The nature of qualitative research

qualitative research subsumes several diverse research

methods that differ from each other considerably.

Adopted from
D McHugh

Features of Qualitative
Research
An inductive view of the relationship between theory and

research, whereby the former is generated out of the latter

An epistemological position described as interpretivist,

meaning that, in contrast to the adoption of a natural scientific

model in quantitative research, the stress is on the
understanding of the social world through an examination of
the interpretation of that world by its participants; and
An ontological position described as constructionist, which

implies that social properties are outcomes of the interactions

between individuals, rather than phenomena `out there' and
separate from those involved in its construction

What is qualitative research?

Seeks out the why, no the how
Used to gain insight into peoples
attitudes, behaviours, value systems, etc
Used to inform business decisions, policy,
communication
Is demanding when it comes to collecting
and analysing information
http://www.qsrinternational.com/what-isqualitative-research.aspx

Main Research Methods Associated

With Qualitative Research

Ethnography/participant observation
Qualitative interviewing
Focus groups
Language-based approaches:
conversation analysis; discourse analysis
Collection and qualitative analysis of texts
and documents

The Main Steps in Qualitative

Research
1. General research questions

2. Selecting relevant site(s) and subjects

3. Collection of relevant data

5b. Collection of further data

4. Interpretation of data

5. Conceptual and theoretical work

6. Writing up findings/conclusions

5a. Tighter specification of the

research question(s)

Four Traditions of Qualitative

Research
Naturalism - seeks to understand social reality in its

own terms; `as it really is'; provides rich descriptions of

people and interaction in natural settings.
Ethnomethodology - seeks to understand how social
order is created through talk and interaction; has a
naturalistic orientation.
Emotionalism - exhibits a concern with subjectivity and
gaining access to `inside' experience; concern with the
inner reality of humans.
Postmodernism - there is an emphasis on `method
talk'; sensitive to the different ways social reality can be
constructed.
Gubrium and Holstein (1997)

An Example of the Emergence of a

Concept in Qualitative Research:
Emotional Labour
In Hochschilds investigations she:
watched sessions for training attendants and had many
conversations with both trainees and experienced attendants
during the sessions
interviewed various personnel, such as managers in various
sections, and advertising agents
examined Delta advertisements spanning thirty years
observed the flight attendant recruitment process at Pan American
Airways, since she had not been allowed to do this at Delta
conducted `open-ended interviews lasting three to five hours each
with thirty flight attendants in the San Francisco Bay Area'
Hochschild 1983

Reliability and Validity in

Qualitative Research
External reliability - the degree to which a study

can be replicated
Internal reliability - whether, when there is more
than one observer, members of the research team
agree about what they see and hear
Internal validity - whether there is a good match
between researchers' observations and the
theoretical ideas they develop
External validity - the degree to which findings can
be generalized across social settings
Based on: LeCompte and Goetz
(1982)

Guba and Lincolns Criteria for

Evaluating Qualitative Research
Trustworthiness:

Authenticity:

Credibility

Fairness

Transferability

Ontological

Dependability

Educative

Confirmability

Catalytic
Tactical

What is Respondent
Validation?
Respondent (or member) validation - a process whereby researchers
provide the people on whom they have conducted research with an
account of their findings.
Forms:
researchers provide each research participant with an account of what they
have said to the researcher in interviews and conversations or of
observations of participants in observational studies.
the researcher feeds back to a group or an organization their impressions
and findings in relation to that group or organization.

Practical difficulties:
respondent validation may occasion defensive reactions and even
censorship on the part of research participants.
it is highly questionable whether research participants can validate a
researcher's analysis, since this entails inferences being made for an
audience of social science peers.

What is Triangulation?
Triangulation:

entails using more than one method or source of data in the study
of social phenomena.
is an approach that uses `multiple observers, theoretical
perspectives, sources of data, and methodologies (Denzin)
has tended to emphasise multiple methods of investigation and
sources of data
can operate within and across research strategies

can refer to a process of cross-checking findings deriving from

both quantitative and qualitative research (triangulation of
methods)
may often allow access to different levels of reality
see Key concept
16.4

The Main Preoccupations of Qualitative

Researchers
Seeing through the eyes of the people being
studied
Description and the emphasis on context

Emphasis on process
Flexibility and limited structure
Concepts and theory grounded in data

The Critique of Qualitative

Research
Qualitative research is too
subjective
Difficult to replicate
Problems of generalization

Lack of transparency

Common Contrasts Between

Quantitative and Qualitative
Research
Quantitative

Qualitative

Numbers
Point of view of researcher
Researcher distant
Theory testing
Static
Structured
Generalization
Hard, reliable data
Macro
Behaviour
Artificial settings

Words
Points of view of participants
Researcher close
Theory emergent
Process
Unstructured
Contextual understanding
Rich, deep data
Micro
Meaning
Natural settings

Definition of Action Research

Experiments on real problems within an organization
that are designed to assist in their solution
This involves an iterative process of problem
identification, planning, action and evaluation
Action research leads eventually to re-education,
changing patterns of thinking and action. This depends
on the participation of research subjects (who are
often referred to in action research as clients) in
identifying new courses of action
It is intended to contribute both academic theory and
practical action
Argyris et al. (1985)

Outcomes of Good and Effective

Action Research
It must have implications that relate to situations other
than the one that is studied
As well as being usable in everyday life, action research
should also be concerned with theory
It leads to the generation of emergent or grounded
theory which emanates from the data in gradual
incremental steps
Action researchers must recognize that their findings will
have practical implications and they should be clear
about what they expect participants to take away from
the project
Eden and Huxham (1996)

Cognitive Mapping
A predominantly qualitative method
used widely by business and management researchers in a
variety of contexts

Is complementary to action research

can be used as a problem-solving device
commonly used as a management consulting technique

Used to capture individual perspectives

a tool for reflective thinking about a problem that enables steps
to be taken towards its solution

Relates to the thinking processes of individuals, groups,

organizations or even industries
researchers need to be clear about the level of analysis they are
adopting
see Research in focus
16.12

An Example of a Part of a Cognitive

Map to Show the Process of
Qualitative Interviewing
Interviewer tape-records
the interview, rather than
taking notes

Interviewer maintains impression of

actively listening to interviewee,
maintaining eye contact and showing
interest in what s/he is saying

Interviewee talks openly and

spontaneously, rather than
just answering the questions
in a defensive manner
Interviewer maintains
flexibility by following up
on particular issues raised
by the interviewee and
varying the order of
questions as appropriate

Interviewee feels positive

towards the interviewer and
about the process of being
interviewed

Interviewer uses language

that is comprehensible and
relevant to the interviewee

Tape-recording is of a
quality that is suitable for
transcription and
subsequent analysis

Interview takes
place in a quiet,
private setting

An Example of Participative
Research
Brown and Kaplans work illustrates five aspects of participative research:
1.

diverse parties, including management and union leaders, whose

interactions could not be predicted or controlled

2.

ideological choices, the researchers were unable to remain neutral in their

research as they were pressed to take sides with either union or
management (eventually deciding to work exclusively with management
who had financially supported the research initially)

3.

diverse perspectives of different parties had somehow to be integrated,

despite the high degree of misunderstanding and conflict that existed
between them

4.

research was organized in a way that enabled the use of resources to

solve concrete problems as well as to generate abstract knowledge

5.

outcomes of the research were complex and ambiguous, producing

competing explanations that reflected multiple realities

Brown & Kaplan (1981):

Something to Think about

Outline some of the traditions of qualitative
research
What are some of the main research
methods associated with qualitative
research
What are the main criticisms of qualitative
research