UNIVARIATE DATA!

Types of Variables!
Categorical Data - Can only be classified by the name of the category it belongs to. No quantity is
associated with a category.!

Ordinal Data - To do with order, generally seen in ordering and ranking data points.!
Nominal Data - Putting data points into specific categories.!

!
Numerical Data - Any data pertaining to a number value.!
!

Discrete Data - When data points can only take on certain values. This occurs when counting is
involved.!
Continuous Data - When data can take on any value within a range. This occurs when data is
measured.!

To organise Categorical Data, we make a frequency table, then use that information to graphically
create a bar chart.!

!
On a frequency table, it should read: Data Sort, Frequency, Relative Frequency.!
!
Bar charts are for categorical data only.!
The bars should not be touching each other.!
It needs to be properly labelled. !
Categories are on the x, Frequency is on the y.!

To organise Numerical Data, a frequency table is also constructed. However, to represent it

graphically, we use a histogram.!

Histograms are for numerical data only.!

The bars should touch.!
If there are intervals, make sure there are no gaps between them.!

Distributions!
The centre is where most data points lie. !
The spread is how far the values depart from the centre. !
If a distribution is not symmetrical, it is said to have a skew.!

If Mean - Mode > 0, there is positive skew.!

If Mean - Mode < 0, there is negative skew.!

Summarising Data!
Mean = Sum of Data Values/Total Number of Data Values!
Median = (n+1)/2th point!
Mode = Highest Frequency!
Range = Largest Data Point - Smallest Data Point!
Interquartile Range = Q3 - Q1!
Standard Deviation = How far each data point is from the mean.!
s= sqrt(sum of(data values - mean)^2/n-1)!

Outliers are anomalous, or far from the rest of the data.!

The interval of acceptable points is:!
Q1 - 1.5 x IQR and Q3+ 1.5 x IQR!
If the median is on the left of a boxplot, it is positively skewed. !

!
!

BIVARIATE DATA!

Relationships!
A scatterplot with a positive relationship will tend to increase in a positive gradient fashion.!
The opposite goes for a negative relationship.!

Q-Correlation coefficient is a measure of strength between two variables. !

To find the q-correlation, draw a line through the x and y medians. !
Quadrant A is top right, and the quadrants continue in a counter clockwise direction.!
The letter associates the number of dots in that particular quadrant, not counting the median dots.!
q = (a+c) - (b+d)/ a+b+c+d!

q must always be between -1 and 1.!

If q is greater than or equal to 0.75, there is a Strong Positive!
0.5, but less than 0.75, there is a Moderate Positive!
0.25
0.5, there is a Weak Positive!
between -0.25 and 0.25, there is no Relationship!
smaller than or equal to -0.25, but greater than -0.5 there is a Weak Negative!
-0.5,
-0.75 there is a Moderate Negative!
-0.75, there is a Strong Negative!

!
Correlation =/= Causation!
!

The process of fitting a straight line to bivariate data is know as linear regression. !
In regression, we write the equation as y = a + bx!

A method of finding the regression line is the two-mean method. To do this we:!
Order the data pairs by x values and divide into two groups. If there is an odd number of data
points, discard the middle one.!
Find the mean of both x and y in each half, then plot them on the graph and draw a line between
them.!

Predicting within the range of data is interpolation.!

Predicting outside the range of data is extrapolation.!

Pearsons Product-Moment Correlation coefficient, r!

It gives the numerical measure of the degree to which the points in a scatterplot tend to cluster
around a straight line.!

!
r is between -1 and 1. The strength of the according number is the same as the q correlation.!
!

The most common method for fitting a straight line to data is the method of least squares. The
least squares regression line is the line for which the sum of squares of the vertical deviations from
the line is a minimum. These deviations are called residuals. !

The slope of this regression line is given by b = r x Sy/ Sx and a = ybar - b x xbar!
Where!
r = Correlation coefficient!
Sx and Sy = Standard deviation of x and y!
xbar and ybar = mean values of x and y!

!
!
!
!
!
!

SEQUENCES AND SERIES!

A sequence is a list of numbers in a particular order.!

t1 = Term 1 = a!
Sn = Sum of terms up to n!
d = Common Difference!
n = Position number of a term!
L = Last term!

tn = a + (n-1)d to find the nth term of an A.S.!

Sn = n/2 (a + L) to find the sum of the first n terms of an A.S.!
Sn = n/2 (2a + (n-1)d) to find the sum of the first n terms of an A.S.!
n = ((L - a) / d) + 1 to find the number of terms in a finite A.S.!

In a geometric sequence, r = common ratio.!

r = t2/t1 = t3/t2!

G.S:!
Diverge when r is smaller than -1 or greater than 1!
Converge when between -1 and 1!
Oscillate when less than 0!

tn = ar^n-1 to find the nth term of a G.S.!

Sn = (a(1 - r^n)) / 1 - r when r < 1 to find the sum of the first n terms of a G.S.!
Sn = (a(r^n - 1)) / r - 1 when r > 1 to find the sum of the first n terms of a G.S.!
Sinfinity = a / 1- r for an infinite series!

Difference Equation!
tn + 1 = 5tn + 2, a = 4!
The sequence would be, 4,22,112,562.!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

NETWORKS!

A network is a graph of dots and lines, called vertices and edges respectively. !
The degree of a vertex is the number of edges attached to the vertex.!

Two graphs are isomorphic if they have the same numbers of edges and vertices, and
corresponding vertices have the same degree and the edges connect to the same vertices.!

A graph is not connected if there is not a path along the edges that connects the vertices to each
other. ie. a vertex is on its own, separated from the rest of the graph.!

A planar graph can be drawn so that no edges intersect, except at the vertices.!
We can divide such a graph into faces, such that there are regions inside the graph, as well as the
region outside.!

For a connected planar graph:!

v - e + f = 2, where v = vertices, e = edges and f = faces (including the infinite face)!

A network is traversable if you can find a route through the network, along the edges, that uses all
edges, but once only. A connected network is traversable if all vertices are of even degree, or
exactly two vertices are of odd degree, and the rest are even.!

A path is a sequence of edges, linking successive vertices, that connects two different vertices in a
network.!

!
A circuit is like a path, but starts and finishes at the same vertex.!
!

An euler path passes along every edge in a connected network, but uses each edge only once. It
may pass through a vertex more than once. If a network is traversable, it has Euler paths.!

!
An euler circuit is an euler path that starts and finishes at the same vertex.!
!

To have an euler path or circuit, a network must first be connected. !

To have an euler path, but not an euler circuit, the connected network must have exactly 2 vertices
of odd degree, with the remaining vertices having even degree. The path will start at one of the odd
vertices and finish at the other.!

To have an euler circuit, the connected network must have all vertices of even degree. It can start
and finish at any vertex in the network.!

A hamilton path passes through ever vertex in a connected network once and once only. It may or
may not involve all the edges.!

!
A hamilton circuit is a hamilton path that finished at the same vertex.!
!
The shortest path that passes through each vertex once only is the shortest hamilton circuit.!
!

A tree is a connected graph that contains no circuits, multiple edges or loops. It may be a part of a
large graph. A tree with n vertices has n-1 edges. !

A spanning tree connects all vertices in a connected graph but has no circuits, multiple edges or
loops. !

The minimum spanning tree is the spanning tree of minimum length. There may be more than one
minimum spanning tree in a graph. !

Prims Algorithm for finding a minimum spanning tree!

1) Choose a starting vertex(any will do). Inspect the edges starting from this vertex, and choose
the one with the lowest weighting. You now have two vertices and one edge.!
2) Next, inspect the edges starting from the two vertices. Choose the edge with the lowest
weighting, provided it does not form a cycle. You now have three vertices and two edges.!
3) Repeat until all vertices are connected.!

!
!
!

!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

TRIGONOMETRY!
A compass bearing is in the form N30E!
A true bearing is in the form 030T!

A triangle is labelled with the side opposite the letter being the lowercase version.!
ie. Opposite Angle A is side a.!

!
a / Sin A = b / Sin B = c / Sin C!
!

When given two sides and the angle between them:!

a^2 = b^2 + c^2 - 2bc Cos A!
b^2 = a^2 + c^2 - 2ac Cos B!
c^2 = a^2 + b^2 - 2ab Cos C!

When given three sides, and angle can be found using:!

Cos A = b^2 + c^2 - a^2 / 2bc!
Cos B = a^2 + c^2 - b^2 / 2ac!
Cos C = a^2 + b^2 - c^2 / 2ab!

bh/2 = area of a triangle!

bc Sin A/ 2 = area of a triangle!
ac Sin B/ 2 = area of a triangle!
ab Sin C/ 2 = area of a triangle!

Herons Rule!
Atri = sqrt( s(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)!
where s = a+b+c/2!