thinkers, such as Wilhelm von
Humboldt, who saw language as the expression of the spirit of a nation. Members of
the early 20th-century school of American anthropology headed by Franz Boas and
Edward Sapir also embraced forms of the idea to one extent or another, but Sapir in
particular wrote more often against than in favor of anything like linguistic
determinism. Sapir's student, Benjamin Lee Whorf, came to be seen as the primary
proponent as a result of his published observations of how he perceived linguistic
differences to have consequences in human cognition and behavior. Harry Hoijer,
one of Sapir's students, introduced the term "SapirWhorf hypothesis",[3] even
though the two scholars never formally advanced any such hypothesis.[4] A strong
version of relativist theory was developed from the late 1920s by the German
linguist Leo Weisgerber. Whorf's principle of linguistic relativity was reformulated
as a testable hypothesis by Roger Brown and Eric Lenneberg who conducted
experiments designed to find out whether color perception varies between speakers
of languages that classified colors differently. As the study of the universal nature of
human language and cognition came into focus in the 1960s the idea of linguistic
relativity fell out of favor among linguists. A 1969 study by Brent Berlin and Paul
Kaydemonstrated the existence of universal semantic constraints in the field of color
terminology which were widely seen to discredit the existence of linguistic relativity
in this domain, although this conclusion has been disputed by relativist researchers.
From the late 1980s a new school of linguistic relativity scholars have examined the
effects of differences in linguistic categorization on cognition, finding broad support
for non-deterministic versions of the hypothesis in experimental contexts.[5][6] Some
effects of linguistic relativity have been shown in several semantic domains,
although they are generally weak. Currently, a balanced view of linguistic relativity
is espoused by most linguists holding that language influences certain kinds of
cognitive processes in non-trivial ways, but that other processes are better seen as
arising from connectionist factors. Research is focused on exploring the ways and
extent to which language influences thought.[5] The principle of linguistic relativity
and the relation between language and thought has also received attention in varying
academic fields from philosophy to psychologyand anthropology, and it has also
inspired and colored works of fiction and the invention of constructed languages.
132,What concept can these proverbs illustrate: Affection blinds reason, Faults
are thick where love is thin, To hide the key to your heart is to risk forgetting
where you placed it?
What concept can these proverbs illustrate: Affection blinds reason, Faults are
thick where love is thin, To hide the key to your heart is to risk forgetting where
you placed it?
Affection blinds reason- . /
. Faults are thick where love is thin -
, . . , .
To hide the key to your heart is to risk forgetting where you placed it -
, , .
All these proverbs illustrate the concept of LOVE.
133.The phenomenon in which different dialects of a language or different
languages are spoken by a person in different social situations is called

diglossia
134. is a schematisation of experience (a knowledge structure), which is
represented at the conceptual level and held in long-term memory and which relates
elements and entities associated with a particular culturally embedded scene,
situation or event from human experience.
Vyvian Evans gives the following definition of frame: A schematisation
of experience (a knowledge structure), which is represented at the conceptual
level and held in long-term memory and which relates elements and entities
associated with a particular culturally embedded scene, situation or event from
human experience.
135) International auxiliary language is a language used by people in a multilingual
setting as a means of enabling native speakers of disparate languages to
communicate with each other; e.g., Swahili in Africa, English throughout the world.
136) Pidgin is a simplified language derived from two or more languages but having
a rudimentary grammatical structure and a limited lexicon. It is not spoken as a
native language but as code for people who interact in a limited way, as in trade.
137) Dialect is a regionally or socially distinctive variety of a language,
characterized by a particular set of words and grammatical structures.
138) A language historically derived from two or more languages in a context of
cultural and linguistic contact is called creole.
139) Means of nonverbal communication
Nonverbal communication is the process of communication through sending and
receiving wordless (mostly visual) cues between people. It is sometimes mistakenly
referred to as body language (kinesics), but nonverbal communication encompasses
much more, such as use of voice (paralanguage), touch (haptics), distance
(proxemics), and physical environments/appearance.[1] Typically overlooked in
nonverbal communication are proxemics, or the informal space around the body and
chronemics: the use of time. Not only considered eye contact, oculesics comprises
the actions of looking while talking and listening, frequency of glances, patterns of
fixation, pupil dilation, and blink rate. This subject is diverse in meaning, relative to
culture and not limited to these definitions specifically. Even speech contains
nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, including voice quality, rate, pitch,
volume, and speaking style, as well as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation,
and stress. Likewise, written texts have nonverbal elements such as handwriting
style, spatial arrangement of words, or the physical layout of a page. However,
much of the study of nonverbal communication has focused on interaction between
individuals,[2] where it can be classified into three principal areas: environmental
conditions where communication takes place, physical characteristics of the
communicators, and behaviors of communicators during interaction.
Nonverbal communication involves the processes of encoding and decoding.
Encoding is the act of generating the information such as facial expressions,
gestures, and postures. Decoding is the interpretation of information from received
sensations from previous experiences.[2] Only a small percentage of the brain
processes verbal communication. As infants, nonverbal communication is learned

from social-emotional communication, making the face rather than words the major
organ of communication. As children become verbal communicators, they begin to
look at facial expressions, vocal tones, and other nonverbal elements more
subconsciously.[citation needed]
Culture plays an important role in nonverbal communication, and it is one aspect
that helps to influence how learning activities are organized. In many Indigenous
American Communities, for example, there is often an emphasis on nonverbal
communication, which acts as a valued means by which children learn. In this sense,
learning is not dependent on verbal communication; rather, it is nonverbal
communication which serves as a primary means of not only organizing
interpersonal interactions, but conveying cultural values, and children learn how to
participate in this system from a young age.
140. Nonverbal communicationis a process of communication through sending and
receiving wordless cues between people. It is sometimes mistakenly referred to
as body language (kinesics), but nonverbal communication encompasses much
more, such as use of voice (paralanguage), touch (haptics), distance (proxemics),
and physical environments/appearance.[1] Typically overlooked in nonverbal
communication are proxemics, or the informal space around the body
and chronemics: the use of time. Not only considered eye
contact, oculesics comprises the actions of looking while talking and listening,
frequency of glances, patterns of fixation, pupil dilation, and blink rate. This subject
is diverse in meaning, relative to culture and not limited to these definitions
specifically.
141. Globalization (or globalisation) is the process of international integration
arising from the interchange of world views, products, ideas, and other aspects of
culture. Advances in transportation and telecommunications infrastructure,
including the rise of the telegraph and its posterity the Internet, are major factors in
globalization, generating further interdependence of economic and cultural
activities.
Though scholars place the origins of globalization in modern times, others trace its
history long before the European age of discovery and voyages to the New World.
Some even trace the origins to the third millennium BCE.[4][5] In the late 19th
century and early 20th century, the connectedness of the world's economies and
cultures grew very quickly.
The term globalization has been increasingly used since the mid-1980s and
especially since the mid-1990s.[6] In 2000, the International Monetary Fund (IMF)
identified four basic aspects of globalization: trade and transactions, capital and
investment movements, migration and movement of people, and the dissemination
of knowledge.[7] Further, environmental challenges such as climate change, crossboundary water and air pollution, and over-fishing of the ocean are linked with
globalization.[8] Globalizing processes affect and are affected by business and work
organization, economics, socio-cultural resources, and the natural environment.
142.Ethnographic research usually involves observing target users in their natural,
real-world setting, rather than in the artificial environment of a lab or focus group.

The aim is to gather insight into how people live; what they do; how they use things;
or what they need in their everyday or professional lives
Ethnographic research relies on techniques such as observation, video diaries,
photographs, contextual interviews, and analysis of artefacts such as for example
devices, tools or paper forms that might be used as part of a persons job.
Observations can be made at home, at work, or in leisure environments. People can
be studied with their family, on their own, with work colleagues, or as part of a
group of friends. Often one participant may be recruited, but several more may be
studied as part of that persons family or friends.
Data collection can range from a 4-5 hour contextual interview, through to
following a participant for several days, or even a longitudinal study over several
weeks or months to investigate, for example, how a particular product or service
might be used over time. It does not necessarily involve full immersion in a
persons life: it can involve a depth interview in a persons home or it might involve
people simply maintaining their own video diary over a period of time.
143. National Character refers to relatively functional personality characteristics and
patterns that are prototype among the adult members of a society. The assumption is
that virtually all individuals behave in conformity with the prescribed norms of their
society 1. In other words it is the sum total of the habits and attitudes, desires and
inclinations, views and opinions, motives and standards, beliefs and ideas, and
hopes and aspirations of an individual which he shares with other members of his
nation.2 The aggregate characteristics are considered when majority of the people
occupies a common territory and the group is politically defined. The influence of
history and legal system upon the formation of national character has also been
emphasised. Hans Kohn stated,Life in a common territory, subject to the same
influences of history and legal systems, produces certain common attitudes and
traits, often called national character.
144. mentality is a habitual or characteristic mental attitude that determines how you
will interpret and respond to situations, involving beliefs, feelings and values.