Manual

FLOW THROUGH PIPE - INTRODUCTION
A pipe is closed conduit (generally of circular section) which is used for carrying fluids
under pressure. The flow in a pipe is termed pipe flow only when the fluid completely fills the cross
section and there is no free surface of fluid. The pipe running partially full (in such a case
atmospheric pressure exits inside the pipe) behaves like an open channel.
Loss of Energy in Pipes
When water flows in pipe, it experiences some resistance to its motion, due to which its
velocity and ultimately the head of water available is reduced. The loss of energy (or head) is
classified as follows:a)
Major energy losses

This loss is due to friction.
b)
Minor energy losses

These losses are due to:
1.
Sudden enlargement of pipe
2.
Sudden contraction of pipe
3.
Bend in pipe
4.
An obstruction in pipe
5.
Pipe fitting etc
Major energy losses

These losses which are due to friction are calculated by
1.
Darcy Weisbach formula
2.
Chezys formula.
Minor Energy (Head) Losses

Whereas the major loss of energy or head is due to friction, the minor loss of energy (or
head) includes the following cases :1.
Loss of head due to sudden enlargement
2.
Loss of head due to sudden contraction
3.
Loss of head due to obstruction in the pipe
4.
Loss of head at the entrance to a pipe
5.
Loss of head at the exit of a pipe
6.
7.
Loss of head due to bend in the pipe

Loss of head in various pipe fittings
1. Flow through Pipes (Major Loss)

Aim of the Experiment :
To determine the co-effcient of friction of a given pipe.
Apparatus Required :
A Pipe provided with inlet and outlet valves and pressure tapping values.
Differential U-tube Manometer.
Collecting tank fitted with peizometer and control valve.
Stop watch.
Meter scale.
Theory :
If a liquid flowing through a pipe line and it is subjected to a frictional resistance, it
always depends upon the inner surface of the pipe. The more roughness is the more frictional
resistance.
Formulae :
1.
The loss of head between subjected lengths of pipe is observed from a measured discharge.
The frictional factor is calculated by using the expression given below :
f
2gdH / 4lv2
f
H
h1
h2
=
=
=
=
co-efficient of friction
loss of head due to friction (i.e.) h1 ~ h2
manometer head in first limb (m)
manometer head reading in second limb (m)
d
l
v
=
=
=
diameter of the given pipe (m)

length of the pipe between pressure topping (m)
velocity of the flow in pipe (m/s)
Where,
2.
Actual discharge,
Qact = A h / t
(m3/sec)
Where,
A
h
t
3.
=
=
=
Area of collecting tank (m2)

rise of water level in Collecting tank (m)
time taken for h(m) rise of water
Velocity,
v = Qact / a (m/s)
Where,
a
=
=
area of the corss section of the pipe (m2)

d2 /4 (m2)
Procedure :
1.
Measure the diameter of the pipe, internal plane dimension of collecting tank and length of
the pipe between the pressure tapping valves.
2.
Keep the outlet valve closed and open the inlet valve fully.
3.
Open the outlet valve slightly and note the manometric head in both limbs.
4.
Close the outlet valve of collecting tank and observe the time required for the raise of water
in the collecting tank using stop watch.
5.
Repeat the above procedure by gradually increasing the flow and observe the required
readings.
6.
Tabulate the observation and calculate the co-efficient of friction of pipe.
Calculation :
Graph :
A graph is plotted with H on x-axis and v2 on y-axis.
Result :
The co-efficient of friction of diameter of pipe is given by
i)
Analytical Method
___________________ .
ii)
Graphical Method
___________________ .
2. Determination of Minor Losses

To determine the loss of co-efficient for flow through pipe due to sudden enlargements,
sudden contractions, pipe fittings such as elbows, bends etc.,
A Pipeline provided with bend, elbow, pipe fittings etc.,

Collecting tank..
Stop watch.
Meter scale.
Theory :
1. The loss of energy due to friction is classified as major losses and minor losses of energy.
2. Due to change in velocity of fluid either in magnitude is described as minor velocity.
3. In long pipes minor losses are quite small which is normally ignored. However in short pipes that
losses may be some times outseight the major losses.
Formulae :
The general expression for minor losses
K
h1
=
=
2gh/ v2
Kv2/ 2g
h1
head loss (m)
velocity of fluid flowing though normal diameter in pipe
loss of co-efficient depends on pipe fittings and nature of change in
Where,
velocity.
Procedure :
1.
Select the required pipeline and note down the diameter.
2.
Connect pressure tapings in any pipeline. Close all other pressure tapings.
3.
Open the inlet valve in selected pipelines and closed valve in remaining pipelines.
4.
Open the main gate valve and connect pressure taping of the bent to the manometer.
5.
Note down the readings in left and right column of manometer.
6.
Close the valve in collecting tank and note down the time taken for the h cm rise in collecting tank.
7.
8.
Repeat the experiment for 5 set readings for different flow rate.
Remove and connect the pressure tapings to other pipe fittings and repeat the above process.
Result :
1.
Loss of head due to Expansion
_______________________ .
2.
Loss of head due to Contraction
_______________________ .
3.
Loss of head due to Elbow
_______________________ .
4.
Loss of head due to Bend
_______________________ .
VENTURIMETER, ORIFICEMETER & IMPACT OF JET

INTRODUCTION
Venturimeter
A Venturimeter is one of the most important practical application of Bernoullis theorem. It
is an instrument used to measure the rate of discharge in a pipeline and is often fixed permanently
at different sections of the pipe line to know the discharge there.
A venturimeter has been named after the 18th century Italian engineer Venturi.
Description
The Venturimeter, in its simplest form, consists of a convergent cone, throat and divergent
cone as shown.
The convergent cone is a short conical pipe of length about 2.50 times the inlet diameter. It
converges from the diameter d1 of pipe to the diameter d2 at throat such that it subtends an angle of
15o to 21o. The upstream end of the convergent cone is called the inlet and the diameter at the inlet
is the same as that of the pipe to which it is to be connected.
The throat is a very small length of circular pipe of diameter d2 and it connects the
convergent and divergent cones. The ratio d2 / d1 is known as the throat ratio and it should be such
that the pressure at the throat does not become negative. The throat ratio varies from to , the
most common being 1/3 to
The divergent cone is a short conical pipe of length above 7 times the inlet diameter. It
diverges form d2 to d1 to give an angle of divergence of about 5o to 7o . Such a length of the
divergent cone ensures the minimum loss of energy in the divergent cone and it avoids the tendency
of breaking away the stream of liquid from the walls due to the boundary layer effects.
Advantages:
The venturimeter is perhaps the best instrument for measuring the discharge in the pipe. It
is widely used for such purposes in the laboratory and industry. It has low overall loss. However,
the Venturi meter is expensive and does not give accurate results at low velocities. It is desirable to
install the venturimeter in such a way that it is preceded by a straight pipe of minimum length of 5
to 10 pipe diameter.
Orifice Meter or Orifice Plate

Orifice meter or orifice plate is a device(cheaper than a venturimeter) employed for
measuring the discharge of fluid through a pipe.
It also work on the same principle of a
venturimeter.
It consists of a flat circular plate having a circular sharp edged hole (called orifice)
concentric with the pipe. The diameter of the orifice may vary from 0.4 to 0.8 times diameter of the
pipe but its value is generally chosen as 0.5. A differential manometer is connected at section (1)
which is at a distance of 1.5 to 2 times the pipe diameter upstream from the orifice plate, and at
section (2) which is at a distance about half the diameter of the orifice from the orifice plate on the
downstream side.
3. Flow through Venturimeter

To determine the co-efficient of discharge for the given Venturimeter.
Venturimeter
Differential U-tube mercury manometer.
Collecting tank fitted with peizometer.
Stop watch
Meter scale.
Theory :
1.
Venturimeter is a device used to measure the discharge of any liquid flowing
through the pipe line.

2.
The pressure difference between the inlet and throat is observed using a differential
U-tube manometer for measured discharge.
Formula :
1.
Area of Inlet a1 = d12/4
(m2)
Where,
d1
2.
Diameter of the inlet (m)
Area of outlet a2 = d22/4
(m2)
Where,
d2
Diameter of the throat (m)
3.
Area of the collecting tank A = l x b

(m)
Where,
l
=
length of the collecting tank (m)
b
=
breadth of the collecting tank (m)
4.
Theoretical Discharge (Qth) =
(m3/sec)
Where,
h1
h2
Sm
a1
area of the inlet
(m2)
a2
area of outlet (diaphragm)
g
H
=
=
acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)

differential head in terms of flowing liquid (m)
H = (h1 - h2) x ((Sm - Sl) / Sl) (m)
(m2)
Where,
=
manometer head in (1) normal
(m)
=
(m)
=
Specific gravity of manometric liquid
St
5.
Specific gravity of flowing liquid
Actual discharge Qact = Ah / t
(m3/sec)
Where,
A
h
t
6.
=
=
=
Internal plan dimension of collecting tank

Rise of liquid in collecting tank.
time taken for h cm rise in collecting tank
(m2)
(m)
(sec)
Co-efficient of discharge, Cd = Qact/Qth
Procedure :
1.
Measure the diameter of inlet and outlet dimensions of the collecting tank.
2.
Keep the outlet valve fully closed and open the inlet valve fully.
3.
Open the inlet valve slightly and note down the manometric head in both the limbs h1 and
h2.
4.
Close the outlet valve of the collecting tank tightly and observe the time taken for h cm rise
of water in collecting tank using stop watch.
5.
readings.
6.
Tabulate the observations and calculate the co-efficient of dischage of Venturimeter.
Calculation :
Graph :
A graph is plotted taking H on X-axis Qact on y-axis.
Result :
The co-efficient of discharge of given Venturimeter.
i)
Analytical Method
_____________________ .
ii)
Graphical Method
_____________________ .
4. Flow through Orificemeter

To determine the co-efficient for the given Orificement.
An Orificemeter
Differential U-tube with peizometer
Stop watch
Meter scale.
Theory :
An Orificementer is a device used to measure the discharge of any liquid flowing through
pipeline. The pressure difference between the inlet and diaphragm of the orificemeter is observed
by a differential manometer for measured discharge.
Formula :
1.
Area of Inlet a1 = d12/4
(m2)
Where,
d1
2.
Diameter of the inlet (m)
Area of outlet a2 = d22/4
(m2)
Where,
d2
Diameter of the orifice
(m)
3.
Area of the collecting tank A = l x b

(m2)
Where,
l
=
length of the collecting tank (m)
b
=
breadth of the collecting tank (m)
4.
Theoretical Discharge (Qth) =
a1
a2
Where,
=
area of the inlet
=
area of outlet (diaphragm)
g
H
=
=
acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)

differential head in terms of flowing liquid (m)
H = (h1 - h2) x ((Sm - Sl) / Sl) (m)
h1
h2
Sm
Sl
=
=
=
=

(m)
(m)
Specific gravity of manometric liquid
Specific gravity of flowing liquid
(m3/sec)
(m2)
(m2)
Where,
5.
Actual discharge Qact = Ah / t
(m3/sec)
Where,
A
Internal plan dimension of collecting tank
(m2)
h
t
6.
=
=
Rise of liquid in collecting tank.

time taken for h cm rise in collecting tank
(m)
(sec)
Co-efficient of discharge = Cd = Qact/Qth
Procedure :
1.
Measure the diameter of inlet and outlet dimensions of the collecting tank.
2.
Keep the outlet valve fully closed and open the inlet valve fully.
3.
h2.
Open the inlet valve slightly and note down the manometric head in both the limbs h1 and
4.
of
Close the outlet valve of the collecting tank tightly and observe the time taken for h cm rise
water
in
collecting tank using stop watch.
5.
readings.
6.
Tabulate the observations and calculate the co-efficient of dischage of orificemeter.
Calculation :
Graph :
A graph is plotted taking H on X-axis Qact on y-axis.
Result :
The co-efficient of discharge of given Orificemeter.
i)
Analytical Method
_____________________ .
ii)
Graphical Method
_____________________ .
5. Impact of Jet on Plate

To determine the efficiency of jet by its impact on plate.
Stop Watch
Steel rule
Weights
Horizontal plate
Formulae :
h
h
=
=
weight added / Jet on vanes

(PL / Fl) x 100
P
L
F
l
A
a
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
weights added
(kg)
total length of the balance
(m)
force exerted by the Jet
(N)
distance from centre to weight added (m)
area of the collecting tank
(m2)
area of the nozzle
(m2)
density of water
(kg/m3)
Where,
Theory :
The liquid comes out from the outlet of the nozzle which is fitted to a pipe through which
liquid flowing under pressure. The horizontal plate which may be fixed or moving in placed in the
path of jet.
A force is exerted by the jet on the plate. Thus impact of jet means the force exerted on the
plate.
1)
Stationary Plate
2)
Moving Plate
Experimental Setup :
The experimental setup consists of a pipe controlled by a valve and at the end of the pipe a
nozzle is fitted of 8 mm diameter.
Procedure :
1.
Slowly open the valve, such that it strikes the vane and the balance moves up.
2.
Add the hanger and balance it in horizontal position.
3.
Note down the weights added and time taken for h cm rise of water that was discharged in
collecting tank.
4.
Repeat the above procedure for 4 readings by adding weights and increasing velocity of the
water.
5.
Tabulate the observed values and find out the efficiency of the Jet.
Result :
The efficiency of the jet is determined by the method of impact of jet on curved vanes.
The maximum efficiency is ____________________ .
PUMPS INTRODUCTION
Hydraulic Pumps
Introduction to pump
The hydraulic machines which convert the mechanical energy into hydraulic energy are
called pumps. The hydraulic energy is in the form of pressure energy. If the mechanical energy is
converted into pressure energy by means of centrifugal force acting on the fluid, the hydraulic
machines is called centrifugal pump.
Classification of Pumps
a)
Centrifugal pump
b)
Reciprocating pump
c)
Rotary pump
d)
Gear pump
e)
Vane pump
Centrifugal pump
The centrifugal pump acts as a reversed of an inward radial flow reaction turbine. This
means that the flow in centrifugal pumps is in the radial outward directions. The centrifugal pump
works on the principle of forced vortex flow which means that when a certain mass of liquid is
rotated by an external torque, the rise is pressure head of the rotation liquid takes place.
The rise in pressure head at any point of the rotating liquid is proportional to the square of
tangential velocity of the liquid at that point
(i.e., rise in pressure head = v2/2g or w2r2 / 2g)
This at the outlet of the impeller where radius is more, the rise in pressure head will be more
and the liquid will be discharged at the outlet with a high pressure head. Due to this high pressure
head, the liquid can be lifted to a high level.
Classification of Centrifugal Pumps

a)
Single stage
b)
Multi stage
Working Principle of Single Stage Centrifugal Pump

The following are the main parts of a centrifugal pump:
1.
Impeller
2.
Casing
3.
Suction pipe with a foot valve and a strainer
4.
Delivery pipe
Reciprocating Pump
Introduction
The pumps as the hydraulic machines which convert the mechanical energy into hydraulic
energy which is mainly in the form of pressure energy. If the mechanical energy is converted into
hydraulic energy, by means of centrifugal force acting on the liquid, the pump is known as
centrifugal pump. But if the mechanical energy is converted into hydraulic energy (or pressure
energy) by sucking the liquid into a cylinder in which a piston is reciprocating (moving backwards
and forwards), which exerts the thrust on the liquid and increases its hydraulic energy (pressure
energy), the pump is known as reciprocating pump.
Classification of Reciprocation Pumps
The reciprocating pumps may be classified as:
1.
According to the water being in contact with one side or both sides of the piston
2.
According to the number of cylinders provided.

If the water is in contact with one side of the piston, the pump is known as single acting.
On the other hand, if the water is in contact with both sides of the piston, the pump is called double
acting. Hence, classification according to the contact of water is:
i)
Single- acting pump
ii)
Double acting pump.
According to the number of cylinder provided, the pumps are classified as:
i)
Single cylinder pump ii) Double cylinder pump
iii)
Triple cylinder pump.
Working Principle of a Reciprocating Pump

The following are the main parts of a reciprocating pump.
1.
A cylinder with a piston, piston rod, connecting rod and a crank
2.
Suction pipe
3.
Delivery pipe
4.
Suction valve
5.
Delivery valve
Shows a single action reciprocation pump, which consists of a piston which moves forwards
and backwards in a close fitting cylinder. The movement of the piston by connecting the piston
road to crank by means of a connecting rod. The crank is rotated by means of an electric motor.
Suction and delivery pipes with suction valve and delivery valve are connected to the cylinder. The
suction and delivery valves are one way valves or non return valves, which allow the water to
flow in one direction only. Suction valve allows water from suction pipe to the cylinder which
delivery valve allows water from cylinder to delivery pipe only.
When crank starts rotating, the piston moves to and pro in the cylinder. When crank is at A,
the piston is at the extreme left position in the cylinder. As the crank is rotating from A to C, (i.e.,
from = 0 to = 180 degree), the piston is moving towards right in the cylinder. The movement of
the piston towards right creates a partial vacuum in the cylinder. But on the surface of the liquid in
the sump atmospheric pressure is acting, which is more than the pressure inside the cylinder. Thus
the liquid if forced in the suction pipe from the sump. This liquid opens the suction valve and enters
the cylinder.
When crank is rotating from C to A (i.e., from = 180 degree to = 360 degree), the
piston from its extreme right position starts moving towards left in the cylinder. The movement of
the piston towards left increases the pressure of the liquid inside the cylinder more than
atmospheric pressure. Hence suction valve closes and delivery valve closes and delivery valve
opens. The liquid is forced into the delivery pipe and is raised to a required height.
Gear Pump
External Gear Pump
In this pum there are two spur gears mounted in a closly fitted casing. Rotation of gear, A
the driver causes the second, B or follower gear to turn.
When the pump is first started rotation of the gears forces air out of casing. This removal of
air produces a partial vacuum on the suction side of the pump. Fluid from an external reservoir is
forced by atmospheric pressure into the pump inlet. Here the fluid is trapped between the teeth of
the driver and driven forces the fluid out of the pump dischage. It should be notd that the fluid
trapped between the teeth and the casing travels only in the annualr direction to reach the outlet not
between the meshing teeth.
A spur gear pump is a constant displacement unit. Its discharge is constant at given shaft
speed. The only way to change the discharge is to vary the shaft speed.
Internal gear pump :

In this pump, teeth are cut internally in the rotar of the pump. The rotar is closly fitted inside
a casing as shown. Another spur gear is mounted exccentrically in the casing which measures with
an driven by the rotar gear teeth. The rotar gear teeth are supported at one end by a rotar disc. A
crescent C supported from the end cover of the pump acts to ensure a seal between the suction and
discharge.
When the rotar is rotated in the anticlock wise direction. While passing through the suction
side, the teeth of the driver gear are withdrawn from and between the rotar teeth. This action
produces a vacuum in the inlet. And the fluid flows into fill the spaces between the teeth. As the
rotar continues to turn, fluid is trapped between the teeth, crescent and casing. From here it is carred
around and forced out the discharge by the internal gear teeth.
6.
Performance Test on Centrifugal Pump

To study the characteristics of a centrifugal pump and to draw the characteristics curve.
Centrifugal pump
Stop watch
Steel rule
Formula :
1.
Total head (H)

Where,
2.
3.
4.
5.
Hs + Hd + x in m
Hs
Sucation head (m)
Hd
Delivery head (m)
Difference between pressure Guage and vacum Guage

m3/sec
Actual discharge Qact
Where,
Area of Colleting Tank (m2)
Rise of water level in collecting Tank (m)
time taken for h cm rise of water in collecting Tank (s)
Nr
=
=
kW
No. of rotation
Energy meter constant (Rev/Kwh)
Time taken for Nr (sec)
Input of motor
Where,
Output of motor =
Where,
W
kW
Weight of water (N)
Discharge (m3/sec)
Total head (m)
x 100
Efficiency (h)
Procedure :
1.
Prime the pump in necessary.
2.
3.
Open the delivery valve fully (pressure gauge shows 0 kg f/cm2) and switch on the motor.
In the above said gate opening, note the following readings.
a)
Pressure gauge reading in Kg f/cm2.
b)
c)
d)
4.
5.
6.
Vacuum gauge reading in mm of Hg.

Time taken for h cm rise in the collecting tank.
Time taken for Nr revolutions of energy meter.
Now close the gate valve in such a way the pressure gauge shows 0.5 kg f/cm2
Repeat the step three again.
Repeat the experiment for other head m in six reading.
Calculation :
Graph :
i)
Qact
vs
Input
ii)
Qact
vs
iii)
Qact
vs
Head
Result :
The performance characteristics of centrifugal pump was studied and the maximum efficiency is
calculated from the graph as _________________ %
7. Performance Test on Reciprocating Pump

To study the characteristics of the reciprocating pump and to determine the efficiency of the
pump.
Pump setup with collecting tank
Stop watch
Steel rule
Tachometer
Formula :
1.
2.
Total head (H)
Hs + Hd + x
Where,
Hs
Hd
Delivery head (m)
Theoretical Discharge
Where,
3.
(m)
Sucation head (m)
d2 x l x N
4
(m3/s)
60
diameter of the cylinder (m)
stroke length (m)
Spead (rpm)
Actual Discharge
Ah
t
Where,
Rise of water level in collecting Tank (m)
time taken for h cm rise of water in collecting Tank (s)
(m3/s)
Area of Colleting Tank (m2)
4.
% of Slip
(%)
5.
Input of the motor
(KW)
Where,
Nr
6.
Output from the pump =
WQH
No. of rotation
(KW)
1000
Where,
Weight of water (N)
Dischareg (m3/sec)
Total head (m)
7.
Efficiency
Output
Input
x 100
8.
Suction Head
(V x 10-3 x 13.6)
sl
(m of water)
9.
Delivery Head
P x 104
sl
(m)
x 1000
Procedure :
1.
Select the required speed.
2.
Open the gate valve in the delivery pipe fully.
3.
Start the motor.
4.
Throttle the gate valve to get the required head.
5.
Note down the following readings.

a)
The speed of the pump
b)
Pressure gauge (P)
c)
Vaccuum gauge
(N)
(V)
Calculation :
Result :
Thus the performance characteristics of the reciprocating pump was studied and the
maximum h is calculated from the graph is ______________________ .
8. Performance Test on Submersible Pump

To measure and represent graphically the head, power and efficiency at different flow rate of submersible
pump at constant speed.
Submersible pump
Collecting tank
Pressure gauge
Stop watch
Meter Scale
Formulae :
1.
2.
3.
4.
Ah/t m3/sec
Where,
Head (H)
Where, Hs
A
h
=
=
=
Internal area of the collecting rank (m2)
=
rise of water level for h cm rise in water in the collecting tank
Hd + Hs + x(m)
Suction head (m)
Hd
Delivery head (m)
Input Power
KW
Where,
Nr
C
t
Output Power
Where,
Q
H
=
=
=
=
=
No. of rotation
KW
Weight of water (N)
Dischareg (m3/sec)
Total head (m)

Procedure :
1.
The internal plane dimensions of the collecting tank and correction head in noted.
2.
The speed of the energy meter and pump are noted.
3.
Open the delivery valve and drive the pump.
4.
The flow rate can be decreased by gradually closing the gate valve setting note down the following
reading.
5.
a)
Pressure gauge readings.
b)
Time taken for 5 rotations of energy meter.
c)
Time taken for 5 cm rise of water in the collecting tank.
The above observation are made for five set of readings at different gate valves.
Graph :
i)
Discharge
vs
Head
ii)
Discharge
vs
iii)
Discharge
vs
Input
Result :
Thus the characteristics of the submersible pump is studied and the h of the Pump is
determined the maximum efficiency is given by _______________________ .
Thus from graph the working condition of submersible pump is studied.
9. Performance Test on Gear Oil Pump

To conduct the performance test on given gear oil pump and to draw the characteristic curve.
Description :
Gear Pump test rig consists at a gear pump connected to a motor mounted on a recevior tank. A
collecting tank is also maurted adajacent to the pump so that the oil is pumped from the recervoir to the
collecting tank through the section and delivery pipe. A delivery valuve controls the ouput pressure. The oil
from the collecting rank is discharged into the recerveir by opening the gate valve of the upper tank. the
power required by the pump is obtained by rotation of the disc in energy meter.
Formula Used :
1.
Efficiency
[output / Input]
2.
Output
9.81 x HQ
3.
Head
Pressure gauge reading in meters + vacum gauge in m + datum head
Head (H)
Hd + Hs + x(m)
4.
5.
100
KW
Where, Hs
Sucation head (m)
Hd
X
Delivery head (m)
Discharge
Where,
A
h
t
=
=
=
Input
Where, N
t
=
=
c
0.8
Difference between pressure Gauge and vacum Gauge

x h
(m3/sec)
t
Area of the measuring tank in metres.
Rise of water level in collecting tank
Time taken for h cm water rise in collecting tank
x 0.8
(KW)
No. of flickering of light of energy meter c say 5 flickerings

time for energy meter flickering at light c say 5 flickering
=
Energy meter constant
=
Efficiency of the motor
Procedure :
Close the delivery gate valve completely.
Start the motor and adjust the gate value for the required pressure and delivery.
Note the following readings :
The pressure and vaccum gauge leadings.
The time t for 5 flickerings of energy meter.
The time t for 10 cm raise of water in collecting tank.
The above steps are repeated for different valves of discharge.
Switch off the motor.
Evaluate the input, output & efficiency.
Graphs :
The following graphs can be drawn
a)
Discharge
vs
Total Head
b)
Discharge
vs
Power Input
c)
Discharge
vs
Efficiency
Result :
The performance test on a gear oil pump was conducted and the characteristics curves are obtained.
Maximum efficiency =
_____________________________
TURBINES INTRODUCTION
Hydraulic Turbines Definition
The hydraulic turbine is a prime mover that uses the energy of flowing water and converts is
into the mechanical energy in the form of rotation of the runner. (A prime mover is a machine
which uses the raw energy of a substance and converts it into the mechanical energy.) Since the
fluid medium is water, these turbines are also known as the water turbines. Hydraulic turbines
coupled with hydro generators form the so called hydro units which are widely used now a
days for generating electrical power.
Classification of Turbines :
Hydraulic turbines may be classified in the following ways:
i)
According to the type of energy at inlet.

a)
ii)
Impulse turbine
b) Reaction turbine.
According to the direction of flow through runners.

a) Tangential flow
b) Radial flow
c) Axial flow
d)
Mixed flow turbines.
iii)
According to the head and quantity of water
a)
High head turbines which work under high heads (above 250m) but with less quantity of
water.
b)
Example : Pelton wheel

Medium head turbines work under medium heads (60m to 250m)-they require relatively
large
quantity of water.
Example : Francis turbines
c)
water.
Low head turbines work under heads less than 60m they require a very large quantity of
Example : Kaplan turbine
iv)
According to position of shaft
a)
Horizontal turbines These turbines have horizontal shafts.

Example : Pelton wheel
b)
Vertical turbines These turbines have vertical shafts.

Example : Francis and Kaplan turbines.
Pelton Turbine
Among different types of impulse turbines, Pelton wheel is the only turbine being used at
present. It was discovered in 1880 by an American Enginner Lester A. Pelton. It operates under
very high heads (upto 1800m) and requires comparatively lesser quantity of water.
Working Principle of Pelton turbines

From the head race in the mountains water is conveyed to the turbines installed in the power
house through the penstocks. The lower end of the penstock is joined with a nozzle in the turbine
casing. Water is delivered by the nozzle at a high velocity on the buckets. These buckets are
mounted on the periphery of a circular wheel (also known as runner) which is generally mounted on
a horizontal shaft. The quantity of water coming out of the nozzle or nozzles can be controlled by
regulators (governing arrangement) in case of big installations and by hand wheels in case of small
installations.
The impact of water on the buckets causes the runner to rotate, thus develops mechanical
energy. After doing work on the buckets water is discharged in the tail race. Being impulse turbine
it must run at atmosphere pressure and therefore, these are located above the tail race. The buckets
are so shaped that water enters tangentially in the middle and discharges backward and flows again
tangentially in both the direction to avoid thrust on the wheel (as shown in the line sketch). Actually
the jet is deflected by 160 degree. To produce electric energy these are coupled with the electric
generators.
Francis Turbine
The Francis turbine is mixed flow reaction turbine. This turbine is used for medium heads
with medium discharge. Water enters the runner and flows towards the center of wheel in the
radical direction and leaves parallel to the axis of the turbine.
Description of main parts
Francis turbine consists mainly of the following parts
a)
Spiral or scroll casing
b)
Guide mechanism
c)
Runner and turbine main shaft
d)
Draft tube
Spiral casing of scroll casing

The casing of the francis turbine is designed in a spiral form with a gradually increasing
area. The advantages of this design are
i)
Smooth and even distribution of water around the runner.
ii)
Loss of head due to the formation of eddies is avoided.
iii)
Efficiency of flow of water to the turbine is increased.

In big units stay vanes are provided which direct and water to the guide vanes.
The casing is also provided with inspection holes and pressure gauge connection.
The selection of material for the casing depends upon the head of water to be supplied
For a head upto 30 metres concrete is used.
For a head from 30 to 60 metres welded rolled steel plates are used.
For a head of above 90 metres cast steel is used.
Guide mechanism
The guide vanes of wicket gates are fixed between two rings. This arrangement is in the
form of a wheel and called guide wheel. Each vane can be rotated about its pivot center.
The opening between the vanes can be increased or decreased by adjusting the guide wheel.
The guide wheel is adjusted by the regulating shaft which is operated by a governor.
The guide mechanism provides the required quantity of water to the runner depending upon
the load conditions. The guide vanes are in general made of cast steel.
Runner and turbine main shaft
The flow in the runner of a modern Francis turbine is partly radial and partly axial. The
runners may be classified as :
i) Slow
ii) Medium
iii) Fast
The runner may be cast in one piece or made of separate steel plates welded together. The
runners are made of CI for small output, cast steel or stainless steel or bronze for large output. The
runner blades should be carefully finished with high degree of accuracy.
The runner may be keyed to the shaft which may be vertical or horizontal. The shaft is made
of steel and is forged it is provided with a collar for transmitting the axial thrust.
Draft tube
The water after doing work on the runner passes on to the tail race through a tube called
draft tube. It is made of riveted steel plate or pipe or a concrete tunner. The cross section of the
tube increases gradually towards the outlet. The draft tube connects the runner exit to the tail race.
This tube should be drowned approximately 1 metre below the tail race water level.
Working Principles of Francis Turbine
The water is admitted to the runner through guide vanes or wicket gates. The opening
between the vanes can be adjusted to vary the quantity of water admitted to the turbine. This is
done to suit the load conditions.
The water enters the runner with a low velocity but with a considerable pressure. As the
water flows over the vanes the pressure head is gradually converted into velocity head. This kinetic
energy is utilized in rotating the wheel. Thus the hydraulic energy is converted into mechanical
energy. The out going water enters the tail race after passing through the draft tube. The draft tube
enlarges gradually and the enlarged end is submerged deeply in the tail race water. Due to this
arrangement a suction head is created at the exit of the runner.
10. Performance Test on Pelton Wheel Turbine

To conduct the load test on the given Pelton wheel turbine by keeping constant gate opening
and variable speed and to draw the characteristic curve.
Pelton wheel setup
Supply tank
Brake drum
Tachometer
Pressure gauge
Formula Used:
1.
2.
Difference in head (h) = (P1 - P2) / (Sp. Gravity of water x ) x 104 m of water
Qact
KH
co-efficient of Venturimeter = 0.97
(pressure gauge reading x 104) / (sp. gravity of water x 1000) m of
w x Qact x H
x gxQxH
density of water
m3/sec
water.
3.
Input Power
(Note : Divide input by 1000 to get value in KW)

4.
Output Power =
(F = ma)
5.
Efficiency (h) =
(KW)
x 100
(%)
Procedure :
1.
The supply pump is first started with the discharge valve fully closed.
2.
The gate valuve is fully opened and the head of the water supplied on the turbine in adjusted
regularly by discharge valve.
3.
The following observation are noted.

a)
Monometer reading.
b)
Pressure gauge reading
c)
Shaft Speed
d)
Dead weight on the hanger
e)
Spring balance reading
4.
Load on the turbine is increased by adding weight in the hanger.
5.
Repeat the above procedure 5 readings and tabulate.
Calculation :
Graph :
Speed vs
Speed vs
head
Speed vs
Input
Speed vs
Result :
Thus the load test on the given Pelton wheel turbine is obtained and the characteristics curve
is obtained against various parameters and the maximum h is determined as ___________________
%.
COMPRESSOR, BLOWER INTRODUCTION

RECIPROCATING AIR COMPRESSORS
The Process of increasing the pressure of air, gas or vapour is called compression and the
device used to carry out this process is called a compressor. Compression of air is mostly used.
APPLICATIONS OF COMPRESSED AIR
It is used for
1.
Pneumatic brakes
2.
Pneumatic drills
3.
Pneumatic jacks
4.
Pneumatic Lifts
5.
Spray painting
6.
Shop cleaning
7.
Injecting fuel in Diesel engines
8.
Supercharging internal combustion engines
9.
Refrigeration and
10.
Air conditioning
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPRESSOR
Air compressors may be classified as follows:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
According to design and principle of operation

a)
Reciprocating compressors
b)
Rotary compressors
According to action
a)
Single acting compressors
b)
Double acting compressors
According to number of stages

a)
Single stage compressors
b)
Multistage compressors
According to pressure limit

a)
Low pressure compressor
b)
Medium pressure compressors
c)
High pressure compressors
According to capacity
a)
Low capacity compressors (Volume delivered 0.12m3/s or less)
b)
Medium capacity compressors (volume delivered 0.15m3/s to 5m3/s )
c)
High capacity compressors (Volume delivered is above 5m3/s)
Reciprocating compressor:
A machine, which takes air or gas during suction stroke at low pressure and then
compresses it to high pressure in a piston-cylinder arrangement, is known as reciprocating
compressor.
Single action compressor:
Single acting reciprocating compressor in which suction, compression and delivery of air
take place on one side of the piston.
Double acting compressors:
Double acting reciprocating, the compression of the air from the initial pressure to the final
pressure is carried out in one cylinder only.
Single stage compressor:
In single stage compressor, the compression of the air from the initial pressure to the final
pressure is carried out in one cylinder only.
Multistage compressor:
In multistage compressor, the compression of the air from the initial pressure to the final
pressure is carried out in more than one cylinder
In a single stage compressor, the compression of air from the initial pressure to final
pressure is carried out in one cylinder only. A schematic diagram of single stage, single acting
compressor is shown in fig
It consists of a cylinder, piston, connecting rod, crank, inlet and discharge valves. When the
piston moves downward i.e. during suction stroke, the pressure of air inside the cylinder falls below
the atmospheric pressure. So the inlet valve opens and the air from atmospheric is sucked into the
cylinder until the piston reaches the bottom dead center. During this stroke delivery valve remains
closed. When the piston moves upwards both valves are closed. So the pressure inside the cylinder
goes on increasing till it reaches requruired discharge pressure. At this stage, the discharge value
opens and the compressed air is delivered through this valve. Thus the cycle is repeated.
ROTARY COMPRESSORS
Whenever large quantities of air or gas are required at relative low pressure, rotary
compressors
are used.
They are classified as

1.
Positive displacement compressors
2.
Non-positive displacement compressors (or) Dynamic compressors.
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS

In positive displacement rotary type compressor, the air is entrapped in between two sets of
engaging surfaces. The pressure rise is either by back flow of air (as in roots blower) or both by
variation in the volume and black flow( as in vane blower).
Examples
1.
Roots blower,
2.
Vane blower.
NON POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS

In dynamic compressors, the air is not trapped in specific boundaries but it flows
continuously and steady through the machine. The energy from the impeller is transferred to the air
as the air flows through the machine and the pressure rise is primarily due to dynamic effects.
Examples
1.
Centrifugal compressor
2.
Axial flow compressor
11. PERFORMANCE TEST ON AIR COMPRESSOR

Aim :
To conduct performance test on a two stage twin cylinder reciprocating air compressor and
to determine the volumetric and isothermal efficiency at various delivery pressure. Also draw the
graphs.
Apparatuss require :
Stop watch
Tachometer
Specifications :
Compressor
High Pr. cylinder
Low pr. cylinder
Bore
79 mm
63 mm
Stroke
80 mm
80 mm
Orifice diameter
12 mm
Torque arm length
300 mm (Distance between motor shaft and spring balance)
Motor : 5 H.P, 1440 rpm, Three phase induction motor
Description :
In a two-stage air compressor air is first taken into the low-pressure (LP) cylinder. After
compressing it to some desired intermediate pressure it is cooled in the inter cooler and then
supplied to the high-pressure (HP) cylinder. The air is finally compressed to the delivery pressure
and discharged to the receiver in the HP cylinder.
An AC motor drives the two-stage air compressor. The tank is mounted on a base. The
outlet of the air compressor is connected to reservoir. The pressure of the air compressed in
indicated by a pressure gauge. Adjusting a valve can regulate the airflow at the outlet of the tank.
Safety valve is also provided for safety. An air tank measures the suction with an orifice plate
through a water manometer. An energy meter records the input to the motor. Since the motor is
swinging field type the torque arm of the motor is connected to a spring balance. By measuring the
spring balance reading the input power for the motor can be calculated.
Formulae :
1.
Actual Discharge of air

Va = Cd a2gha
2.
coefficient of discharge
ha
(h1 - h2) . w /a
LAN/60
Stroke Length
Piston Area
Speed of compressor RPM
= /4 (Boredia)2
Volumetric efficiency
hvol
4.
Theoretical discharge of air

Vt
3.
cd
Va/Vt
Va
Actual Discharge
Vt
theoritical discharge
Shaft power
P
2NT/(60 x 1000)
5.
T
=
Torque = Torque arm length x spring Balance reading in Kg * 9.81
Input power using Energy meter
=
Kw
6.
Output power
O/P
Ca Va P0 * 9.81
7.
Overall efficiency hover
8.
Polytropic workdone
PWD =
9.
O.P / I.P
R (T0 - T1) J/Kg
Gass Constant = 287 J/kg
Ti
Inlet temp of air C
To
Outlet temp. of air c
P0
Outlet pressure in absolute
Pi
Inlet pressure in absolute
Isothermal work done

IWD
10.
RTi ln (Po / Pi) J/Kg
Isothermal efficiency
hIso
IWD/ PWd * 100
1 kg/cm2 = 8621 m of air column
Procedure :
The outlet valve in the rciver tank is closed. The manometer is checked for equal water level
in the limbs. The compressor is then started and the pressure is allowed to build up inside the
receiver tank. The outlet valve is opened slowly and adjusted so that the pressure is maintained
constant at some valve.
Note the Pressure gauge reading.
Note the speed of the motor and compressor.
Note the manometer reading.
Note the time taken for 15 revolutions of the energy meter disc.
Note the spring balance reading.
Note the compressor air inlet and outlet Temperature.
Calculation :
Graphs :
Plot Graphs, Gauge Pressure Vs
vol. h
vs
iso. h
vs
overall h
vs
Input Power
Result :
Thus the performance test on a two stage twin cylinder reciprocating acr compressor has
been performed.
12. CONSTANT SPEED AIR BLOWER TEST RIG

Aim :
To conduct performance test on a constant speed air blower and draw the graphs I/P vs Hd
vs h0 and Qa.
Required :
1.
Stop watch
Description :
The given blower is a single stage centrifugal type. Air is sucked from atmosphere in the
suction side and the slightly compressed air passes through the spiral case before it comes out
through the outlet.
The given blower is provided with three interchangeable impellers namely straight curved,
forward curved, and backward curved vanes. The vanes are pressed out of sheet metal and riveted
to the shrouds. This volute contour helps in reducing eddy current losses along the path. The casing
is designed such that it can be separated to facilitate easy interchanging of impellers.
The blower is directly coupled to a swinging field induction motor of 5 HP, 2880 rpm. The
outlet of the blower is connected to a pipe line of 3 meters length. A venturimeter, and flow control
valve and pressure tappings are provided along the pipe. Pitot tubes for measuring the total head are
also provided on the suction and delivery of the blower.
A Panel mounted on sturdy iron stands, with switch started for the blower motor, A 3-phase
energy meter to measure the input energy for the blower, and manometers to measure the flow,
static and total head.
Formulae :
1.
2.
Venturimeter Head Difference

Ha = (Hg. Sg )/ Sa
Discharge
Qa = Cd
3.
m3/s
Deliver Head
Hd = (Hw . Sw)/ Sa m
4.
Output power
o/p = ( Sa . g . Qa . Hd)/ 1000 Kw
5.
Input Power
I/P = (n x 3600)/ N x t
6.
Overall efficiency
h0 =
(O.P/ I.P) x 100
Procedure :
Fill mercury in the Manometer provided for Venturimeter, the levels must be equal, if not
remove air
blocks.
Fill water in the manometer provided for Prandle Pitot tubes, provided on the suction and
delivery side, Close the cock connected to the inner pipe of the Pitot tube, and leave this column of
the
manometer open to the atmosphere. Open the cock connecting the statice pressure end of
the Pitot tube.
Close the delivery control valve, and start the unit.
Open delivery valve to th level.
Note the time taken for 10 revolution of energy meter reading.
Note spring balance reading connected to the torque arm of the swinging field motor. Note
the speed of the motor.
Note the manometer readings.
Repeat the experiment for different openings of the delivery valve and for different impeller
vanes.
Calculation :
Graph :
1.
Qa vs I/p
2.
Qa vs Hd
3.
Qa vs h0
Result :
Thus the performance test on constant speed air blower was conducted and
following characterstics curves are drawn.
Discharge vs I/p / Hd /h0
Cycle - I
Cycle - II

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FLOW THROUGH PIPE - INTRODUCTION

Major energy losses

Minor energy losses

Sudden enlargement of pipe

Sudden contraction of pipe

Pipe fitting etc

Major energy losses

Darcy Weisbach formula

Minor Energy (Head) Losses

Loss of head due to sudden enlargement

Loss of head due to sudden contraction

Loss of head due to obstruction in the pipe

Loss of head at the entrance to a pipe

Loss of head at the exit of a pipe

Loss of head due to bend in the pipe

1. Flow through Pipes (Major Loss)

diameter of the given pipe (m)

Area of collecting tank (m2)

area of the corss section of the pipe (m2)

Tabulate the observation and calculate the co-efficient of friction of pipe.

2. Determination of Minor Losses

A Pipeline provided with bend, elbow, pipe fittings etc.,

head loss (m)

velocity of fluid flowing though normal diameter in pipe

loss of co-efficient depends on pipe fittings and nature of change in

Select the required pipeline and note down the diameter.

Note down the readings in left and right column of manometer.

Loss of head due to Expansion

Loss of head due to Contraction

Loss of head due to Elbow

Loss of head due to Bend

VENTURIMETER, ORIFICEMETER & IMPACT OF JET

Orifice Meter or Orifice Plate

It also work on the same principle of a

3. Flow through Venturimeter

Venturimeter is a device used to measure the discharge of any liquid flowing

through the pipe line.

Area of Inlet a1 = d12/4

Diameter of the inlet (m)

Area of outlet a2 = d22/4

Diameter of the throat (m)

Area of the collecting tank A = l x b

Theoretical Discharge (Qth) =

area of the inlet

area of outlet (diaphragm)

acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)

Specific gravity of flowing liquid

Actual discharge Qact = Ah / t

Internal plan dimension of collecting tank

Co-efficient of discharge, Cd = Qact/Qth

Tabulate the observations and calculate the co-efficient of dischage of Venturimeter.

4. Flow through Orificemeter

Differential U-tube with peizometer

Area of Inlet a1 = d12/4

Diameter of the inlet (m)

Area of outlet a2 = d22/4

Diameter of the orifice

Area of the collecting tank A = l x b

Theoretical Discharge (Qth) =

acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)

manometer head in (1) normal

Actual discharge Qact = Ah / t

Internal plan dimension of collecting tank

Rise of liquid in collecting tank.