Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
English
Unofficial
syllabus
composed
from
different
sources
Without
the
permission
of
the
authors
Only
for
the
use
of
non-commercial
educational
purposes
Willem
Kuypers
MASI
2012-2013
It is technology that allows people to travel further and faster than ever before. It is
the Internet that links people regardless of their nationalities and the countries they live in.
And technology is also the reason why many business people are active globally and why
more entrepreneurs are on the move than ever before. In this world full of state-of-the-art
technology, English serves as an underlying common element in various situations, giving
particularly entrepreneurs and small companies a better chance on the market and an
important comparative advantage over those who lack the ability to communicate in this
language.
There is no doubt that professional knowledge and experience is essential for
entrepreneurs and managers. But reaching and staying at the top requires more than just
being knowledgeable and experienced. One of the reasons why some entrepreneurs are
very successful while others fail to succeed may lie in the ability to communicate knowledge
in English. Of course, entrepreneurs and companies can hire interpreters who are both fluent
and skilled. However, entrepreneurs cannot expect that people, who are not really drawn in
into a companys affairs, will set up relationships in the way loyal and dedicated employees
of the company can. The solution to this problem lies in the constant learning and studying of
English and other foreign languages. But first of all, it is vital that employers realize the
importance of learning (Business) English in the workplace. Over the years, research and
needs analyses have produced a wide range of the language-based tasks an employee
should be able to tackle in order to deal with the exigencies of the situations which may arise
at the workplace. These are the ability to:
participate in the social life of the company (e.g. sports and social clubs, etc.)
when visiting business partners abroad.
Finally, we should be aware of the fact that a quarter of the worlds population, i.e. 1.2
to 1.5 billion people, can speak English. Moreover, English has become the lingua franca of
international business. These and many other factors make learning English interesting and
necessary for all those who might be using it when they enter the fascinating world of
business.
EXERCISE 1
Match the following words to their synonyms.
1 regardless
A common language
2 state-of-the-art
B businessman
3 essential
C demand
4 entrepreneur
D latest, most modern
5 exigency
E deal with
6 enterprise
F irrespective
7 lingua franca
G a company, a business
8 tackle
H vital
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
EXERCISE 2
Decide whether statements 1-5 are true (T) or false (F).
1 English belongs among those languages that are commonly used in business.
2
The disadvantage of hiring translators lies in the fact, that they are not loyal and
committed enough.
Knowledge and experience are the two components of reaching and staying at
the top.
The lack of the ability to communicate in English has been the comparative
advantage for many.
Technical development is the reason why doing business is not only confined to
local endeavor any more.
EXERCISE 3
Combine the following words to form word-partnerships.
1 business
A business
2 state-of-the-art
B franca
3 communicate
C relationships
4 establish
D people
5 lingua
E technology
6 comparative
F speakers
7 international
G knowledge
8 native
H advantage
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
agency, and in fact our chief programmer is in charge of that project. She g) ___________________
(have) discussions with them to find out what sort of features they h) ___________________
(require).
Exercise 2
Choose words to go into the gaps and put them into present simple or present continuous:
go
interview
vary
try
begin
depend
seem
think
lead
enjoy
sound
start
work
appy
put
1. He joined the company 25 years ago and he still __________________ for us.
2. We have got a competition on at work to find a name for our new range of cosmetics. The
marketing people __________________ to find a brand name that __________________ natural
and sophisticated.
3. The stock market is risky because the price of shares __________________ according to
economic conditions.
4. Normally political parties __________________ a period of great popularity in their early years,
then they __________________ through a period of stability and __________________ their
ideas into practice.
5. Now it __________________ that the present government __________________ to run into
difficulties, and people __________________ to criticize the Prime Minister.
6. We __________________ people from outside the company for the new post in the export
department, but I __________________ we ought to give the job to Mr. White.
7. Go down this road, turn right, and the road __________________straight to the industrial estate.
8. I __________________ for a transfer to our London office, but I dont know if Ill be successful.
It all __________________ on whether or not they have any vacancies.
Exercise 3
Complete this newspaper article about the Brazilian company Gerdau by using the words from
the list below. Each set of words fills two spaces:
is becoming / companies
is approaching / market share
is beginning / expectations
is making / flexible
is getting / right
is modernizing /law
is attracting / attention
is raising / plants
Even though Sarah says shes feeling better, I think she ______________ (still lose) weight.
Frank ______________ (collect) stamps in his spare time. Its his hobby.
The airline ______________ (currently offer) half-price tickets to Japan, but for one month only.
My mother ______________ (lock) all the doors and windows before she goes to bed.
Both ancient and recent records show that farmers ______________ (work) long hours.
She has an important project to finish by next week, so she ______________ (work) in the evenings at
present.
Philip is an excellent linguist. He ______________ (speak) six languages fluently.
How are you getting on with the book? At the moment I ______________ (read) chapter four.
She ______________ (only just recover) from the operation and ______________ (still find) it
difficult to move about.
What I ______________ (say) is that you ______________ (do) well in your job. Really!
I ______________ (tell) you the truth.
I ______________ (promise) Ill do everything I can to help you find a flat, although I
______________ (suggest) that you also advertise in the local newspaper. It can be difficult to find
accommodation, but I ______________ (hope) it wont be too long before youve got somewhere.
The fishing unions ______________ (negotiate) with their employers for a pay rise. If there is no
agreement by next week, they ______________ (threaten) to strike and ______________ (even talk)
about blockading ports around the country.
Now that the rice ______________ (cook) you ______________ (chop up) the carrots and tomatoes
and you ______________ (put) them in a dish
Cardinal numbers
Cardinals answer the question How many? or How much? and specify entities by quantity.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
one
two
three
four
five
six
seven
eight
nine
ten
eleven
twelve
thirteen
fourteen
fifteen
sixteen
seventeen
eighteen
nineteen
20
21
22
25
30
33
37
40
44
48
50
56
60
69
70
75
80
83
90
twenty
twenty-one
twenty-two
twenty-five
thirty
thirty-three
thirty-seven
forty
forty-four
forty-eight
fifty
fifty-six
sixty
sixty-nine
seventy
seventy-five
eighty
eighty-three
ninety
100
101
110
112
195
199
200
256
300
389
400
444
500
600
672
700
800
900
999
Notice that in British English we use and before the tens in a number.
In American English and is normally omitted.
110
British English
American English
a hundred ten
526
831
Exercise
Practise saying and writing these numbers.
a
b
c
556
97
823
d
e
f
34
748
111
g
h
i
669
82
905
j
k
l
432
333
90
Large numbers
When writing numbers greater than 999 we use a comma (,):
1,201
14,225
25,000
twenty-five thousand
Note that commas are not used in dates (the year 2005). For more information see POINT 9.
1,000
5,836
10,000
ten thousand
12,000
twelve thousand
100,000
254,789
two hundred and fifty-four thousand, seven hundred and eighty-nine (BrE)
two hundred fifty-four thousand, seven hundred eighty-nine (AmE)
1,000,000
3,000,000
three million
500,000,000
1,000,000,000
2,000,000,000
two billion
3,270,000,000
1,000,000,000,000
In the singular, the words hundred, thousand, million or billion are preceded by a or one (for
example we can say a thousand or one thousand). One is a more formal expression and a greater
stress is usually put on this word by speakers than on the word a.
These days, financial statements are normally prepared on computer. In that case commas are not
used. That means that the number 75,684 appears as 75684.
Exercise
Practise saying and writing numbers a l.
26,000,000
8,000,000,000,000
1,262
5,004
2,473
3,630,005
6,000,000,000
2,224,000
1,066
10,000,001
64,975
9,897,123
Decimal
points
Unlike the Slovak language, English uses a decimal point (.) for decimals
Compare:
12,001
twelve thousand and one
12.001
(nine oh one)
Bus numbers
(eight oh two)
Flight numbers
IB 340
BA 401
(four oh one)
(nineteen oh five)
Years
1905
BA 307 DM
0200834061
Temperature
3C
+5C
B: 3 0. (three nil)
Temperature
Numbers are also used to show the temperature.
The temperature outside fell to minus 25.
In July 2006 the daily temperature in Bratislava was in the mid-thirties (i.e. about 3436C).
C stands for Celsius which is an abbreviation for a temperature scale in which water freezes at 0 and
boils at 100. In contrast, Fahrenheit (F) represents a scale of temperature in which water freezes at
32 and boils at 212.
Celsius = 5/9 x (xF 32)
Exercise
How
much
is
it?
1
29C = xF
x = F
76F = xC
x = C
21C = xF
x = F
68F = xC
x = C
Telephone
numbers
We say each figure separately pausing after groups of three or four. When the same digit
comes twice we usually say double. Numbers of area codes are grouped together.
Exercise
A
Whats your phone number? _____________________________
Practice saying your phone number as quickly as possible.
Exercise
B
Write these numbers in full. Show breaks ( / ) between groups.
(0181) 645 744
(0033) 135 786 390
(0043) 718 578 88
(0192) 553 449
(00420) 654 27 389
10
Decimals
In English all the numbers after a decimal point are read separately.
a
10.66
0.328
6.55
3.14159
0.002
One of the exceptions to the above mentioned rule is to be found in the banking sector. Providing
service for their clients bank dealers make deals in the foreign exchange market. Dealers purchase or
sell currencies for immediate delivery (spot rate), or for delivery later (forward rate).
The spot inter-bank price is 212.6135 (two hundred and twelve point sixty-one thirty five.
Prices
If the number after the decimal point is a unit of money, it is read like a normal number.
a
12.70
8.30
SKK 98.50
$46.90
SFr14.25
British money
There are 100 pence in a pound. Sums of money are named as follows:
1p
5p
4.65
American money
There are 100 cents () in a dollar. Sums of money are named very much as in British English.
However, some coins have special names.
one-cent coins
pennies
ten-cent coins
dimes
five-cent coins
nickels
a quarter
Ordinal
numbers
Ordinals answer the question Which? and place entities in order.
1st
first
11th
eleventh
11
21st
twenty-first
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
9th
10th
12th
13th
14th
15th
16th
17th
18th
19th
20th
second
third
fourth
fifth
sixth
seventh
eighth
ninth
tenth
twelfth
thirteenth
fourteenth
fifteenth
sixteenth
seventeenth
eighteenth
nineteenth
twentieth
30th
40th
50th
60th
70th
80th
90th
thirtieth
fortieth
fiftieth
sixtieth
seventieth
eightieth
ninetieth
The names of kings and queens are said with ordinal numbers.
Henry VIII
Louis XIV
Elisabeth II
In sentences, ordinal numerals are usually preceded by the definite article (the) or a possessive
pronoun (e.g. my, your, their, etc.).
Henry was doing his second week as a young trainee and had just about finished his first report
on sales when the phone rang.
Dates
In English we write 20 December but we say the twentieth of December or December the twentieth.
We can write the date using dots (.) or slashes (/): 20.12.05 or 20/12/05.
In British English the day of the month comes first and the month follows, so 21.12.05 is 21 December
2005. On the other hand, in American English, the month comes first, and the day second, so 12.01.05
is December 1, 2005.
Years
We write 1997 and 2005 but say nineteen ninety-seven and two thousand and five or twenty oh five.
We write decades as the 1960s or 1980s or just the 80s and we say the nineteen sixties or the nineteen
eighties or the eighties. Notice that there is no apostrophe before the s.
The abbreviations BC (before Christ) or BCE (before common era) used after a date show that
something happened before the birth of Christ. In contrast, AD (Anno Domini) indicates that a date is
a number of years after the birth of Christ.
Exercise
Practise saying the following dates:
12
1601 1700
1701 1800
1801 1900
1901 2000
Clock
time
In English, hours are frequently specified without using the 24-hour clock. The expressions a.m. and
p.m. indicate whether something happens in the morning, in the afternoon, or at night.
1
The 24-hour clock is used in formal English, for example for flights, schedules, and timetables. In
conversations a.m. (from the Latin ante meridiem) is used for the hours up to noon and p.m. (from the
Latin post meridiem) for the time interval from midday to midnight.
12.00
24.00
twelve at noon
twelve at night
twelve a.m.
twelve p.m.
noon, noontime
midday
midnight
Exercise A
Use the 24-hour clock to say and write the following:
13
17h00
13h05
seventeen hours OR
Exercise B
Practise saying and writing the following times. Do not use the 24-hour clock.
1
10.45
1 p.m.
5.25 a.m.
7.55 p.m.
10
9.20 a.m.
11
9.40
12
Fractions
/5
4
9
/5
/10
a / one half
two fifths
a / one quarter
three quarters
a / one third
two thirds
four fifths
nine tenths
50%
40%
25%
75%
33%
66%
80%
90%
%
Fractions
1
/4
/8
Mathematical
expressions
Calculating
+
or *
14
or /
=
20 + 5 = 25
20 4 = 16
5 x 4 = 20
10 : 3 = 3.333
divided by
equals / is
a six-mile walk
15
Idioms listed below have been chosen according to the fact that all of them contain one or more
numerals. Read the sentences below and try to find some equivalents in Slovak. Then learn them by
heart. Always try to recognize idioms whenever you come across them. Later on they may become
part of your active vocabulary.
1
Thanks a million!
2
3
6
7
Mary: Professor Schumacher is the most clever man Ive ever met.
Kate: Yes, hes second to none, isnt he?
The Browns wanted to move next month but their new house is being built very slowly. It
happens this way nine times out of ten.
Martin is an adult now so he has to learn to stand on his own two feet.
10
The Queen is a very famous person, but she has always kept both feet on the ground.
11
As George is a very ambitious man, he will never settle for second best.
12
Living in France and working in the United Kingdom gives Frank Peters the best of both
worlds British salaries and a French lifestyle.
13
14
15
Eventually the director managed to kill two birds with one stone.
James: Who do you think is to blame the creative director or the copywriter?
Sean: Its six of one and half a dozen of the other.
16
17
David always seems to be the odd one out. He never fits in any team.
Mark saw Patrick and Carol in a bar looking tenderly into each others eyes. Mark put two
and two together, and decided they must be in love.
Review
Practise saying and writing the following numerical expressions:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
251
3 + 16
$384
67.32
0.12
0.006
3500
193
2467
1999
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
9.15 a.m.
4th century
-13C
28.70
2004
10.20 p.m.
13th century
5 August 2006
Sk3,000,0000
89F
16
nineteen
ninety-nine
one
second
sixth
two
1. At the __________________________ hour they managed to get together enough money to buy
the house.
2. Im tired of playing __________________________ fiddle to him! Why cant I take some of the
decisions for a change?
3. She always talks __________________________ to the dozen. You never have a chance to get a
word in edgeways.
4. He was in __________________________ minds about whether to go to the dance or not.
5. I wasnt going to go out but on __________________________ thoughts I need some fresh air.
6. Hes gone upstairs to have __________________________ winks after all his exertions.
7. The service in that shop is __________________________ to none.
8. Some __________________________ sense made her look up as he pulled out his gun.
9. Changing nappies has become __________________________ nature to me since my son was
born.
10. __________________________ times out of hundred you can arrive late and he wont notice, but
today had to be my unlucky day!
11. I dont believe in love at __________________________sight. Youve got to get to know people.
12. Hes back to square __________________________ now that theyve turned down his
application.
13. She came off __________________________ best in the argument.
14. They dont know the __________________________ thing about running this kind of business.
15. As he had a car, he was __________________________ up on me when it came to inviting girls
out.
17
18
subordinates are non-managers. The next management level consists of members of the middle
management, such as production manager, human resources manager (or personnel manager), finance
manager. The managers at the top of an organization are members of the top or senior management.
They are usually referred to as executives. Although functional titles vary from company to company,
top executives are often entitled as following: President, Vice President, Chief Executive Officer
(CEO), Chief Financial Officer (CFO), Managing Director (MD). In big companies, beneath the top
management level there may be more levels of middle managers whose positions carry the term
manager or director. In this case managers would typically report to directors, who in turn would
report to members of the top management.
Top managers normally deal with planning and setting objectives. Middle managers then take these
objectives and translate them into specific projects for their subordinates to execute. First-line
managers then concentrate on directing and controlling the employees who work on these projects
(e.g. a company needs to hire two IT specialists).
Finally, it is important to mention that all managers at all levels spend about three quarters of their
working day with people. Thus their ability to talk and listen to their co-workers or business partners is
of great importance. Moreover, they have to attend countless meetings, negotiations and conferences.
(Adapted and edited from: G. Dessler: Management: Leading People & Organizations in the 21st
century.)
EXERCISE 1
Complete sentences 1-9 using the words in the table below.
manage
manager
managed
management
managing
managerial
manageable
managership
EXERCISE 2
Match the job descriptions with the job titles.
1 The top manager in American English.
Managing Director
19
Marketing Director
CEO
Purchasing Director
EXERCISE 3
Use the words from the table to complete the following sentences. One of the words
has to be put into its correct form.
entrepreneurship
entrepreneur
entrepreneurial
enterprise
enterprising
To support economic development in the region the government has close links with
local .
There are men like Richard Branson or Bill Gates wanting to change the
world.
EXERCISE 4
Explain the following terms.
1 Free or private enterprise
2
Public enterprise
Enterprise centre
Enterprise culture
Enterprise economy
Enterprise zone
Listening
Listen to Steve Moody talking about responsibilities of a store manager and answer these two
questions:
1. Why are Marks & Spencers store managers limited in giving accountability to their staff and
delegating responsibilities?
2. What do they concentrate on instead?
20
allocate
establish
balance
follow
deal with
require
develop
set
The top managers of a company (1) have to __________________ objectives and then develop
particular strategies that will enable the company to (2) __________________ them. This will involve
(3) __________________ the companys human, capital and physical resources. Strategies can often
be sub-divided into tactics the precise methods in which the resources attached to a strategy are (4)
__________________.
The founders of a business usually establish a mission statement a declaration about what the
business is and what it will be in the future. The businesss central values and objectives will (5)
__________________ from this. But because the business environment is always changing,
companies will occasionally have to modify or change their objectives. It is part of top managements
role to (6) __________________ todays objectives and needs against those of the future, and to take
responsibility for innovation, without which any organization can only expect a limited life. Top
managers are also expected to set standards, and to (7) __________________ human resources,
especially future top managers.
They also have to manage a businesss social responsibilities and its impact on the environment. They
have to (8) __________________ and maintain good relationships with customers, major suppliers,
bankers, government agencies, and so on. The top management, of course, is also on permanent standby to (9) __________________ major crises.
Between them, these tasks (10) __________________ many different skills which are almost never
found in one person, so top management is work for a team. A team, of course, is not the same as a
committee: it needs a clear leader, in this case the chairman or managing director.
B. Complete the following collocations:
1. to set __________________
2. to allocate __________________
3. to take __________________
4. to set__________________
5. to __________________ and __________________ good relations
6. to __________________ a crises
21
Company Structure
The growth of a large business is merely a survival of the fittest.
(John D. Rockefeller, American industrialist and philanthropist)
These days many big companies represent complex systems requiring large capital
investments provided by shareholders. Shareholders, i.e. people who own a company,
usually choose managers who are to run the company for them. At the top of the company
hierarchy is the Board of Directors, headed by the Chairperson (or President). The Board of
Directors is responsible for strategic decision-making. This body also appoints a Managing
Director (or Chief Executive Officer) responsible for the running of the company and many of
its directors may have executive responsibilities. Senior managers spend most of their time
on administrative tasks, organizing work, communicating with people and ensuring that the
companys goals are achieved. The position of Managing Director often combines the role of
the highest executive with membership of the Board. His role enables him to be a close link
between the board and the management team.
Executive directors are actively involved in the companys affairs. Whenever the
Board of Directors makes a strategic decision, executives are responsible for implementing
it. For example, the board of a European company may wish to penetrate the NorthAmerican market; the executive directors have to choose the right course of action to
implement the decision.
While the executives know a lot about the day-to-day running of the company, nonexecutive directors can have some deeper knowledge and expertise of their field. So a good
board, which works efficiently, is made up of both executive and non-executive directors.
Who has the overall responsibility for the running of the business?
22
23
duties
Listen and decide which departments the following people work in?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Fill in the gaps using the expressions in the table below.
Board of Directors
collective
executives
strategy
CEO
management
objectives
Supervisory Board
The 1 monitors the policies of the executive management as well as the general
course of action. The main task of the 2 is to ensure that business issues and
practices are shared across the company. 3 are entrusted to their Board of Directors
under the chairmanship of the 4 . The members of this body have
5
24
EXERCISES
Complete the following sentences with appropriate terms from the text above:
1. I phoned to check on my application, but they said they had already _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ someone.
2. This job is so important, I think we need to _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ someone.
3. The selection process has lasted three months, but we are going to _ _ _ _ _ _ _ someone next week.
25
5. That last applicant was very strong, but I understand he has had two other _ _ _ _ _ _ already.
6. They have finally _ _ _ _ _ a new receptionist.
7. Computer programmers wanted. Only those with UNIX experience should _ _ _ _ _ .
When employees give notice, i.e. inform their employer that they will be leaving the company
(as soon as their contract allows), in what order should the company carry out the following
steps?
A either hire a job agency (or for a senior post, a firm of headhunters), or advertise the
vacancy
B establish whether there is an internal candidate who has the expertise and could be promoted
(or moved sideways, transferred or relocated) to the job
C examine the job description for the post, to see whether it needs to be changed (or indeed,
whether the post needs to be filled, whether downsizing should not take place)
D follow up the references of candidates who seem interesting
E invite the short-listed candidates for an interview
F make a final selection
G receive applications, curricula vitae and covering letters, and make a preliminary selection
(a short-list)
H try to discover why the person has resigned
I write to all the other candidates to inform them that they have been unsuccessful
26
2. Look at the following extracts from CVs and application letters of different candidates.
Which of them do you think would help the candidate get an interview, and why?
27
READING:
Pay and Benefits
My name is Luigi and I am a hotel manager in Venice. I get paid a salary every month. In summer
we are very busy, so we work a lot of extra hours, or overtime. The money for this is quite good.
Working in a hotel, we also get nice perks, for example free meals.
I am Ivan and I work as a waiter in Prague. I like my job even if I do not earn very much: I get paid
wages every week by the restaurant. We get the minimum wage: the lowest amount allowed by law.
But we also get tips, money that customers leave for us in addition to the bill. Some tourists are very
generous!
I am Catherine and I am a saleswoman based in Paris, I get a basic salary, plus commission: a
percentage on everything I sell. If I sell more than a particular amount in a year, I also get extra money
a bonus, which is nice. There are some good fringe benefits with this job: I get a company car, and
they make payments for my pension, money that I will get regularly after I stop working. All that
makes a good benefits package.
My name is Alan. I am a specialist in pay and benefits. Compensation and remuneration are
formal words used to talk about pay and benefits, especially those of senior managers. Compensation
package and remuneration package are used especially in the US to talk about all the pay and
benefits that employees receive. For a senior executive, this may include share options (BE) or stock
options (AE): the right to buy the companys shares at low prices. They may be performance-related
bonuses if the manager reaches particular objectives for the company.
Compensation is also used to talk about money and other benefits that a senior manager (or any
employee) receives if they are forced to leave the organization, perhaps after a boardroom row. This
money is in the form of a compensation payment, or severance payment. If the manager also
receives benefits, the payment and the benefits form a severance package.
In Britain, executives with very high pay and good benefits may be referred to as fat cats, implying
that they do not deserve this level of remuneration.
EXERCISE 1
Write down appropriate terms that correspond to their synonyms or explanations.
1
10
10
28
EXERCISE 2
Match 1-12 with their synonyms or descriptions in A-L.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
aptitude
job hunter
unemployed
job profile
salary or wage
remuneration
teleworking
job sharing
induction
job hunting
gold-bricking
employed
EXERCISE 3
Which expression is the odd one? Circle it and justify your choice.
1
EXERCISE 4
Choose the appropriate terms that correspond to their definitions.
application form
job dissatisfaction
commuter
job enlargement
covering letter
job enrichment
CV
job freeze
employee retention
outplacement
freelance
upsize
29
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
10
10
11
11
12
12
8
9
EXERCISE 5
Finish the following definitions:
1
A job interview is
Overtime is
EXERCISE 6
Find as many expressions based around the word employ as you can.
30
Activities
Skills
Personal Details
Professional Experience
(1) ________________
Fiona Scott
52 Hanover Street
Edinburgh EH2 5LM
Scotland
Phone: 0131 449 0237
E-mail: Fiona.scott@caledonia.net
(2) ________________
1995 1996
1992 1995
1986 1992
(3) ________________
2000 present
1996 2000
Summers of
1994 and 1995
(4) ________________
IT
Languages
Additional
(5) ________________
Cross-country skiing, rock climbing and swimming
Ski instructor (grade II)
Secretary of the local branch of Action, an association organizing sports activities for disabled children
(6) ________________
Geoffrey Williams
Professor of Journalism
University of London
Brenda Denholm
Sports Editor
The Glasgow Tribune
31
E. Phoning REVISION
2
3
f. 52 Hanover Street
Edinburgh
EH2 5LM
UK
g. Nathalie Baudoin
Patagonia Gmbh
Reitmorstrasse 50
8000 Munich 22
Germany
h. My work experience has familiarized me with many
of the challenges involved in public relations today. I
am sure that this, together with my understanding of
the needs and expectations of sport and nature
enthusiasts, would be extremely relevant to the
position. Moreover, as my mother is German, I am
fluent in this language and would definitely enjoy
working in a German-speaking environment.
9
Fiona Scott
10
i. Fiona Scott
32
j. Yours sincerely
Colgate-Palmolive
Company
William Colgate 1.. (found) the Colgate Company in 1806 as a starch, soap and
candle business in New York. For the first hundred years, the company 2.. (do) all its
business in the USA. However, in the early 1900s, the company 3.. (begin) an
aggressive expansion program that 4. (lead) to the establishment of Colgate
operations in countries throughout Europe, Latin America and the Far East. Recently, it
5. (become) a truly global consumer products company, worth $6.6 billion and
selling to more than 160 countries.
Colgate-Palmolives five main sectors of business are Oral Care, Body Care, Household Surface Care,
Fabric Care and Pet Nutrition and Health Care. In the area of Oral Care, Colgate-Palmolive is the
world leader in toothpaste. Since 1980, the company 6.. (increase) its share of this
market by more than 12% to over 40% today. Oral care revenues 7 (grow)
significantly in recent years and in 1991 they 8. (exceed) $1.3 billion.
The company 9 (always pay) close attention to the environment. It
10. (already make) great progress in the use of recyclable bottles and
packaging
materials.
In
1990
the
American
council
on
Economic
Priorities
11.. (choose) Colgate-Palmolive is one of the four most socially
responsible companies in the United States.
Exercise 2
Fill in the gaps with the present perfect or the past simple of the verbs in brackets.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
33
16. Theres still a problem with the television. Someone ______________ (repair) it, but then it
broke down again.
17. Prices _____________ (go) up. Everything is more expensive this year.
18. My sister __________ (run) away from home. But she came back two days later.
19. I _____________ (lose) my bank card. I cant find it anywhere.
20. The match ____________ (start). United are playing well.
21. I _____________ (make) a cake. Would you like a piece?
Exercise 3
Complete the cover letter with the correct form of the verbs in the brackets. Use present tenses, future
simple and past simple.
Dear Sir or Madam
I 1 (write) to apply for the post of export marketing assistant
which 2 . (be) advertised) in the last edition of Enterprise magazine. I 3
.. (believe) that I 4 .
34
TELEPHONING
1. Your are going to read an article about using the telephone in business. Before you read, guess
the answers to the following questions. Then read the article to see if you are right.
A In a survey, companies failed to answer .................. of calls within ten rings.
1 10%
2 20% 3 50%
B ............ of all sales enquiries begin on the phone.
1 50%
2 70% 3 90%
C A telephonist could answer ................ calls in a year.
1 30,000
2 300,000 3 3,000,000
Companies lose millions of dollars of business through bad telephone handling. A survey found that
company switchboards failed to answer one out of five calls within ten rings, or reply to 10% of calls
within 20 rings. Ninety percent of all sales enquiries begin on the telephone, so this is the opportunity
to project a healthy company image one of friendliness, efficiency and professionalism. Staff should
be aware that bad telephone behavior can result in millions of dollars in lost revenue. In the insurance
business, for example, failure to answer promptly could see a policy of a quarter of a million dollars
go straight to the competition!
A single telephone receptionist can answer as many as 300,000 calls a year. Companies should train
personnel in skills of transferring a call, placing calls on hold, dealing with angry callers, answering
correspondence by phone, using a callers name, and taking messages correctly. Callers should not
hear expressions like shes just gone out or hes not with us anymore. Surveys show that customers
want a prompt response by a real person (not a machine) who can make a decision.
For a great many of a firms customers, the first and often the only impression they carry in their
minds is the one generated by the people they talk to on the phone. The quality of a firms response to
a call is one of the chief factors in creating a perception of good or bad service. And remember, more
business is lost through poor service than by poor product performance.
2. Vocabulary
A. Match 1-8 with replies a-h below to form pairs of exchanges from telephone calls, as in the example,
then listen and check.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
connect ____________________________
wait ____________________________
answer ____________________________
put the phone down / end the conversation ____________________________
return a call ____________________________
search for a word or number in a book ____________________________
phone ____________________________
make contact with ____________________________
35
36
Phoning -REVISION
A. You want to phone someone in a company. You pick up the phone. You hear the dialing tone and dial the
number on the keypad. You dont know the persons direct line number, so you dial the number of the
companys switchboard. One of these things happens:
a. The number rings but no one answers.
b. You hear the engaged tone (BrE) / busy tone (AmM) because the other person is already talking
on the phone. You hang up and try again later.
c. You call later and the number is engaged again. It is very hard to get hold of this person.
d. You get through, but not to the number you wanted. The person who answers says youve got the
wrong number.
e. The operator answers. You ask for the extension of the person you want to speak to.
f. You are put through to the wrong extension. The person offers to transfer you to the right
extension, but you are cut off the call ends.
g. The person you want to speak to is not at their desk and you leave a message on their voicemail.
You ask them to call you back or to return your call.
B. You are trying to phone Delia Jones. She works in a large company. Match your possible reactions (1-7)
to the things (a-g) described in A above.
1. Thats strange. Their switchboard isnt big enough to handle all the calls they get.
2. Thats ridiculous! A company with 500 employees, but no one answers the phone.
3. I ask for Delia Jones and they put me through to Della Jones!
4. Delia seems to spend all day on the phone. Her lines always busy.
5. Thats strange. Im sure I dialed the right number.
6. Oh no I hate this oh well, Id better leave a message.
7. They never seem able to find the extension number!
Voicemail
C. Correct the nine mistakes in Annelise Schmidts voicemail message.
Hi James, this is Annelise calling out of Sprenger Verlag in Hamburg. Its very difficult to get hold to you. I
phoned to you earlier, but your telephone central placed me through to the bad telephone. Anyway, Im calling to
you to discuss the contract we were talking about in Frankfurt. Ill call further later or perhaps youd like to ring
to me here in Hamburg on 00 49 40 789 1357. Bye for now.
Phone, call and ring
call
to
phone
telephone
give someone a
call
someone
It would be good to see Anna soon. Ill phone to her and see when shes free.
I gave Brian a call yesterday and we had a long chat.
Why dont you ring up at Pizza Palace and order some takeaway pizza?
I rung them five minutes ago but there was no answer.
Call me up next time youre in New York.
Give me a ring when youre next in London.
Ill give her the bell and well fix up a meeting.
When you get some news, make me a buzz.
37
STRESS
M A N A G E M EN T
Hard work never killed a man the harder your people work, the happier and healthier they
will be.
(David Ogilvy, founder of Ogilvy and Mather advertising agency)
Irrespective of what we do, everyone has already experienced stress at some time in
his or her life. Because of the direct relationship between good employment practices and
the companys success stress management is becoming a hot topic for many institutions and
businesses. Nowadays, many employees face stressful situations or suffer from stressrelated illnesses. Thus companies should actively be responsible for the health and well
being of their employees, which requires special attention to stress. Effective stress
management is based on the collective and individual willingness to understand and accept
elements causing stress. Furthermore, from the financial point of view, effective stress
management can be profitable compared with ignoring the problems. If stress is managed
effectively, it has positive effects on company performance, its success and profitability.
Organizations that take active steps to manage stress have greater attraction for
potential employees, and their staff spend a high proportion of their working time being
productive rather than off sick or using flimsy excuses to mask the real problems. Moreover,
it is generally believed that businesses taking a positive approach to the management of
stress are highly respected and valued not only by their employees but also by the outside
environment.
High blood pressure, heart diseases, tiredness, exhaustion, hair loss, and insomnia
are only a few stress-related symptoms. For instance, studies show that stress can reduce
the power of our immune systems. A study in the U.K. exposed 266 people to a common
cold virus and then tracked who became sick. 28.6 percent of those with few signs of stress
caught the cold. However, the figure jumped to 42.4 percent for those who were under high
stress.
There is an increasing recognition that company employees also have other
legitimate interests away from their working place. So people who do not commit themselves
to their work to the exclusion of else cannot be judged as those who lack commitment or
loyalty. Managers therefore should not ask their subordinates to do something they are not
willing to do themselves. For example, Julius Caesar never asked his troops to do anything
that he was not prepared to do if they rode, so did he; if they walked, so did he too.
38
illness
mortgage or loan
recreation
Christmas
A balance between work and the rest of life should be ensured. People should take
proper holidays. They should not be allowed to work overtime for a longer period of time.
Regular inspections of the company premises should be carried out to ensure that working
conditions are good and stress-free. Finally, as with every aspect of managerial work, the
quicker stress-related problems are recognized, the less long-term damage is caused to both
businesses and individuals.
Are these statements True or False?
1. Diseases such as flu or cold are often caused by stress.
2. A good manager always serves as a role model for his subordinates
3. The article claims that companies are responsible for the health and well-being of their
employees.
4. Employees as well as employers are to be willing to identify stressors.
5. People spend less productive time at work in the organizations which manage stress.
Bibliography
[1]
[2]
Give advice
In the last few years there has been more and more administrative work, with no time for reading or
research. I feel pressure building up. I have begun to feel overwhelmed by work: I feel as if I am not
able to do it. In other words I am under stress, very worried about my work. That is the reason why I
became ill last month. I am sure this was caused by stress, it was stress-induced. I do not want to end
up like one of my colleagues who became so stressed out because of overwork that he had a nervous
breakdown. He was so worried about work that he couldnt sleep or work and had to give up. He is
completely burned out and it will take time till he can start working again.
39
MANAGEMENT STYLES
Power is the great aphrodisiac.
(Henry Kissinger, American politician)
40
Value honesty and transparency over and above all temporary interests.
Offer products and services at fair prices which are recognized by customers as the best on the
market.
Provide the customer with differentiated services, placing our responsibility before profits.
Encourage everyones participation and question decisions that are imposed from the top
down.
Maintain an informal and pleasant environment, with a professional attitude and free of
preconceptions.
Maintain safe working conditions and control industrial processes to protect our personnel and
the environment.
Have the humility to recognize our errors and understanding that we can always improve.
Listen to the following text and decide if the statements A H are true (T) or false (F).
A
Semler feels that people become more responsible when they make the
decisions.
Find the expressions in the text that correspond to their explanations below. The first letter has
been given.
1
41
DISCUSSION
Which of these statements do you agree with?
A. manager should:
1. know when your birthday is.
2. know where you are and what youre doing at all times during working hours.
3. not criticize or praise.
4. not interfere in disagreements between members of staff.
5. not ask people to do things theyre not prepared to do themselves.
6. be available at all times to give staff advice and support.
7. keep their distance from staff and not get involved in socializing outside work.
8. use polite language at all times.
9. work longer hours than their staff.
10. comment on the personal appearance of their staff.
B. What is the role of a manager? Choose your top three roles from the following.
coach / motivator
organizer
mediator
facilitator
problem-solver
leader
instigator
mentor
dictator
decision-maker
MANAGEMENT QUALITIES
Complete the table by writing the opposite and noun forms.
Considerate
inconsiderate
Creative
Decisive
Diplomatic
Efficient
Flexible
Inspiring
Interested
Logical
Organized
Rational
Responsible
Sociable
Supportive
Choose the worst qualities of a manager and rank them (1=worst)
42
consideration
What does Niall do before he makes contact with people in other countries?
B. Listen to the second part of the interview and note down Nialls five key points on ways managers
can get the best out of people.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Richard Bransons
10 secrets of success
Richard Branson became famous as a hippy businessman in the 1960s when he set up a record company.
Today he runs the successful Virgin airline and hes still breaking many of the traditional rules of management.
So how does he do it?
Complete the text with suitable words listed below.
temper
questions
day
memory
money
qualifications
single
memos
decisions
failures
1 He regularly works an eleven-hour ., starting around eight and finishing around seven at night.
2 He spends a lot of time talking to people on the telephone but he never sends .. .
3 He rarely holds board meetings. He makes . on the phone or on the tennis court.
4 He has a good . and he writes peoples names on his hand so he doesnt forget them.
5 He invites every one of his 10,000 employees to a party at his home in Oxfordshire every year.
The last part cost around 100,000 pounds
6 He continually his employees about every aspect of the business and he tries to pick holes in
their arguments to find out whether their ideas will work.
7 If he becomes annoyed in meetings, he leaves the room. He hardly ever loses his .
8 He employs people he likes personally. This is more important to him than .
9 He has had several business in the past and nearly went bankrupt several times but he has
always survived. He puts his success down to good ideas, good people, and good luck.
10 He didnt go into business to make . He went into business because he wanted a challenge.
43
Germany
Poland
Sweden
The United Kingdom
The United States
44
Relationship building
Addressing people
Physical contact
Conversational topics
45
GRAMMAR: Nationalities
The most common suffixes for nationalities in English are:
-ian
-an
-ean
-ish
-ese
-i
The English names of many countries end in ia (Albania, Algeria). The adjectives from these countries end
in ian. Do the adjectives from:
Argentina
Belgium
Brazil
Canada
Egypt
Bahamas
Ghana
Hungary
Iran
Italy
Jordan
Indonesia
Mozambique
Norway
Palestine
Peru
Ukraine
Russia
The adjectives from the following countries end in an or ean:
Angola
Chile
Germany
Kenya
Libya
Mexico
Morocco
Paraguay
South Africa
Sri Lanka
Uganda
Uruguay
Venezuela
Zaire
Zimbabwe
New Zealand
Korea
Singapore
USA
Guatemala
Ireland
Turkey
Lebanon
Taiwan
Nepal
Vietnam
Faroe Islands
Korea
Turkey
The adjectives from these countries are irregular. Do you know them?
Afghanistan
Czech Republic
Greece
Philippines
Netherlands
Switzerland
Thailand
Wales
Slovakia
Exercise
Match the words from the three columns below to make sentences. Transform the names of the countries
into adjectives.
Example: Sherry is a Spanish wine region.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Sherry
Aer Lingus
Benetton
Peugeot
Motorola
Focus
Philips
Carlsberg
IKEA
The Times
Lisbon
Odessa
Aker AS
Moussaka
Lindt
Denmark
Norway
France
Holland
Spain
Italy
USA
Britain
Greek
Swiss
Ukraine
Germany
Ireland
Portugal
Sweden
furniture retailer
capital
telecommunications company
beer
electronics company
industrial company
clothing manufacturer
seaport
chocolate
car manufacturer
wine region
airline
dish
weekly magazine
newspaper
46
concentrate facts
consist .. three parts
cooperate . suppliers
decide new strategy
rely . ones charm
depend . customers
focus . better results
take care customers
qualify 2010 Fifa Cup
explain sth to
spend sth on
borrow sth from
invite sb to
thank sb for
ask sb about/for
insure sth against
supply sb with
congratulate sb on
prevent sb from
2. There is a difference in meaning between about and of. What is the difference between the
sentences?
Gillian reminded me about the appointment.
Gillian reminded me of my sister.
Verb + different prepositions
1. They agreed to give us better terms of payment. OK, I agree with you about the need for
cutting costs.
2. I must apologize to Susan for my awful behavior last night.
3. Shall we ask for the bill? Ask the waiter about the dish of the day.
4. Im going to complain to the manager about the service in here.
5. I heard about the news from a colleague of mine. Ive never heard of that company.
6. I learnt a lot about insurance from my last job.
7. This problem results from bad planning and it will result in chaos.
3. Complete the sentences with the correct preposition
1. I really sympathise .. your problem, but theres not a lot I can do.
2. Positive thinking is so important. You really have to believe .. yourself.
3. Ill wait you outside.
4. What youre saying can only lead . one possible solution.
5. Of course the size of our order will depend .. the price.
6. Your CV is strong in most areas, but what do you know .. marketing?
7. Imports always suffer .. the effects of a strong dollar.
8. I always have to look smart my boss doesnt approve .. informal clothes.
47
4. Complete the sentences with one word from list A and one word from list B.
A: agreed, apologised, apply, belong, comply, explain, heard, hoping, insist, listen, pay qualify,
rely, remind
B: about, on, from, with, to, for
48
TRAVELLING
They say travel broadens the mind; but you must have the mind.
(G. K. Chesterton, English essayist, novelist, and poet)
1. Which means of transport do you use? What are the advantages and drawbacks of travelling
by public transport and of using your own car? Fill in the following chart.
Means of transport:
Public transport
Advantages
Advantages
Disadvantages
Disadvantages
She took her mother on a nice, quiet _____________ in her new car.
Thank you for flying with Lufthansa. We hope you have had a good _____________.
49
4. Read the following text and decide which is the best word to complete gaps 1-8.
I have learned, often the hard (1)_____________, that there are a few simple rules about how to
make life easier both before and after the journey. First of all, you must always check and doublecheck departure times. This is absolutely essential. It is amazing how few people do this really
carefully. Once I arrived at the airport a few minutes before ten. I thought she had said that the plane
left at 10.50. I walked calmly to the departure gate, thinking I (2)__________ had a little time to spare.
I hadnt bothered to take a good look at the ticket. The clerk at the desk told me politely but firmly that
the departure time was 10.15 and that, (3)_____________ to international regulations, the flight was
now closed.
Secondly, you should remember that even in this (4)_____________ of credit cards, it is still
important to have at least a little of the local currency with you when you arrive in a country. This can
be absolutely essential if you are flying to a place few tourists normally visit. A few years ago I was
sent to Tulsa, Oklahoma. I flew there from London via Dallas with very little time to
(5)_____________ planes in between. I arrived there at midnight and the bank at the airport was
closed. The only (6)_____________to get to the hotel was by taxi and, since I had no American
dollars, I offered to pay in British pounds instead.
Listen buddy. I only take real money! the driver said angrily. Luckily, I was able to
(7)_____________ a few dollars from a clark at the hotel, but it was very embarrassing.
The third and last rule is to find out as much as you can about the weather at your
(8)_____________ before you leave. It may be very different from the weather at home. I feel sorry
for some of my colleagues who travel in heavy suits and raincoats in March or April, when it is still
fairly cool in places like London, Berlin or New York, to places like Athens, Rome or Madrid, where
it is already beginning to get quite warm during the day. Few people understand just how it is to have
the right sort of clothes with you in these days of rapid air (9)_____________.
path
road
way
street
still
yet
then
already
regarding
relating
according
referring
period
time
term
age
exchange
change
transfer
alter
way
manner
path
route
borrow
lend
gain
beg
goal
aim
objective
destination
travel
trips
journeys
voyages
50
Air travel
5. Answer the clues. The number of letters is given.
1A______
2__I___
3_____R_
4____-___
5____T
6_____R
7_A_____
8_V______
9__E_
10 _ L _ _ _ _
an area of land where aircraft can land and take off, be kept, repaired, etc. (7)
a trip by airplane, especially carrying passengers on a regular service (6)
a member of cabin staff who looks after the passengers needs (7)
the act of leaving the ground by an airplane
a person who flies an airplane, captain (5)
a big building where planes are kept (6)
the act of coming down onto the ground again from the air (7)
the science or practice of flying (8)
all the people working on an airplane (4)
a plane without an engine (6)
6. Put each of the following words or phrases into its correct place in the passage below.
air vents
co-pilot
flight
passenger
trip
size
cabin
crew
flight engineer
passenger list
tourist
captain
cruising speed
galley
safety belts
attendants
carry
distances
jet-propelled
seats
take-off
Airliner
Airliners, or (a) __________________ planes, differ from light planes not only in (b)
__________________ but also in speed and equipment. They are designed to (c)
__________________ a greater number of people over longer (d)________________ without
stopping to refuel.
A passenger airliner has a comfortable (e) __________________ with soft carpets, adjustable
upholstered (f)______________, washrooms, and individual (g) __________________ and reading
lights. It has a (h) __________________ for preparing food. Many airliners offer (i)
__________________, or economy class service, which costs less than first-class travel.
The (j) __________________ of four-engine airliners range from about 350 mph for propeller-driven
planes to more than 500 mph for (k) __________________ planes.
The (l) __________________ of an airliner works as a team to make the trip smooth and pleasant.
While the passengers take their seats, the pilot or (m) ______________, co-pilot, flight engineer, and
stewardesses prepare the plane for (n)___________. The pilot, assisted by the (o)
__________________, checks the instruments and tests the controls. The (p) __________________
checks the other mechanical equipment. The stewardesses check the (r) __________________, make
sure that the passengers fasten their (s) ______________ for (t) ________________. Later, the flight
(u) __________________ distribute magazines, serve meals, and do other things to make the (v)
__________________ enjoyable.
51
7. LISTENING
a) Listen to these statements. Where do they take place?
a) in a taxi
c) at a railways station
e) on a plane
b) at an airport
d) at a hotel
1 ____ 2 ____ 3 ____ 4 ____ 5 ____ 6 ____ 7 ____ 8 ____
b) Listen and complete the flight details.
1. Flight _________
2. Flight _________
3. Flight _________
4. The plane _________ from _________ 38.
5. You fly from _______________.
6. The _________ flight to _________ is now boarding.
7. You are in _________ 35, _________ E.
8. The plane _________________ .
c) Listen to each part of the recording. Then answer the questions.
Part 1
1. What time is the next train to Manchester?
Part 2
2. Which flight is boarding at gate 23?
Part 3
3. What time does the train leave?
4. Which platform does it leave from?
Part 4
5. The passenger chooses a flight. What time does it leave?
6. When does the flight arrive?
7. What is the flight number?
8. Which terminal does it leave from?
Ships
8. Choose from the given words those related to the indicated subject.
(to) board
charts
crew
fleet
hold
liner
navigator
seasickness
voyage
bow
cliffs
cruise
freighters
knots
loaded
overboard
stern
waves
bunks
coast
deck-chairs
galley
latitude
mate
rope
stewards
warship wreck
52
cabins
compass
docks
gang-way
life-jacket
moored
rudder
stormy
captain
cranes
(to) embark
harbour
lighthouses
(to) navigate
seamen
vessels
Final Review
1. Complete the passage below using the appropriate word or phrases.
At the top of the company hierarchy is the ..........................., headed by the ........................(or
president). The board is responsible for making policy decisions and for determining the company's
strategy. It will usually appoint a .......................(or chief executive officer) who has overall
responsibility for the running of the business. .................................or line managers head the various
departments or functions within the company.
When a company needs to .......................... or employ new people, it may decide to advertise the job
or .......................... in the appointments section of a newspaper. People who are interested can then
..................... the job by sending in a ................................. or covering letter and a ...........................
containing details of their education and experience. In some cases a company may prefer to do this
initial selection after asking candidates to complete a standard .................... . The company's human
resource department will then select the applications that it considers the most suitable and prepare a
............................ of candidates or ......................., who are invited to attend an ............................ .
Another way for a company to ......................... is by using the services of a ...................................
(US-search firm) who will provide them with a list of suitable candidates.
2. Which departments do the following people work in?
1
John:
Malcolm:
Lucy:
Currently our company is not doing very well and weve had to cancel
two departments, lay off some workers and review salaries of all
employees.
Mary:
George:
Linda:
Jane:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
I. Reading Comprehension
Find words that correspond to the following definitions in the text The Importance of English in the World of
International Business:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
to connect
on the highest level of development (adj.)
well informed about a subject
businessmen, managers
study or investigation
Find words in the second paragraph that mean the opposite than the following words:
6) unnecessary, unimportant
7) excluded, separated
8) to come to an end, disappear
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II. Vocabulary
1. Write a definition
Lingua franca is _________________________________________________________________________
2. Match the words in the two columns:
1. increment
A increase
2. elaborate
B a letter of application
3. annual
C independent
4. covering letter D complex
5. successive
E recruit
6. freelance
F yearly
7. candidate
G following
8. hire
H applicant
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
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